8 Compression Members Handout

Steel Code Check
Theoretical background
Chapter 0
Contacts 10
EC3 - EN 1993 12
EC3 – EN Code check 12
Consulted articles 12
Convention and axis switch 14
Material properties 14
Imperfections 14
Plastic Hinges 14
Initial Shape 14
Classification 17
Method 1: Elastic Stresses 18
Method 2: Yield Surface Intersection 19
Method 3: Iterative Approach 20
Section properties 21
Section Checks 21
Circular Hollow Sections 27
Stability Checks 27
Linear Moment 32
Point Loading 32
Line Loading 32
Determination of distance zg 35
Determination of distance zj 36
LTB Curves - General case 36
LTB Curves - Alternative case 36
Modified design rule for Channel sections 36
Diaphragms 37
Built-in beams 41
Battened compression members 41
Plate girders with sinusoidal corrugated webs 43
Yielding 45
Local buckling 46
Global buckling 46
-2-
Moments on columns in simple construction 48
Scaffolding 49
EC3 – EN Fire Resistance 55
Fire actions effect Efi 55
Temperature analysis - Thermal actions 56
Nominal temperature-time curve 56
Net heat flux 57
Steel Temperature 57
Calculation model 59
Code Check 59
EC3 – EN Cold-Formed 61
Initial Shape 63
Geometrical Proportions 66
Effective Shape 67
Section Checks 73
Stability Checks 82
Alternative interaction according to EN 1993-1-3The interaction is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art.

6.2.5(2). 85
Use of Diaphragms 86
Special considerations for Purlins 89
Supported sections 94
References 95
AISC / AISI / ANSI 101

AISC – ASD:1989 101
AISC – ASD:1989 101
References 105
AISC – LRFD:2001 106
AISC - LRFD Code check 106
-3-
Chapter 0
References 109
ANSI/AISC 360-05:2005 110
ANSI/AISC 360-05 Code check 110
References 112
ANSI/AISC 360-10:2010 113
ANSI/AISC 360-10 Code check 113
References 116
AISI NAS S100-2007 117
AISI NAS S100-2007 Code check 117
Doubly symmetric sections 121
Point symmetric sections 122
Singly symmetric sections 123
Other section types 123
Built-Up Sections 126
Single Web Channel and C-Sections 126
Single Web Z-Sections 127
Single Hat Sections 127
Other Sections 127
Determination of Ncr,T 129
Determination of Ncr,TF 130
Diaphragm on the compression flange 132
Diaphragm on the tension flange 132
Diaphragm on one flange 133
Diaphragm on both flanges 133
Diaphragm on any flange 133
References 136
ABNT NBR 8800 138

References 140
ABNT NBR 14762 141
-4-
Consulted articles NBR 14762 141
References 142
SIA263:2013 143
SIA263 Code check 143
Section classification 144
Slender cross-section 144
Sections properties 145
Lateral torsional buckling 145
Use of diaphragms 145
Shear buckling 145
Stability check 145
Torsion check 145
Built-in beams 145
SIA263 - Fire Resistance 146
Fire actions effect Efi 146
Temperature analysis - Thermal actions 146
Nominal temperature-time curve 146
Net heat flux 146
Steel Temperature 146
Calculation model 148
Code Check 148
References 149
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes 151

Formcode 1: I-Section 151
Formcode 2: Rectangular Hollow Section 152
Formcode 3: Circular Hollow Section 152
Formcode 4: L-Section 153
Formcode 5: Channel Section 153
-5-
Chapter 0
Formcode 6: T-Section 154
Formcode 7: Full Rectangular Section 154
Formcode 11: Full Circular Section 155
Formcode 101: Asymmetric I-Section 155
Formcode 102: Rolled Z-Section 156
Formcode 111: Cold-Formed Angle Section 156
Formcode 112: Cold-Formed Channel Section 157
Formcode 113: Cold-Formed Z-Section 157
Formcode 114: Cold-Formed C-Section 158
Formcode 115: Cold-Formed Omega Section 158
Formcode 116: Cold-Formed C-Section Eaves Beam 159
Formcode 117: Cold-Formed C-Plus Section 159
Formcode 118: Cold-Formed ZED-Section 160
Formcode 119: Cold-Formed ZED-Section Asymmetric Lips 161
Formcode 120: Cold-Formed ZED-Section Inclined Lip 161
Formcode 121: Cold-Formed Sigma Section 162
Formcode 122: Cold-Formed Sigma Section Stiffened 163
Formcode 123: Cold-Formed Sigma-Plus Section 163
Formcode 124: Cold-Formed Sigma Section Eaves Beam 164
Formcode 125: Cold-Formed Sigma-Plus Section Eaves Beam 165
Formcode 126: Cold-Formed ZED-Section Both Lips Inclined 165
Formcode 127: Cold-Formed I-Plus Section 166
Formcode 128: Cold-Formed IS-Plus Section 167
Formcode 129: Cold-Formed Sigma Section Asymmetric 167
Formcode 130: Cold-Formed 2C-Section 168
Formcode 150: Rail Type KA 169
Formcode 151: Rail Type KF 170
Formcode 160: Virtual Joist 170
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio 172

Introduction to the calculation of buckling ratio 172
Calculation buckling ratio – general formula 172
Calculation buckling ratios for crossing diagonals 173
-6-
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by continuous tension diagonal 174
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by pinned tension diagonal 174
Pinned compression diagonal, supported by continuous tension diagonal 175
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by continuous compression diagonal 175
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by pinned compression diagonal 176
Pinned compression diagonal, supported by continuous compression diagonal 176
Calculation of critical Euler force for VARH elements 177
Definitions 177
Calculation of the critical Euler force 177
Calculation buckling ratio for lattice tower members 178
Default slenderness limits 179
Leg with symmetrical bracing 180
Leg with intermediate transverse support 180
Leg with staggered bracing 181
Single Bracing 181
Single Bracing with SBS (Secondary Bracing System) 182
Cross bracing 182
Cross bracing with SBS 184
K Bracing 184
Horizontal Bracing 185
Horizontal Bracing with SBS 185
Discontinuous Cross bracing with horizontal member 186
Calculation of buckling ratio – From Stability Analysis 186
References 187
Annex C: Calculation of moment factors for LTB 189

Introduction to the calculation of moment factors 189
Calculation moment factors 189
Moment distribution generated by q load 189
Moment distribution generated by F load 190
Moment line with maximum at the start or at the end of the beam 191
References 191
Annex D: Use of diaphragms 193
-7-
Chapter 0
Adaptation of torsional constant 193
References 194
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis 196

Introduction to LTBII 196
Eigenvalue solution Mcr 196
2nd Order analysis 197
Supported National Codes 198
Supported Sections 198
Loadings 200
Imperfections 200
Initial bow imperfection v0 for DIN and ONORM 200
Initial bow imperfection v0 for EC-EN and EAE 201
Initial bow imperfections v0 and w0 for other supported codes 202
LTB Restraints 202
Diaphragms 202
Linked Beams 203
Limitations and Warnings 204
References 204
Annex F: Warping check 206

Stress check 206
Calculation of the direct stress due to warping 207
Calculation of the shear stress due to warping 209
Plastic Check 210
Standard diagrams for warping torque, bimoment and the St.Venant torsion 213
Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, local torsional loading Mt 214
Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, local torsional loading Mt 215
Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, distributed torsional loading mt 216
Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, distributed torsional loading mt 217
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, local torsional loading Mt 218
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, distributed torsional loading mt 218
Decomposition of arbitrary torsion line 219
Decomposition for situation 1 and situation 3 220
-8-
Decomposition for situation 2 220
References 220
Annex G: Check of numerical sections 222

Stress check 222
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections) 223
Introduction 223
Reduction of plastic moment capacity due to plate bending 223
Plastic interaction formula for single bending and shear force 225
Plastic check for plate in bending 226
Stress check for slim floor beams 227
Normal stress check 227
Shear stress check in plate 227
Torsion check due to unbalanced loading 228
References 230
Annex I: Effective cross-section properties for lattice tower angle

members 231
Effective cross-section properties for compressed lattice tower angle members 231
References 232
-9-
Chapter 1
Contacts
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- 10 -
Contacts
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Document created: 27 / 05 / 2016

SCIA Engineer 15.3
- 11 -
Chapter 2
EC3 - EN 1993
EC3 – EN Code check

The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in:
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 1: General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-1:2005
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-1:2005/AC:2006
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-1:2005/AC:2009
Addendum
EN 1993-1-1:2005/A1:2014
Consulted articles
An overview for the used articles is given in the following table. The articles marked with “X” are consulted. The articles
marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation in the following paragraphs.
EN 1993-1-1
Article Title
1. General
1.7 Conventions for member axes X(*)
2. Basis of design
3. Materials X(*)
5. Structural analysis
5.2 Global analysis X
5.3 Imperfections
5.3.1 Basis X
X(*)
5.3.2 Imperfections for global analysis of frames
5.3.3 Imperfections for analysis of bracing systems X
- 12 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Article Title
5.3.4 Member imperfections
5.4 Methods of analysis considering material non-linearities X(*)
5.5 Classification of cross-sections X(*)
6. Ultimate limit states

6.1 General X
6.2 Resistance of cross-sections
6.2.1 General
X(*)
6.2.2 Section properties
X(*)
6.2.3 Tension
X(*)
6.2.4 Compression
X(*)
6.2.5 Bending moment
X(*)
6.2.6 Shear
X(*)
6.2.7 Torsion
X(*)
6.2.8 Bending and shear
X(*)
6.2.9 Bending and axial force
X(*)
6.2.10 Bending, shear and axial force
6.3 Buckling resistance of members
6.3.1 Uniform members in compression X(*)
6.3.2 Uniform members in bending X(*)
6.3.3 Uniform members in bending and axial compression X(*)

6.4 Uniform built-up compression members
6.4.1 General X(*)
6.4.3 Battened compression members X(*)
Annex A Method 1:Interaction factors kij for interaction formula in 6.3.3.(4) X

Annex B Method 2:Interaction factors kij for interaction formula in 6.3.3.(4) X
EN 1993-1-5
Article Title
4.4 Plate elements without longitudinal stiffeners X
5. Resistance to shear X
5.1 Basis
5.2 Design resistance X
5.3 Contribution from webs X
5.4 Contribution from flanges X
5.5 Verification X
7.1 Interaction between shear force, bending moment and axial force X
Annex D Plate girders with corrugated webs X(*)
- 13 -
Chapter 2
Convention and axis switch

As indicated in EN 1993-1-1 art. 1.7(4) NOTE, all checks given in this Eurocode relate to principal axis properties. Within
SCIA Engineer, the principal axis system is denoted by the 'y-axis' and 'z-axis'. For background information, reference is
made to the Theoretical Background for Cross-Section Characteristics.
The Eurocode rules are written out in such a way that the y-axis is seen as the strong (major) principal axis. Therefore, in
case the cross-section has Iz > Iy within the check the axis will be switched.
For the following sections no switch of axis is done:
l I-Section (FC 1)
l RHS (FC 2)
l Channel-Section (FC 5)
l T-Section (FC 6)
l Asymmetric I-Section (FC 101)
l Cold-Formed I-Plus Section (FC 127)
l Cold-Formed IS-Plus Section (FC 128)
l IFBA (FC 154)
l IFBB (FC 155)
l SFB (FC 153)
l THQ (FC 156)
l Virtual Joist (FC 160)
l VARH element (see Definitions in "Calculation of critical Euler force for VARH elements" on page 177)
Material properties
For standard steel grades, the yield strength fy and tensile strength fu are defined according to the thickness of the element
according to EN 1993-1-1 Table 3.1.
Within the material properties the rules for reduction of the yield strength in function of the thickness can be edited. This
allows the definition of any custom material with custom thickness reduction.
For cold formed sections, the reductions of the yield strength in function of the thickness are
not applied.
Imperfections
Global initial sway imperfections are determined according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.3.2(3)a.
Local bow imperfections are determined according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.3.2(3)b.
Plastic Hinges
For material non-linearity using plastic hinges according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.4.3 reference is made to the manual for
Non-linear analysis.
Initial Shape
For thin-walled cross-sections with material Steel the Initial Shape is generated automatically.
For a General cross-section the ‘Thin-walled representation’ has to be used to be able to define the Initial Shape.
- 14 -
EC3 - EN 1993
The Initial Shape 'translates' the cross-section shape to parts defined by the code.
The Initial Shape is used for calculating the effective section properties as well as determining the Classification of the cross-
section.
The thin-walled cross-section parts can have the following types:
F Fixed Part – No reduction is needed

I Internal cross-section part
SO Symmetrical Outstand
UO Unsymmetrical Outstand
Parts can also be specified as reinforcement:
None Not considered as reinforcement

RUO Reinforced Unsymmetrical Outstand (edge stiffener)
RI Reinforced Intermediate (intermediate stiffener)
DEF Double Edge Fold (edge stiffener)
ROU and DEF reinforcement types can be set only to elements of type SO or UO.
RI types can be set only to elements of type I or UO or SO.
For general cross-sections neighbouring elements of type RI are seen as one stiffener for the calculation of the stiffener
area and inertia.
For standard profile library cross-sections, the flat parts are taken between the roundings. The roundings are set as fixed
parts.
For predefined sections without roundings, the initial shape is based on the centreline dimensions i.e. the flat parts are taken
between the intersection points of the centrelines.
For standard profile library cross-sections and pair sections the stiffeners are handled as follows:
For the following form codes edge stiffeners are automatically set as RUO
FC 114 Cold formed C-section

FC 115 Cold formed Omega section
- 15 -
Chapter 2
FC 116 Cold formed C-Section eaves beam

FC 118 Cold formed ZED section
FC 119 Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips
FC 120 Cold formed ZED section inclined lip
FC 121 Cold formed Sigma section
FC 124 Cold formed Sigma section eaves beam
FC 126 Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined
FC 129 Cold formed Sigma section asymmetric
FC 130 Cold formed 2C-section
For the following form codes edge stiffeners are automatically set as DEF
FC 117 Cold formed C-Plus section

FC 122 Cold formed Sigma section stiffened
FC 123 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section
FC 125 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section eaves beam
FC 127 Cold formed I-Plus section
FC 128 Cold formed IS-Plus section
For the following form codes internal stiffeners are automatically set as RI

Initial Shapes for specific sections

Within this paragraph special cases for the Initial Shape generation are listed.
Sheet welded Iw & Iwn
For these sections the weldsize is accounted for in the generation of the Initial Shape:
- 16 -
EC3 - EN 1993
The length of the web element for example is thus calculated as:
With Hw the height of the web and a the throat thickness of the weld.
The same approach is used for the flanges.
RHS
For Rectangular Hollow Sections (FC 2) the initial shape is generated using a notional width of h-3t and b-3t.
The usage of this width ensures consistency between EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-5. For further information reference is
made to Ref.[40].
As specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 1.1(3) CHS & RHS members are checked according to
EN 1993-1-1.
Classification
The classification of cross-sections is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.5.2 and Table 5.2.
For standard sections, the Classification is done according to the parts of the Initial Shape.
Internal compression elements (I) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 1.
Outstand compression elements (SO & UO) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 2.
CHS sections (FC 3) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 3.
Angle sections (FC 4) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 2 and in case of uniform compression also Sheet 3.
Cross-sections without Initial Shape are classified as elastic Class 3.
Stress distribution
Elastic Stress distribution
The elastic stresses are calculated in the endpoints of the parts Ref.[40].
- 17 -
Chapter 2
The elastic stress distribution ψ for each part can then be determined as follows:
With f1 and f2 the elastic stresses at the ends of the part.
The EN 1993-1-1 sign convention is used which implies compression stresses are positive
Plastic Stress distribution

To determine the plastic stress distribution α three algorithms are provided:
- Elastic Stresses
- Yield Surface Intersection
- Iterative Approach
Method 1: Elastic Stresses

In this method the plastic stress distribution is based on the elastic stresses f1 and f2 at the ends of the parts.
Uniform Compression
In case and the section is assumed to be in uniform compression. This

implies that α is taken as 1,00 for all parts.
- 18 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Standard calculation of α
In case one stress is positive (compression) and the other negative (tension) the following calculation is used:
In all other cases α is taken as 1,00 for the given part.
Doubly-symmetric I-section
Specifically for a doubly-symmetric I-section (Formcode 1) the α value of the web element is overruled by the following for-
mula Ref.[40]:
Within this formula the NEd is taken as positive for compression and negative for tension.
For large compressive forces this formula can lead to an α > 1,00 in which α is limited to 1,00.
For large tensile forces this formula can lead to an α <= 0,00. In this case the element is seen as in full tension and thus no
classification is required.
In case ψ > 0 for the web element this indicates that the entire web is in compression thus α
= 1,00.
Method 2: Yield Surface Intersection

For this method a full plastic analysis is run as described in Ref.[41]. This plastic analysis is based on the Initial Shape and
uses a stress-strain diagram with yielding plateau.
The yield surface is generated for the given section (using a predefined set of points) and the intersection of the actual
forces is determined with this surface.
- 19 -
Chapter 2
The actual intersection point does not always collide exactly with a predetermined point of the surface, so small deviations
can occur.
From the location of the plastic neutral axis(PNA), which results of this analysis, the α value for the different parts can be
determined Ref.[40].
Method 3: Iterative Approach

For this method a full plastic analysis is run as described in Ref.[41]. This plastic analysis is based on the Initial Shape and
uses a stress-strain diagram with yielding plateau.
The actual plane of deformation for the given internal forces is determined iteratively which provides an exact solution.
From the location of the plastic neutral axis(PNA), which results of this analysis, the α value for the different parts can be
determined Ref.[40].
Modified Classification limits according to Semi-Comp+

In case the setting for using Semi-Comp+ is activated, the classification limits are modified according to Ref.[40].
This modification is required in order to reach the specified safety level in accordance with the ESDEP (European Steel
Design Education Programme) background of the Classification criterion.
The following gives an overview of the modifications defined in Ref.[40].
The c/t-limits in Table 5.2 of EN 1993-1-1 for internal parts in compression should be modified to 38 (instead of 42) at the
limit 3/4 and to 34 (instead of 38) at the limit 2/3.
The limit 1/2 indicates the same discrepancy for internal parts in compression and should also be revised to 28 (instead of
33) accordingly
Classification for Cross-section design and Member buckling design

For each intermediary section, the classification for cross-section design is determined and the proper section check is per-
formed. The classification can change for each intermediary point.
- 20 -
EC3 - EN 1993
For each load case/combination, the classification for member buckling design is determined as the maximal class along the
member. This class is used to perform the stability check since stability effects are related to the whole member and not to a
single cross-section.
To determine this critical classification, all sections in the Ly and Lz system lengths of the buckling system are checked and
the worst classification is used as the critical. Note that only sections on the actual member are used so in case the system
length spans multiple members, only the sections of the actual member are used to determine the critical classification.
For non-prismatic sections, the stability section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
The alternative regulations given in EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.5.2(9) - (12) are not supported.
Section properties
Net Area
The net area according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.2.2 is not supported.
For angles connected through one leg see the Chapter on "Tension" below.
Shear lag effects

Shear lag effects according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.2.3 is not supported.
Effective Section properties

The effective cross-section properties for Class 4 sections are determined according to EN 1993-1-5 art. 4.3 & 4.4.
For a detailed overview of the effective section calculation reference is made to "Effective Shape" on page 67.
The Cross-section requires an Initial Shape in order to calculate the Effective Shape and
Effective Properties.
Aeff is the effective area of the cross section when subject to uniform compression.
Weff is the effective section modulus of the cross-section when subject only to a moment about the relevant axis.
eN is the shift of the relevant centroidal axis when the cross section is subject to uniform compression.
Additional moments ΔMEd due to the possible shift eN of the centroid of the effective area Aeff are accounted for according
to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.2.5(4). These additional moments are neglected in case they would have a favourable effect on the
check result.
CHS members with Class 4 cross-sections are checked as elastic, Class 3.
Section Checks
Tension
The Tension Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.3.
The net area Anet is taken equal to the gross area Ag.
- 21 -
Chapter 2
For angles connected through one leg by means of bolted diagonal connections the net
area is calculated according to EN 1993-1-8 art 3.10.3. For more information see the The-
oretical Backgroud for bolted diagonal connections.
Compression
The Compression Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.4.
Bending Moment
The Bending Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.5.
Fastener holes are not accounted for.
Shear
The Shear Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.6.
By default the plastic shear resistance according to art. 6.2.6(2) will be determined for those cross-sections which have a
shear area Av defined. The following table gives an overview of the shear areas:
Cross-section type Shear Area Source
EN 1993-1-1
Rolled I-section (FC 1)
ECCS 85
EN 1993- 1- 1
(mod)
Rolled Asym. I- section (FC
101)
ECCS 85 (mod)
EN 1993-1-1
Welded I-section (FC 1)
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
Rolled U-section (FC 5) EN 1993- 1- 1

(mod)
EN 1993- 1- 1
Welded U-section (FC 5) (mod)
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
Rolled T-section (FC 6) EN 1993- 1- 1

(mod)
- 22 -
EC3 - EN 1993
EN 1993-1-1
Welded T-section (FC 6) EN 1993- 1- 1

(mod)
EN 1993-1-1
Rolled RHS (FC 2)
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
Cold-Formed RHS (FC 2)
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
Welded RHS (FC 2)
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
CHS (FC 3)
EN 1993-1-1
Full Rectangular Section (FC ECCS 85
7) ECCS 85
ECCS 85
Full Circular Section (FC 11)
ECCS 85
ECCS 83
IFBA (FC 154) With h the height of the rolled section
ECCS 83 (mod)
ECCS 83
IFBB (FC 155) With h the height of the rolled section
ECCS 83 (mod)
ECCS 83
SFB (FC 153)
- 23 -
Chapter 2

With h the height of the rolled section
ECCS 83 (mod)
ECCS 83
THQ (FC 156) With h the height of the rolled section
ECCS 83 (mod)
(Taken from the cross-section)

Numerical
(Taken from the cross-section)
The first column in this table indicates the type of the cross-section including the formcode (for background information see
"Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.)
The last column indicates the source from which this shear area was taken. The reference list contains their full denom-
ination, see Ref.[1], [11], [37] and [38]. The suffix (mod) indicates that the formula has been modified based on the cross-
section type. A typical example of this is the modification of the shear area formula given for a symmetric I-section in order to
account for the different flange geometries of an asymmetric I-section.
For any cross-section which does not have a shear area Av defined in the above table the elastic shear resistance according
to art. 6.2.6(4) is determined.
The reduction factor ρ for shear, as defined in art. 6.2.8 and 6.2.10, is based on the plastic
shear resistance. As a result, in case an elastic shear verification is done, ρ cannot be
determined and thus an elastic combined section check will be done for this section.
Through the Steel Setup it is possible to indicate that, instead of an elastic shear check, the
plastic shear check can be done using the shear areas Ay and Az from the cross-section.
When using the Elastic verification setting in the Steel Setup, the elastic shear verification
will be done for all sections, even those which would normally be checked plastically.
For Shear Buckling reference is made to "Combined Bending and Axial Tension" on page 39.
Torsion
The Torsion Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.7.
Formula (6.23) is checked as follows:
With
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EC3 - EN 1993
τt,Ed Maximal torsion stress in the cross-section fibres
τRd
Torsion and Shear

The Combined Shear and Torsion Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.7(9).
The following table gives an overview for which cross-section type which formula from art. 6.2.7(9) is used.
Cross-section type Formula

Symmetric I-section (FC 1) (6.26)
Asymmetric I-section (FC 101) (6.26)
IFBA (FC 154) (6.26)
IFBB (FC 155) (6.26)
SFB (FC 153) (6.26)
U-section (FC 5) (6.27)
RHS (FC 2) (6.28)

CHS (FC 3) (6.28)
THQ (FC 156) (6.28)
The first column in this table indicates the type of the cross-section including the formcode (for background information see
"Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.)
The warping shear stress τw,Ed in formula (6.27) is taken as the maximal value along the fibres in the cross-section. For its
calculation reference is made to "Calculation of the shear stress due to warping" on page 209.
In case of one of the following, the Combined Torsion and Shear check cannot be executed:
l No plastic shear resistance is available i.e. an elastic shear check was done which means torsion cannot be accounted for
in a plastic interaction check.
l A plastic shear resistance is available but the cross-section does not match any of those listed in the above table. This
implies that the code does not give a formula to account for torsion in a plastic interaction check.
l A plastic shear resistance is available and the cross-section matches one of those listed in the above table, but due to
extreme torsion the reduction is so big that it would cause a negative resulting shear resistance Vpl,T,Rd.
In each of those cases an elastic verification using the yield criterion according to art. 6.2.1(5) will be done instead.
The combined plastic interaction checks according to art. 6.2.9.1 account for the presence
of torsion by reducing the plastic shear resistance (which in turn reduces the plastic bend-
ing resistance). Thus in case there is no shear, the torsion cannot be accounted for in a
plastic verification. In such a case an elastic verification using the yield criterion according to
art. 6.2.1(5) will be done instead.
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Chapter 2
Warping
In case the warping check has been activated within the buckling data of a member, the torsional moment will be split into an
internal Saint-Venant torsional moment and an internal warping torsional moment as indicated in EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.7
(2).
Two distinct combined checks are supported, depending on the type of section and type of analysis:
l By default the elastic verification using the Von Mises yield criterion is verified.
l For doubly symmetric I-sections of class 1 or 2 a plastic interaction is verified.
Reference is made to "Annex F: Warping check" on page 206
Bending, Shear (and Axial force)

The influence of the Shear force on the Bending resistance is accounted for according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.8 & 6.2.10.
In case of one of the following, the influence of the Shear force on the Bending resistance cannot be accounted for using the
specified article:
l No plastic shear resistance is available i.e. an elastic shear check was done which means the reduction factor ρ cannot be
determined.
l Due to extreme shear the reduction factor ρ > 1 which would lead to a negative reduction.
l In case there is no corresponding bending moment the reduction for shear cannot be applied (for example Vz combined
with Mz and thus no corresponding My).
In each of those cases an elastic verification using the yield criterion according to art. 6.2.1(5) will be done instead.
Bending and Axial force

