DR.

RAM MANOHAR LOHIYA NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY

SUBJECT- POLITICAL SCIENCE

TOPIC- INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

SUBMITTED TO- SUBMITTED BY-

Dr.Monika shrivastava Gaurav

Assistant Prof. B.A.LL.B.(Hons.)

Roll no.-72

1
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………… (3)

Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………… (4)

Chapter 1: Principal aims and objectives of the study ………………………….. (5)

Chapter 2: Introduction ………………………………………………………… (6)

Chapter 3: Need for Inner Party Democracy ……………………………………. (7)

Chapter 4: Major Elements of Inner Party Democracy ………………………….. (9)

Chapter 5: Constitutional and Legal Provisions for Inner Party Democracy …….. (11)

Chapter 6: Democratic v. Undemocratic Functioning …………………………… (13)

Chapter 7: Inner Party Democracy in India ……………………………………… (14)

Chapter 8: Conclusion …………………………………………………………… (17)

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………… (19)

2
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

ABSTRACT

True democracies demand that people be involved in decision making at all levels of
decision making of which they are stake holders; this demand calls for ‘Inner party
Democracy’. Inner Party Democracy forms the base of the actual functionality of the
speeding democratizing world today. Democracy is only skin deep in a system where
there is no inner party democracy and leaders of political party run them as their
fiefdoms. The need for ‘Inner Party Democracy’ arises from this idea that the major
features of a democracy such as transparency, accountability, inclusion, strengthening of
the civil society etc. are maintained. Where the question comes to party line ideology and
when there is no freedom of speech and for the expression of opinion the views of the
party and its decisions are not inclusive which can be fatal for the overall functioning of
the democracy. In a multiparty system democracy revolves around parties and they serve
the checks and balances for the democracy. In such a system the importance of inner
party democracy is even more amplified.

Today in India we see an evident autocratic streak in the party functions and
administration. We find hence, that we have oldest active politician as due to the lack of a
democratic mechanism in the party the new emerging leaders do not get the opportunity
and old leaders do not leave their hold on power. A lack of inner party democracy leads
to the incapable leadership and infringement of the right of the constituency to be
represented by the right candidate. It also deters the people without political lobbying to
enter into politics. An undemocratic setup combined with the anti-defection law leads
India into a pseudo- democratic state which actually runs as a autocratic democracy.

If we really value the idea and philosophy of democracy then it should be practiced in as
healthy manner as the inner party democracy in USA. If there is some real democracy
and real adult-suffrage its only through inner party democracy and that is the rout to
change.

3
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to fetch this opportunity to extend some words of gratitude to my esteemed
Professor of Political Science Monica Shrivastava, who had been a constant source of
inspiration for me in the pursuance of this project. Sir has been gracious enough to guide
me on the right path which has enabled me to strengthen my efforts. I shall also thank
our professor sir to have guided me to refer to various reports and books in our
resourceful library. My batch mates were always at my side in times of pressure and need.
I shall not forget to mention the help that I got from the librarian of Dr. Ram Manohar
Lohia National Law Univeristy, who provided me with relevant books from their library
on my academic trip to their university. May I also take this opportunity to wish the
reader of my project a knowledgeable experience. Last but not the least I would like to
thank God for his blessings all through the project making. The project has been made
with utmost care & with utmost finesse to see that the information mentioned is to the
best of the accuracy and correctness.

4
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Chapter 1: Principal aims and objectives of the study

This research aims to discuss and extrapolate the concept of INNER PARTY
DEMOCRACY. The research is intended, in large part, to be a focused and intrinsic
study of the same.

AIMS:

1. To present the concept Inner Party Democracy in a concise yet efficacious

manner.
2. To identify the situation of this doctrine in the world democracies.
3. To give an overview of the concept of inner party democracy.
4. To identify the statutory reforms required to promote the doctrine.
5. To present a comprehensive a overview of the prevailing status quo.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To define the doctrine in order to give a base to understand the basics of the
concept and functionality of democracy.
2. To understand the situation in the world order.
3. To understand the real requirements to make democratic principles trickle down
to root.
4. To show a holistic picture of all the aspects related to the concept.
5. To show the importance of the concept and the inefficiency of the system that
lacks this mechanism.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

 Descriptive research: A doctrinal research methodology has been employed to

study the topic. Viewpoints of eminent authors and thinkers have been taken into

5
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

consideration. A practical study of the prevailing systems has been done to

identify efficiency linkage to the topic of study.

Chapter 2: Introduction

‘Inner Party Democracy’ connotes the democratic functioning of parties.

