KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK
SOC35(RESEARCH METHODS 1)

NAME: TEYE MICHAEL ABBEY

 INDEX NUMBER: 6493016
Assignment one

i. Meaning of Research- Definition

ii. Objectives /Purpose of research
iii. Motivations in Research
iv. Types of Research
v. Research Approaches
vi. Significance of Research
vii. Social Research and Scientific Method
viii. Role of Methodology
ix. Research Process
x. Criteria of Good Research (reliability, replicability, validity)
 (I)

Meaning of Research- Definition

Research is broad and has been defined by so many people in different fields of
study but for the purpose of this study the meaning and definition of research will be
delved into with a sociological or social scientific lens and therefore simplification of the
term to generate an accurate meaning of it. First of all to generate a layman’s
understanding of the subject I will break the term research into two that is ( re and
search) where “re” is a prefix that means once more , afresh, anew Etc.
And “search” also means; look through thoroughly, examine to find anything concealed.
This two words come together to form research so bringing the above meanings together
Research can best be defined in a layman’s terms as an organized and systematic way of
finding answers to questions.
From the above layman’s definition it could be deduced that the process is systematic.
Because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you must follow to get the
accurate result or the answer.
Organized because it is a planned procedure and it focuses on a specific scope.
Finding answers: successfulness of research from layman’s perspective depends on
finding answers to questions that caused you to look through thoroughly.
Scholarly research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to
increase our understanding of a phenomena about which we are concerned or interested.
According to JH Shera research is an intellectual process whereby a problem is perceived
,divided into its constituents , and analyzed in the light of certain basic assumptions. It is
evident from the definitions that research is a systematic order’ this suggest that research
is based on logical relationships and not just belief (Ghauri et al, 1995). It involves
providing explanations of the methods used to collect data, argue why the results
obtained are meaningful, and explain any limitation that are associated with them.
 (II)
Objectives /Purpose of research
Objectives
To gain a competitive advantage.
To test new products and services.
To solve a management/organizational problem.
To provide information which may help to avoid future business problems.
To forecast future sales.
To better understand shifts in consumer attitudes and tastes.
To enhance profitability.
To reduce operational costs.
To enable management to prioritize strategic options for the future

Purposes
THE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH IS TO…
Review or synthesize existing knowledge
Investigate existing situations or problems
Provide solutions to problems
Explore and analyze more general issues
Construct or create new procedures or systems
Explain new phenomenon
Generate new knowledge
 (III)
Motivations in Research
Intrinsic motivation - the love of the work itself. Intrinsic motivations include: interest;
challenge; learning; meaning; purpose; creative flow. Research has shown that high levels of
intrinsic motivation are strongly linked to outstanding creative performance.
Extrinsic motivation - rewards for good work or punishments for poor work. Extrinsic
motivations include: money; fame; awards; praise; status; opportunities; deadlines;
commitments; bribes; threats. Research shows that too much focus on extrinsic motivation can
block creativity.
Personal motivation - individual values, linked to personality. Examples Intrinsic include: power;
harmony; achievement; generosity; public recognition; authenticity; knowledge; security;
pleasure. Each of us prioritizes some values over others; understanding your own values and
those of people around you are key to motivating yourself and influencing others
Interpersonal motivation - influences from other people. Much of our behavior is a response to
people around us, such as: copying; rebellion; competition; collaboration; commitment;
encouragement.
 (IV)

Types of research
Researchers usually handle numerous problems and apply types of research to get the best guess
answers to their questions. They may use a single study or a combination of two designs. The
investigator has to decide about the types and combinations of research forms that best serve the
goals of the study. Broadly speaking, there are two main domains of research frequently
observed in the literature and these include Quantitative and Qualitative research. The diverse
practices and uses of today’s research practices are listed below:

Quantitative Research
This refers to the type of research that is based on the methodological principles of positivism
and neopositivism, and adheres to the standards of a strict research design developed prior to the
actual research. It is applied for quantitative measurement and hence statistical analysis is used.
Quantitative research is used in almost every sphere of life, such as in clinical, biological,
epidemiological, sociological and business research.