The Combined Bending and Axial force Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.9.
In case the elastic verification has been activated within the Steel Setup, for any cross-sec-
tion class the elastic verification using the yield criterion according to art. 6.2.1(5) is verified
instead.
As specified in the code, the type of the check depends on the classification.
Class 1 & 2 cross-sections
Class 1 & 2 cross-sections are by default verified by art. 6.2.9.1
This article gives formulas for the following cross-section types:
l Full Rectangular Sections (Formcode 7)

l Doubly Symmetric I-sections (Formcode 1)
l Rectangular Hollow Sections (Formcode 2)
l Circular Hollow Sections (Formcode 3)
For these sections the moment resistance is reduced due to the presence of an axial force.
In case of an extreme axial force which would lead to a negative reduction the formulas from this article cannot be applied. In
this case the plastic linear summation according to art. 6.2.1(7) is applied.
For any other class 1 or 2 cross-sections which do not have a reduced moment resistance defined within this article also the
plastic linear summation according to art. 6.2.1(7) is applied.
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EC3 - EN 1993
Circular Hollow Sections

For Circular Hollow Sections (FC 3) the reduced moment resistance due to axial force is calculated according to the formula
given in the 2009 correction sheet Ref.[11].
In addition, the resultant shear force and resultant moment is determined. The resultant shear force is used to calculate the
reduction for shear according to "Bending, Shear (and Axial force)" on the previous page.
The unity check is then executed as follows:
Class 3 cross-sections
Class 3 cross-sections are by default verified by art. 6.2.9.2.
For shear, reference is made to "Bending, Shear (and Axial force)" on the previous page. The reduction factor ρ to be used
in formula (6.42) is taken as the maximum of ρy and ρz see Ref.[38].
Class 4 cross-sections
Class 4 cross-sections are by default verified by art. 6.2.9.3 formula (6.44).
Stability Checks
Flexural Buckling
The Flexural Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.1.
Buckling Curve
Table 6.3 regarding the buckling curves is revised as follows:
- I-section (formcode 1) with fabrication Rolled:
Condition Other fy fy = 460 N/mm^2
if h/b >1,2 Curve yy a a0
and tf <= 40 mm Curve zz b a0
and 40 < tf <= 100 mm Curve yy b a
Curve zz c a
if h/b <= 1,2

Curve yy b a
and tf <= 100 mm
Curve zz c a
for any h/b

Curve yy d c
and tf > 100 mm
Curve zz d c
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Chapter 2
Any other cases not covered by the above:

Curve yy = d
Curve zz = d
- I-section (formcode 1) with fabrication Welded:
Curve yy b
tf <= 40 mm
Curve zz c
tf > 40 mm
Curve yy c
Curve zz d
- RHS (formcode 2) or CHS (formcode 3) with fabrication Rolled:
Curve yy = a
Curve zz = a
In case fy = 460 N/mm^2 this becomes:
Curve yy = a0
Curve zz = a0
- RHS (formcode 2) or CHS (formcode 3) with fabrication Cold-Formed:
Curve yy = c
Curve zz = c
- RHS (formcode 2) with fabrication Welded:
Curve yy = b
Curve zz = b
- RHS (formcode 2) or CHS (formcode 3) with any other fabrication:
Curve yy = d
Curve zz = d
- Any section of the group:

Curve yy = b
Curve zz = b
- Channel section (formcode 5) or T-section (formcode 6) or full-rectangular (formcode 7) or full
circular (formcode 11) with any fabrication:
Curve yy = c
Curve zz = c
- L-section (formcode 4) with any fabrication:
Curve yy = b
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EC3 - EN 1993
Curve zz = b
- Asymmetric I-section (formcode 101): This follows the same rules as a symmetric I-section. For the con-
ditions b is taken as the max of Bt and Bb and tf is taken as the max of tt and tb.
- From the group the SFB, IFBA, IFBB sections follow the same rules as a welded I-sec-
tion (independent of fabrication). For the condition tf is taken as the max of to and tu.
- From the group the THQ section with any fabrication:

Curve yy = b
Curve zz = b
- Any section from the group follows the same rules as a welded I-section (independent of fab-
rication). For the condition tf is taken as the max thickness of any of the flanges.
- Any section of the or or groups (which do not meet any of the

other rules):
Curve yy = c
Curve zz = c
- Any other section i.e. not covered by any of the above:
Curve yy = d
Curve zz = d
The user can manually overrule the buckling curve within the Cross-section.
For non-prismatic members with cross-sections that are not listed in Table 6.2 all generated sections will receive the user
inputted values of the buckling curves of the first section in the span.
Buckling Length
For the calculation of the buckling length, reference is made to chapter " "Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on
page 172".
The buckling properties for a VARH element are calculated by using the critical Euler force for this member (see chapter
“"Calculation of the critical Euler force" on page 177”).
Torsional (-Flexural) Buckling

The Torsional (-Flexural) Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.1.4.
In case of an RHS section (Formcode 2) or CHS section (Formcode 3) the check will not be executed and a note will be
shown instead.
In case of an I-section (Formcode 1), when the check is not limiting it will not be printed and a note is shown instead. Not lim-
iting is defined here as a unity check lower than the unity check for Flexural Buckling. In case however Flexural buckling can
be ignored (due to low compression force or low slenderness) the comparison is done with the unity check of the com-
pression check.
The buckling curve for torsional (-flexural) buckling is taken as the z-z buckling curve according to the table given in "Flexural
Buckling" on page 82.
The value of the elastic critical load Ncr is taken as the smallest of Ncr,T (Torsional buckling) and Ncr,TF (Torsional-Flexural
buckling).
Calculation of Ncr,T
The elastic critical load Ncr,T for torsional buckling is calculated according to Ref.[17].
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Chapter 2
With:
E Modulus of Young
G Shear modulus
It Torsion constant
Iw Warping constant
lT Buckling length for the torsional buckling mode
y0 and z0 Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
iy radius of gyration about the strong axis
iz radius of gyration about the weak axis
Calculation of Ncr,TF
The elastic critical load Ncr,TF for torsional flexural buckling is calculated according to Ref.[17].
Ncr,TF is taken as the smallest root of the following cubic equation in N:
0
With:
Ncr,y Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the y-y axis
Ncr,z Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the z-z axis
Ncr,T Critical axial load for torsional buckling
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EC3 - EN 1993
Diaphragms
In case a diaphragm is used, independent on which side, the augmented It will be used also in Torsional Buckling.
For more information on diaphragms see "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.
Lateral Torsional Buckling

The Lateral Torsional Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.2.1.
CHS sections (Formcode 3) are taken as non-susceptible to Lateral Torsional Buckling.
RHS sections (Formcode 2) sections are classified as non-susceptible to Lateral Torsional Buckling if the following condition
is fulfilled (Ref.[9] pp.119).
With:
h Height of RHS section

b Width of RHS section
Relative slenderness for weak axis flexural buckling
For all other sections the Lateral Torsional Buckling check is executed in which the elastic critical moment for Lateral-Tor-
sional Buckling Mcr is determined by the following formula Ref.[9]:
With:
E Modulus of elasticity
G Shear modulus
Length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint
L
(= lLTB )
Iw Warping constant
It Torsional constant
Iz Moment of inertia about the weak axis
kz Buckling factor for buckling about the weak axis
kw Factor to account for warping endconditions
zg Distance between point of load application and shear center
zj Asymmetry factor
C1 C2
Moment factors
C3
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Chapter 2
Haunched sections (I+Ivar, Iw+Plvar, Iw+Iwvar, Iw+Ivar, I+Iwvar) and composed rail sec-
tions (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail, I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail) are considered as
equivalent asymmetric I sections.
For advanced Lateral Torsional buckling analysis, see "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on
page 193.
Determination of the moment factors C1, C2 and C3

The coefficients C1, C2 and C3 can be calculated according to three different methods:
ENV 1993-1-1 Annex F
ECCS 119/Galea
Lopez, Yong, Serna
By default the method according to ECCS 119/Galea is applied.
The following paragraphs give information on these methods.
ENV 1993-1-1 Annex F

When this setting is chosen, the moment factors are determined according to ENV 1993-1-1 Annex F Ref.[10].
Detailed information can be found in chapter "Annex C: Calculation of moment factors for LTB" on page 189.
ECCS 119/Galea
When this setting is chosen, the moment factors are determined according to ECCS 119 Annex B Ref.[9].
The figures given in this reference for C1 and C2 in case of combined loading originate from Ref.[28] which in fact also gives
the tabulated values of those figures as well as an extended range.
The actual moment distribution is compared with several standard moment distributions. These standard moment dis-
tributions are moment lines generated by a distributed q load, a nodal F load, or where the moment line is maximum at the
start or at the end of the beam.
The standard moment distribution which is closest to the actual moment distribution, is taken for the calculation of the factors
C1 and C2.
Linear Moment
In case of a linear moment diagram the C1 coefficient is determined using formula (301) of ECCS 119 Annex B Ref.[9].
The coefficient C2 is taken as zero in this case.
Point Loading
In case of Point loading the coefficients C1 and C2 are calculated using tables 5-8 of Galea Ref.[28].
A double interpolation is used for intermediate values.
Line Loading
In case of Line loading the coefficients C1 and C2 are calculated using tables 1-4 of Galea Ref.[28].
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EC3 - EN 1993
A double interpolation is used for intermediate values.

In case k differs from 1.00 the C1 and C2 values determined from Galea Ref.[28] are overruled by the values from ECCS
119 Annex B Ref.[9] tables 63 and 64
For all cases the factor C3 is taken from ECCS 119 Annex B Ref.[9] tables 63 and 64. The C3 value is determined based on
the case of which the C1 value most closely matches the table value.
The table for C3 uses the value ψf which is taken as 0 by default.
For asymmetrical I-sections (Form code 101) ψf is calculated as follows:
Ifc and Ift concern the moments of inertia of the compression ( c ) and tension ( t ) flange about the minor axis.
For this method ψf should be within the following range:
When this is not the case ψf is set to the respective limit and a warning is given.
I-section Cantilevers
ECCS 119 Annex B Ref.[9] tables 65 to 68 give values for C1, C2 and C3 for I-section cantilevers.
These coefficients are used only in case the following conditions are met:
l The member concerns a cantilever.
A cantilever is defined as a member at the end of a buckling system which has free ends for both buckling about
the y-y and z-z axis. In addition, the LTB length should correspond to the full system length of the buckling system.
l The cross-section is an I-section (Form code 1) or Asymmetric I-section (Form code 101).
This method differentiates between ‘warping prevented’ and ‘warping free’ at the fixed end. This setting is taken from the
buckling system.
This method uses the value ψf which is calculated as specified above.
For this method ψf should be within the following range:
When this is not the case ψf is set to the respective limit and a warning is given.
This method uses the coefficient which is defined as follows:
with:
L System length for LTB

E Modulus of Young
- 33 -
Chapter 2
G Shear modulus
Iz Inertia about the weak axis
It Torsion constant
Distance defined as follows:
hs Form Code 1: H - t
Form Code 101: H – 0,5 * tt – 0,5 * tb
should be within the following range:
When this is not the case is set to the respective limit and a warning is given.
In addition this method should be used in combination with k equal to 2,00 and kw equal to 1,00
When this is not the case an additional warning is given.
Lopez, Yong, Serna

When this setting is chosen, the moment factors are determined according to Lopez, Yong, Serna Ref.[29].
When using this method the coefficients C2 and C3 are set to zero.
The coefficient C1 is calculated as follows:
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EC3 - EN 1993
With:
k1 Taken equal to kw
k2 Taken equal to kw
The moments My determined on the buckling system in the given sec-
M1, M2, tions as shown on the above figure.
M3, M4, M5 These moments are determined by dividing the beam into 10 parts (11
sections) and interpolating between these sections.
Mmax The maximal moment My along the LTB system.
This method is only supported in case both k and kw equal 0.50 or 1.00
Determination of distance zg
The distance zg is defined as the distance between the point of load application and the shear center. The point of load
application is taken as both the top (+z) and bottom (-z) of the cross-section. Depending on the sign of the moment either
the top or the bottom zg is used.
The sign is determined as follows: zg is taken as positive for a Destabilizing load.
For a standard beam, the determination of Stabilizing/Destabilizing is done depending on the moment:
If My > 0 and loading On top => Destabilizing
If My > 0 and loading On bottom => Stabilizing
If My < 0 and loading On top => Stabilizing
If My < 0 and loading On bottom => Detabilizing
For a cantilever, the determination of Stabilizing/Destabilizing will be done depending on the sign of the equivalent lineload:
If q downward and loading On top => Stabilizing
If q downward and loading On bottom => Destabilizing
If q upward and loading On top => Destabilizing
If q upward and loading On bottom => Stabilizing
By setting the point of load application to Always destabilising or Always stabilising the
above dependency on the bending moment or loading direction can be overruled.
In case the moment diagram concerns a linear diagram zg = 0.
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Chapter 2
Determination of distance zj
The distance zj is determined from the βy asymmetry parameter of the cross-section.
If My < 0 => zj = 0,5 * βy
If My > 0 => zj = - 0,5 * βy
In case of an axis switch (Iz > Iy ) also βy and βz are switched.
LTB Curves - General case

The General case as defined in EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.2.2 uses a limit slenderness of 0,2.
For deciding if the LTB check should or should not be executed art. 6.3.2.2(4) refers to the Alternative case which uses a
limit slenderness of 0,4.
It is clear that this is an inconsistency within the code. In case for example the slenderness has a value just below 0,4 this
would erroneously lead to the conclusion that no LTB check should be done. In this case however the Chi reduction value for
curve d for example is 0,85 which indicates a 15% reduction of the bending capacity.
Therefore, conform the theory, for the General case the limit slenderness used in art. 6.3.2.2(4) is set to 0,2.
LTB Curves - Alternative case

For the 'Rolled & Equivalent welded case' given in art. 6.3.2.3 the theory in Ref.[9] clearly specifies that it is valid only for I-
sections or sections with comparable shape.
Therefore this article is applied only in case of the following form-codes:
- Symmetric I-sections (Formcode 1)
- Asymmetric I-sections (Formcode 101)
A specific National Annex can overrule this condition and use this article also for other sec-
tions. For more information reference is made to the Theoretical Background of National
Annexes to EN 1993.
Correction factor kc
In case Lateral-Torsional Buckling curves for the ‘Rolled and equivalent welded’ case are used according to EN 1993-1-1
art. 6.3.2.3 the correction factor kc can be determined in two ways:
- By default, kc is determined from C1 as follows Ref.[30]:
- Alternatively kc can be taken from Table 6.6
The default approach gives a more accurate value for kc compared to the simplified Table 6.6.
Modified design rule for Channel sections

The reduction factor for Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Channel sections is determined according to Ref.[22].
More specifically the calculation is done as follows:
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EC3 - EN 1993
This Modified design rule is applied only in case the following conditions are met:
l The section concerns a Channel section (Form Code 5)

l The General Case is used for LTB (Not the Rolled and Equivalent Welded Case)
l 15 <= Lltb/h <= 40 (with Lltb the LTB length and h the cross-section height)
Diaphragms
In case the diaphragm is positioned on the compression flange and provides a fully braced support, no LTB check needs to
be executed and a note is printed instead.

For more information on the calculation of the lateral stiffness see "Use of Diaphragms" on page 86.
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Chapter 2
Combined Bending and Axial Compression

The Check for Combined bending and Axial Compression is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.3 and Annexes A
& B.
Bending moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed
For prismatic members the value My,Ed is the maximum value of the bending moment around the strong axis in the mem-
ber. The value Mz,Ed is the maximum value of the bending moment around the weak axis in the member.
For non-prismatic sections, the values My,Ed and Mz,Ed are the concurrent bending moments for each intermediary sec-
tion.
For non-prismatic members the maximal moments are still used in the determination of the
moment factors Cmi,0 when using the General formula.
Torsional(-Flexural) Buckling
For both Interaction Methods, in case Torsional Buckling is limiting (χTF < χz ) the value for χz is replaced by the value of χTF
and used in all formulas.
Interaction Method 1 – Annex A
For Interaction Method 1 there is a discrepancy in the use of Ncr,T or Ncr,TF :
Within ECCS 119 Ref[9] as well as the ECCS Design manual for EN 1993-1-1 all formulas are written using Ncr,T . There-
fore also within SCIA Engineer Ncr,T is used.
Interaction Method 1 uses several 2nd order terms which relate to Ncr,y ; Ncr,z ; Ncr,T.
For example:
In case N Ed exceeds any of those critical forces this would lead to an undetermined result (more specifically the member
already fails in buckling so technically there is no use in verifying the combined check.)
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EC3 - EN 1993
In such a case, thus when NEd exceeds any of the critical forces, the combined check itself is not executed. Instead the limit
forces are printed to indicate which one is exceeded and the check is set to 999.
Interaction Method 2 – Annex B
Interaction Method 2 makes a distinction between members susceptible and not-susceptible to torsional deformations.
Within SCIA Engineer this distinction is done as follows:
Doubly symmetric I sections which have a reduction factor for Lateral Torsional Buckling χLT equal to 1,00 are classified as
non-susceptible to torsional deformations.
Circular hollow sections are classified as non-susceptible to torsional deformations.
Rectangular hollow sections are classified as non-susceptible to torsional deformations if the following condition is fulfilled
(Ref.[9] pp.119).
h Height of RHS section

b Width of RHS section
Relative slenderness for weak axis flexural buckling
Interaction Method 2 uses specific formulas which subtract a constant value from the relative slenderness:
In these formulas, in case < 0 or < 0 this part is set to 0.
Combined Bending and Axial Tension

EN 1993-1-1 does not provide an interaction check for the Combined stability effect of Bending and Axial Tension. The pur-
pose of the interaction check for Bending and Tension is to check the stresses at the compression fiber.
In general the normal force provides a beneficial effect on the instability behaviour (the compressed flange under a strong
axis moment) however the combination of a weak axis moment can lead to an increase of the instability effect.
Therefore a specific interaction check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.3.
Even that article however does not fully provide the required interaction check and thus the interaction is based on the fol-
lowing formula given in article C5: of the AISI NAS 2007 Ref.[18] code:
This formula is rewritten using EC-EN notations as follows:
With:
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Chapter 2
Mb,y,Rd The Lateral Torsional Buckling resistance

Mc,z,Rd,com The moment resistance for the compression fiber in case of Mz
Nt,Rd The Tension Resistance
This check is only executed in case all three components (NEd ; My,Ed ; Mz,Ed) are present.
In case only two components are present the effects are already covered by other checks.
In case of a Numerical cross-section Mc,z,Rd,com is calculated using Wel,z since such a sec-
tion has no fibres.
Shear Buckling
The Shear Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-5 Chapter 5 and art. 7.1.
Condition
The shear buckling check is verified for the following cross-sections:
l Doubly Symmetric I-sections (Formcode 1)

l Asymmetric I-sections (Formcode 101)
Composed rail sections (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail, I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail)
are considered as equivalent asymmetric I-sections.
The check is executed only in case those sections are loaded by a shear force Vz,Ed and in case the web slenderness hw/ t
exceeds the limits given in art. 5.1(2).
End post condition
The condition for the end post used in Table 5.1 is defined through the input of Stiffeners on the member. By default the end
post condition is taken as non-rigid.
Plate slenderness
The Plate slenderness is determined depending on the definition of stiffeners:
l In case no stiffeners are inputted on the member or stiffeners are inputted only at the member ends Formula (5.5) is
used.
l For any other input of stiffeners (at intermediate positions, at the ends and intermediate positions …) Formula (5.6) is
used.
The shear buckling coefficient is determined according to Annex A formula (A.5).

Contribution of the flanges
The capacity of the section considering only the flanges Mf,Rd is determined according to Ref.[16] pp70:
This value is reduced for the effect of NEd according to Formula (5.9).
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EC3 - EN 1993
Interaction
When required according to art. 7.1(1) the interaction between bending, axial force and shear buckling is verified according
to Formula (7.1).
The value of Mf,Rd including the effects of NEd is determined as specified above.
The value of Mpl,Rd concerns the plastic moment resistance of the cross-section, this includes a possible reduction due to
NEd (i.e. MNRd).
l For doubly symmetric I-sections this is determined according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.9.1(5).
l For asymmetric I-sections this article does not provide any method to account for NEd, therefore the following reduction is
used:
MNRd = (1 - n)*Mpl,Rdwith n = NEd/NplRd
In case of a Class 3 or Class 4 section the following additional condition is checked before the interaction formula can be
applied:
with MR,eff the actual (effective) moment resistance of the cross-section
This condition was determined from Ref.[16] pp96 and negates the definitions of Mf,Rd and
Mpl,Rd given in art. 7.1(1).
Articles 7.1(2),(3),(5) are not supported.
Built-in beams
For built-in beam sections (IFB, SFB, THQ sections), proper section checks are performed, taking into account the local
plate bending. See Chapter ‘"Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)" on page 223’.
Battened compression members

The following section pairs are supported as battened compression member:
1. 2I
2. 2Uo
3. 2Uc
This specifically concerns hot rolled sections i.e. cold-formed pair sections are not sup-
ported.
- 41 -
Chapter 2
Battened compression members are evaluated according to EN 1993-1-1 article 6.4.1 and 6.4.3.
Two links (battens) are used.
The following additional checks are performed:
l "Section check of chord as beam in field between battens" below

l "Buckling check of chord" below
l "Section check of single batten" below
Section check of chord as beam in field between battens

This check is executed according to articles 6.4.3.1 & 6.2.9.1 using the following internal forces:
With:
Nch,Ed Chord force according to formula (6.69)

VEd Shear force in the built-up member according to formula (6.70)
a Distance between battens
For I-sections a classification is made which thus supports both an elastic or plastic interaction. For U-sections always an
elastic interaction is made.
Buckling check of chord

This concerns a weak axis buckling check of a single chord according to articles 6.4.3.1 & 6.3.1.1 using chord force Nch,Ed.
Section check of single batten

An elastic section check of a single batten is executed according to articles 6.4.3.1, 6.2.9.2 & 6.2.6 using the following forces:
With:
VEd Shear force in the built-up member according to formula (6.70)

a Distance between battens
h0 Distance between centroids of chords
- 42 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Plate girders with sinusoidal corrugated webs

Plate girders with sinusoidal corrugated webs (“SIN beams”) are covered in EN 1993-1-5 Annex D. The method given in
this chapter is specified in Ref.[33]. Background information can be found in Ref.[16].
The check is executed for sheet welded cross-sections of type Iw c and Iwn c. The corrugations are taken to be per-
pendicular to the upper flange.
The dimensioning of corrugated web girders is executed for the in plane effects NEd, Vz,Ed and My,Ed.
Transformation of internal forces

For every point of the plate girder the chord forces N,og and N,ug are found by transformation. These chord forces are still
parallel to the member axis while the shear force is orthogonal to the axis.
The following angles are defined:
l α = the slope of the lower chord against the upper chord

l β = the angle between the centre line and chords.
- 43 -
Chapter 2
The shear force Vz is decomposed into a corrugation-parallel component V* and an axis-parallel component N(V)*.
N(V)* can be added directly to the calculated normal force N. The chord forces can now be determined as follows:
With:
A,og Area of the upper flange

A,ug Area of the lower flange
H,steg Web height
t,og Thickness of the upper flange
t,ug Thickness of the lower flange
- 44 -
EC3 - EN 1993
From the chord forces the chord-parallel components and the corrugation-parallel components are
determined. For the upper chord this becomes:
For the lower chord the following intermediate step is used:
The actual force in the lower chord is then:
The actual component of the shear force can then be written as:
The chord forces Nog* and Nug* are now known. By summation of the V* and V(Nog)* and V(Nug)* components the total
shear force is obtained.
Resistance of sinusoidal corrugated web girders

The normal force and bending moment are taken by the flanges while the shear force is taken by the corrugated web.
Flanges
For the flanges the following limits are checked:
l Yielding
l Local buckling
l Global buckling
Yielding
NRd,yield = bf * tf * fy / γM0
With:
- 45 -
Chapter 2
bf Flange width
tf Flange thickness
fy Yield strength
γ M0 Partial safety factor
Local buckling
Local buckling of the compression flange is checked according to EN 1993-1-5 article 4.4.
To avoid local buckling the slenderness is limited to 0,748. By substituting this into the formula for the slenderness the
following limit is obtained for the width:
For a sinusoidal corrugated web member the total flange width thus becomes:
The resistance for local buckling can then be written out as:
NRd,local = b * tf * fy / γM0
Global buckling
Global buckling of the compression flange (Lateral-Torsional Buckling) is checked according to EN 1993-1-1 article 6.3.2.4:
This is written out to the following resistance for the compression flange:
With:
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
fy Yield strength
E Modulus of Young
Lc Length between lateral restraints (LTB length)
kc Correction factor according to EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.6
The design value can then be written out as:

NRd,global = NRk / γM1
- 46 -
EC3 - EN 1993
With:
γ M1 Partial safety factor
Web
For the web the shear resistance is determined according to EN 1993-1-5 Annex D article D2.2:
Where χc is taken as the lesser of the reduction factors for local buckling χc,l and global buckling χc,g.
According to Ref.[34] it was found by testing and FEM that no local buckling occurs for all actually produced beams with
sinusoidal corrugated webs. Therefore only the reduction factor for global buckling χc,g needs to be accounted for.
With:
fy Yield strength
E Modulus of Young
ν Poisson ratio
tw Web thickness
hw Web depth
Second moment of area of one corrugation of length w, calculated as:
Iz
Height of a sinus wave

a3 Taken as 40 mm for tw < 3 mm
Taken as 43 mm for tw ≥ 3 mm
w Length of the projection of a half wave
s Unfolded length of a half wave
- 47 -
Chapter 2
Taken as 178 mm for tw < 3 mm

Taken as 182 mm for tw ≥ 3 mm
Moments on columns in simple construction

This NCCI presents a method for determining the moments on columns in simple construction due to the eccentricity of the
beam-to-column joints. This method is intended for braced frames with nominally pinned joints. The method is detailed in
Ref.[31] and [32].
Conditions
In case the setting is activated in the Steel Setup the additional moments will be calculated on columns in which the following
conditions are satisfied:
l The column cross-section concerns an I-section (Form code 1) or RHS section (Form code 2)
l The column has structural type Column, Gable column or Secondary column
l The column is uniform i.e. does not have arbitrary sections or haunches
l Only connected beams with structural type Beam or Rafter are accounted for. In addition these beams should have a
hinge at the side where they are connected to the column.
l There can maximally be two connected beams in the same plane in the same node. These two connected beams must
have the same X-axis direction of their LCS.
Additional moments
When the above conditions are satisfied the additional moments are calculated in the following way:
With:
R Shear force in the considered plane in the connected beam at the specified dis-
b1,Ed tance
Profile height for an I-section
h
Profile height or width for an RHS-section
tw Web thickness for an I-section
- 48 -
EC3 - EN 1993
The distribution of the additional moments to the upper and lower column sections is carried out in proportion to their
stiffness, except where the ratio of the stiffnesses (I/L) does not exceed 1.5, when the moments may be shared equally.
This is illustrated on the following picture:
With:
MU Distributed moment to the upper column section