True democracies demand that people be involved in decision making at all levels of
decision making of which they are stake holders; this demand calls for ‘Inner party
Democracy’. Political party functioning in our society is based on an autocratic system
where the senior, more influential leaders of a party dictate its terms and are the
authorities on decision making; it has seen to result in a corrupted governmental function
that eliminates vital issues such as accountability, safeguard and prime importance of civil
rights and legitimate criticism of the actions of the government. ‘Inner Party Democracy’
seeks to resolve this.1

No concrete definition of this term is possible.2 A wide and proper definition is that ‘all
stakeholders have a say in party functioning and that the party functions as per true
democratic principles of state practice’. ‘Inner Party Democracy’ is a very flexible term
and its scope and method of appropriation depends on the prevailing system. This paper
will seek to provide and enshrine the basic principles of the term and will try to expose
the nuances of the existing system; it will seek to explore the merits and demerits of the
‘Inner Party Democracy’ and critique upon how it shall benefit our society.

For the purpose of this submission, the scholar would like to divide this paper into 5
major components:

1. Need for ‘Inner Party Democracy’

2. Elements of Inner Part Democracy

1
See Naom Chomsky, “Failed States: Abuse of Power in A Democracy”, 1st ed. (2006), p.13: The
author seeks to establish the failed state of affairs in the so called ‘Successful Democracies’ by
illustrating its true functioning. The author speaks about the same in the context of the United States
of America; he explains how power constraints are still along lines contradictory to the essence of a
‘Democracy’.
2
See Anthony Giddens, “The Third Way: Renewal Of Social Democracy”, 1st ed. (1996), p.63

6
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

3. Constitutional or Legal provisions for Inner Party Democracy

4. Leadership in an ‘Inner Party Democracy’
5. Conclusion

Chapter 3: NEED FOR INNER PARTY

DEMOCRACY

True democracy can function only if such democracy exists in all levels of the system.
The need for ‘Inner Party Democracy’ arises from this idea that the major features of a
democracy such as transparency, accountability, inclusion, strengthening of the civil
society etc. are maintained.

As a common man, the scholar would like to see the system that he is governed by to
function properly. ‘Inner Party Democracy’ ensures that such features are preserved.
Three major reasons however shall be given in support of the scholar’s argument that
‘Inner Party Democracy’ is of supreme importance in the civil society.

A. MULTIPARTY SYSTEMS

Multiparty competitive systems deem that parties are a key to and a major factor of
political power. All political parties, in attainment as well as exercise of power, must be
adequately democratic; only then can the political process of making and running a
government be truly democratic.

B. POLITICAL PARTIES REPRESENT THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF THE

POLITICAL WILL OF THE PEOPLE3

3
See Richard A. Posner, “Law Pragmatism and Democracy”, 1st ed. (2003), p. 98

7
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

For the above stated reason, the process of will formation and mobilization of action for
the good of the people must follow the fundamentals of democratic functioning. In the
absence of this, the political culture of militancy and authoritarianism set in, which are
undesirable for obvious reasons.

C. THE CONCEPT OF MERITOCRACY

It is an established fact that democracy does not function automatically; while this
principle is clearly laid down in the Constitution, it does finally come down to the
competence of the citizens and thus the parties’ key factor of functioning. Charisma,
vision, skill and commitment of the leaders is what the leadership should demand. This
can happen only through democratic functioning.

D. SETTING THE NORMS OF SOCIAL CONDUCT

Political parties are the only links that connect the people to the government. They
represent therefore, the true functioning. Their mode /method of functioning will in turn
also affect the functioning of other manifestations of peoples’ political will.

In the functioning of parties, the factor of inclusion has largely been left out of many
debates. This scholar considers it immensely important.

The bases of inclusion are: ethnicity, gender, religion, social backwardness, etc. As far as
a democratically functioning society is concerned, the factor assumes special importance
as democracy will open opportunities and incentives for the party members to raise and
discuss many social issues; consequently, such issues will assume greater importance in
preparation of political action.4 Since it is necessary that such issues play a pivotal role in
the government, ‘Inner Party Democracy’ comes as an automatic and essential corollary.

4
Khagendra Prasad, “Democratisation of Political Parties”, Paper on the related aspects of ‘Inner
Party Democracy’

8
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Chapter 4: MAJOR ELEMENTS OF INNER

PARTY DEMOCRACY

This section is included to prove that if ‘Inner Party Democracy’ is of supreme

importance, then its method, content and process are of prime concern as well.

The principle measures to be discussed under this head are as follows:

A. PARTY COMMITTEE AND THE SELECTION OF A LEADER

All levels of committee constitution and executive positions must necessarily be formed
through the process of elections. There must be provisions of accountability where in
decisions of the leader may be questioned or discussed; their actions must be liable to
legitimate criticism and judgement.

Periodic meetings and recalls are effective instruments of this. This makes the party
functioning more professional in its outlook.

B. IDEOLOGY AND POLICY FORMATION

Thoroughly informed and qualitative participation of the maximum members must help
form ideology and policy of the party.

If party policy does not represent the thinking of the majority of its individuals, its
policies will, in the long run be rendered ineffective. Here it would be important to point
out the nuances and the relevance of the concept of ‘majority’.