Qualitative Research
This type of research uses a number of methodological approaches based on diverse theoretical
principles (Phenomenology, Hermeneutics and Social Interactionism). It employs methods of
data collection and analysis that are non-quantitative, aims towards the exploration of social
relations, and describes reality as experienced by the respondents. Qualitative research methods
have long been used in the field of social sciences. For instance, these are the principal methods
employed by anthropologists to study the customs and behaviors of people from other cultures,
and are also used in such diverse areas as sociology, psychology, education, history and cultural
studies. These methods have much to offer in studying the health and well-being of people and
their daily lives in business and home.

Pure (Theoretical) or Basic Research

Pure research is usually used to develop new knowledge that advances our understanding of the
real world. It evaluates concepts and theories and thus attempts to expand the limits of existing
knowledge. It may also help in rejecting or supporting existing theories about the real world. In
every sector of higher education there are some basic theories; a researcher’s contribution in
extending or improving any of these theories may be considered pure research (also known as
theoretical research). Such research is very expensive and is usually carried out in government-
funded projects by university research facilities or specific government laboratories. There is no
obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from pure research.
Applied Research
Applied research is conducted when a decision must be made about a specific real-life problem.
The principal aim of scientists conducting applied research is to improve human conditions,
although the results can have commercial value. It is directly related to social and policy issues.
Examples of applied research include an investigation to improve agricultural crop production;
or a study on the development and commercialization of technology with the potential to reduce
carbon dioxide emissions. Types of applied research include action research (also known at times
as evaluative research) and policy research. Action research is a type of applied research. It is
‘the application of fact finding to practical problem solving in a social situation with a view to
improving the quality of action within it, involving the collaboration and co-operation of
researchers, practitioners and laymen’ (Burns 1990: 252). It is actively involved in planning and
introducing changes in policy, and researchers use their research expertise to monitor and
possibly to evaluate its effects. It is also sometimes called evaluative research. Policy research is
ultimately concerned with the knowledge of action; its long-term aim is in line with the famous
dictum that ‘it is more important to change the world than to understand it’. This broad objective
means that policy research encompasses a far more diverse variety of research, including
theoretical research in many cases, but also descriptive research which maps out the landscape of
a topic, issue or problem, as well as reviews of how an existing policy is working. It can extend,
in some cases, into formal evaluation research.
Longitudinal Studies
Longitudinal research involves the study of a sample (or cohort) on more than one occasion. In
other words, longitudinal studies cover a long period of time, at times several decades, and
follow the sample a repeated number of times. The longitudinal study is unique in its ability to
answer questions about causes and consequences, and hence provides a basis for substantiated
explanatory theory. It is commonly used in many disciplines. For example, in psychology,
longitudinal studies are often used to study developmental trends across the life span; in public
health they are used to uncover predictors of certain diseases. Longitudinal studies include panel
studies and cohort studies. A longitudinal study that involves collecting data from the same
sample of individuals or households over time (usually regular intervals) is called a panel study.
Panel studies take as their basis a nationally representative sample of the group of interest, which
may be individuals, households, establishments, organizations, or any other social unit.
Longitudinal panel studies are conducted by educational organizations as well as by government
institutions to study national income and expenditure.
.

(V)
Research approaches
research approach is a vital part of any scientific study regardless of the research area, you need
to specify the approach you have adopted for your research by breaking down your arguments
into several points, the approach adopted in the research process is key to the successfulness of
the research .There are three main approaches in research which are:
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist/post positivist paradigm. It
usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical
calculations can be made and conclusions drawn.. Researchers will have one or more hypotheses.
These are the questions that they want to address which include predictions about possible
relationships between the things they want to investigate (variables). In order to answers to these
questions, the researchers will also have various instruments and materials (e.g. paper or
computer tests, observation check lists etc.) and clearly defined plan of action. Data is collected
by various means following a strict procedure and prepared for statistical analysis. Nowadays,
this is carried out with the aid of sophisticated statistical computer packages. The analysis
enables the researchers to determine to what extent there is a relationship between two or more
variables. This could be a simple association (e.g. people who exercise on a daily basis have
lower blood pressure) or a causal relationship (e.g. daily exercise actually leads to lower blood
pressure). Statistical analysis permits researchers to discover complex causal relationships and to
determine to what extent one variable influences another.