ML Distributed moment to the lower column section
IU Inertia in the considered plane of the upper column section
IL Inertia in the considered plane of the lower column section
LU System length in the considered plane of the upper column section
LL System length in the considered plane of the lower column section
These additional moments are then added to the sections in the column just above and just below the connected beam.
The simplified procedure given in this chapter allows to account for eccentricities without
specifically adding these eccentricities in the calculation model. In case however an actual
member eccentricity is defined on the column member the above procedure will not be
used since additional moments will already be generated during the analysis.
Scaffolding
The scaffolding member and coupler check are implemented according to EN 12811-1 Ref.[23].
The following paragraphs give detailed information on these checks.
Scaffolding member check for tubular members

The check is executed specifically for circular hollow sections (Form code 3) and Numerical sections in case the proper set-
ting is activated in the Steel Setup.
The check is executed according to Equation 9 given in EN 12811-1 article 10.3.3.2. However, the EN 12811-1 only gives
an interaction equation in case of a low shear force.
Since the EN 12811-1 is based entirely on DIN 4420-1 Teil 1 Ref.[26] the interaction formulas according to Tabelle 7 of DIN
4420-1 Teil 1 are applied in case of a large shear force.
The interaction equations are summarised as follows:
- 49 -
Chapter 2
Conditions Interaction for tubular member
and
and
and
and
Npld
Vpld
Mpld
A Area of the cross-section

Wel Elastic section modulus
Wpl Plastic section modulus
N Normal force
- 50 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Vy Shear force in y direction

Vz Shear force in z direction
My Bending moment about the y axis
Mz Bending moment about the z axis
fy Yield strength of the material
Safety factor taken as γM0 of EN 1993-1-1
As specified in EN 12810 Ref.[25] & 12811 Ref.[23] the scaffolding check for tubular mem-
bers assumes the use of a 2nd order analysis including imperfections.
In case these conditions are not set the default EN 1993-1-1 check should be applied
instead.
Scaffolding coupler check

The scaffolding couplers according to EN 12811-1 Annex C Ref.[23] are provided by default within SCIA Engineer.
The interaction check of the couplers is executed according to EN 12811-1 article 10.3.3.5.
Coupler type Interaction equation
Right angle coupler
Friction sleeve
Characteristic Slipping force

Fsk Taken as Nxk and Vzk of the coupler properties
2Fsk = Nxk + Vzk
Characteristic Pull-apart force
Fpk
Taken as Vyk of the coupler properties
Characteristic Bending moment
MBk
Taken as Myk of the coupler properties
N Normal force
- 51 -
Chapter 2

Safety factor taken as γM0 of EN 1993-1-1 for steel couplers
Safety factor taken as γM1 of EN 1999-1-1 for aluminium couplers
Manufacturer couplers
In addition to the scaffolding couplers listed above, specific manufacturer couplers are provided within SCIA Engineer.
The interaction checks of these couplers are executed according to the respective validation reports.
Cuplock
The cuplock coupler which connects a ledger and a standard is described in Zulassung Nr. Z-8.22-208 Ref.[35].
Cuplock Coupler Interaction equation
Interaction 1
Interaction 2
With:
Nxk Taken from the coupler properties

Myk Taken from the coupler properties
Mxk Taken from the coupler properties
N Normal force in the ledger
Mx Torsional moment about the x axis
Nv Normal force in a connecting vertical diagonal
α Angle between connecting vertical diagonal and standard
Layher Variante II & K2000+ & HS

The Layher coupler which connects a ledger and a standard is described in Zulassung Nr. Z-8.22-64 Ref.[36] for Variante II
and Variante K2000+. In the same way the details for the Variante HS are provided in Zulassung Nr. Z-8.22-939 Ref.[39]
- 52 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Layher Coupler Interaction equation

Variante II:
Variante K2000+:
Interaction 1
Variante HS:
Note: An additional check for welds is not supported
Interaction 2
With:
= Nxk / γM
NR,d
With Nxk taken from the coupler properties
= Myk / γM
My,R,d
With Myk taken from the coupler properties
- 53 -
Chapter 2
= Mzk / γM
Mz,R,d
With Mzk taken from the coupler properties
= Mxk / γM
MT,R,d
With Mxk taken from the coupler properties
= Vyk / γM
Vy,R,d
With Vyk taken from the coupler properties
= Vzk / γM
Vz,R,d
With Vzk taken from the coupler properties
N Normal force in the ledger
(+) This index indicates a tensile force
Mx Torsional moment about the x axis
Nv Normal force in a connecting vertical diagonal
α Angle between connecting vertical diagonal and standard
= 2,75 cm for Variante II
e = 3,30 cm for Variante K2000+
= 3,30 cm for Variante HS
eD = 5,7 cm for Variante II, Variante K2000+ and Variante HS
= 1,26 cm for Variante II
ξ = 1,41 cm for Variante K2000+
= 1,15 cm for Variante HS
γM
- 54 -
EC3 – EN Fire Resistance
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in
Eurocode 3
Part 1 - 2 : General rules – Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-2:2005
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-2:2005/AC:2005
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-2:2005/AC:2009
Fire actions effect Efi

The design effects of actions for the fire situation Efi,d,t are taken from the results of the analysis. It is recommended to use
the accidental combination rules, for calculating the internal forces used in the fire resistance check.
The accidental combination is given by (see EN 1990 – Ref[5])
Eq. 6.11b ΣG k,j + P + Ad+ (ψ1,l or ψ2,l)Q k,l+ Σψ2,iQ k,i
The choice between ψ1,l or ψ2,l is done by the user. Default is ψ1,l.
With:
G k,j characteristic value of permanent action j

P relevant representative value of prestressing action
Q k,l characteristic value of leading variable action l
Q k,i characteristic value of accompanying variable action i
Ad design value of the accidental action
ψ1,l ψ2,l combination coefficients
Material properties
The material properties are depending on the steel temperature.
Strength and deformation properties :
- 55 -
Chapter 3
The variation in function of the steel temperature of the value for yield strength ky,θ , proportional limit kp,θ and modulus of
elasticity kE,θ is given by tables in ref.[6], Table 3.1.
For cold formed members ky,θ is taken from Ref.[7]; table III.2.5.
In the simplified calculation method, the following default properties are considered to be constant during the analysis :
unit mass ρa 7850 kg/m³
thermal elongation ∆l/l 14 x 10-6 (θ a-20)
thermal conductivity λa 45 W/mK
Temperature analysis - Thermal actions

In this part, the nominal temperature-time curves and the related net heat flux are described. See Ref.[8], Section 3, and
Ref.[7], II.2.2.
Nominal temperature-time curve

The following temperature-time curves can be selected :
With:
t time in [min]
θg gas temperature in [°C]
αc the coefficient of heat transfer by convection
ISO 834 curve
external fire curve
hydrocarbon curve
- 56 -
smoldering fire curve
during 21 minutes, followed by the standard ISO 834 curve
user defined temperature-time curve
Net heat flux
With:
hnet,d the net heat flux

hnet,c the convective heat flux
hnet,r the radiative heat flux
With:
Φ configuration factor [1.0]

resultant emissivity
εres
= εf εm
emissivity related to fire compartment
εf
= [1.00]
emissivity related to surface material
εm
= [0.70]
= θg
θr
gas temperature in [°C]
θm surface temperature of member in [°C]
αc coefficient of heat transfer by convection
Steel Temperature
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an unprotected steel member during a time interval ∆t
- 57 -
Chapter 3
With:
Am the exposed surface area per unit length [m²/m]

the volume of the member per unit length [m³/m]
V
The factor Am /V should not be taken as less than 10m-1
ca the specific heat of steel [J/kgK]

hnet,d the net heat flux per unit area [W/m²]
the time interval [seconds]
∆t
The value should not be taken as more than 5 seconds
ρa the unit mass of steel [kg/m³]
correction factor for the shadow effect [1.0]
ksh
The correction factor is calculated for I sections only
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an insulated steel member during a time interval ∆t
With:
Ap the area of fire protection material per unit length [m²/m]

V the volume of the member per unit length [m³/m]
cp the specific heat of fire protection material [J/kgK]
dp the thickness of the fire protection material [m]
∆t
ρp the unit mass of fire protection [kg/m³]
θa,t the steel temperature at time t
θg,t the ambient gas temperature at time t
∆θg,t the increase of the ambient gas temperature during the time interval
λp the thermal conductivity of the fire protection material [W/mK]
The value ∆θa,t ≥ 0.0
- 58 -
For the increase of temperature ∆θ a in an insulated steel member with intumescent coating, reference is made to NEN
6072.
With:

Pi Ap/V
Kd;ef coefficient of heat transfer of the intumescent coating
∆t
θa the steel temperature at time t
θt the ambient gas temperature at time t
Calculation model
The calculation can be performed in 2 domains :
l strength domain
l temperature/time domain
In the strength domain, the strength R fi,d,t (unity check) is calculated after a given time t (e.g. strength after 45 min). In the
temperature/time domain, the critical steel temperature θcr,d is computed. From this critical temperature, the fire resistance
time tfi,d is calculated (the time domain).
Code Check
The section and stability checks (buckling, lateral torsional buckling) are performed according to the regulations given in EN
1993-1-2. The checks are performed in the resistance domain or in the temperature/time domain.
For each member, the classification of the cross section, the section check and the stability check are performed.
The following checks are executed:
- 59 -
Chapter 3
l Classification of cross section : art. 4.2.2.

l Resistance for tension members : art. 4.2.3.1
l Resistance for compression members (class 1,2 or 3) : art. 4.2.3.2.
l Resistance for beams (class 1,2) : art. 4.2.3.3.
l Resistance for beams (class 3) : art. .2.3.4.
l Resistance for members (class 1,2,3) subject to bending and compression : art. 4.2.3.5.
l Check for class 4 sections : Annex E
In case Torsional Buckling is limiting (χTF < χz ) the value for χz is replaced by the value of
χTF in the combined stability check according to art. 4.2.3.5.
For Shear Buckling reference is made to chapter "Shear Buckling" on page 40. The following modifications are done in case
of fire:
l The calculation of the ε coefficient is done according to EN 1993-1-2 Formula 4.2.

l The plate slenderness under fire conditions is calculated as follows:
The above modification accounts for the fact that is calculated based on EN 1993-1-5
Formula (5.5) or (5.6).
- 60 -
EC3 – EN Cold-Formed
The members are checked according to the regulations given in:
Eurocode 3
Part 1 - 3: Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-3:2006
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-3:2006/AC:2009
Eurocode 3
Part 1 - 5: Plated Structural elements
EN 1993-1-5:2006
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-5:2006/AC:2009
Consulted articles
An overview for the used articles is given in the following table. The articles marked with “X” are consulted. The articles
Article Title
1 Introduction X
2 Basis of design X
3 Materials
3.1 General X
3.2 Structural Steel X(*)
5 Structural Analysis
5.1 Influence of rounded corners X(*)
5.2 Geometrical proportions X(*)
5.3 Structural modelling for analysis X
5.5 Local and distortional buckling
5.5.1 General X
5.5.2 Plane elements without stiffeners X(*)
- 61 -
Chapter 4
Article Title
5.5.3 Plane elements with edge or intermediate stiffeners
5.5.3.1 General X(*)
5.5.3.2 Plane elements with edge stiffeners X(*)
5.5.3.3 Plane elements with intermediate stiffeners X(*)
6 Ultimate Limit States

6.1 Resistance of cross-sections
X
6.1.1 General
X(*)
6.1.2 Axial Tension
X(*)
6.1.3 Axial Compression

X(*)
6.1.4.1 Elastic and elastic-plastic resistance with yielding at the compressed flange
X(*)
6.1.5 Shear Force
X(*)
6.1.6 Torsional Moment
X(*)
6.1.7 Local Transverse Forces
X(*)
6.1.8 Combined Tension and Bending
X(*)
6.1.9 Combined Compression and Bending
X(*)
6.1.10 Combined shear force, axial force and bending moment
6.1.11 Combined Bending moment and local load or support reaction

X(*)
6.2 Buckling Resistance
6.2.1 General X
6.2.2 Flexural buckling X(*)
6.2.3 Torsional buckling and torsional-flexural buckling X(*)
6.2.4 Lateral Torsional buckling of members subject to bending X(*)
6.2.5 Bending and axial compression X(*)

6.3 Bending and axial tension X(*)
10 Special considerations for purlins, liner trays and sheetings

10.1 Beams restrained by sheeting
10.1.1 General X(*)
10.1.2 Calculation methods X
10.1.3 Design criteria X
10.1.4 Design resistance X(*)
10.1.5 Rotational restraint given by sheeting
10.1.5.1 Lateral spring stiffness X(*)
- 62 -
As specified in EN 1993-1-3: 1.1(3) the code does not apply to cold -formed CHS (FC 3)
and RHS (FC 2) sections. For these form codes the default EN 1993-1-1 provisions apply.
Haunches, arbitrary members and cross-sections without initial shapes are not supported
for the EN 1993- 1- 3 code check. In this case the default EN 1993- 1- 1 code check is
executed.
The checks are executed according to the principal axis in accordance with EN 1993-1-3
art. 1.5.1(4) NOTE except where stated otherwise.
Material properties
The steel grades given within EN 1993-1-3 Table 3.1b are available in the default Material Library of SCIA Engineer.
Average Yield Strength

The average yield strength is supported according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 3.2.2.
The average yield strength is applied in the following resistance calculations:
l Axial Tension
l Axial Compression
l Bending Moment
l Torsional moment
l Flexural Buckling
l Torsional (-Flexural) Buckling
l Purlin design – Cross-section resistance
The average yield strength is calculated using Ag of the Initial shape
Steel Core Thickness

The steel core thickness is supported according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 3.2.4.
The steel core thickness is only available for the following sections:
l Cross-section which have form code FC 111 – FC 126 & FC 129

l Cold-formed pair sections (2CFUo, 2CFUc, 2CFCo, 2CFCc, 2CFLT)
The ranges for the core thickness are set ‘for sheeting and members’.
Form codes 172 & 128 are not supported for the Steel Core Thickness.
Initial Shape
For thin-walled cross-sections with material Steel the Initial Shape is generated automatically.
- 63 -
Chapter 4
The Initial Shape 'translates' the cross-section shape to parts defined by the code.
The Initial Shape is used for calculating the effective section properties as well as determining the Classification of the cross-
section.


RI Reinforced Intermediate (intermediate stiffener)
DEF Double Edge Fold (edge stiffener)
ROU and DEF reinforcement types can be set only to elements of type SO or UO.
RI types can be set only to elements of type I or UO or SO.
For general cross-sections neighbouring elements of type RI are seen as one stiffener for the calculation of the stiffener
area and inertia.
parts.
For standard profile library cross-sections and pair sections the stiffeners are handled as follows:
For the following form codes edge stiffeners are automatically set as RUO
FC 114 Cold formed C-section
- 64 -
FC 115 Cold formed Omega section
FC 116 Cold formed C-Section eaves beam
FC 118 Cold formed ZED section
FC 119 Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips
FC 120 Cold formed ZED section inclined lip
FC 126 Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined
FC 130 Cold formed 2C-section
For the following form codes edge stiffeners are automatically set as DEF
FC 117 Cold formed C-Plus section

FC 127 Cold formed I-Plus section
For the following form codes internal stiffeners are automatically set as RI

Initial Shapes for specific sections

Within this paragraph special cases for the Initial Shape generation are listed.
Sheet welded Iw & Iwn
For these sections the weldsize is accounted for in the generation of the Initial Shape:
- 65 -
Chapter 4
The length of the web element for example is thus calculated as:
With Hw the height of the web and a the throat thickness of the weld.
The same approach is used for the flanges.
RHS
For Rectangular Hollow Sections (FC 2) the initial shape is generated using a notional width of h-3t and b-3t.
The usage of this width ensures consistency between EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-5. For further information reference is
made to Ref.[40].
As specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 1.1(3) CHS & RHS members are checked according to
EN 1993-1-1.
Geometrical Proportions
The Geometrical proportions are checked according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.2(1) Table 5.1.
The limits for edge stiffeners (c) and double edge folds (d) are checked in case the correct stiffener type (RUO or DEF) has
been set in the initial shape.
The limit ratio’s given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.2(2) are checked. Lip dimensions c and d are however always accounted for
and will not be ignored.
In addition the limit for the internal radius given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.1(6) is checked.
For general sections, the geometrical proportions are checked for elements I, UO and SO
using their respective part lengths. Flanges including RI stiffeners are thus considered part
by part and not as one whole flange.
- 66 -
Effective Shape
Influence of rounded corners

Within SCIA Engineer the exact method is applied i.e. all properties and dimensions are determined including the influence
of rounded corners.
The approximate procedure given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.1(3) and following is thus not supported.
Notional widths
For non cold-formed sections the notional width used for the calculation of the effective shape is specified in EN 1993-1-5
art.4.4(2).
For cold-formed sections the notional widths are specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.1 and Figure 5.1.
The initial shape elements are taken between the roundings (i.e. internal dimensions w).
The notional widths bp are then calculated as follows:
l For an internal element (I)
bp = w + rm * sin ( φleft / 2) + rm * sin ( φright / 2)
l For an outstand element (UO, SO)
bp = w + rm * sin ( φ / 2)
- 67 -
Chapter 4
In addition to the notional with bp, for each element the centerline length lc is determined as follows:
l For an internal element (I)
lc = bp + gr,left + gr,right
With
gr,left = rm * [tan ( φleft / 2) - sin ( φleft / 2)]
gr,right = rm * [tan ( φright / 2) - sin ( φright / 2) ]
l For an outstand element (UO, SO)
lc = bp + gr
With
gr = rm * [tan ( φ / 2) - sin ( φ / 2)]
General procedure for one element

By default, EN 1993-1-3 specifies that the stress f (σcom,Ed) to be used for the effective section calculation should be taken
as fyb/γM0
The reduction of an element is in general given by:
beff = p * b
With:
beff Effective width

p Reduction factor
b Full width
Step 1:
For the given stress f the normal stress over the rectangular plate element of the initial geometrical shape is calculated.
These stresses are calculated based on the nominal width bp.
- 68 -
σ beg : normal stress at start point of rectangular shape – compression stress is positive
σ end : normal stress at end point of rectangular shape – compression stress is positive
If the rectangular shape is completely under tension, i.e. σ beg and σ end are both tensile stresses, no reduction is needed, p
= 1.0
Step 2: Determine f1 and f2:
in case
f1 = σ beg
f2 = σ end
in case
f1 = σ end
f2 = σ beg
Step 3: Calculate the stress gradient ψ:
Step 4: If ψ = 1 the element is under uniform compression, else the element is under stress
gradient.
Depending on the stress gradient and the element type, the effective width can be calculated as specified in the following
paragraphs.
- 69 -
Chapter 4
EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.2 concerning the plastic reserve of the tension flange is not sup-
ported i.e. always an elastic stress distribution is used.
Internal Compression Elements

The effective width of internal compression elements is calculated according to EN 1993-1-5 art. 4.4 and Table 4.1.
This applies to elements of type I.
The notional width bp is used as
Outstand Compression Elements

The effective width of outstand compression elements is calculated according to EN 1993-1-5 art. 4.4 and Table 4.2.
This applies to elements of type UO and SO
The notional width bp is used as c.
kσ is calculated according to EN 1993-1-5 Table 4.2 which, in case the biggest stress is at the toe, gives formulas for Ψ up to
-3.
Therefore Ψ is limited to -3when calculating kσ.
When activating the checkbox “Use Annex E E.1(1)” the formulas given in Annex E are
used to determine the reduction factor ρ.
Plane Elements with Edge Stiffeners

The procedure for determining the effective width/thickness of elements with edge stiffeners is given in EN 1993-1-3 art.
5.5.3.2 and art. 5.5.3.1.
This applies to elements of type RUO and DEF
General remarks regarding the stiffness K of the edge stiffener given in formula (5.10b) .
hw is taken as lc (centreline length) of the biggest adjacent element. Adjacent elements are those elements con-
nected to the flange. For typical cross-sections, there is only one adjacent element, the web.
For Sigma sections, hw is taken as the sum of the centreline lengths of the web elements.
This concerns the following form codes:

General Cross-section: hw for stiffener:
- 70 -
l Elements connected to the stiffener are not accounted for since they are considered as flanges
l Elements connected to those flanges are all accounted for in case they are of type I and the summation is
made of the lengths of these elements
l Roundings are not accounted for
General Cross-section: In case there is only one edge stiffener
kf is taken as zero. (i.e. no interaction between two flanges since there is only one flange).
General Cross-section: In case there are two edge stiffeners
kf is determined by default. (i.e. interaction between the two flanges is accounted for).
General Cross-section: In case there are more than two edge stiffeners
The same logic is followed as for a single stiffener. The factor kf is thus taken as zero.
The formula for K given in the EN 1993-1-3 is based purely on simple sections with two
flanges. In case of more complex cross-sections, the only exact procedure is to perform a
numerical analysis (finite strip method) to determine the critical stresses for local and dis-
tortional buckling. This is referenced as the ‘Advanced Procedure’ given in art. 5.5.1(7).
Critical stresses for local and distortional buckling obtained from a numerical analysis can
be inputted in the cross-section manager.
The reduced effective area of the stiffener As,red according to art 5.5.3.2(11) is calculated
using σcom,Ed = fyb/γM0.
Plane Elements with Intermediate Stiffeners

The procedure for determining the effective width/thickness of elements with intermediate stiffeners is given in EN 1993-1-3
art. 5.5.3.3 and art. 5.5.3.1.
This applies to elements of type RI
The stiffness K of the internal stiffener is determined from formula (5.11):
The reduced effective area of the stiffener As,red according to art 5.5.3.3(10) is calculated
using σcom,Ed = fyb/γM0.
General procedure of Effective Shape calculation

The general procedure which combines the effective section calculation of plane elements without and plane elements with
stiffeners is given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.5.2(3) and art. 5.5.3.
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Chapter 4
This procedure can be written out as follows:

Step 1: The effective width of the flanges and edge/intermediate stiffeners within the flanges are calculated
based on gross section properties.
This includes the optional iterative procedure for the edge/intermediate stiffeners as specified in art. 5.5.3.2(10)
and art. 5.5.3.3(9).
Step 2: This partially effective shape of the previous step is used to determine the stress gradient and effective
width of the web.
This includes the optional iterative procedure for the intermediate stiffeners as specified in art. 5.5.3.3(9).
Step 3: The end result of the previous two steps is the effective cross-section and its properties can be calculated.
Step 4: This process can now be optionally iterated using the stress ratio based on the effective cross-section in
place of the gross cross-section.
Both iteration procedures (iteration of stiffeners and iteration of the full cross-section) can be set in the Steel Setup.
The iteration of the full cross- section is not run in case Iz > Iy in order to avoid incon-
sistencies in the axis between the initial and the effective shape.
Advanced Procedure for Effective Shape Calculation

In addition to the standard procedure described in the previous paragraphs for the calculation of the Effective Shape, also
the Advanced Procedure described in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.2.1(7) is supported.
This procedure does not use analytical formulas for calculating the critical local- and distortional buckling stresses of the dif-
ferent elements, but instead uses the values obtained by a numerical (stability) analysis.
When this setting is activated within the Cross- section, the user can input the minimal local- and distortional buckling
stresses obtained from numerical analysis for the different effective shapes. These stresses are then used for the cal-
culation of the effective widths and thicknesses.
The following provides an overview of the different steps:

1)Calculate the elastic buckling stresses and identify the corresponding buckling modes
2) Calculate the effective width(s) according to 5.5.2 for locally buckled cross-section parts based on the minimum local
buckling stress
3) Calculate the reduced thickness (see 5.5.3.1(7)) of edge and intermediate stiffeners based on the minimum distortional
buckling stress
4) Calculate overall buckling resistance according to 6.2 based on the effective cross-section from steps 2) and 3).
This method provides an alternative for cross-sections which have more complex shapes.
It should however be noted that, due to the use of the minimal stresses, this procedure is
quite conservative.
Manufacturer provided effective section properties

In case in the Steel Setup the option ‘Use manufacturer provided effective section properties’is activated, effective section
properties from the manufacturer are taken from the Effective Section Library instead of calculated by EN 1993-1-3.
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The following properties can be defined in the Effective Section Library:
Property Description
fy [MPa] Steel grade for which the effective properties have been derived
Aeff [mm^2] Effective Area for compression
eN,y [mm] Shift of centroid in y direction for compression
eN,z [mm] Shift of centroid in z direction for compression
Ieff,y My+ [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the y-y axis for a positive moment My
Weff,y My+ [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the y-y axis for a positive moment My
eM,z My+ [mm] Shift of centroid in z direction for a positive moment My
Ieff,y My- [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the y-y axis for a negative moment My
Weff,y My- [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the y-y axis for a negative moment My
eM,z My- [mm] Shift of centroid in z direction for a negative moment My
Ieff,z Mz+ [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the z-z axis for a positive moment Mz
Weff,z Mz+ [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the z-z axis for a positive moment Mz
eM,y Mz+ [mm] Shift of centroid in y direction for a positive moment Mz
Ieff,z Mz- [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the z-z axis for a negative moment Mz
Weff,z Mz- [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the z-z axis for a negative moment Mz
eM,y Mz- [mm] Shift of centroid in y direction for a negative moment Mz
In case the yield strength used for the cross- section does not match any of the yield
strengths defined in the Effective Section Library the default EN 1993-1-3 calculation will be
used.
Section Checks
Axial Tension
The Axial Tension Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.2.
The net section resistance Fn,Rd is taken as:
With Anet taken equal to Ag since bolt holes are not accounted for.
Axial Compression
The Axial Compression Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.3.
The choice between formula (6.2) and (6.3) is made by comparing the gross area Ag from the initial shape with the effective
area Aeff of the effective shape for compression.
The gross area Ag used in the formulas is taken from the cross-section manager.
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Chapter 4
This comparison using the initial shape property is of importance for the following reasons:
- Profile Library sections can have different gross properties compared to the initial shape
since the gross properties come from certain sources (books, tables, …) and are mostly
rounded off.
- For general cross-sections the gross shape can differ from the initial shape since the initial
shape concerns a thin walled representation.
Each element on which a distortional buckling reduction factor χd is applied is seen as ‘stiffened’.
All other elements are seen as ‘plane’.
Bending Moment
The Bending Moment Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.1.
The choice between formula (6.4) and (6.5) is made by comparing the elastic section modulus Wel from the initial shape
with the effective section modulus Weff of the effective shape for bending.
The elastic section modulus Wel used in the formulas is taken from the cross-section manager.
Note: This comparison using the initial shape property is of importance for the following
reasons:
- Profile Library sections can have different gross properties compared to the initial shape
since the gross properties come from certain sources (books, tables, …) and are mostly
rounded off.
- For general cross-sections the gross shape can differ from the initial shape since the initial
shape concerns a thin walled representation.
An element of type I is seen as ‘plane’.

An element of type UO or SO is seen as ‘outstand’.
As indicated in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.1(2) formula (6.5) is only applied in case:
l There is only single bending i.e. My OR Mz

l There is no torsion i.e. Mx = 0
l There is no Torsional (-Flexural) buckling i.e. χTF = 1,00
l There is no Lateral Torsional buckling i.e. χLTB = 1,00
l There is no Distortional buckling i.e. all reinforcement types of the cross-section elements should be ‘none’ or, in case
there are stiffeners, they should not be in compression.
l The angle φ between the web and flange exceeds 60°.
In case formula (6.5) should be applied but the above conditions are not fulfilled, formula (6.6) is applied.
EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.2 concerning the plastic reserve of the tension flange is not supported i.e. always an elastic stress dis-
tribution is used.
EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.3 concerning the effects of shear lag is not supported.
- 74 -
Shear Force
The Shear Force Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.5.
General
The shear resistance is calculated for each ‘web’ element separately and the cross-section resistance is taken as the sum of
these element resistances.
Only elements with element types I, UO and SO are accounted for.
In addition, elements with stiffener type RUO or DEF are not accounted for.
Formula (6.8) is rewritten as follows for both directions:
With:
αi = Angle of element i related to the principal y-y axis
lc,i = Centreline length of element i
By default the Shear Check is executed ‘without stiffening at the support’ In case Local
Transverse Forces data are inputted which have the checkbox ‘No Local Transverse
Forces Check’ activated, the Shear Check in those sections is executed ‘with stiffening at
the support’.
Elements without Internal stiffeners

The centreline length lc,i for each element i is taken from the Initial shape.
The angle αi for each element i is determined as the angle related to the principal y-y axis.
The relative web slenderness for each element i is determined according to formula (6.10a).
The slant height sw,i is taken as the notional width bp,i of the element under consideration as indicated on the following pic-
ture.
Sections with Internal stiffeners

Special considerations are required for cross-sections with internal stiffeners (Type RI).
The following picture illustrates a web with internal stiffener:
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Chapter 4
The internal stiffener and connected elements are seen as ‘one web’. This ‘composed’ web is seen as ‘one’ element i in the
shear calculation.
For such a ‘composed’ web, the different distances are determined as follows:
l The slant height sw is taken as the distance between

- The starting point of the nominal width bp,i of the first element in the web.
- The end point of the nominal width bp,i of the last element in the web.
l The total developed slant height sd is taken as the sum of the nominal widths bp,i of all the elements in the web.
l The slant height sp concerns the notional width bp,i of the largest plane web element.
The relative web slenderness is determined according to formula (6.10b).

The inertia of the stiffener(s) Is is taken from the Initial shape
The centreline length lc of this composed web is calculated as follows:
l In case the first or last element of the composed web has element type SO or UO:
lc = sw + gr
With
gr = rm * [tan ( φ / 2) - sin ( φ / 2)]
If the first element is an outstand, gr is taken as gr at the end point of the last element.
If the last element is an outstand, gr is taken as gr at the starting point of the first element.
Reference is made to "Notional widths" on page 67.
l In case both the first and last element of the composed web has element type I:
lc = sw + gr,first + gr,end
With
gr,first taken as gr at the starting point of the first element.
gr,end taken as gr at the end point of the last element.
The angle α of the ‘composed’ web concerns the angle of the centreline length lc relative to the principal y-y axis.
- 76 -
Neighbouring connected elements are seen as one ‘web’. A typical example of this is a
sigma section: the web has two internal stiffeners which both are connected to the same
internal element. As such they are recognized as forming one web.
Torsional Moment
The Combined Stress Check including Torsion and Warping is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.6.
Regarding warping reference is made to "Annex F: Warping check" on page 206.
The average yield strength fya in all three formulas (6.11a), (6.11b), (6.11c) will only be used in case for all three force com-
ponents separately (N, My, Mz) the average yield strength may be used (Aeff = Ag ; Weff,y = Wel,y ; Weff,z = Wel,z).
Local Transverse Forces

The local transverse forces check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art 6.1.7 and following.
The check is executed on the positions where there is a jump in the Vz shear force diagram.
Remarks:
l The shear force diagram of both the actual member as well as adjacent members is evaluated. Adjacent members are
defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
l The Flange Condition depends on the definition of the initial shape. In case there is an element with reinforcement type
ROU or DEF the setting is taken as ‘Stiffened ’.
l The distances for One-flange/Two-flange and End/Interior are evaluated taking into account adjacent members. Adja-
cent members are defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
l In case the cross-section has multiple webs, for determining the load condition the maximal web height is used.
l As opposed to EN 1993-1-3 art. .1.7.2(4), the exact inputted bearing length ss will be used at all times i.e. the sim-
plification of using the minimal length for both opposing loads is not supported.
l As indicated on EN 1993-1-3 Figure 6.6, the local transverse force resistance is taken relative to the support, not accord-
ing to the principal z-axis. Therefore FEd, is determined according to the LCS axis system and not according to the prin-
cipal axis system!
General Procedure
This paragraph specifies the general procedure to determine the local transverse web resistance which is applied for any
type of cross-section except for FC 115 (Cold formed Omega).
In case the cross-section has any element with stiffener type RI, the procedure for stiffened
webs is applied first.
In a first step the web height hw is determined for each ‘web’ element:
l Only elements of type I are accounted for.

In addition elements with stiffener types RUO and DEF are not accounted for.
l For each of those elements i the centreline length lc,i is read from the Initial shape
l For each of those elements i the angle φi is determined as the angle of the element relative to the horizontal axis (based
on Figure 6.6).
In addition, only elements with an angle φi ≥ 45° are accounted for.
l The web height for each element i is calculated as:
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Chapter 4
l In case none of the cross-section elements fulfil the above conditions, the local transverse forces check is not supported
for the cross-section.
When h w,i is determined, the local transverse resistance R w,Rd,i for each of those elements is determined based on EN
1993-1-3 art. .1.7.2
The final cross-section resistance is taken as the sum of the individual element resistances.
By default, the local transverse resistance Rw,Rd,i is determined using EN 1993-1-3 Figure 6.7a & 6.7b.
The following table shows the relation between the loading conditions and the cases defined in the tables.
Loading Condition Table Case

End One Flange (EOF) 6.7a a) i)
Interior One Flange (IOF) 6.7a a) ii)
End Two Flange (ETF) 6.7b b) i)
Interior Two Flange (ITF) 6.7b b) ii)
In case Web rotation prevented was set using Local Transverse Forces data instead of EN 1993-1-3 Figure 6.7a & 6.7b the
formulas given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.2(4) are used.
The following table shows the relation between the loading conditions and the cases defined in this article.
Loading Condition Article Case

End One Flange (EOF) art. 6.1.7.2(4) a) i)
Interior One Flange (IOF) art. 6.1.7.2(4) a) ii)
End Two Flange (ETF) art. 6.1.7.2(4) b) i)
Interior Two Flange (ITF) art. 6.1.7.2(4) b) ii)
Omega Sections
Specifically for FC 115 (Cold formed Omega) cross- sections the special procedure for sections with two or more
unstiffened webs is applied. The local transverse resistance Rw,Rd,i for each of those webs is determined according to EN
1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.3.
Other cross-sections with two or more unstiffened webs will always be calculated accord-
ing to the General Procedure, not this special procedure.
The value of α in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.3(5) is taken for ‘liner trays and hat sections’.
The following table shows the relation between the loading conditions and the categories defined in EN 1993-1-3 Figure
6.9.
Loading Condition Category

End One Flange (EOF) 1
Interior One Flange (IOF) 1
End Two Flange (ETF) 1
Interior Two Flange (ITF) 2
- 78 -
Figure 6.9 does not directly specify ETF. However since two flange loading is specified as
category 1 and End loading is also specified as category 1, the combined condition of ETF
is considered as category 1.
According to [27] to use la = 10 mm for the end support reaction force (category 1) results
in a very conservative resistance. A modification is given for case 2 and 3 of Figure 6.9: la =
c + Ss.
By activating the setting “Use la correction in (6.18)” this modification is applied.
Stiffened Webs
This paragraph outlines the special procedure in case of stiffened webs according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.4.
This method is used only in case there are one or more elements with stiffener type RI
The procedure consists of four steps.
Step 1: Creating ‘composed’ webs

In a first step, ‘composed’ webs are created using the same procedure as outlined in "Sections with Internal stiffeners" on
page 75.
This includes the determination of the centreline length lc,i of those ‘composed’ webs.
Step 2: Evaluation of ‘composed’ webs

The special procedure outlined in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.4 is only valid under certain conditions.
Therefore, each ‘composed’ web is evaluated to see if it meets the following requirements:
l There is one or more elements with stiffener type RI

l Each RI element should have element type I (i.e. it is at both sides connected to other elements signifying it’s a fold instead
of a stiffener).
l Elements connected to this RI element should not have stiffener type RI. This implies that the procedure is not applied in
case of neighbouring stiffener elements i.e. elements forming ‘one’ big stiffener.
Composed webs which do not meet these requirements are further evaluated in step 3.
Composed webs which meet all requirements are further evaluated in step 4.
Example:
All four sections have ‘composed’ webs.

Section A contains two RI stiffeners which are connected. The web thus does not meet the requirements.
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Chapter 4
Section B contains a single RI stiffener which meets all the requirements. This stiffener is thus a ‘true’ two fold stiffener so the
special article applies.
Section C contains several RI stiffeners however not all match the requirements (one is an outstand, others are connected
etc). The web thus does not meet the requirements.
Section D has a composed web which contains two RI stiffeners. Both meet all the requirements and are thus ‘true’ two fold
stiffeners. The special article applies.
Step 3: Composed webs which do NOT meet the requirements

For composed webs which do not meet the requirements, the special article is not valid. The local transverse force res-
istance of these webs will be determined according to the "General Procedure" on page 77
In this case, the centre line length lc,i of the composed web is used in the determination of hw .
The angle φi is determined as the angle of the centre line length relative to the horizontal axis.
Step 4: Composed webs which meet all requirements

For composed webs which meet all requirements, the special procedure outlined in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.4 is applied.
The ‘system line’ of this web is taken as the centre line length lc,i.
The eccentricity e is determined at each end of an RI within the ‘composed’ web. Eccentricity emin and emax are then taken
as the min and max value for the considered composed web.
In case the limit specified in formula (6.21) is not fulfilled, the special article is not applied and the composed web is con-
sidered as a web which does not meet all requirements. For such a web the procedure outlined in step 3 is applied.
For the developed width of the loaded flange b d any RI stiffeners of element Type I are always included, independent of
their angle. RI stiffeners of element Type UO or SO are always ignored.
Connected flange elements which have a relative angle > 135° are accounted for as „one‟flange for the determination of
bd.
In case there is no connected flange, for example when using a general section, then bd is considered as zero. Practically
this implies that there is no limit for κa,s .
The data is then used to determine κa,s according to formula (6.22).

The Rw,Rd,i value of the composed web is then calculated as:
Rw,Rd,i = κa,s * Rw,Rd,i,general

With Rw,Rd,i,general calculated according to the "General Procedure" on page 77
The value of hw,i for this composed web is calculated using the centre line lc,i of the composed web as outlined in step 3.
Combined Tension and Bending

The Combined Tension and Bending Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.8.
The bending resistances are determined using the section moduli Weff of the effective shapes for bending.
Combined Compression and Bending

The Combined Compression and Bending Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.9.
- 80 -
Additional moments due to the shift in neutral axis are calculated at the beginning of the check and added to the internal
forces.
This ensures specific bending checks are executed also in case there is no initial moment
but only an additional moment.
The shifts in neutral axis eNy and eNz are read directly from the effective shape for compression.
As specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.3(3) additional moments are only accounted for in case they lead to an unfavourable
check result.
The bending resistances are determined using the section moduli Weff of the effective shapes for bending.
Combined Shear Force, Axial Force and Bending Moment

The Combined Shear Force, Axial Force and Bending Moment Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.10.
In the following paragraphs formula (6.27) is written out for both directions.
Shear Vy
In case of shear Vy formula (6.27) is written out as follows:
Remarks:
l Mf,Rd is taken as zero in case of Vy
(In case of weak axis bending, the ‘web’ becomes a ‘flange’. Since there is only a single ‘flange’ in that case, the
moment resistance of this flange is negligible. In addition, in case of more webs like in a box section EN 1993-1-5
art. 7.1 (5) specifies Mf,Rd = 0. Therefore, as a general conservative approach for Vy the value of Mf,Rd is taken
as 0.)
Shear Vz
In case of shear Vz formula (6.27) is written out as follows:
Remarks:
l According to [Ref.16] pp70 Mf,Rd is calculated as follows:
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Chapter 4
This is generalised in the following way:
a. Only elements with element types I, UO and SO are accounted for

b. Only elements which have an angle α with the principal y-y axis which is ≤ 45° are considered
In case there is only one or none of such element, Mf,Rd = 0.

c. Of these elements, the one with the lowest beff is considered. The width beff concerns the effective with of this element,
read from the effective shape for bending.
d. Af = beff * t with t the thickness of the considered element.
e. Next only elements which have an angle α with the principal y-y axis which is > 45°are considered.
In case there are no such elements, set Mf,Rd = 0.

f. Of these elements, the one with the highest value of lc * sin(α) is considered, with lc the centreline length of the element.
g. hf = lc * sin(α)
h. Mf,Rd is now be calculated as:
l According to [Ref.16] pp70 Mpl,Rd is calculated as follows:
with Wpl read from the gross section properties.
Combined Bending Moment and local Load/Support Reaction

The Combined Bending Moment and local Load/Support Reaction Check is executed according to EN 1993- 1- 3 art.
6.1.11.
In formula (6.28c) the internal force M Ed is taken as the actual moment in the section considered, not the moment at the
edge of the support.
Stability Checks
Flexural Buckling
The Flexural Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.2.2 and EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.1.
Table 6.3 regarding the buckling curves is revised as follows:
Description about axis Curve

y-y a
1 I section
z-z b
y-y a
101 Asymmetric I section
z-z b
114 Cold formed C section any b
- 82 -
Description about axis Curve
116 Cold formed C-Section eaves beam any b
117 Cold formed C-Plus section any b
118 Cold formed ZED section any b
119 Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips any b
120 Cold formed ZED section inclined lip any b
121 Cold formed Sigma section any b
122 Cold formed Sigma section stiffened any b
123 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section any b
124 Cold formed Sigma section eaves beam any b
125 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section eaves beam any b
126 Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined any b
y-y a
127 Cold formed I-Plus section
z-z b
y-y a
128 Cold formed IS-Plus section
z-z b
129 Cold formed Sigma section asymmetric any b
y-y a
130 Cold formed 2C section
z-z b
y-y a
2CFCo with a = 0
z-z b
2CFCc with a = 0 Closed section rule 6.2.2(3)
y-y a
2CFUo with a = 0
z-z b
2CFUc with a = 0 Closed section rule 6.2.2(3)
2CFLT with a = 0 any c
Any other section any c
All other sections fall in the ‘other cross-section’ case of curve c for any axis.
For the calculation of the buckling length, we refer to chapter ""Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on page 172"

The Torsional (-Flexural) Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.2.3 and EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.1.4.
The buckling curve for torsional (-flexural) buckling is taken as the z-z buckling curve according to the table given in "Flexural
Buckling" on the previous page.
The value of the elastic critical load Ncr is taken as the smallest of Ncr,T (Torsional buckling) and Ncr,TF (Torsional-Flexural
buckling).
Calculation of Ncr,T
- 83 -
Chapter 4
With
E Modulus of Young
G Shear modulus
It Torsion constant
Iw Warping constant
y0 and z0 Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
iy radius of gyration about the strong axis
iz radius of gyration about the weak axis
Calculation of Ncr,TF
0
With
Ncr,z Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the z-z axis
Diaphragms
In case a diaphragm is used, independent on which side, the augmented It will be used also in Torsional Buckling.
Lateral Torsional Buckling

The Lateral Torsional Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.2.4 and EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.2.2.
- 84 -
For additional information reference is made to "Diaphragms" on the previous page.
For information regarding the influence of diaphragms on the Lateral Torsional Buckling Check reference is made to "Use
of Diaphragms" on the next page.
Bending and Axial Compression

For determining the Combined Bending and Axial Compression check according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.2.5 EN 1993-1-3
allows two possibilities:
l Use the EN 1993-1-1 interaction according to article 6.3.3

l Use the alternative according to EN 1993-1-3 article 6.2.5(2)
The choice between these two methods is set in the Steel Setup.
Interaction according to EN 1993-1-1
The interaction is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.3 using interaction factors from Annex A & B.
In both Method 1 (Annex A) and Method 2 (Annex B) the cold - formed sections are seen as ‘class 3 or 4’.
Alternative interaction according to EN 1993-1-3The interaction is executed

according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.2.5(2).
Nb,Rd is taken as the lowest value of
l the flexural buckling resistance about the y-y axis

l the flexural buckling resistance about the z-z axis
l the torsional (-flexural) buckling resistance
Formula (6.36) includes the strong axis bending resistance M b,Rd . There is however no
indication for a weak axis bending moment. Therefore, in case a weak axis bending
moment is present, this interaction cannot be applied and the general interaction according
to EN 1993-1-1 is applied.
Bending and Axial Tension

The Combined Bending and Tension Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.3.
The code specifies that the same equations as for compression should be used. These interaction equations are however
not fully valid in case of tension.
The purpose of the interaction check for bending and tension is to check the stresses at the compression fiber. In the AISI
NAS 2007 Ref.[18] code the following formula is given in article C5:
This formula is rewritten using EC-EN notations as follows:
With:
- 85 -
Chapter 4
Mb,y,Rd The Lateral Torsional Buckling resistance

Mc,z,Rd,com The moment resistance for the compression fiber in case of Mz
Nt,Rd The Tension Resistance
Use of Diaphragms
The influence of a diaphragm is outlined in the following diagram.
First of all the lateral stiffness S of the diaphragm is determined and compared to the required stiffness Serf.
- 86 -
The lateral stiffness S is calculated according to Ref.[19],3.5 and Ref.[20],3.3.4.
a The frame distance

Ls The length of diaphragm
K1 Diaphragm factor K1
K2 Diaphragm factor K2
The required stiffness Serf is determined according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.1
In case S < Serf the member is seen as Inadequately braced. In this case, when the diaphragm is located on the com-
pression side, the Lateral Torsional Buckling check is executed using the augmented torsional stiffness It. Reference is
made to "Adaptation of torsional constant " on page 193.
l The LTB length

G The shear modulus
vorhCθ The actual rotational stiffness of diaphragm
As specified in art. 10.1.1 the shear stiffness S is replaced by 0,2 S in case the diaphragm is
connected every second rib only.
In case S ≥ Serf the member is seen as Fully braced. In this case, a first test is executed to evaluate if the special purlin
checks according to EN 1993-1-3 Chapter 10 can be applied.
More specifically, this chapter is applied only in case the cross-section concerns a Z, C, Σ or U section:
Form code Description

5 Channel section
102 Rolled Z section
112 Cold formed channel
113 Cold formed Z
114 Cold formed C section
116 Cold formed C-Section eaves beam
117 Cold formed C-Plus section
118 Cold formed ZED section
119 Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips
- 87 -
Chapter 4
Form code Description

120 Cold formed ZED section inclined lip
121 Cold formed Sigma section
122 Cold formed Sigma section stiffened
123 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section
124 Cold formed Sigma section eaves beam
125 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section eaves beam
126 Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined
129 Cold formed Sigma section asymmetric
The code specifies that the chapter is also valid for hat (Omega) sections however in all fur-
ther paragraphs; no specific formulas are given for Omega sections. For example the free
flange geometry is described only for Z, C and Σ sections, not for Omega sections. There-
fore, Omega sections are not supported for this special chapter.
In case the cross-section does not match any of the above, the default checks are executed. Since the member is seen as
fully braced, no Lateral Torsional Buckling check needs to be executed in case the diaphragm is located on the compression
side.
In case the cross-section does match the list of set form codes, a second test is executed. More specifically, the special purlin
checks according to EN 1993-1-3 Chapter 10 can be applied only in case:
l The dimensional limits of article 10.1.1(1) are satisfied

l The section is only loaded by N, Vz, My
Chapter 10 specifies only checks related to in plane effects N, Vz and My. Therefore, in
case of other loading components, the special articles are not valid and the default checks
will be applied.
For a section which meets all requirements, the following is done:
l Reduced default Checks are executed i.e. not all default checks will be executed.
l Special purlin checks according to Chapter 10
More specifically, the following ‘default’ checks will be executed:
Section Check Article

Axial tension 6.1.2
Axial compression 6.1.3
Bending moment 6.1.4
Shear force 6.1.5
Torsional moment NOT
Local Transverse Forces 6.1.7
Combined tension and bending NOT
Combined compression and bending NOT
Combined shear, axial force and bending moment 6.1.10
- 88 -
Section Check Article
Combined Bending and Local Transverse Force 6.1.11
Stability Check Article
Flexural buckling only for y-y 6.2.2
Torsional and Torsional-Flexural buckling NOT
Lateral-Torsional buckling NOT
Bending and axial compression NOT
Bending and axial tension NOT
The Torsional moment check will never occur in this case since the prerequisite is to have only N, Vz, My.
The combined axial and bending checks are not executed since they are replaced by the special purlin checks.
The flexural buckling check is executed for y-y buckling in accordance with EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2(2).
Torsional buckling and Lateral-torsional buckling are prohibited by the fully braced diaphragm. The compression in the free
flange is included in the special purlin checks.
The combined stability checks are not executed since they are replaced by the special purlin checks.
In contrast to art. 10.1.3.3(2) the Local Transverse Load Check and its interaction with the
bending moment is executed even if the support reaction is a tensile force.
Special considerations for Purlins

As outlined in "Use of Diaphragms" on page 86 for a section which meets all requirements, special purlin checks according
to EN 1993-1-3 Chapter 10 will be executed:
Diaphragm on the compression side

l Cross-section resistance according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.1
l In case of compression in the free flange also Stability of the free flange according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2
Diaphragm on the tension side

l Cross-section resistance according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.1
l Stability of the free flange according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2
Resistance of Cross-Section
The Resistance of the Cross-Section is determined according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.1.
Since this check concerns a separate formula for each flange (10.3a) and (10.3b) the effective section modulus Weff,y is
determined for each flange separately.
The average yield strength will only be used in case for both force components separately (N, My) the average yield
strength may be used (Aeff = Ag ; Weff,y = Wel,y).
Definition of the free flange geometry
The dimension h is taken as the full cross section height.
The properties of the free flange are calculated according to the z-z axis of the full cross-section.
The following table shows the supported cross-sections including the contributing web height.
- 89 -
Chapter 4
Form code Description Contributing web

5 Channel section 1/5 h
102 Rolled Z section 1/5 h
112 Cold formed channel 1/5 h
113 Cold formed Z 1/5 h
114 Cold formed C section 1/5 h
116 Cold formed C-Section eaves beam 1/5 h
117 Cold formed C-Plus section 1/5 h
118 Cold formed ZED section 1/5 h
119 Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips 1/5 h
120 Cold formed ZED section inclined lip 1/5 h
121 Cold formed Sigma section 1/6 h
122 Cold formed Sigma section stiffened 1/6 h
123 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section 1/6 h
124 Cold formed Sigma section eaves beam 1/6 h
125 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section eaves beam 1/6 h
126 Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined 1/5 h
129 Cold formed Sigma section asymmetric 1/6 h
As the code indicates in Figure 10.2, for sigma sections the rounding which leads to the
web depression is also accounted for in the height of the free flange. Therefore, to gen-
eralize this principle, within SCIA Engineer the rounding between the flange and the web is
always accounted for in the free flange height (for all section types).
Determination of the equivalent lateral load

The equivalent lateral load on the free flange q h,Ed is determined from the vertical load q Ed on the purlin using formula
(10.4).
For any given moment diagram, the equivalent vertical line load qEd is determined as the line load which results in approx-
imately the same bending moment diagram..
The factor kh is determined according to EN 1993-1-3 Figure 10.3.
For kh0, the general formula for Z,C or Σ sections is applied. The formula for a simple Z-
section is not supported.
For Gravity loading, the vertical loading is assumed to be positioned at the outside of the web. For Uplift loading the vertical
loading is assumed to be positioned exactly in the middle of the flange width.
For Gravity loading the general formula including the shear center distance e is used.
For Uplift loading the general formula including the shear center distance f is used. In case of a symmetrical Z section this dis-
tance will become a.
The load qh,Ed is given a positive sign in case it follows the same convention as shown in the code. The load is given a neg-
ative sign in case it points in the other direction.
- 90 -
Determination of the lateral bending moment
Table 10.1 provides the formulas to determine Mfz,Ed for specific positions within the beams: at the ends (e) and at the pos-
ition of the maximal moment (m).
Within SCIA Engineer however, the check is executed in different sections. Therefore, the values of M fz,Ed need to be
known in each section.
To this end, as indicated in the code in EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.1(7), the general equations have been derived using the the-
ory of beams on an elastic Winkler foundation.
The differential equation for the displacement of a beam on elastic foundation loaded by a line load is written out as follows
Ref.[21]:
With
E Section modulus
I Bending stiffness
L Member length, taken as La
q Line load, taken as qh,Ed
K Foundation stiffness, taken as lateral spring stiffness K
A,B,C,D Integration constants
The integration constants are determined depending on the boundary conditions for the cases given in Table 10.1.
Using the beam equation with the second derivative of the displacement the equation for the bending moment M fz,Ed is
obtained and leads to the following solutions:
Solution for a beam on elastic Winkler foundation with Hinged end conditions
Solution for a beam on elastic Winkler foundation with Hinged-Fixed end conditions
- 91 -
Chapter 4
Solution for a beam on elastic Winkler foundation with Fixed end conditions
The determination of a hinged or fixed end for Mfz,Ed is done as follows:
l A single span member is always considered to have hinged ends.