Qualitative research
Qualitative research is the approach usually associated with the social constructivist paradigm
which emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analyzing and
attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human behavior and experience,
including contradictory beliefs, behaviors and emotions. Researchers are interested in gaining a
rich and complex understanding of people’s experience and not in obtaining information which
can be generalized to other larger groups. The approach adopted by qualitative researchers tends
to be inductive which means that they develop a theory or look for a pattern of meaning on the
basis of the data that they have collected. This involves a move from the specific to the general
and is sometimes called a bottom up approach. However, most research projects also involve a
certain degree of deductive reasoning.

(VI)
Significance of Research
According to Hudson Maxim; All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than
overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry which leads to investigation.
Research inculcate scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habit’s of thinking and organization.
Research provide basics for nearly all governmental policies.
Research is a special tool in solving both operational and planning problems.
Research is significant to the social scientist in studying social relations, social problems and
deduced solutions to them.
Research is an original contribution to existing stock of knowledge.

(VII)
Social Research and Scientific Method
Social research is a research involving social scientific methods , theories and concepts which
enhances the understanding of social processes and problems encountered by individuals and
groups in society. It is conducted by sociologists, psychologists, economists , political scientists
and anthropologists.
It is not common sense based on facts without theory , using personal life experience or
perpetuating media myths.
Social research is a scientific process.
It involves the systematic collection of methods to produce knowledge.
It is objective.
It can tell you things you don’t expect.
It consists of theory and observation
It is an empirical research that is ; facts are assumed to exist prior to theories that explain them.

(VIII)
Role of Methodology
The term methodology refers to the overall approaches & perspectives to the research process
as a whole and is concerned with the following main issues:
Why you collected certain data
What data you collected
Where you collected it
How you collected it
How you analyzed it
(A research method refers only to the various specific tools or ways data can be collected and
analyzed, e.g. a questionnaire; interview checklist; data analysis software etc.) (Collis &
Hussey, 2003, p.55).
The research methodology plays important roles in research as follows
Research methodology is the science and philosophy behind all research. It goes into the heart of
how we know what we know and allows us to understand the very strict constraints placed upon
our concept of what knowledge actually is.
Moreover, it allows us to understand the different ways in which knowledge can be created. This
is especially important since if we know how knowledge and ‘answers’ to research questions can
be created, then we are also in a position to understand what might be wrong with it.
The concepts that underpin the subject of ‘methodology’ also enable us to be critical and
analytical in the face of ‘knowledge’ being presented as ‘fact’.
 (IX)
. Research Process
The research process consists of seven steps which are

1. Observation
2. Preliminary information gathering
3. Theory formulation
4. Hypothesizing
5. Further scientific data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Deduction
Observation
Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are occurring, or that
some new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are surfacing in one’s environment (i.e., the
workplace). When the observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important consequences,
one would proceed to the next step. How does one observe phenomena and changes in the
environment? The people-oriented manager is always sensitive to and aware of what is
happening in and around the workplace. Changes in attitudes, behaviors, communication patterns
Preliminary Information Gathering
Preliminary information gathering involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is
observed. This could be done by talking informally to several people in the work setting or to
clients, or to other relevant sources, thereby gathering information on what is happening and
why. Through these unstructured interviews, one gets an idea or a “feel” for what is transpiring
in the situation. Once the researcher increases the level of awareness as to what is happening, the
person could then focus on the problem and the associated factors through further structured,
formal interviews with the relevant groups. Additionally, by doing library research, or obtaining
information through other sources, the investigator would identify how such issues have been
tackled in other situations. This information would give additional insights of possible factors
that could be operating in the particular situation—over and above those that had not surfaced in
the previous interviews. Thus, a mass of information would have been collected through the
interviews and library search. The next step is to make sense of the factors that have been
identified in the information-gathering stage by piecing them together in some meaningful
fashion.