A single span member is defined as a member with only one part in the buckling system for Ly.
l An LTB restraint is always considered as a fixed end.
l For multi-span members, the ends of the buckling system for Ly are considered as hinged. The internal points of the buck-
ling system for Ly are considered as fixed.
As specified in EN 1993- 1- 3 art. 10.1.4.1 (5) in case the free flange is in tension M fz,Ed is taken equal to zero.
To determine if the free flange is in tension or compression the following stress is calculated:
(My,Ed / Weff,y,free flange) + (Ned / Aeff)
In case this stress results in tension, the free flange is considered to be in tension.
In case this stress results in compression, the free flange is considered to be in compression.
The sign of Mfz,Ed determines the tension/compression side of the free flange and thus determines which Wfz is used in the
check.
The limit of R ≤ 40 given in art. 10.1.4.1(6) does not apply since the general Winkler theory
is used instead of Table 10.1.
Determination of the distance between anti-sag bars

The code defines anti-sag bars as bars which provide lateral rigid support to the free flange. Within SCIA Engineer, LTB
restraints are thus seen as anti-sag bars.
In case LTB restraints are defined at the free flange, the length La is taken as the length between these restraints. In case
there are no LTB restraints defined at the free flange, La is read from the buckling system.
Determination of the lateral spring stiffness
The lateral spring stiffness K is determined according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.5.1(4).
The developed height of the purlin web h d is taken as the total developed slant height sd used in the Shear Check, as
described in "Shear Force" on page 75.
The rotational restraint C D is taken as vorhC, the rotational stiffness of the diaphragm, as described in "Annex D: Use of
diaphragms " on page 193.
The dimension bmod depends on the direction of the equivalent horizontal load qh,Ed and the type of cross-section. Accord-
ing to the code this depends if the load brings the purlin into contact with the sheeting at the purlin web or at the tip of the
purlin flange.
This is clarified in the following picture:
- 92 -
The distance a i.e. position of the fastener is taken as 0,5 b. The fastener is thus assumed to be positioned in the middle of
the flange.
Buckling Resistance of the Free Flange

The Buckling Resistance of the Free Flange is determined according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2.
To determine if the free flange is in tension or compression the following stress is calculated:
(My,Ed / Weff,y,free flange) + (Ned / Aeff)
In case this stress results in tension, the free flange is considered to be in tension.
In case this stress results in compression, the free flange is considered to be in compression.
For a free flange in tension the buckling resistance does not need to be checked.
For determining the buckling length lfz of the free flange a difference is made between gravity loading (downward –z load-
ing) and uplift loading (upward +z loading).
Gravity Loading
In case of downward –z loading the buckling length of the free flange is determined according to formula (10.9).
The ηi factors are determined according to EN 1993-1-3 Table 10.2a.
art. 10.1.4.2(4) is not supported.
Uplift Loading
In case of upward +z loading the buckling length of the free flange is determined according to formula (10.9).
The ηi factors are determined according to EN 1993-1-3 Table 10.2b.
- 93 -
Chapter 4
The method according to art. 10.1.4.2(6) & (7) is not supported.
General Notes
For both loading types, Tables 10.2a & b differentiate between ‘simple span’, ‘end span’ and ‘intermediate span’. This is
based on the Ly system length.
In case the member under consideration has only one part for Ly then it is considered as ‘simple span’.
When the member has more parts for Ly it is considered as multi-span. For a multi-span, sections located in the first or last
part of the system length are considered as ‘end span’. Sections located in the other parts are considered as ‘intermediate
span’.
Table 10.2a does not specify ‘simple span’. The values for a ‘simple span’ are taken equal
as an ‘end span’.
The ‘number of anti-sag’ bars used in Tables 10.2a & b concerns the number of LTB restraints defined on the actual mem-
ber. Only LTB restraints at the side of the free flange are accounted for in this ‘number’.
EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2(5) specifies a method for the buckling length in case of a ‘relatively large axial force’. Within SCIA
Engineer this is quantified using a limit value, which is set in the Steel Setup.
In case the axial load is considered as large, the method described in EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2(5) is applied.
This procedure applies to both gravity and uplift loading using Table 10.2a and 10.2b respectively.
Supported sections
I Symmetric I shapes (IPE, HEA, HEB, ….)
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section
CHS Circular Hollow Section
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
PPL Asymmetric I shapes
Z Z section
RS Rectangular section
Σ Cold formed section

COM Composed section in PRIMAWIN
O Solid tube
NUM Numerical section
The necessary data conditions for these sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
- 94 -
The COM and NUM sections are not read out of the profile library.
I RHS CHS L U T PPL RS Z Σ O COM NUM
Classification x x x x x x x x (1) x (1) (1) (1)

Section check class 1 x x x
Section check class 2 x x x
Section check class 3 x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Section check class 4 x x x x x x
Stability check class 1 x x x
Stability check class 2 x x x
Stability check class 3 x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Stability check class 4 x x x x x x
Shear buckling check x x x x
(1) Sections are classified as class 3 cross section by default.
References
Eurocode 3
[1] Part 1 - 1 : General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-1:2005
Eurocode 3
Part 1-3: General rules
[2]
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-3:2006
Eurocode 3
[3]
Part 1.5 : Plated structural elements
EN 1993-1-5 : 2006
R. Maquoi
[4] ELEMENTS DE CONSTRUCTIONS METALLIQUE
Ulg , Faculté des Sciences Appliquées, 1988
- 95 -
Chapter 4
EN 1990
Eurocode – Basis of structural design
[5]
EN 1990:2002 E
Eurocode 3
[6] Part 1 - 2 : General rules - Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-2:2005
Model Code on Fire Engineering

ECCS - N° 111
[7]
May 2001
Eurocode 1
Actions on structures
[8] Part 1-2 : General Actions - Actions on structures exposed to fire
prEN 1991-1-2:2002
Rules for Member Stability in EN 1993-1-1

Background documentation and design guidelines
[9] ECCS - N° 119
2006
Eurocode 3
[10] Part 1 - 1/ A1 : General rules and rules for buildings
ENV 1993-1-1:1992/A1, 1994
Eurocode 3
EN 1993-1-1:2005/AC:2009 Corrigendum
[12] Eurocode 3
- 96 -
Part 1 - 2 : General rules - Structural fire design
Eurocode 3
Part 1-3: General rules
[13]
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
Eurocode 3
[14] Part 1.5 : Plated structural elements
EN 1993-1-5 : 2006/AC:2009 Corrigendum
Essentials of Eurocode 3
Design Manual for Steel Structures in Building
[15]
ECCS - N° 65, 1991
Commentary and Worked Examples to EN 1993- 1- 5 “Plated Structural Ele-

ments”
[16] Johansson B., Maquoi R., Sedlacek G., Müller C., Beg D.,
JRC - ECCS, 2007.
SN001a-EN-EU
NCCI: Critical axial load for torsional and flexural torsional buckling modes
[17] Access Steel, 2006
www.access-steel.com
AISI S100-2007
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
[18] Members
2007 edition
[19] E. Kahlmeyer
- 97 -
Chapter 4
Stahlbau nach DIN 18 800 (11.90)

Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
[20] Erläuterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
Beuth Verlag, Berlin-Köln 1993
D. Vandepitte
Berekening van Constructies
[21] Boekdeel 1 pp522
www.berekeningvanconstructies.be
Design rule for Lateral Torsional Buckling of Channel Sections

A-2007.9
O-2007.21
[22]
Karin de Louw
2007
EN 12811-1
Temporary works equipment
[23] Part 1: Scaffolds – performance requirements and general design
2004
EN 12810-1
Façade scaffolds made of prefabricated components
[24] Part 1: Products specifications
2004
EN 12810-2
Façade scaffolds made of prefabricated components
[25] Part 2: Particular methods of structural design
2004
[26] DIN 4420 Teil 1
- 98 -
Arbeits- und Schutzgerüste
Allgemeine Regelungen, Sicherheitstechnische Anforderungen, Prüfungen
Dezember 1990
Corrections and amendments to EN 1993-1-3

Meeting of ECCS-TWG 7.5
[27] T. Höglund
2010
Déversement élastique d’une poutre à section bi- symétrique soumise à des

moments d’extrémité et une charge répartie ou concentrée.
[28] Y. Galéa
CTICM, Construction Métallique, n° 2-2002.
Lateral-Torsional buckling of steel beams:

A general expression for the moment gradient factor.
[29] A. López, D. J. Yong, M. A. Serna
Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures, 2006.
SC001a-EN-EU
Code commentary: Collection No. 1
[30]
Access-Steel, 2007.
SN005a-EN-EU
Determination of moments on columns in simple construction
[31]
Access-Steel, 2005.
Steel Building Design

Medium Rise Braced Frames
[32]
SCI PUBLICATION P365.
Target specification Dimensioning Profiles

ZEMAN & CO. GmbH
[33]
Wien, 2006.
- 99 -
Chapter 4
New proposals for EN 1993-1-5, Annex D:

Plate girders with corrugated webs.
[34] H. Pasternak, J. Robra, G. Kubieniec
IABSE-FIB Conference, Dubrovnik, 2010.
Zulassung Nr. Z-8.22-208

Modulsystem "CUPLOK"
[35]
Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik, 2006.

Modulsystem "Layher-Allround"
[36]
Multi-Storey Buildings in Steel

Design Guide for Slim Floors with Built-in Beams
[37]
ECCS N° 83 - 1995
Design Handbook for Braced or Non-Sway

Steel Buildings According to Eurocode 3
[38]
ECCS N° 85 - 1996

Modulsystem "Layher-Allround LW"
[39]
Valorisation Project Semi-Comp+

N° RFS2-CT-2010-00023
[40]
Background Information
22 march 2012
Numerical Methods in Nonlinear Concrete Design
[41] R. Vondráček
Czech Technical University, Prague, 2000
- 100 -
AISC / AISI / ANSI
AISC / AISI / ANSI
AISC – ASD:1989
AISC – ASD:1989
Manual of Steel Construction
Allowable Stress Design
Part 5 : Specification and Codes
AISC, Ninth Edition, 1989
The cross section is classified according to Table B5.1. (compact, non compact, or slender section).
The member is checked on following criteria:
l tension : D1
l compression : E2, E3
l flexural members : F1,F2,F3,F4
l plate girders : G2
l combined forces : H1,H2
A more detailed overview for the used articles of the relevant parts is given in the following table. The chapters marked with
“x” are consulted. The chapters marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation the following chapters.
B. Design requirements
B1. Gross Area x
B2. Net Area (*)
B3. Effective Area
B4. Stability
B5. Local Buckling (*)
1.Classification of Steel Sections x
2.Slender Compression Elements x
B6. Rotational Restraint at Points of Support
B7. Limiting Slenderness Ratios x
B8. Simple Spans
B9. End Restraint
B10. Proportions of Beams and Girders
B11. Proportioning of Crane Girders
D. TENSION MEMBERS
D1. Allowable Stress x (*)
D2. Built-up members
D3. Pin-Connected Members
- 101 -
Chapter 5
E. COLUMN AND OTHER COMPRESSION MEMBERS

E1. Effective Length and Slenderness Ratio x (*)
E2. Allowable Stress x
E3. Flexural-torsional Buckling x (*)
E4. Built-up Members
E5. Pin-Connected Compression Members
E6. Column Web Shear
F. BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS (*)

F1. Allowable Stress : Strong Axis Bending of I-Shaped Members and Channels x
1.Members with Compact Sections x
2.Members with Non-Compact Sections x
3.Members with Compact or Non-Compact Sections with Unbraded Length Greater then Lc x
F2. Allowable Stress : Weak Axis Bending of I-Shaped Members, Solid Bars and Rectangular Plates x
F3. Allowable Stress : Bending of Box Members, Rectangular Tubes and Circular Tubes x
F4. Allowable Shear Stress x
F5. Transverse Stiffeners
F6. Built-up Members
F7. Web-tapered Members
G. PLATE GIRDERS
G1. Web Slenderness Limitations
G2. Allowable Bending Stress x
G3. Allowable Shear Stress with Tension Field Action
G4. Transverse Stiffeners
G5. Combined Shear and Tension Stress
H. COMBINED STRESSES
H1. Axial Compression and Bending x
H2. Axial Tension and Bending x
APPENDIX B. Design requirements

B5. Local Buckling x
Classification of sections
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined..
For each load case / combination, the critical section classification over the member is used to perform the code check.
However, for non-prismatic sections, the section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
- 102 -
AISC / AISI / ANSI
Section properties
The influence of the bore hole is neglected, i.e. only the gross area is used.
Buckling length
For the calculation of the buckling length, we refer to ""Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on page 172".
The buckling properties for a VARH element are calculated by using the critical Euler force for this member (see “"Cal-
culation of critical Euler force for VARH elements" on page 177”).
Flexural Torsional Buckling

The slenderness ratio for flexural torsional buckling (KL/r)e is given by
See Ref. [1], Commentary Chapter E1.

The calculation of Fe is given in Ref. [2], Appendix E.
Lateral-torsional buckling
For I sections and channel sections, the allowable LTB stress is given in F1.
For RHS (Rectangular Hollow Section) sections and CHS (Circular Hollow Section) , the allowable LTB stress is given in
F3.
For angle sections with symmetrical legs, the allowable LTB stress is given in Ref. [1], pp.309-314, “Specification for allow-
able stress - Design of single-angle members”.
For the other supported sections, the elastic critical moment for LTB Mcr is given by
with
E the modulus of elasticity

G the shear modulus
L the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint (= lLTB)
Iw the warping constant
It the torsional constant
Iz the moment of inertia about the minor axis
See also Ref. [4], part 7.

With this moment Mcr, the critical LTB stress σLTB is calculated :
with
- 103 -
Chapter 5
Wy the section modulus about the major axis
The slenderness ratio for LTB λLTB, is given by
The allowable LTB stress is calculated using the slenderness λLTB with the formulas given in Ref.[1], E2.
See also Ref. [5], Bijlage E.

Haunched sections (I+Ivar, Iw+Plvar, Iw+Iwvar, Iw+Ivar, I+Iwvar) and composed rail sections (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail,
I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail) are considered as equivalent asymmetric I sections.
Shear buckling check

Composed rail sections (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail, I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail) are considered as equivalent
asymmetric I sections.
Supported sections
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)
CHS Circular Hollow Section (CHS)
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section

O Solid tube
I RHS CHS L U T PPL RS Σ O COM NUM
Classification x x x x x x x x x (1) (1) (1)

Compact section x x x x x
Non-compact section x x x x x x x x x x x x
Slender section x x x x x x
Shear buckling check x x x
(1) sections are classified as non-compact section by default.
- 104 -
AISC / AISI / ANSI
References
[1] Allowable Stress Design
AISC, Ninth Edition, 1989
[2] Load & Resistance Factor Design
AISC, First Edition, 1986
[3] Load & Resistance Factor Design
AISC, Volume I, Second Edition, 1995
R. Maquoi
NBN B 51-001
[5] Stalen Bouwconstructies
BIN, 5e uitg. April 1977
- 105 -
Chapter 6
AISC – LRFD:2001
AISC - LRFD Code check
AISC – Manual of steel construction
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Part 16 Specifications and Codes
Third Edition
2001
The member is checked on following criteria :
l tension : D1
l compression : E2, E3, Appendix E3
l flexural members : F1,Appendix F1, Appendix F2
l plate girders : Appendix G2, Appendix G3, Appendix G5
l combined forces :H1,H2
B1. Gross Area x
B2. Net Area (*)
B3. Effective Area for Tension Members
B4. Stability
B5. Local Buckling (*)
1.Classification of Steel Sections x
2.Slender Compression Elements x
3.Slender-Element Compression Sections x
B6. Bracing at Support
B7. Limiting Slenderness Ratios x
B8. Simple Spans
B9. End Restraint
B10. Proportions of Beams and Girders
D. TENSION MEMBERS
D1. Design Tensile Strength x (*)
D2. Built-up members
D3. Pin-Connected Members and Eyebars
- 106 -
E. COLUMN AND OTHER COMPRESSION MEMBERS
E1. Effective Length and Slenderness Limitations
x
1.Effective Length
x (*)
2.Design by Plastic Analysis
E2. Design Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling x
E3. Design Compressive Strength for Flexural-Torsional Buckling x
E4. Built-up Members
E5. Pin-Connected Compression Members
F. BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS (*)

F1. Design for Flexure x
1.Yielding x
2.Lateral-Torsional Buckling x
F2. Design for Shear x
F4. Beams and Girders with Web Openings
G. PLATE GIRDERS x
H. MEMBERS UNDER COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION

H1. Symmetric Members Subject to Bending and Axial Force x
H2. Unsymmetric Members and Members under Torsion and Combined Torsion, Flexure, Shear and/or Axial Force x
H3. Alternative Interaction Equation for Members under Combined Stress
APPENDIX B. Design requirements

B5. Local Buckling x
APPENDIX E. COLUMN AND OTHER COMPRESSION MEMBERS

E3. Design Compressive Strength for Flexural-Torsional Buckling x
APPENDIX F. BEAMS AND OTHER FLEXURAL MEMBERS

F1. Design for Flexure x
F2. Design for Shear x
APPENDIX G. PLATE GIRDERS

G1. Limitations
G2. Design Flexural Strength x(*)
G3. Design Shear Strength with Tension Field Action x(*)
G4. Transverse Stiffeners
G5. Flexure-Shear Interaction x(*)
- 107 -
Chapter 6
For each load case/combination, the critical section classification over the member is used to perform the code check.
Section properties
Buckling length
culation of the critical Euler force" on page 177”).
For I sections, channel sections, RHS (Rectangular Hollow Section) sections, T sections, rectangular sections, and asym-
metric I sections, the critical LTB moment is given in F1 and Appendix F1.
For angle sections with symmetrical legs, the critical LTB moment is given in Ref. [1], pp.281-288, “Specification for Load
and Resistance Factor Design of Single-Angle members”.
For the other supported sections, the elastic critical moment for LTB Mcr is given by
with

G the shear modulus
L the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint (= lLTB)
Iw the warping constant
Iz the moment of inertia about the minor axis
See also Ref. [2], part 7.

Use of diaphragms
See Chapter '"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193'.

- 108 -
Supported sections
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section

O Solid tube

(1) sections are classified as non-compact section by default.
References
AISC – Manual of steel construction
Load and Resistance Factor Design
[1]
Third Edition
2001
R. Maquoi
- 109 -
Chapter 7
ANSI/AISC 360-05:2005
ANSI/AISC 360-05 Code check
ANSI/AISC 360-05
Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings
2005
The steel code check can be executed according to either ASD or LRFD provisions.
l tension : Chapter D
l compression : Chapter E
l flexural members :Chapter F
l shear : Chapter G
l combined forces :Chapter H
B2. Loads and Load Combination x
B3. Design Basis
1.Required Strength
2.Limit States
3.Design for Strength using LRFD x
4.Design for Strength using ASD x
B4. Classification of Sections for Local Buckling x
D. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR TENSION

D1. Slenderness Limitation x
D2. Tensile Strength x
D3. Area Determination x(*)
E. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMPRESSION

E1. General Provisions x
E2. Slenderness Limitations and Effective Length x(*)
E3. Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling of members without Slender Elements x
E4. Compressive Strength for Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling of members without Slender Elements x
E7. Members with Slender Elements x
- 110 -
F. DESIGN FOR MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE
F1. General Provisions x
F2. Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about their Major Axis x
F3. Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Noncompact or Slender Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis x
F4. Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Noncompact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis x
F5. Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about Their Major Axis x
F6. I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about Their Minor Axis x
F7. Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-Shaped Members x
F8. Round HSS x
F9. Tees and Double Angle Loaded in Plane of Symmetry x
F10. Single Angle x
F11. Reactangular Bars and Rounds x
F12. Unsymmetrical Shapes
G. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR SHEAR

G1. General Provisions x
G2. Members with Unstiffened or Stiffened Webs x
G4. Single Angles x
G5. Rectangular HSS and Box Members x
G6. Round HSS x
G7. Weak Axis Shear in Singly and Doubly Symmetric Shapes x
H. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION

H1. Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force x
H2. Unsymmetric and Other Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force x
H3. Members Under Torsion and Combined Torsion and Combined Stress x
Section properties
Buckling length
culation of the critical Euler force" on page 177”).
- 111 -
Chapter 7
Use of diaphragms
See Chapter "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.

Supported sections
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
O Solid tube

Shear buckling check x x x x x x
(1) Sections are classified as non-compact section by default.
References
ANSI/AISC 360-05
[1] Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings
2005
- 112 -
ANSI/AISC 360-10:2010
ANSI/AISC 360-10 Code check
ANSI/AISC 360-00
2010, Second printing 2012.
The steel code check can be executed according to either ASD or LRFD provisions.
The cross section is classified according to Table B4.1a. for axial compression and Table B4.1b. for flexure.
l Tension : Chapter D
l Compression : Chapter E
l Flexural members :Chapter F
l Shear : Chapter G
l Combined forces :Chapter H
B2. Loads and Load Combination x
B3. Design Basis
1.Required Strength
2.Limit States
3.Design for Strength using LRFD x
4.Design for Strength using ASD x
B4. Member Properties
1. Classification of Sections for Local Buckling
2. Design Wall Thickness for HSS x
3. Gross and Net Area Determination
D. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR TENSION

D1. Slenderness Limitation x
D2. Tensile Strength x
D3. Effective Net Area x(*)
E. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMPRESSION

E1. General Provisions x
E2. Effective Length x(*)
E3. Flexural Buckling of Members without Slender Elements x
E4. Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Members without Slender x
- 113 -
Chapter 8
Elements
E7. Members with Slender Elements x
F. DESIGN FOR MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE

F1. General Provisions x
F2. Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent About Their Major Axis x
F3. Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Noncompact or Slender Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis x
F4. Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Noncompact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis x
F5. Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about Their Major Axis x
F6. I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about Their Minor Axis x
F7. Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-Shaped Members x
F8. Round HSS x
F9. Tees and Double Angle Loaded in Plane of Symmetry x
F10. Single Angle x
F11. Rectangular Bars and Rounds x
F12. Unsymmetrical Shapes
G. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR SHEAR

G1. General Provisions x
G2. Members with Unstiffened or Stiffened Webs x
G4. Single Angles x
G5. Rectangular HSS and Box Members x
G6. Round HSS x
G7. Weak Axis Shear in Singly and Doubly Symmetric Shapes x
H. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION

H1. Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force x
H2. Unsymmetric and Other Members Subject to Flexure and Axial Force x
H3. Members Subject to Torsion and Combined Torsion, Flexure, Shear and/or Axial Force x
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined.
Section properties
Buckling length
culation of critical Euler force for VARH elements" on page 177”).
- 114 -
Use of diaphragms
See Chapter "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.

Supported sections
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
O Solid tube
I RHS CHS L U T PPL S Σ O COM NUM

Shear buckling check x x x x x x
(1) Sections are classified as non-compact / non-slender section by default.
- 115 -
Chapter 8
References
ANSI/AISC 360-10
[1]
2005 , 2nd Printing February 2012
Comparison Of ANSI/AISC 360-10 To ANSI/AISC 360-05

E. Bolin and T. Dehlin
[2]
www.aisc.org
Design Examples version 14.1

[3] www.aisc.org
2011
- 116 -
AISI NAS S100-2007
AISI NAS S100-2007 Code check
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in:
AISI S100-2007
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
2007 edition
AISI S100-07-E1
Errata to North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
2007 edition
February 20, 2008
Amended September 25, 2008
Amended June 4, 2009
AISI S100-07/S1-09
Supplement No. 1 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edi-
tion
August, 2009
AISI S100-07/S2-10
Supplement No. 2 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edi-
tion
February, 2010
The steel code check is supported for the United States provisions and can be executed according to either ASD or LRFD
principles. The Canadian LSD method is not supported.
Consulted articles
An overview for the used articles is given in the following table. The articles marked with “x” are consulted. The articles
Article Title
A General Provisions
A4 Allowable Strength Design X
A5 Load and resistance Factor Design X
B Elements
- 117 -
Chapter 9
Article Title
B1 Dimensional Limits and Considerations X(*)
B2 Effective Widths of Stiffened Elements
B2.1 Uniformly Compressed Stiffened Elements X(*)
B2.3 Webs and Other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient X(*)
Effective Widths of Unstiffened Elements

X(*)
B3 B3.1 uniformly Compressed Unstiffened Elements
X(*)
B3.2 Unstiffened Elements and Edge Stiffeners with Stress Gradient
X(*)
B4 Effective Width of Uniformly Compressed Elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener
C Members
C1 Properties of Sections X(*)
C2 Tension Members X(*)
C3 Flexural members
C3.1 Bending
C3.1.1 Nominal Section Strength X(*)
C3.1.2 Lateral-Torsional Buckling Strength X(*)
C3.1.3 Flexural Strength of Closed Cylindrical Tubular Members X(*)
C3.1.4 Distortional Buckling Strength X(*)

C3.2 Shear
C3.2.1 Shear Strength of Webs without Holes X(*)
C3.3 Combined Bending and Shear X(*)

C3.4 Web Crippling
C3.4.1 Web Crippling Strength of Webs without Holes X(*)
C3.5 Combined Bending and Web Crippling X(*)

C3.6 Combined Bending and Torsional Loading X(*)
C4 Concentrically Loaded Compression Members
X(*)
C4.1 Nominal Strength for Yielding, Flexural, Flexural-Torsional and Torsional Buckling
C4.2 Distortional Buckling Strength

X(*)
Combined Axial Load and Bending
C5 C5.1 Combined Tensile Axial Load and Bending X
C5.2 Combined Compressive Axial Load and Bending X(*)
D Structural Assemblies and Systems

D6 Metal Roof and Wall Systems
- 118 -
Article Title
D6.1 Purlins, Girts and Other Members X(*)
D6.1.1 Flexural Members Having One Flange Through-Fastened to Deck of Sheeting
D6.1.3 Compression Members Having One Flange Through-Fastened to Deck of Sheeting X(*)
Second-Order Analysis
Appendix 2
2.1 General requirements X(*)
Haunches, arbitrary members and cross-sections without initial shapes are not supported
for the AISI NAS S100-2007 code check. In this case the default AISC 2005 code check is
executed.
Initial Shape
For a cross-section with material Steel and fabrication set to Cold-Formed, the Initial Shape can be defined.


RUO reinforcement types can be set only to elements of type SO or UO.

The initial shape is supported for the following cross-section types:
l Standard profile library cross-sections

l Cold formed Pair cross-sections of profile library sections
l General thin-walled sections
l General sections with thin-walled representation
l Thin-walled geometric sections
l All other sections which support the centerline and do not have roundings
parts.
- 119 -
Chapter 9
Dimensional limits
Dimensional limits are supported according to article B1.1 and B1.2.
Article B1.1 (a) (1) for a simple lip is checked for an internal element (I) connected to a stiffener (RUO).
Article B1.1 (a) (2) is checked for an internal element (I).
Article B1.1 (a) (3) is checked for an outstand element (UO or SO).
Articles B1.1 (b) concerning flange curling and (c) concerning shear lag effects are not supported.
Article B1.2 (a) is checked for web elements under stress gradient. Webs are defined as elements perpendicular (tol-
erance +/-45°) to the axis of bending.
Effective Widths
Uniformly Compressed Stiffened elements
The effective width of Uniformly Compressed Stiffened elements is calculated according to article B2.1 (a) Strength
Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type I with stress gradient ψ = 1
Serviceability Determination is not supported.
Webs and Other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient
The effective width of Webs and Other Stiffened elements under stress gradient is calculated according to article B2.3 (a)
Strength Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type I with stress gradient ψ ≠ 1
Uniformly Compressed Unstiffened elements
The effective width of Uniformly Compressed Unstiffened elements is calculated according to article B3.1 (a) Strength
Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type SO or UO (with or without reinforcement type RUO) with stress gradient ψ
=1
Unstiffened elements and Edge Stiffeners with Stress Gradient
The effective width of Unstiffened elements and Edge Stiffeners with Stress Gradient is calculated according to article B3.2
(a) Strength Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type SO or UO (with or without reinforcement type RUO) with stress gradient ψ
≠1
The alternative methods for unstiffened C-sections are not supported.
Effective width of Uniformly Compressed elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener
The effective width of Uniformly Compressed elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener is calculated according to article B4
(a) Strength Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type I with stress gradient ψ = 1 which are connected to a fixed element (round-
ing) which in turn is connected to an element of type UO or SO with reinforcement type RUO.
- 120 -
Effective section properties can never be bigger than gross section properties (for example
in case of manually inputted gross section properties which have been rounded down).
Properties of Sections
Deductions for holes, openings and cut-outs are not supported.
Tension Members
The tensile strength is determined according to article C2.
For yielding in the gross section:
For rupture in the net section:
with
Fy Yield strength
Fu Tensile strength
Ag Gross area of cross-section
An Net area of cross-section
Since deductions for holes, openings … are not supported An = Ag.
Flexural Members
Nominal Section Strength
The nominal section strength is determined according to article C3.1.1. More specifically Procedure I - Based on Initiation of
Yielding is applied.
Lateral Torsional Buckling Open Section
The Lateral Torsional Buckling strength for open sections is determined according to article C3.1.2.1 (a).
For diaphragms reference is made to "Diaphragm on the compression flange" on page 132.
The simplified formulas of article C3.1.2.1 (b) are not supported.
Doubly symmetric sections

For Doubly symmetric sections formula (C3.1.2.1-4) is used for either axis.
This applies to the following form codes:
- 121 -
Chapter 9
1 (Symmetric I shape)
7 (Rectangular section)
11 (Solid tube)
In addition this applies to the cold formed pair sections 2CFUo, 2CFUc, 2CFCo, 2CFCc
Formula (C3.1.2.1-4) is rewritten as follows:
Remarks:
l For x-x bending the LTB length is used instead of the effective length KyLy.
l For y-y bending Kx is taken as the buckling ratio about the x-axis and Lx the system length for buckling about the x-axis.
l The equation for r0 is expanded to allow any type of cross-section:
l Cb for x-x bending is calculated according to formula (C3.1.2.1-6)

l Cb for y-y bending is taken as unity.
Point symmetric sections

For Point symmetric sections formula (C3.1.2.1-5) is used for either axis.
102 (Z section)
113 (Cold formed Z section)
118 (Cold formed ZED section)
119 (Cold formed ZED section asymmetrical lips)
120 (Cold formed ZED section inclined lip)
126 (Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined)
Formula (C3.1.2.1-5) is rewritten as follows:
- 122 -
The same remarks are valid as for doubly symmetric sections.
Singly symmetric sections

For Singly symmetric sections formula (C3.1.2.1-4) is used for bending about the x-x axis and formula (C3.1.2.1-10) for
bending about the y-y axis.
5 (Channel section)
112 (Cold formed Channel section)
114 (Cold formed C section)
117 (Cold formed C-Plus section)
121 (Cold formed Sigma section)
122 (Cold formed Sigma section stiffened)
123 (Cold formed Sigma-Plus section)
Formulas (C3.1.2.1-4) and (C3.1.2.1-10) are written as follows:
The same remarks are valid as for doubly symmetric sections.

The parameter j is calculated using the formula for C-sections given in Ref. [4].
Other section types

All other cross-sections which are not covered by the previous paragraphs are considered to be doubly symmetric, except
for the following form codes:
2 (Rectangular Hollow Section)
3 (Circular Hollow Section)
Lateral Torsional Buckling Box Section
The Lateral Torsional Buckling strength for box sections is determined according to article C3.1.2.2.
- 123 -
Chapter 9
This applies to the following form code:

In addition this applies to the cold formed pair sections 2CFUc and 2CFCc with distance a = 0 mm
Formulas (C3.1.2.2-1) and (C3.1.2.2-2) are rewritten as follows:
The same remarks are valid as for open doubly symmetric sections.
Flexural Strength Closed Cylindrical Tubular members
The Flexural Strength of Closed Cylindrical Tubular members is determined according to article C3.1.3.
In case the diameter to thickness ratio D/t exceeds the limit 0,441 E/Fy the check is not
executed and a warning is issued on the output.
Distortional Buckling Strength

For both bending axis the distortional buckling strength is determined according to article C3.1.4. More specifically the gen-
eral Procedure (a) is followed using formula (C3.1.4-6).
The check is executed in case the following conditions are met:
l The cross-section has at least one element with reinforcement type RUO
l For the given bending moment in the section, at least one of these elements is in compression
More specifically this implies that, if the stiffener is in compression distortional buckling can occur (even if the flange itself is
partially in tension). This is in accordance with the distortional buckling shapes for weak axis bending of typical C-sections
obtained using numerical analysis Ref. [9].
Remarks:
l The unbraced length Lm is taken as the LTB length and this for both bending axis.
l In case a diaphragm is positioned on the compression side and the diaphragm provides full bracing, the member is
regarded as continuously restrained and Lm = Lcr.
l The rotational stiffness of the restraining element is by default taken as zero.
In case a diaphragm is located on the compression side, is taken as the rotational stiffness vorhCθ of the dia-
phragm.
- 124 -
l For calculating the compression flange properties, the default SCIA Engineer axis convention is used (x-y axis system loc-
ated at the centroid of the flange, with the x-axis measured positive to the right from the centroid and the y-axis positive up
from the centroid)
l The elastic section modulus of the full unreduced section relative to the extreme fiber in first yield Sfy is taken as Sfy,x for
x-x bending and Sfy,y for y-y bending.
l In determining the stress gradient in the web, pure symmetrical bending is assumed. This implies that for x-x bend-
ing this parameter equals 2 and for y-y bending this parameter equals zero.
l The distance b0 for a standard profile library section is taken as the width property. For a general section this is taken as
the summation of the Internal (I) parts of the flange.
l The distance h0 for a standard profile library section is taken as the height property. For a Sigma section (Form Code 121
– 125) this is taken as the (full) height property. For a general section this is taken as the maximal height of the ‘web’ ele-
ments.
Web elements are defined as elements with an angle > 45° to the horizontal axis.
l When there is no ‘web’ element (i.e. CHS section ), distortional buckling is not checked.
l Flanges are defined as elements with angle < 45° to the horizontal axis.
l Connected flange elements which have a relative angle > 135° are accounted for as ‘one’ flange for distortional buckling.
l For cross-sections with roundings, the flange/web junction is taken to be at the intersection between the flange/web
rounding and the flat part of the flange.
l The thickness t is taken as the smallest thickness of the cross-section elements.
l For Omega sections (Form Code 115) the top flange is not seen as flange for distortional buckling.
Shear
The shear strength is determined according to article C3.2.1.
In the calculation of Aw only elements with element types I, UO and SO are accounted for. In addition, elements with rein-
forcement type ROU are not accounted for.
For each element i the shear area Aw,i is calculated as follows:
With:
i The number (ID) of the element.

xend End position of element i .
xbeg Begin position of element i.
t Thickness of element i.
α Angle of element i to the horizontal x-x axis
In addition, for each element i the nominal shear stress Fv,i is calculated.
The shear strength of the element then becomes Vn,i = Aw,i * Fv,i
The nominal shear strength Vn for the cross section is taken as the sum of the Vn,i of the related elements.
Transverse stiffeners are not supported, therefore the shear buckling coefficient kv is taken as 5,34.
- 125 -
Chapter 9
AISI NAS S100-2007 does not give provisions to calculate the shear resistance for circular
hollow sections (Form Code 3). Therefore the default AISC 2005 provisions are used in
this case.
Combined Bending and Shear

The combined bending and shear check is determined according to articles C3.3.1 and C3.3.2.
Transverse stiffeners are not supported; therefore the equations for unreinforced webs are used.
Web Crippling Strength
The web crippling strength is determined according to article C3.4.1.
More specifically the general equation (C3.4.1-1) is applied.
The alternative given in equation (C3.4.1-2) is not supported.
The web crippling check is executed on the positions where there is a jump in the Vy shear force diagram.
Remarks:
l The shear force diagram of both the actual member as well as adjacent members is evaluated. Adjacent members are
defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
l The angle θ between the plane of the web and the plane of the bearing surface is taken as 90°.
l The Flange Conditions depend on the definition of the initial shape. In case there is an element with reinforcement type
ROU the setting is taken as ‘Stiffened or Partially Stiffened Flanges’.
l The distances for One-flange/Two-flange and End/Interior are evaluated taking into account adjacent members. Adja-
cent members are defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
The following paragraphs specify the supported cross-section types.
Built-Up Sections
For built-up sections table C3.4.1-1 is used.
This applies to cold formed pair sections 2CFUo and 2CFCo with distance a = 0 mm and the following form codes:
127 (Cold formed I-Plus section)
128 (Cold formed IS-Plus section)
130 (Cold formed 2C section)
Since these pair sections consist of two webs the resistance of the full section is obtained by adding the values of each web.
Single Web Channel and C-Sections

For single web channel and C-sections table C3.4.1-2 is used.
5 (Channel section)
116 (Cold formed C section eaves beam)
- 126 -
In addition this applies to the following pair sections:
2CFUc and 2CFCc
2CFUo and 2CFCo with distance a > 0 mm
Since the pair sections consist of two webs the resistance of the full section is obtained by adding the values of each web.
Single Web Z-Sections

For single web Z-sections table C3.4.1-3 is used.
102 (Z section)
Single Hat Sections

For single hat sections table C3.4.1-4 is used.
115 (Cold formed Omega section)
Since these sections consist of two webs the resistance of the full section is obtained by adding the values of each web.
Other Sections
For any other cross-section types as those listed in the previous paragraphs no web crippling check is executed.
In addition table C3.4.1-5 is not supported.
Combined Bending and Web Crippling
The combined bending and web crippling check is determined according to articles C3.5.1 and C3.5.2.
Requirement (a) is applied to the following form codes/sections:
5 (Channel section)
116 (Cold formed C section eaves beam)
102 (Z section)
- 127 -
Chapter 9

115 (Cold formed Omega section)
2CFUc and 2CFCc
2CFUo and 2CFCo with distance a > 0 mm
Requirement (b) is applied to the following form codes/sections:

2CFUo and 2CFCo with distance a = 0 mm
Requirement (c) is applied to the following form codes/sections in case the check is executed within a lapped zone:
102 (Z section)
Remarks:
l The exception given for requirement (a) is not supported.

l In case a lapped Z section does not meet the limits for requirement (c) the provisions of requirement (a) are applied
instead.
l For requirement (c) it is assumed that conditions (1), (2), (3) & (4) are fulfilled.
Combined Bending and Torsion

Combined bending and torsion loading is evaluated according to article C3.6.
In each fiber of the cross-section the bending stresses Sigma Mx and Sigma My are calculated. These stresses are based
on the effective cross-sectional properties and calculated in the fibers of the gross cross-section.
In addition, in each fiber the shear stress due to torsion Tau t is calculated based on gross section properties.
Using these stresses, the R factor is calculated according to equation (C3.6-1) using the following expressions:
f bending = Sigma Mx + Sigma My

f torsion = Tau t
f bending + f torsion = (composed stress)

The critical fiber is taken as the fiber with the biggest composed stress.
The increase of the R factor in case of C-sections is not supported.
- 128 -
For diaphragms reference is made to “"Diaphragm on the compression flange" on page 132”.
Compression Members
Nominal axial strength
The nominal axial strength is determined according to article C4.1 using Fn = Fy.
Flexural Buckling
The stress Fe for flexural buckling is determined according to article C4.1.1.
For the calculation of the effective length factor, reference is made to “"Calculation buckling ratio – general formula" on
page 172”.
In case an LTB restraint of type ‘Both’ is inputted, it specifies that both the top and bottom
flange are held into position. As such, this point is seen as a fixed point for weak axis buck-
ling.
This implies that the system length Ly is taken between the LTB restraints of type ‘Both’ and
the member ends. In addition the effective length factor ky is set to 1,00.

The stress Fe for torsional (-flexural) buckling is determined according to the general method given in Ref. [7].
Doubly symmetric and hollow sections are taken as not subject to torsional (-flexural) buckling.
1 (Symmetric I shape)
For any other section the stress Fe is taken as the smallest of Sigma,t and Sigma,TF
Sigma,t = Ncr,T / Ag
Sigma,TF = Ncr,TF / Ag
With:

Ncr,TF Critical axial load for torsional-flexural buckling
Ag Gross section area
Determination of Ncr,T
- 129 -
Chapter 9
With:
E Modulus of Young
G Shear modulus
J Torsion constant
Cw Warping constant
x0 and y0 Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
rx radius of gyration about the x-x axis
ry radius of gyration about the y-y axis
Determination of Ncr,TF
0
With:
Ncr,x Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the x-x axis
The smallest value of Fe (flexural, torsional and torsional-flexural buckling) is used for calculating Fn according to article
C4.1.
Closed Cylindrical Tubular sections
The axial strength for closed cylindrical tubular sections is determined according to article C4.1.5.
In case the diameter to thickness ratio D/t exceeds the limit 0,441 E/Fy the check is not
executed and a warning is issued on the output.
Distortional Buckling Strength

The distortional buckling strength is determined according to article C4.2. More specifically the general Procedure (a) is fol-
lowed using formula (C4.2-6).
The check is executed in case the cross-section has at least one element with reinforcement type RUO.
Remarks:
- 130 -
l The same remarks are valid as for distortional buckling of flexural members.
l The elastic distortional buckling stress Fd is determined for each flange separately. The minimal Fd is taken as the limiting
value of the cross-section.
Because of this separate determination, a diaphragm on only one flange is accounted for in the Fd calculation of
that specific flange.
In addition, this procedure allows stiffened flanges of unequal dimensions.
For diaphragms reference is made to “"Diaphragm on the compression flange" on the next page”.
Combined Compression and Bending

The combined compression and bending check is executed according to article C5.2.
The shifts ex and ey of the neutral axis are determined for the required compressive axial strength. The additional moments
due to these shifts are then calculated by multiplying the required compressive axial strength with these respective shifts.
The special provisions for angle sections apply for the following form codes:
4 (Angle section)
111 (Cold formed Angle section)
In case of 2nd order analysis, reference is made to “"2nd Order using Appendix 2" on page 134”.
Use of diaphragms
Diaphragms are used specifically in conjunction with article D6.1 concerning purlin and girt design.
The lateral stiffness S for a diaphragm is calculated as follows in case the bolt pitch of the diaphragm is set as ‘br’: (Ref.
[11],3.5 and Ref.[12],3.3.4.):
With:
a Frame distance
Ls Diaphragm length
K1 Diaphragm stiffness factor K1
K2 Diaphragm stiffness factor K2
For a bolt pitch of ‘2br’ the shear stiffness S is replaced by 0,2 S (Ref.[11] p22).
For the rotational stiffness vorhCθ of a diaphragm reference is made to “"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193”.
The available lateral strength S is compared to the required lateral strength Serf Ref.[8]:
With:
- 131 -
Chapter 9
E Modulus of Young
CW Warping constant of the purlin
L LTB length of the purlin
G Shear modulus
J Torsion constant of the purlin
Iy Second moment or area about the y-y axis of the purlin
h Height of the purlin
In case the available lateral strength S is higher than or equal to the required strength Serf , the diaphragm is providing suf-
ficient stiffness and the purlin is seen as fully braced.
In case the available lateral strength S is lower than the required strength Serf , the diaphragm is not providing sufficient stiff-
ness and the purlin is seen as inadequately braced.
The influence of a diaphragm on different checks (bending, compression and torsion) is outlined in the following overview.
Bending
Diaphragm on the compression flange

The lateral stiffness S is calculated and compared to the required stiffness Serf .
In case S ≥ Serf the member is taken as fully braced.
As a result no LTB check is required for bending about the x-x axis.
Distortional buckling still needs to be checked. For distortional buckling is taken as vorhCθ.
See Ref. [2] pp 47 “Since the distortional buckling has an intermediate buckling half
wavelength; the distortional buckling still needs to be considered even for braced mem-
bers.”
In case S < Serf the member is seen as inadequately braced.
As a result the LTB check for bending about the x- x axis is executed using the augmented torsional stiffness J.
Reference is made to “"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193”.
Distortional buckling still needs to be checked. For distortional buckling is taken as vorhCθ.
Diaphragm on the tension flange

In case S ≥ Serf the member is taken as fully braced on the tension flange.
In this case article D6.1.1 is applied.

As a result no LTB check is required for bending about the x-x axis.
In addition, no distortional buckling check is required.
In case S < Serf or in case the limits of article D6.1.1 are not met, the member is seen as inadequately braced.
- 132 -
As a result the LTB check for bending about the x-x axis is executed by default, without an increased torsional stiffness J.
In addition distortional buckling is checked taking as zero.
Compression
Diaphragm on one flange

In case S ≥ Serf the member is taken as fully braced.
In this case article D6.1.3 is applied.

As a result no distortional buckling check is required.
In case S < Serf or in case the limits of article D6.1.3 are not met, the member is seen as inadequately braced .
As a result the default compression checks are executed.
In addition distortional buckling will be checked taking as zero.
Diaphragm on both flanges

In this case the specifications of the previous step apply using the largest lateral stiffness S of both diaphragms.
Torsion
Diaphragm on any flange

In case S ≥ Serf the member is taken as fully braced against torsion.
In this case the reduction due to torsion is not applied.

In case S < Serf , the member is taken as inadequately braced.
As a result the reduction for torsion is determined by default.

Flexural members having one flange through-fastened to sheeting
The nominal flexural strength is determined according to article D6.1.1.
This article is only applied in case the following conditions are met:
l The member is in bending about the x-x axis

l The diaphragm is located on the tension flange
l The diagram is through fastened
l The lateral stiffness S ≥ Serf
l The conditions for article D6.1.1 are met
Remarks:
l The article is only valid for C and Z sections with edge stiffeners (i.e. elements with reinforcement type ROU).
114 (Cold formed C-section)
116 (Cold formed C-section eaves beam)
- 133 -
Chapter 9

119 (Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips)
l For determining the R factor a difference is made between simple span and continuous spans. This difference is based
on the system length Lx.
When the member under consideration has only one part for Lx it is taken as simple span. When the member has more
parts for Lx it is taken as continuous span.
l The article is not applied for cantilevers. A cantilever is defined as a member at the end of a buckling system which has
free ends for both buckling about the x-x and y-y axis.
l In addition, the article is not applied for continuous beams in the region between inflection points adjacent to a support.
l It is assumed that conditions (8), (9), (10), (11), (12) & (13) are fulfilled.
l The correction factor r for compressed insulation is not supported.
Compression members with one flange through-fastened to sheeting

The compressive strength is determined according to article D6.1.3.
This article is only applied in case the following conditions are met:
l The member is in compression

l The diaphragm is located on one or both flanges
l The diagram is through fastened
l The lateral stiffness S ≥ Serf
l The conditions for article D6.1.3 are met
Remarks:
l The article is only valid for C and Z sections with edge stiffeners (i.e. elements with reinforcement type ROU).
114 (Cold formed C-section)
116 (Cold formed C-section eaves beam)
119 (Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips)
l The fastener distance x is taken as 0,5.
l It is assumed that conditions (7) & (8) are fulfilled.
2nd Order using Appendix 2

In case the proper setting is activated in the steel setup, the provisions according to article 2.1 of Appendix 2 are applied.
More specifically, when the check is executed for a non-linear combination the following changes are applied:
l Effective length factor Kx is set to 1,00

l Effective length factor Ky is set to 1,00
l αx for article C5.2 is taken as 1,00
l αy for article C5.2 is taken as 1,00
l Cmx for article C5.2 is taken as 1,00
l Cmy for article C5.2 is taken as 1,00
- 134 -
Article 2.2 of Appendix 2 is not supported.
Lapped Purlin Design

For the analysis, the purlin line is considered prismatic i.e. the increased stiffness due to the doubled cross-section within the
lap is ignored Ref.[5].
Since the lap length is defined along the member axis, it is important to specify a suf-
ficient ‘number of sections on average member’ in the Solver Setup when using overlaps.
Combined Strength
The strength within the lapped zones is taken as the sum of the strengths of the individual members Ref.[4].
The use of the combined strength of the individual members is applied for the following checks:
l Nominal Bending Check

l Shear Check
l Combined Bending and Shear Check
l Web crippling Check
l Combined Bending and Web Crippling Check
l Bending – Distortional Buckling Check
For distortional buckling, the distortional buckling stress Fd is calculated for the critical flange i.e. the flange resulting in the
lowest Fd value.
The following equations are then used:
Mcrd = (Sfsection 1 + Sfsection 2) * Fd
My = (Sfysection 1 + Sfysection 2) * Fy
Special considerations for Lateral Torsional Buckling

Within a lapped zone, at the bottom flange the LTB check depends on the Bottom flange fully braced setting within the Over-
lap data.
In case this setting is activated it implies the bottom flange within the lapped zone is fully fixed and thus no LTB occurs.
This has the following implications:
l Within the lapped zone, in case the bottom flange is in compression, no LTB check is executed.
l Outside of the lapped zone the LTB length is taken to the end of the lap.
Diaphragm on the tension flange

In case the following conditions are met:
l Diaphragm on the top flange which provides full bracing

l Setting Bottom flange fully braced activated in the overlap data
l The top flange is in tension
By default it would imply article D6.1.1 should be applied however this article is only valid in case the compression flange is
free. Since in this case the compression flange is fully braced this article is not applied and the nominal bending strength is
used.
- 135 -
Chapter 9
References
AISI S100-2007
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
[1]
Members
2007 edition
AISI S100-2007-C
Commentary on North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
[2]
Steel Structural Members
2007 edition
AISI S100-07-E1
Errata to North American Specification for the Design of Cold- Formed Steel
Structural Members
[3] 2007 edition

February 20, 2008
Amended September 25, 2008
Amended June 4, 2009
AISI SG03-2
[4] Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual
2002 edition
G. J. Hancock, T. M. Murray, D. S. Ellifritt
[5] Cold-Formed Steel Structures to the AISI Specification
Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2001
A Gerhsi, R. Landolfo, F.M. Mazzolani
[6] Design of Metallic cold formed thin-walled members
Spon Press, London, UK, 2002
SN001a-EN-EU
NCCI: Critical axial load for torsional and flexural torsional buckling modes
[7]
Access Steel, 2006
www.access-steel.com
EN 1993-1-3:2006
Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures
[8] Part 1-3: General rules - Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and
sheeting
CEN, 2006
Schafer, B.W., Ádány, S.
[9]
Buckling analysis of cold-formed steel members using CUFSM: conventional and
- 136 -
constrained finite strip methods.
Eighteenth International Specialty Conference on Cold- Formed Steel Struc-
tures,
Orlando, FL. October 2006.
J. Schikowski
Stabilisierung von Hallenbauten unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der
[10]
Scheibenwirkung von Trapez- und Sandwichelementdeckungen, 1999
http://www.jschik.de/
E. Kahlmeyer
[11] Stahlbau nach DIN 18 800 (11.90)
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
[12]
Erläuterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
AISI S100-07/S1-09
Supplement No. 1 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-
[13]
Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edition
August, 2009
AISI S100-07/S2-10
Supplement No. 2 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-
[14]
Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edition
February, 2010
- 137 -
Chapter 10
ABNT NBR 8800

The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in :
ABNT NBR 8800
Design of Steel and Composite structures for buildings
2008
Consulted articles
The following list indicates the supported articles for this code check:
Item 5.1.2.1 cross section classification
Included sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections, I_monosymetric for both cases of fabrication: welded and hot
rolled.
The routine is doing the classification for Compression and bending. The classification is done according to tables F.1 and
G.1
Double angles and other built-up sections are not supported.
Item 5.2 – Members subjected to tension
Fully covered for sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections, I_monossymetric for both cases of fabrication: welded
and hot rolled.
Item 5.2.4 -> calculation considering Net area (reduction by holes) is considered using a % of reduction.
Item 5.2.5 - > Ct factor must be entered manually.
Item 5.2.8 Slenderness check fully covered
Double angles and other built-up sections are not supported.
Item 5.3 – Members subjected to compression
Item 5.3.2 - > Fully covered
Item 5.3.3 - Fully covered for sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections for both cases of fabrication: welded and hot
rolled.
Item 5.3.4 - > Slenderness check - Fully covered
Annex E – Elastic buckling Load
Section E.1.1 – Doubly symmetric sections and point symmetric sections.