Theory Formulation
Theory formulation, the next step, is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical
manner, so that the factors responsible for the problem can be conceptualized and tested. The
theoretical framework formulated is often guided by experience and intuition. In this step the
critical variables are examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why the
problem occurs and how it can be solved. The network of associations identified among the
variables would then be theoretically woven together with justification as to why they might
influence the problem. One might wonder at this juncture why a theory has to be formulated each
time a problem is investigated, and why one cannot act on the information contained in the
previously published research findings, as one surveys the literature. There are a couple of
reasons for this. One is that different studies might have identified different variables, some of
which may not be relevant to the situation on hand. Also, in the previous studies, some of the
hypotheses might have been substantiated and some others not, presenting a perplexing situation.
Hence, problem solving in every complex problem situation is facilitated by formulating and
testing theories relevant to that particular situation.
Hypothesizing
Hypothesizing is the next logical step after theory formulation. From the theorized network of
associations among the variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures can be
generated. For instance, at this point, one might hypothesize that if a sufficient number of items
are stocked on shelves, customer dissatisfaction will be considerably reduced. This is a
hypothesis that can be tested to determine if the statement would be supported. Hypothesis
testing is called deductive research. Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally formulated
do get generated through the process of induction. That is, after the data are obtained, some
creative insights occur, and based on these, new hypotheses could get generated to be tested
later. Generally, in research, hypotheses testing through deductive research and hypotheses
generation through induction are both common. The Hawthorne experiments are a good example
of this. In the relay assembly line, many experiments were conducted that increased lighting and
the like, based on the original hypothesis that these would account for increases in productivity.
But later, when these hypotheses were not substantiated, a new hypothesis was generated based
on observed data. The mere fact that people were chosen for the study gave them a feeling of
importance that increased their productivity whether or not lighting, heating, or other effects
were improved, thus the coining of the term the Hawthorne effect!
Further Scientific Data Collection
After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses
need to be obtained. In other words, further scientific data collection is needed to test the
hypotheses that are generated in the study. For instance, to test the hypothesis that stocking
sufficient items will reduce customer dissatisfaction, one needs to measure the current level of
customer satisfaction and collect further data on customer satisfaction levels whenever sufficient
number of items are stocked and made readily available to the customers. Data on every variable
in the theoretical framework from which hypotheses are generated should also be collected.
These data then form the basis for further data analysis.
Data Analysis
In the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that
were generated have been supported. For instance, to see if stock levels influence customer
satisfaction, one might want to do a correlational analysis and determine the relationship between
the two factors. Similarly, other hypotheses could be tested through appropriate statistical
analysis. Analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data can be done to determine if certain
conjectures are substantiated. Qualitative data refer to information gathered in a narrative form
through interviews and observations. For example, to test the theory that budgetary constraints
adversely impact on managers’ responses to their work, several interviews might be conducted
with managers after budget restrictions are imposed. The responses from the managers who
verbalize their reactions in different ways might be then organized to see the different categories
under which they fall and the extent to which the same kinds of responses are articulated by the
managers.

Deduction
Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of the results of
the data analysis. For instance, if it was found from the data analysis that increasing the stocks
was positively correlated to (increased) customer satisfaction (say, .5), then one can deduce that
if customer satisfaction is to be increased, the shelves have to be better stocked. Another
inference from this data analysis is that stocking of shelves accounts for (or explains) 25% of the
variance in customer satisfaction (.52). Based on these deductions, the researcher would make
recommendations on how the “customer dissatisfaction” problem could be solved.
 (X)
Criteria of Good Research (reliability, replicability, validity)
Research is a cyclical process which is not a weakness but rather a built in error correction
machinery. How good the research is depends on the criteria below.
Reliability; it attests to the consistency and stability of the measuring instrument in research.
Replicability; the repeatability of similar results when identical research is conducted at different
times or in different organizational settings.
Validity: it is the evidence that the instruments , techniques or process used to measure a concept
does indeed measure the intended concept.
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Name. Date. Time. Signature

TEYE MICHAEL ABBEY. 17TH SEPTEMBER,2018