Fully covered for sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections for both cases of fabrication: welded and hot rolled.
Section E.1.2 – Monosymmetric sections

Fully covered for sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections for both cases of fabrication: welded and hot rolled.
- 138 -
ABNT NBR 8800
Section E.1.3 – Not covered
Section E.1.4 – Angles
Section E.1.4.1 - Fully covered
Section E.1.4.2 - covered considering that the angles will be always connected through the
larger leg and that they work in plane truss.
Section E.1.4.3 – not covered
Section E.1.4.4 – not covered

Annex F – Local buckling factor
Sections F2 a) to F2 d) fully covered – Local buckling of unstiffened elements
Section F.3.1 – Fully covered
Section F.4 – Fully covered

Item 5.4.1 & 2 – Bending
Item 5.4.1.1
The Following Cross Sections are supported:
- I, H doubly symmetric sections bent about major and minor axis
- I, H single Symmetric sections bent about major axis
- U Sections bent about major and minor axis
- T-Sections bent about axis perpendicular to Web
- Box and rectangular hollow sections doubly symmetric bent about one of the symmetry axis
- Solid circular and rectangular sections bent about any central axis
- Circular tubes bent about any axis that passes through the centroid
Item 5.4.2.1 – Fully covered
Item 5.4.2.3 –Cb factor must be entered manually
Item 5.4.2.4 – same as 5.4.2.3
Item 5.4.2.5 – not covered
Annex G – Fully covered for section types listed above
Annex H – (web slender) - Fully covered
- 139 -
Chapter 10
Item 5.4.3 – Shear

Item 5.4.3.4 – Not covered
Item 5.5 – Members subjected to combined forces
Item 5.5.1 – Bending moment, normal and shear forces
Item 5.5.1.2 a) and b) – Fully covered
Item 5.5.2 Torsion, normal, bending and shear forces
- 5.5.2.1 Circular and rectangular hollow sections subjected to torsion only – fully covered
- 5.5.2.2 Circular and rectangular hollow sections subjected to torsion, normal, bending, and shear
forces – fully covered
- 5.5.2.3 - not covered
References
ABNT NBR 8800
[1] Design of Steel and Composite structures for buildings
2008
- 140 -
ABNT NBR 14762
ABNT NBR 14762

The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in :
ABNT NBR 14762
Design of cold-formed steel structures
2010
Consulted articles NBR 14762

The following list indicates the supported articles for this code check:
9.1.2 - maximum W/t ratios
9.2 Local buckling ( for validated cross sections only, U, C, UE, ZE, HAT, L)
9.2.2 Effective width of AA and AL elements
9.2.2.1 Resistance
9.2.3 Effective width of elements under uniform compression with edge stiffener
9.2.3.1 Resistance
9.6 Design for tension ( for validated cross sections only, U, C, UE, ZE, HAT, L)
9.7 Design for compression ( for validated cross sections only, U, C, UE, ZE, HAT, L)
9.7.2 Global buckling for flexure, torsion or flexural-torsional
9.7.2.1 Section with double symmetry and point symmetrical
9.7.2.2 Single symmetric sections
9.7.2.3 Non-symmetric sections
9.7.3 Distortional buckling
9.8 Section under flexure ( for validated cross sections only, U, C, UE, ZE, HAT, L)
9.8.2.1 Yielding of effective area
9.8.2.2 Lateral torsional buckling
9.8.2.3 Distortional buckling
9.8.3 Shear ( for validated cross sections only, U, C, UE, ZE, HAT, L)
9.8.4 Combined bending and shear forces
9.9 Combined bending and axial forces
ANNEX E - Elastic LTB Moment, for single symmetric sections bent about axis perpendicular to symmetry
axis
Design of built-up sections ( double angle, double channel, double I)
- 141 -
Chapter 10
References
ABNT NBR 14762
[1] Design of cold-formed steel structures
2010
- 142 -
SIA263:2013
SIA263:2013
SIA263 Code check

SIA263
Construction en acier
SIA263:2013
Material properties
The most common steel grades are used in SIA263. Their mechanical properties are described in table 1 SIA263. The fol-
lowing table gives the yield strength for each type of grade commonly used in function of the nominal web thickness:
t<=40 t<=40 40<t<=100 40<t<=100

fy fu fy fu
S235
235 360 215 340
S 235
S275
275 430 255 410
S 275
S355
355 510 335 490
S 355
S460
460 550 430 530
S 460
Consulted articles
The classification described in SIA263 is based on the calculation method. The calculation method in SIA263 distinguishes
the method used respectively to determine the internal forces and to perform the section and the stability check.
A parallel can be made between the calculation method of SIA263 and the section classification proposed in EN 1993.
According to SIA263 Table 5a-5b , cross sections are classified in 4 types:
l PP (plastic-plastic) or class 1
l EP (elastic-plastic) or class 2
l EE (elastic-elastic) or class 3
l EER (elastic-elastic reduced) or class 4
The first letter of the classification denomination is related to the method used to calculate internal forces in the structure.
The second letter indicates if we perform the section and the stability check with a elastic or a plastic approach. Finally, we
must note that the steel code SIA263 is essentially oriented for symmetrical and bisymmetrical profile like I profiles. In the
present modulus, other profiles are calculated by using a classic elastic approach (EE classification).
The section is checked for tension, compression, shear, combination of bending and axial forces. For the stability check, the
beam element is checked for lateral torsional buckling, shear buckling, compression and bending with axial compression. A
more detailed overview for the used articles is given in the following table:
- 143 -
Chapter 11
4 Analyse structurale et dimensionnement

4.1 Généralités x
4.2 Bases de l'analyse structurale et du dimensionnement x
4.3 Modélisation
4.3.1 Classification des sections x
4.3.5 Résistance ultime élastique des sections x

4.4 Méthode de vérification x
4.5 Stabilité
4.5.1 Flambage x
4.5.2 Déversement des poutres fléchies x
4.5.3 Voilement d' éléments plans comprimés x
4.5.4 Voilement des éléments plans cisaillés x
4.8 Situation de projet incendie
4.8.1 Principes x
4.8.2 Propriétés de l'acier en cas d'incendie x
4.8.5 Méthode de calcul simplifiée x
5 Eléments de construction
5.1 Poutres et poteaux des classes de section 1 et 2 x

5.2 Poutres et poteaux des classes de section 3 x
5.3 Poutres et poteaux des classes de section 4 x
5.5 Eléments comprimés à section composée
5.5.1 Barres étrésillonnées ( à travers de liaison) x

5.6 Poutres composées à âme pleine x
Annexe B Moment critique de déversement élastique Mcr x
Annexe C Echauffement des éléments de construction en cas d'incendie x
Annexe F Voilement par cisaillement avec raidisseurs spéciaux aux extrémités
F1 Résistance à l'effort tranchant des panneaux de l'âme x
Section classification
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined and the proper section check is performed. The classification
can change for each intermediary point. For each load case/combination, the critical section classification over the member
is used to perform the stability check.
So, the stability section classification can change for each load case/combination. However, for non-prismatic sections, the
stability section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
Slender cross-section
The design of a section that not satisfies the table 5 of SIA263 is always performed by using a reduced area. This clas-
sification corresponds to the EER method. The determination of a reduced area is based on the effective width of each com-
pression element in the current section (Art. 4.5.3). The using of a reduced area implies the recalculation of the shear centre
position, the inertia and the elastic modulus.
- 144 -
SIA263:2013
Sections properties
The holes due to fastener are neglected in the area of a section
Lateral torsional buckling

For double symmetric I profile, we don't have to perform any lateral torsional buckling check if NEd/Npl,Rd ≤ 0.15 and the
conditions provided in Table 6 SIA263 are satisfied. For any other case, a LTB check must be perform.
Calculations described in Annex B for I,U and PPL can be applied to T sections only if the flange is subjected to compression.
Otherwise, as for section not supported by SIA263 in the LTB check, we use prescriptions given in EC3-ENV Annex F.
Those rules allow us to determine an elastic critical moment for lateral torsional buckling for symmetrical (formula F.2 EC3)
and non symmetrical (formula F.1. EC3) sections around the minor axis.
In the case of I, U, PPL and, T only with compression in flange, characterised by a reduced area or not, we have to determ-
ine before any calculation irc, defined as the radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression flange plus 1/3 of the
compression web area, taken about an axis in the plane of the web.
For advanced Lateral-torsional buckling analysis, see "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.
Use of diaphragms
See Chapter '"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193'.
Shear buckling
Stability check
For double symmetric I profile PP or EP, SIA263 provides specific formula to perform the stability check of member sub-
mitted to biaxial moment. For other sections, non symmetric or from EE and EER classification, a general formula is
provided to design member under mono-axial solicitations.
Torsion check
For the cross section check inclusive torsion and warping, we refer to Chapter "Annex F: Warping check" on page 206.
Built-in beams
For built-in beam sections (IFB, SFB, THQ sections), proper section checks are performed, taking into account the local
plate bending. See Chapter "Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)" on page 223.
- 145 -
Chapter 12
SIA263 - Fire Resistance

Fire actions effect Efi
The design effects of actions for the fire situation Efi,d,t are taken from the results of the analysis. It is recommended to use
the accidental combination rules, for calculating the internal forces used in the fire resistance check.
The accidental combination is given by
ΣG k + Pk + Ad+ Σψ2,iQ k,i
With:
Gk characteristic values of permanent actions

Q k,i characteristic value of the variable action i
Ad design values of accidental action from fire exposure
ψ2,j combination coefficients
Pk characteristic value of prestressing action
Material properties
The material properties are depending on the steel temperature.
Strength and deformation properties:
The variation in function of the steel temperature of the value for yield strength ky,θ and modulus of elasticity kE,θ is given by
tables in ref.[1], Figure 15.
In the simplified calculation method, the following default properties are considered to be constant during the analysis :
thermal elongation ∆l/l 14 x 10-6 (θ a-20)
thermal conductivity λa 45 W/mK
Temperature analysis - Thermal actions

In this part, the nominal temperature-time curves and the related net heat flux are described. For more info, EC3 Chapter
"Temperature analysis - Thermal actions" on page 56
Nominal temperature-time curve

See EC3 Chapter "Nominal temperature-time curve" on page 56.
Net heat flux

See EC3 Chapter "Net heat flux" on page 57
Steel Temperature
See Ref.[1], Annexe C.
- 146 -
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an unprotected steel member during a time interval ∆t
With:
Am the exposed surface area per unit length [m²/m]

the volume of the member per unit length [m³/m]
V
The factor Am /V should not be taken as less than 10m-1

hnet,d the net heat flux per unit area [W/m²]
∆t
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an insulated steel member during a time interval ∆t
With:

cp the specific heat of fire protection material [J/kgK]
dp the thickness of the fire protection material [m]
∆t
ρp the unit mass of fire protection [kg/m³]
θa,t the steel temperature at time t
θg,t the ambient gas temperature at time t
λp the thermal conductivity of the fire protection material [W/mK]
The value ∆θa,t ≥ 0.0
- 147 -
Chapter 12
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an insulated steel member with intumescent coating during a time interval ∆t

Pi = Ap/V
kd;ef coefficient of heat transfer of the intumescent coating
∆t
θa the steel temperature at time t
θt the ambient gas temperature at time t
λ i;d;ef the thermal conductivity of the fire protection material [W/mK]
Calculation model
The calculation can be performed in 2 domains :
n strength domain
n temperature/time domain
In the strength domain, the strength R fi,d,t (unity check) is calculated after a given time t (e.g. strength after 45 min). In the
temperature/time domain, the critical steel temperature θcr,d is computed. From this critical temperature, the fire resistance
time tfi,d is calculated (the time domain).
Code Check
The section and stability checks (buckling, lateral torsional buckling) are performed according to the regulations given in Ref.
[1], 4.8.5.
For each member, the classification of the cross section, the section check and the stability check are performed.
The following checks are executed :
l Classification of cross section : art. 4.8.5.2.

l Resistance for tension members : art. 4.8.5.4.
l Resistance for compression members (class 1,2 or 3) : art. 4.8.5.5.
l Resistance for members of class 1,2,3: art. 4.8.5.6., art. 4.8.5.7., art. 4.8.5.8.
l Resistance for members of class 4: art. 4.8.5.9.
- 148 -
Supported sections
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section
CHS Circular Hollow Section
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
Z Z section

COM Composed section
O Solid tube
I RHS CHS L U T PPL RS Z Σ O COM NUM
Classification x x x x x x x x (1) x (1) (1) (1)

Section check PP x x x
Section check EP x x x
Section check EE x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Section check EER x x x x x x
Stability check PP x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Stability check EP x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Stability check EE x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Stability check EER x x x x x x
LTB x x(2) x(2) x(2) x(2) x(2) x x(2) x(2) x(2) x(2) x(2) x(2)
(1) sections are classified as class 3 cross section by default.

(2) general formula for Mcr
References
SIA263
[1]
Construction en acier
- 149 -
Chapter 13
SIA263:2013
SIA263/1
Construction en acier / Spécification complémentaires
[2]
SIA263/1:2013
- 150 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes

Within SCIA Engineer, each shape within the Profile Library is uniquely identified by a so called Formcode. The Formcode
defines the shape, the parameters which describe the shape and in some cases also additional parameters like distance
between bolt holes, unit warping ordinates etc.
In this Annex the different Formcodes and their parameters are described.
Formcode 1: I-Section
Parameters Description
h Height
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
r Radius at flange root
r1 Radius at flange toe
a Flange slope
W Internal bolt distance
wm Unit warping at flange toe
- 151 -
Chapter 14
Formcode 2: Rectangular Hollow Section
h Height
b Width
s Thickness
r Outer radius
r1 Inner radius
Formcode 3: Circular Hollow Section
d Diameter
w Thickness
- 152 -
Formcode 4: L-Section
h Height
b Width
t Thickness
W1 Bolt distance
W2 Bolt distance
W3 Bolt distance
Formcode 5: Channel Section
h Height
b Flange width
- 153 -
Chapter 14
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
a Flange slope
wm1 Unit warping at flange root
wm2 Unit warping at flange toe
Formcode 6: T-Section
h Height
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
r2 Radius at web root
a1 Flange slope
a2 Web slope
Formcode 7: Full Rectangular Section
- 154 -
h Height
b Width
Formcode 11: Full Circular Section
d Diameter
Formcode 101: Asymmetric I-Section
h Height
s Web thickness
bt Flange width top
bb Flange width bottom
- 155 -
Chapter 14
tt Flange thickness top
tb Flange thickness bottom
Formcode 102: Rolled Z-Section
h Height
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
Formcode 111: Cold-Formed Angle Section
- 156 -
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Width
h Height
Formcode 112: Cold-Formed Channel Section
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
Formcode 113: Cold-Formed Z-Section
- 157 -
Chapter 14
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Total width
h Height
Formcode 114: Cold-Formed C-Section
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
Formcode 115: Cold-Formed Omega Section
- 158 -
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Total width
h Height
c Inner length
Formcode 116: Cold-Formed C-Section Eaves Beam
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
a Flange angle
Formcode 117: Cold-Formed C-Plus Section
- 159 -
Chapter 14
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
a Pluslip angle
Formcode 118: Cold-Formed ZED-Section
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
h Height
c Lip
- 160 -
Formcode 119: Cold-Formed ZED-Section Asymmetric

Lips
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
h Height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
Formcode 120: Cold-Formed ZED-Section Inclined Lip
s Thickness
r Inner radius
- 161 -
Chapter 14
bt Flange width top
h Height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
a Lip angle
Formcode 121: Cold-Formed Sigma Section
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
b1 Web depression
- 162 -
Formcode 122: Cold-Formed Sigma Section Stiffened
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
Formcode 123: Cold-Formed Sigma-Plus Section
s Thickness
- 163 -
Chapter 14
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
a Pluslip angle
Formcode 124: Cold-Formed Sigma Section Eaves

Beam
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
b1 Web depression
a Flange angle
- 164 -
Formcode 125: Cold-Formed Sigma-Plus Section

Eaves Beam
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
a Flange angle
a2 Pluslip angle
Formcode 126: Cold-Formed ZED-Section Both Lips

Inclined
- 165 -
Chapter 14
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
h Height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
a Lip angle
Formcode 127: Cold-Formed I-Plus Section
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
a Pluslip angle
- 166 -
Formcode 128: Cold-Formed IS-Plus Section
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
a Pluslip angle
Formcode 129: Cold-Formed Sigma Section Asym-

metric
- 167 -
Chapter 14
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
h Height
h2 Inner web height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
b1 Web depression
Formcode 130: Cold-Formed 2C-Section
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
- 168 -
Formcode 150: Rail Type KA
h1 Height
h2 Intermediate top height
b1 Width bottom
b2 Intermediate width
k Width top
f1 Intermediate bottom height
r1 Radius
r2 Radius
r3 Radius
r4 Radius
r5 Radius
a Wear
- 169 -
Chapter 14
Formcode 151: Rail Type KF
h1 Height
b1 Width bottom
k Width top
r1 Radius
r2 Radius
r3 Radius
Formcode 160: Virtual Joist
- 170 -
D Depth
B Width
TB Flange thickness
TD Web thickness
DEE Depth of Web
BSD Minimum Bearing Seat Depth
- 171 -
Chapter 15
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
Introduction to the calculation of buckling ratio

For the calculation of buckling ratio, several methods can be applied.
The general method is described in chapter ""Calculation buckling ratio – general formula" below".
For crossing diagonals, the buckling ratio is explained in chapter ""Calculation buckling ratios for crossing diagonals" on the
facing page".
For VARH elements, the critical Euler force is calculated according to the method given in chapter ""Calculation of critical
Euler force for VARH elements" on page 177".
For lattice tower members, see the chapter ""Calculation buckling ratio for lattice tower members" on page 178".
When using member buckling data the buckling ratio can be calculated from a stability analysis. See chapter Calculation of
buckling ratio – From Stability Analysis.
Calculation buckling ratio – general formula

For the calculation of the buckling ratios, some approximate formulas are used. These formulas are treated in reference
[1], [2] and [3].
The following formulas are used for the buckling ratios (Ref[1],pp.21) :
l for a non sway structure :
l for a sway structure :
with:
L the system length

E the modulus of Young
I the moment of inertia
Ci the stiffness in node i
Mi the moment in node i
Fi the rotation in node i
- 172 -
The values for Mi and φi are approximately determined by the internal forces and the deformations, calculated by load cases
which generate deformation forms, having an affinity with the buckling form. (See also Ref.[5], pp.113 and Ref.[6],pp.112).
The following load cases are considered:
l load case 1 : on the beams, the local distributed loads qy=1 N/m and qz=-100 N/m are used, on the columns the global dis-
tributed loads Qx = 10000 N/m and Qy =10000 N/m are used.
l load case 2 : on the beams, the local distributed loads qy=-1 N/m and qz=-100 N/m are used, on the columns the global
distributed loads Qx = -10000 N/m and Qy= -10000 N/m are used.
In addition, the following limitations apply (Ref[1],pp.21):
l The values of ρi are limited to a minimum of 0.0001

l The values of ρi are limited to a maximum of 1000
l The indices are determined such that ρ1 ≥ ρ2
l Specifically for the non-sway case, if ρ1 ≥ 1000 and ρ2 ≤ 0,34 the ratio l/L is set to 0,7
The used approach gives good results for frame structures with perpendicular rigid or semi-rigid beam connections. For
other cases, the user has to evaluate the presented bucking ratios. In such cases a more refined approach (from stability
analysis) can be applied.
Calculation buckling ratios for crossing diagonals

For crossing diagonal elements, the buckling length perpendicular to the diagonal plane, is calculated according to Ref.[9]
EN 1993-2, Table D.2 and Ref.[4], DIN18800 Teil 2, table 15.
According to this method the buckling length factor β is no longer purely geometric data but is also dependent on the load dis-
tribution in the element.
In the following chapters, the buckling length factor β is defined,
with
β Buckling length factor

l Length of the diagonal
l1 Length of the supporting diagonal
I Moment of inertia (in the buckling plane) of the diagonal
I1 Moment of inertia (in the buckling plane) of the supporting diagonal
N Compression force in the diagonal
N1 Compression force in the supporting diagonal
Z Tension force in the supporting diagonal
E Elasticity modulus of Young
- 173 -
Chapter 15
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by continuous tension diagonal
See Ref.[9], Table D.2, Case 1.
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by pinned tension diagonal
- 174 -
Pinned compression diagonal, supported by continuous tension diagonal
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by continuous compression

diagonal
- 175 -
Chapter 15
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by pinned compression diag-

onal
See Ref.[9], Table D.2, Case 3 (2).
Pinned compression diagonal, supported by continuous compression diag-

onal
See Ref.[9], Table D.2, Case 3 (3).
- 176 -
Calculation of critical Euler force for VARH elements

Definitions
A VARH element is defined as follows :
The member has the properties of a symmetric I section (formcode=1), where only the height is linear variable along the
member. The system length for buckling around the local yy axis (strong axis), is equal to member length.
For this non-prismatic section, the critical Euler force is given in Ref[7].
Calculation of the critical Euler force

For a VARH element (form node i to node j), we can define:
L beam length
Ii , Ij moment of inertia at end i and j
Ai , Aj sectional area at end i and j
E modulus of Young
Ncr critical Euler force
Ri , Rj beam stiffness at end i and j
The stiffness R and R' is given by:
The critical Euler force is given by
To calculate α, the next steps are followed :

1. Calculate L, Ii, Ij, Ri, Rj, R'i, R'j, ξ
2. We suppose that
3. Calculate a, b, c and d as follows
- 177 -
Chapter 15
4.For a beam in non-sway system, we solve
For a beam in sway system, we solve
5. When a solution is found, we check if
6. If not, then recalculate a,b,c en d as follows :
and resolve the proper equation of 4.
Calculation buckling ratio for lattice tower members

When the national code EC-EN is selected, the buckling configurations given in the following paragraphs can be selected.
These systems are only used in case of L-sections (Formcode 4).
- 178 -
The following properties are defined:
iyy radius of gyration around yy axis

izz radius of gyration around zz axis
ivv radius of gyration around vv axis
When the option 'Bracing members are sufficiently supported' is activated in the buckling data, the effective slenderness is
reduced as follows:
l for vv-axis :
l for yy-axis :
l for zz-axis :
Reference is made to EN 1993-1-1 Annex BB Article BB.1.2 and formula (BB.1).
Default slenderness limits

For each configuration, the limit slenderness is defined in the Setup and an additional check on this limit slenderness is
executed. The default limit values are taken from Ref.[8].
Type Default Slenderness limit

Leg with symmetrical bracing 120
Leg with intermediate transverse support 120
Leg with staggered bracing 120
Secondary Bracing System 240
Single bracing 200
Single bracing with SBS 200
Cross bracing 200
Cross bracing with SBS 200 and 350 (L3)
- 179 -
Chapter 15
Type Default Slenderness limit

K bracing 200
Horizontal bracing 250
Horizontal bracing with SBS 250
Discontinuous Cross bracing with horizontal member 250
Leg with symmetrical bracing
Leg with intermediate transverse support
- 180 -
Leg with staggered bracing
Single Bracing
- 181 -
Chapter 15
Single Bracing with SBS (Secondary Bracing System)
Cross bracing
- 182 -
with
Lcom Length of compressed member (L2 from figure)

Fcom Force in compressed member (L2 from figure)
Fsup Force in supporting member (member crossing member L2)
E Modulus of Young
fy Yield strength
- 183 -
Chapter 15
Cross bracing with SBS
with
Lcom Length of compressed member (L3 from figure)

Fcom Force in compressed member (L3 from figure)
Fsup Force in supporting member (member crossing member L3)
Kb See Chapter '"Cross bracing" on page 182'
K Bracing
- 184 -
Horizontal Bracing
with
P1 Compression load
P2 Tensile load
Horizontal Bracing with SBS
with
P1 Compression load
P2 Tensile load
- 185 -
Chapter 15
Discontinuous Cross bracing with horizontal member
with
F normal force to check

FSd actual compression force in horizontal member
N1 tensile force in diagonal
N2 compression force in diagonal
Calculation of buckling ratio – From Stability Analysis

When member buckling data from stability are defined, the critical buckling load Ncr for a prismatic member is calculated as
follows:
Using Euler’s formula, the buckling ratio k can then be determined:
With:
- 186 -
λ Critical load factor for the selected stability combination

NEd Design loading in the member
E Modulus of Young
I Moment of inertia
s Member length
In case of a non-prismatic member, the moment of inertia is taken in the middle of the ele-
ment.
References
Handleiding moduul STACO VGI
Staalbouwkundig Genootschap
[1] Staalcentrum Nederland
5684/82
Newmark N.M. A simple approximate formula for effective end-fixity of columns

[2] J.Aero.Sc. Vol.16 Feb.1949 pp.116
Stabiliteit voor de staalconstructeur

[3] uitgave Staalbouwkundig Genootschap
DIN18800 Teil 2
Stahlbauten : Stabilitätsfälle, Knicken von Stäben und Stabwerken
[4]
November 1990
Rapportnr. BI-87-20/63.4.3360
Controleregels voor lijnvormige constructie-elementen
[5]
IBBC Maart 1987
Staalconstructies TGB 1990

Basiseisen en basisrekenregels voor overwegend statisch belaste constructies
[6]
NEN 6770, december 1991
Y. Galéa
[7]
Flambement des poteaux à inertie variable
- 187 -
Chapter 15
Construction Métallique 1-1981
NEN-EN 50341-3-15
Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV - Part 3: Set of National Normative
[8] Aspects
Number 15: National Normative Aspects (NNA) for The Netherlands
Eurocode 3
[9] Part 2: Steel Bridges
EN 1993-2: 2006
- 188 -
Annex C: Calculation of moment factors for LTB
Introduction to the calculation of moment factors

For determining the moment factors C1 and C2 for lateral torsional buckling (LTB), we use the standard tables which are
defined in Ref.[1] Art.12.25.3 table 9.1.,10 and 11.
The current moment distribution is compared with several standard moment distributions. These standard moment dis-
tributions are moment lines generated by a distributed q load, a nodal F load, or where the moment line is maximum at the
start or at the end of the beam.
The standard moment distribution which is closest to the current moment distribution, is taken for the calculation of the
factors C1 and C2.
The factor C3 is taken out of the tables F.1.1. and F.1.2. from Ref.[2] - Annex F.
Calculation moment factors

Moment distribution generated by q load
For ENV 1993, IS800 and CM66

if M2 < 0
C1 = A* (1.45 B* + 1) 1.13 + B* (-0.71 A* + 1) E*
C2 = 0.45 A* [1 + C* eD* (½ β + ½)]
if M2 > 0
C1 = 1.13 A* + B* E*
C2 = 0.45A*
For DIN18800 and ONORM4300

if M2 < 0
C1 = A* (1.45 B* + 1) 1.12 + B* (-0.71 A* + 1) E*
C2 = 0.45 A* [1 + C* eD* (½ β + ½)]
if M2 > 0
C1 = 1.12 A* + B* E*
- 189 -
Chapter 16
C2 = 0.45A*
with :
For DIN18800 / ONORM 4300
For ENV 1993 and IS800
For NEN6770/6771, SIA263

E*=1.75-1.05*β+0.30*β² and E*<2.3
For CM66
Moment distribution generated by F load
M2 < 0
C1 = A** (2.75 B** + 1) 1.35 + B** (-1.62 A** + 1) E**
C2 = 0.55 A** [1 + C** eD** (½ β + ½)]
M2 > 0
C1 = 1.35 A** + B** E**
C2 = 0.55 A**
with :
- 190 -
The values for E** can be taken as E* from chapter "Moment distribution generated by q load" on page 189.
Moment line with maximum at the start or at the end of the beam
C2 = 0.0
For DIN18800 / ONORM 4300
For ENV 1993 / IS800
For CM66
For NEN6770/6771, SIA263 Code

E*=1.75-1.05*β+0.30*β² and E*<2.3
References
Staalconstructies TGB 1990
Stabiliteit
[1]
NEN 6771 - 1991
Eurocode 3 : Design of steel structures

[2]
Part 1-1 : General rules and rules for buildings
- 191 -
Chapter 16
ENV 1993-1-1:1992
- 192 -
Annex D: Use of diaphragms
Adaptation of torsional constant

See Ref.[1], Chapter 10.1.5., Ref.[2],3.5 and Ref.[3],3.3.4..
When diaphragms (steel sheeting) are used, the torsional constant It is adapted for symmetric/asymmetric I sections, chan-
nel sections, Z sections, cold formed U, C , Z sections.
The torsional constant It is adapted with the stiffness of the diaphragms:
with
l the LTB length

G the shear modulus
vorhC
the actual rotational stiffness of diaphragm
θ
CθM,k the rotational stiffness of the diaphragm
the rotational stiffness of the connection between the diaphragm and the
CθA,k
beam
CθP,k the rotational stiffness due to the distortion of the beam
numerical coefficient
k = 2 for single or two spans of the diaphragm
= 4 for 3 or more spans of the diaphragm
- 193 -
Chapter 17
EIeff bending stiffness of per unit width of the diaphragm

s spacing of the beam
ba the width of the beam flange (in mm)
C100 rotation coefficient - see table
h beam height
t thickness beam flange
s thickness beam web
References
ENV 1993-1-3:1996
[1]
Part 1-3 : General rules
Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting
- 194 -
CEN 1996
E. Kahlmeyer
[2]
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
- 195 -
Chapter 18
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Ana-

lysis
Introduction to LTBII
For a detailed Lateral Torsional Buckling analysis, a link was made to the Friedrich + Lochner LTBII application Ref.[1].
The FriLo LTBII solver can be used in 2 separate ways:
1. Calculation of Mcr through eigenvalue solution

2. 2nd Order calculation including torsional and warping effects
For both methods, the member under consideration is sent to the FriLo LTBII solver and the respective results are sent
back to SCIA Engineer.
A detailed overview of both methods is given in the following chapters.
Eigenvalue solution Mcr

The single element is taken out of the structure and considered as a single beam, with:
l Appropriate end conditions for torsion and warping

l End and begin forces
l Loadings
l Intermediate restraints (diaphragms, LTB restraints)
The end conditions for warping and torsion are defined as follows:
Cw_i Warping condition at end i (beginning of the member)

Cw_j Warping condition at end j (end of the member)
Ct_i Torsion condition at end i (beginning of the member)
Ct_j Torsion condition at end j (end of the member)
To take into account loading and stiffness of linked beams, see chapter "Linked Beams" on page 203”.
For this system, the elastic critical moment Mcr for lateral torsional buckling can be analyzed as the solution of an eigenvalue
problem:
with
η Critical load factor

Ke Elastic linear stiffness matrix
Kg Geometrical stiffness matrix
- 196 -
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis
For members with arbitrary sections, the critical moment can be obtained in each section, with: (See Ref.[3],pp.176)
with
η Critical load factor

Myy Bending moment around the strong axis
Myy(x) Bending moment around the strong axis at position x
Mcr (x) Critical moment at position x
The calculated Mcr is then used in the Lateral Torsional Buckling check of SCIA Engineer.
For more background information, reference is made to Ref[2].
2nd Order analysis

The single element is taken out of the structure and considered as a single beam, with:
l Appropriate end conditions for torsion and warping

l End and begin forces
l Loadings
l Intermediate restraints (diaphragms, LTB restraints)
l Imperfections
To take into account loading and stiffness of linked beams, see chapter "Linked Beams" on page 203.
For this system, the internal forces are calculated using a 2nd Order 7 degrees of freedom calculation.
- 197 -
Chapter 18
The calculated torsional and warping moments (St Venant torque Mxp, Warping torque Mxs and Bimoment Mw) are then
used in the Stress check of SCIA Engineer (See chapter "Annex F: Warping check" on page 206).
Specifically for this stress check, the following internal forces are used:
o Normal force from SCIA Engineer
o Maximal shear forces from SCIA Engineer / FriLo LTBII
o Maximal bending moments from SCIA Engineer / FriLo LTBII
Since Lateral Torsional Buckling has been taken into account in this 2nd Order stress check, it is no more required to execute
a Lateral Torsional Buckling Check.
For more background information, reference is made to Ref[2].
Supported National Codes

The following codes are supported for the analysis of Mcr.
l EC3 - ENV
l EC3 - EN
l DIN18800
l ONORM
l NEN
l SIA
l IS
l EAE
For the following national codes, the 2nd Order analysis approach is supported.
l EC3 - ENV
l EC3 - EN
l DIN18800
l ONORM
l NEN
l SIA
l EAE
Supported Sections
The following table shows which cross-section types are supported for which type of analysis:
Eigenvalue 2nd Order

FRILO LTBII CSS SCIA Engineer CSS
analysis analysis
Double T I section from library x x
Thin walled geometric I x x
Sheet welded Iw x x
Double T unequal IPY from library x x
- 198 -
Eigenvalue 2nd Order

FRILO LTBII CSS SCIA Engineer CSS
analysis analysis
Thin walled geometric asymmetric I x x
Haunched sections x x
Welded I+Tl x x
Sheet welded Iwn x x
HAT Section IFBA, IFBB x x
U cross section U section from library x x
Thin walled geometric U x x
Thin walled Cold formed from library x x
Cold formed from graphical input x x
Double T with top flange angle Welded I+2L x
Sheet welded Iw+2L x
Rectangle Full rectangular from library x
Full rectangular from thin walled geometric x
Static values double symmetric all other double symmetric CSS x
Static values single symmetric all other single symmetric CSS x
Remark: Haunched sections are replaced by equivalent asymmetric I sections, by ignoring the middle flanges.
The following picture illustrates the relation between the local coordinate system of SCIA Engineer and FriLo LTBII. Special
attention is required for U sections due to the inversion of the y and z-axis.
For more information, reference is made to Ref[2]
- 199 -
Chapter 18
Loadings
The following load impulses are supported:
l Point force in node (if the node is part of the exported beam)
l Point force on beam
l Line force in beam
l Moment in node (if the node is part of the exported beam)
l Moment on beam
l Line moment in beam (only for Mx in LCS)
The supported load impulses and their eccentricities are transformed into the local LCS of the exported member.
The dead load is replaced by an equivalent line force on the beam.
Load eccentricities are replaced by torsional moments.
The forces in local x-direction are ignored, except for the torsional moments.
In Frilo LTBII a distinction is made between the centroid and the shear center of a cross-
section. Load impulses which do not pass through the shear center will cause additional tor-
sional moments.
Imperfections
In the 2nd Order LTB analysis the bow imperfections v0 (in local y direction) and w0 (in local z direction) can be taken into
account.
For DIN, ONORM, EC-EN and EAE the imperfections can be calculated according to the code. The codes indicate that for
a 2nd Order calculation which takes into account LTB, only the imperfection v0 needs to be considered.
The sign of the imperfection according to code depends on the sign of Mz in SCIA Engineer.
Initial bow imperfection v0 for DIN and ONORM

The imperfection is calculated according to Ref.[6] article 2.2
For prismatic uniform members:
- 200 -
Resistance check Section Bucking curve v0

EE
any a0 L/1050
(Elastic)
any a L/900
any b L/750
any c L/600
any d L/450
EP
PP I section a0 L/700
(Plastic)
I section a L/600
I section b L/500
I section c L/400
I section d L/300
For non-uniform members, the bow imperfection is considered at the centre of the buckling system length L.
Initial bow imperfection v0 for EC-EN and EAE

The imperfection is calculated according to Ref.[4] article 5.3.4(3)
with:
Factor taken from the National Annex of EC-EN

k
Factor taken as 0,5 for EAE
e0 Bow imperfection of the weak axis
The value of e0 is taken from following table:
eo/L – plastic analysis

Buckling curve eo /L – elastic analysis
a0 1/350 1/300
a 1/300 1/250
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
with
L Member system length
- 201 -
Chapter 18
Initial bow imperfections v0 and w0 for other supported codes

For all other supported codes (EC-ENV, NEN and SIA) as well as DIN, ONORM, EC-EN and EAE the user can manually
input the imperfections v0 and w0.
LTB Restraints
LTB restraints are transformed into 'Supports' (Ref.[2] p22), with horizontal elastic restraint Cy:
Cy = 1e15 kN/m
The position of the restraint z(Cy) is depending on the position of the LTB restraint (top/bottom).
The use of an elastic restraint allows the positioning of the restraint since this is not possible for a fixed restraint. (Ref.[2] p23)
Specifically for U-sections, an elastic restraint Cz is used with position y(Cz) due to the rotation of U-sections in the FriLo
LTBII solver. (see Chapter "Supported Sections" on page 198)
Diaphragms
Diaphragms are transformed into 'Elastic Foundations' of type ‘elastic restraint’ (Ref.[2] p25). Both a horizontal restraint Cy
and a rotational restraint Cθ are used.
The elastic restraint Cy [kN/m^2] is calculated as follows (Ref.[2] p52 and Ref.[5] p40):
with
S Shear stiffness of the diaphragm

L Diaphragm length along the member
The above formula for Cy is valid in case the bolt pitch of the diaphragm is set as ‘br’. For a bolt pitch of ‘2br’ the shear stiff-
ness S is replaced by 0,2 S (Ref.[5] p22).
The shear stiffness S for a diaphragm is calculated as follows (Ref.[7],3.5 and Ref.[8],3.3.4.):
- 202 -
with
a Frame distance
Ls Length of the diaphragm
K1 Factor K1 of the diaphragm
K2 Factor K2 of the diaphragm
The position of the restraint z(Cy) is depending on the position of the diaphragm.
Specifically for U-sections, an elastic restraint Cz is used with position y(Cz) due to the rotation of U-sections in the FriLo
LTBII solver. (see Chapter "Supported Sections" on page 198)
The rotational restraint Cθ [kNm/m] is taken as vorhCθ (see Chapter "Adaptation of torsional constant " on page 193)
Linked Beams
Linked beams are transformed into 'Supports' (Ref.[2] p22), with elastic restraint.
The direction of the restraint is dependent on the direction of the linked beam:
If the linked beam has an angle less then 45° with the local y-axis of the beam under consideration, the restraint is set as Cy.
In all other cases the restraint is set as Cz.
The position of the restraint z(Cy) or y(Cz) is depending on the application point of the linked beam (top/bottom).
The position is only taken into account in case of a flexible restraint (Ref.[2] p23).
The end forces of the linked beam are transformed to point loads on the considered 1D member,
l in z -direction for linked beams considered as y-restraint

l in y- direction for linked beams considered as z-restraint
- 203 -
Chapter 18
Specifically for U-sections, if the linked beam has an angle less then 45° with the local y-axis of the beam under con-
sideration, the restraint is set as Cz. In all other cases the restraint is set as Cy. This is due to the rotation of U-sections in the
FriLo LTBII solver. (see Chapter "Supported Sections" on page 198)
Limitations and Warnings

The FRILO LTB solver is used with following limitations
l Only straight members are supported

l LTBII analysis is done for the whole 1D member, not for a part of the member, not for more members together
l When a LTB system length is inputted which differs from the member length, a warning will be given.
Intermediate lateral restraints should be defined through LTB restraints, diaphragms and linked beams.
During the analysis, the FriLo LTBII solver may return a warning message. The most important causes of the warning mes-
sage are listed here.
Eigenvalue solution Mcr

Lateral Torsional Buckling is not governing – relative slenderness < 0,4
Due to the low relative slenderness, no LTB check needs to be performed. In this case it is not required to use the
FriLo LTBII solver.
Design Torsion! Simplified analysis of lateral torsional buckling is not possible.
Due to the torsion in the member it is advised to execute a 2nd order analysis instead of an eigenvalue calculation.
Bending of U-section about y-axis!
The program calculates the minimum bifurcation load only.
2nd Order Analysis

Load is greater then minimum bifurcation load (Error at elastic calculation – system is instable in II.Order )
The loading on the member is too big, a 2nd order calculation cannot be executed.
You want to calculate the structural safety with Elastic-Plastic method. This analytical procedure cannot be used
for this cross-section. It is recommended to use the Elastic-Elastic method.
Plastic calculation is not possible, use imperfection according to code elastic instead of plastic.
For more information, reference is made to Ref[1] and [2].
References
FriLo LTBII software
Friedrich + Lochner Lateral Torsional Buckling 2 nd Order Analysis
[1] Biegetorsionstheorie II.Ordnung (BTII)
http://www.frilo.de
Friedrich + Lochner LTBII Manual
[2] BTII Handbuch
Revision 1/2006
- 204 -
J. Meister
[3] Nachweispraxis Biegeknicken und Biegedrillknicken
Ernst & Sohn, 2002
Eurocode 3
EN 1993-1-1:2005
J. Schikowski
Stabilisierung von Hallenbauten unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Scheiben-
[5] wirkung von Trapez- und Sandwichelementdeckungen, 1999
http://www.jschik.de/
DIN 18800 Teil 2

Stahlbauten
[6] Stabilitätsfälle, Knicken von Stäben und Stabwerken
November 1990
E. Kahlmeyer
[7]
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
- 205 -
Chapter 19
Annex F: Warping check
Stress check
In cross sections subject to torsion, the following is checked:
with
fy the yield strength
σ the total direct stress

tot,Ed
τ the total shear stress

tot,Ed
= γM0 (class 1,2 and 3 section)
γM
= γM1 (class 4 section)
the partial safety factor for resistance of cross-sections where failure is caused
γ M0
by yielding
the partial safety factor for resistance of cross-sections where failure is caused
γ M1
by buckling
the direct stress due to the axial force on the relevant effective cross-section
σN,Ed
the direct stress due to the bending moment around y axis on the relevant
σ
effective cross-section
My,Ed
the direct stress due to the bending moment around z axis on the relevant
σ
effective cross-section
Mz,Ed
the direct stress due to warping on the gross cross-section
- 206 -
σw,Ed
τ the shear stress due to shear force in y direction on the gross cross-section
Vy,Ed
τ the shear stress due to shear force in z direction on the gross cross-section
Vz,Ed
τt,Ed the shear stress due to uniform (St. Venant) torsion on the gross cross-section
τw,Ed the shear stress due to warping on the gross cross-section
The warping effect is considered for standard I sections and U sections, and for Σ (= “cold formed sections”) sections. The
definition of I sections and U sections, and Σ sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
The other standard sections ( RHS, CHS, Angle section, T section and rectangular sections) are considered as warping
free. See also Ref.[2], Bild 7.4.40.
Calculation of the direct stress due to warping

The direct stress due to warping is given by (Ref.[2] 7.4.3.2.3, Ref.[3])
with
Mw the bimoment
wM the unit warping
Cm the warping constant
I sections
For I sections, the value of wM is given in the tables (Ref. [2], Tafel 7.87, 7.88). This value is added to the profile library. The
diagram of wM is given in the following figure:
- 207 -
Chapter 19
The direct stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure).
The value for wM can be calculated by (Ref.[5] pp.135) :
b the section width

hm the section height (see figure)
U sections
For U sections, the value of wM is given in the tables as wM1 and wM2 (Ref. [2], Tafel 7.89). These values are added to the
profile library. The diagram of wM is given in the following figure :
The direct stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure).
Σ sections
The values for wM are calculated for the critical points according to the general approach given in Ref.[2] 7.4.3.2.3 and Ref.
[8] Part 27.
The critical points for each part are shown as circles in the figure.
- 208 -
Calculation of the shear stress due to warping

The shear stress due to warping is given by (Ref.[2] 7.4.3.2.3, Ref.[3])
M the warping torque (see "Standard diagrams for warping torque, bimoment and
xs the St.Venant torsion" on page 213)
w
the unit warping
M
C
the warping constant
m
t the element thickness
I sections
The shear stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure)
For I sections, we have the following :
U sections, Σ sections
Starting from the wM diagram, we calculate the value
for the critical points.
- 209 -
Chapter 19
The shear stress due to warping is calculated in these critical points (see circles in figures)
Plastic Check
For doubly symmetric I sections of class 1 and class 2 (plastic check), the interaction formula given in Ref.[10] is used.
Used variables
Section Properties
A sectional area
b width
H heigth of section
tf flange thickness
- 210 -
Section Properties
tw web thickness
h = H - tf
Aw = 1.05 (h+tf) tw for rolled section
Aw = h tw for welded sections
Wz,pl plastic section modulus around z axis

Wy,pl plastic section modulus around y axis
Material Properties
fy,d yield strength
τy,d shear strength
Internal forces
NSd normal force
My,Sd bending moment around y axis
Mz,Sd bending moment around z axis
Mw,Sd bimoment
Vy,Sd shear force in y direction
Vz,Sd shear force in z direction
Mxp,Sd torque due to St. Venant
Mxs,Sd warping torque
Plastic capacities
Npl,Rd = A fy,d
Mz,pl,Rd = Wz,pl fy,d
Vz,pl,Rd = Aw τy,d
My,pl,Rd = Wy,pl fy,d
Vy,pl,Rd = Af τy,d
- 211 -
Chapter 19
Section Properties
Shear force reduction
- 212 -
Section Properties
Sign
p=sign ( Mz,Sd x Mw,Sd)
Unity checks:
Remark: the values between {} must be > 0.
Standard diagrams for warping torque, bimoment and

the St.Venant torsion
The following 6 standard situations are given in the literature (Ref.[2], Ref.[3]).
The value λ is defined as follows :
- 213 -
Chapter 19
the total torque

Mx
= Mxp + Mxs
Mxp the torque due to St. Venant
Mxs the warping torque
Mw the bimoment
Cm the warping constant
G the shear modulus
Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, local torsional loading Mt
Mx
Mxp for a side
Mxp for b side
- 214 -
Mxs for a side
Mxs for b side
Mw for a side
Mw for b side
Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, local torsional loading Mt
Mx
Mxp for a side
Mxp for b side
Mxs for a side
Mxs for b side
Mw for a side
- 215 -
Chapter 19
Mw for b side
Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, distributed torsional loading mt
Mx
Mxp
- 216 -
Mxs
Mw
Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, distributed torsional loading mt
Mx
Mxp
Mxs
Mw
- 217 -
Chapter 19
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, local torsional loading Mt
Mx
Mxp
Mxs
Mw
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, distributed torsional load-
ing mt
Mx
- 218 -
Mxp
Mxs
Mw
Decomposition of arbitrary torsion line

Since the SCIA Engineer solver does not take into account the extra DOF for warping, the determination of the warping
torque and the related bimoment, is based on some standard situations.
The following end conditions are considered:
l warping free
l warping fixed
This results in the following 3 beam situations :
l situation 1 : warping free / warping free
l situation 2 : warping free / warping fixed
l situation 3 : warping fixed / warping fixed
- 219 -
Chapter 19
Decomposition for situation 1 and situation 3

The arbitrary total torque line is decomposed into the following standard situations:
l n number of torsion lines generated by a local torsional loading Mtn

l one torsion line generated by a distributed torsional loading mt
l one torsion line with constant torque Mt0
The values for Mxp, Mxs and Mw are taken from the previous tables for the local torsional loadings Mtn and the distributed
loading mt. The value Mt0 is added to the Mxp value.
Decomposition for situation 2

The arbitrary total torque line is decomposed into the following standard situations:
l n number of torsion lines generated by a local torsional loading Mtn

l one torsion line generated by a distributed torsional loading mt
The values for Mxp, Mxs and Mw are taken from the previous tables for the local torsional loadings Mtn and the distributed
loading mt.
References
ENV 1993-1-3:1996
Part 1-3 : General rules – Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge mem-
[1]
bers and sheeting
CEN 1996
Stahl im Hochbau
14. Auglage Band I/ Teil 2
[2]
Verlag Stahleisen mbH, Düsseldorf 1986
Kaltprofile
3. Auflage
[3]
Verlag Stahleisen mbH, Düsseldorf 1982
Roik, Carl, Lindner

[4]
Biegetorsionsprobleme gerader dünnwandiger Stäbe
- 220 -
Verlag von Wilhem ernst & Sohn, Berlin 1972
Dietrich von Berg

Krane und Kranbahnen – Berechnung Konstruktion Ausführung
[5]
B.G. Teubner, Stuttgart 1988
DASt-Richtlinie 016
Bemessung und konstruktive Gestaltung von Tragwerken aus dünnwandigen
[6] kaltgeformten Bauteilen
Stahlbau-Verlagsgesellschaft, Köln 1992
Esa Prima Win

Steel Code Check Manual
[7] SCIA
EPW 3.10
C. Petersen
Stahlbau : Grundlagen der Berechnung und baulichen Ausbildung von Stahl-
[8] bauten
Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig 1988
Eurocode 3
ENV 1993-1-1:1992, 1992
I. Vayas,
Interaktion der plastischen Grenzschnittgrössen doppelsymmetrischer I-Quer-
[10] schnitte
Stahlbau 69 (2000), Heft 9
- 221 -
Chapter 20
Annex G: Check of numerical sections
Stress check
The stress calculation for a numerical section is as follows:
with
σvm the VonMises stress, the composed stress

σtot the total normal stress
τtot the total shear stress
σN the normal stress due to the normal force N
σMy the normal stress due to the bending moment Myy around y axis
σMz the normal stress due to the bending moment Mzz around z axis
τVy the shear stress due to shear force Vy in y direction
τVz the shear stress due to shear force Vz in z direction
Ax the sectional area
Ay the shear area in y direction
Az the shear area in z direction
Wy the elastic section modulus around y axis
Wz the elastic section modulus around z axis
- 222 -
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB,

THQ sections)
Introduction
For the national codes EC-ENV, EC-EN, NEN6770/6771, DIN18800 and SIA263, special checks are performed for built-in
beams, according to Ref.[1].
Reduction of plastic moment capacity due to plate

bending
- 223 -
Chapter 21
The point of load application of the q loading is taken at 2/3 of the inputted sw length.
For asymmetrical I-sections the sw length is taken as 40 mm.
When the lower plate is loaded by q-load (uniform distributed load), the effective area of the loaded plate (flange) for the cal-
culation of the plastic capacity is reduced as follows:
- 224 -
l for THQ and IFB beams :
l for SFB beam :
with
e1, e2, tu , bu see the figures above

q load on flange, plate (as N/m)
fy yield strength
γM partial safety factor
ψ see formula
ψu =ψ
analog to ψu, but with
bu=bo
e1=bo
ψo
tu=to
e2=tw
Plastic interaction formula for single bending and

shear force
The following plastic interaction formula can be used, when single bending around yy-axis My,Sd, in combination with shear
force Vz,Sd, is acting :
- 225 -
Chapter 21
My,Sd , Vz,Sd internal forces

Mpl,y,Rd plastic bending capacity around yy axis
Vpl,z,Rd plastic shear capacity in z direction
Av shear area (see figure)
Am = A - | Ao,x - Au,x | (see figure)
hf = h+tu/2-to/2 (see figure)
Wpl,y plastic section modulus around yy axis - reduced if necessary
Plastic check for plate in bending

The following condition for the plate in bending must be verified:
e1, e2, tu see figures

load on flange, plate (as N/m)
q
= qmax +qmin
ξ (Ksi)
fy yield strength
γM partial safety factor
- 226 -
Stress check for slim floor beams
Normal stress check

At the edges of the bottom plate, the following composed stress check is performed:
Shear stress check in plate

In the middle of the bottom plate, transverse shear stress is checked:
- 227 -
Chapter 21
Torsion check due to unbalanced loading

l for IFB and SFB beams:
with
to , bo see figures
It torsional constant for complete section
E modulus of Young
G shear modulus
L system length for Lyz
Q,e see figure
- 228 -
l for THQ beams :
with
e, bf see figure
load on flanges, plate (as N/m)
q
= qmax +qmin
ξ (Ksi)
- 229 -
Chapter 21
References
Multi-Storey Buildings in Steel
Design Guide for Slim Floors with Built-in Beams
[1]
ECCS N° 83 - 1995
- 230 -
Annex I: Effective cross-section properties for lattice tower angle members
Annex I: Effective cross-section properties for lattice

tower angle members
Effective cross-section properties for compressed lat-

tice tower angle members
The effective cross-section properties shall be based on the effective width beff of the leg. See Ref.[1], Chapter J.2.3.
The effective width shall be obtained from the nominal width of the leg, assuming uniform stress distribution:
For a rolled angle:
- 231 -
Chapter 22
For a cold formed angle:
t the thickness
b the nominal width
fy the yield strength in Mpa
References
EN 50341-1:2001
[1] Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV Part 1: General requirements
- 232 -

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Steel Code Check

Convention and axis switch 14

Method 1: Elastic Stresses 18

Method 2: Yield Surface Intersection 19

Method 3: Iterative Approach 20

Circular Hollow Sections 27

LTB Curves - General case 36

LTB Curves - Alternative case 36

Modified design rule for Channel sections 36

Battened compression members 41

Plate girders with sinusoidal corrugated webs 43

EC3 – EN Fire Resistance 55

Fire actions effect Efi 55

Temperature analysis - Thermal actions 56

Nominal temperature-time curve 56

Net heat flux 57

Alternative interaction according to EN 1993-1-3The interaction is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art.

Special considerations for Purlins 89

AISC / AISI / ANSI 101

AISC – ASD:1989 101

Supported sections 104

AISC – LRFD:2001 106

AISC - LRFD Code check 106

Supported sections 109

ANSI/AISC 360-05:2005 110

ANSI/AISC 360-05 Code check 110

Supported sections 112

ANSI/AISC 360-10:2010 113

ANSI/AISC 360-10 Code check 113

Supported sections 115

AISI NAS S100-2007 117

AISI NAS S100-2007 Code check 117

Doubly symmetric sections 121

Point symmetric sections 122

Singly symmetric sections 123

Other section types 123

Built-Up Sections 126

Single Web Channel and C-Sections 126

Single Web Z-Sections 127

Single Hat Sections 127

Other Sections 127

Determination of Ncr,T 129

Determination of Ncr,TF 130

Diaphragm on the compression flange 132

Diaphragm on the tension flange 132

Diaphragm on one flange 133

Diaphragm on both flanges 133

Diaphragm on any flange 133

ABNT NBR 8800 138

ABNT NBR 14762 141

Material properties 143

Consulted articles 143

Section classification 144

Slender cross-section 144

Sections properties 145

Lateral torsional buckling 145

Use of diaphragms 145

Shear buckling 145

Stability check 145

Torsion check 145

Built-in beams 145

SIA263 - Fire Resistance 146

Fire actions effect Efi 146

Material properties 146