The term ‘majority’ is defined by the Webster’s Dictionary as “proposing a number

greater than 50%.” The significance of the term however, is twofold. Firstly, the fact
that more than 50% of the people agree on a certain issue as opposed to a minority is the
fairest way to go against the minority will. Secondly, and far more importantly, a majority
represents a physically stronger team. The fact that they are greater in number overrules
the will of the minority; their will in such cases is insignificant and they basically do not
have a choice.

9
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

For the purpose of policy formation in a party, ‘Open Discussion’ and ‘Deliberation’ are
two things that must be kept in mind.

C. IDENTIFICATION OF CANDIDATES

Selection of party candidates has been seen to be more of a factor of authoritative

members or the party high command or central committee. Such functioning is prima
facie ‘undemocratic functioning’ and demands criticism.

Two major instruments to solve this are ‘primary elections’ and a ‘democratically formed
party committees’.

The United States of America is the best example of primary elections and deserves
applaud.

D. TRANSPARENCY IN DECISION MAKING

The entire party’s decisions and decision making process must be made known, not only
to the members, but to all the people; this is because transparency in decision making
processes is the major tool for judging the merits and demerits of party functioning.

This seeks to serve two major purposes. Firstly, it gives members a platform to study the
party leadership. Secondly, it provides a platform to potential leaders for the same; and
lastly it makes a party ‘public’ in the true sense.

E. SCIENTIFIC MINDEDNESS OF THE MEMBERS5

Democratisation of a party also demands a specific state of mind from the party
members. Such a state of mind has to be developed.

1. Inquisitiveness of members
2. Open-mindedness
3. Critical Mind

5
Don McKinsley, “Introduction to Psychology”, 3rd ed. (2003), p.231.

10
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Chapter 5: CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL

PROVISIONS FOR INNER PARTY
DEMOCRACY

All parties must be governed by fundamental democratic principles. While some people
contend that this must be an entirely internal issue, the scholar believes that democratic
functioning must be subject to external regulation. The major reasons cited in support of
this argument are:6

A. All business, relation or interaction in parties must be governed by the

fundamentals of democracy; therefore, constitutional regulation is equally
attracted in a political party as the generalia.

B. The decisions and activities of parties are of public concern and thus not ‘private
matters’.

C. In a democratic system, no institution must be above the constitution; parties

must be subject to constitutional regulations and constitutional methods of
functioning.

In Germany, provisions of political parties have been defined in ‘Basic Law, Article 21(c)’
which requires “internal organization in conformity with democratic principles.”7

In Spain8, Article 6 of the Constitution requires the same.

6
See Robert A. Dahl, “On Democracy”, 1st ed. (1998), p. 224 : The author describes these reasons in
detail explaining the vital merits of Constitutional regulation of ‘Inner Party Democracy’.
7
http://www.bundestag.de/htdocs_e/parliament/function/germanlaw.pdf, last visited on 20-08-201
at 4:30 p.m. IST

11
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Similarly Article 51(5) in the Portugese Constitution9 , and the Finnish “Act on Political
Parties” prescribes that “internal structure and management of political parties must be democratic.”

The scholar’s argument is that the Constitution of India too must provide for such
safeguards and legal provisions to ensure democratic functioning of parties. As
undemocratic and autocratic setup and functioning of our parties makes the whole
concept of a functioning democracy seem lame in front of anti-defection laws in
combination with leaders for whom their parties are their fiefdoms. In retrospection, the
negatives of such a system would be hard to find.

8
http://www.servat.unibe .ch/law/icl/sp00000_html, last visited on 20-08-2010 at 5:30 p.m. IST
9
http://www. Parliamento.pt/ingles_cons_leg/crp_ing/index.html, last visited on 21-08-2016 at 6:30
p.m. IST

12
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Chapter 6: DEMOCRATIC v. UNDEMOCRATIC

FUNCTIONING

It is the opinion of the scholar that the demands from a leader in a democracy follow a
difference. Such leadership demands a democratic thought, behaviour and work style.
The fundamental differences that lead to this are as follows:

 Explanation and wider discussion are made use of by a democratic leader to

make and establish decisions vis-à-vis ‘command’ and ‘force’ used by an
‘undemocratic’ one. Greater participation is encouraged and opinions and
suggestions are seriously considered. While a democratic leader generates or
synthesizes opinion, an undemocratic leader imposes them upon citizens.

 Reciprocal and egalitarian relationships are developed between members of the

party under a democratic leader. The autocratic leader however, maintains one-
sided relations based on inequality. While the former regards other members as
co-workers, the later treats them as subordinates.

 Planning and action are made public without hiding anything by a democratic
leader; in contradiction to which, an undemocratic leader uses secret, clandestine
and conspiracy.

13
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Chapter 7: Inner Party Democracy in INDIA.

HISTORY:

Ironically, it began thus. Just before India became independent, the Congress Party had
to choose a president who would then go on to become India’s first prime minister. That
leader was not elected from the bottom, but appointed from the top - Mahatma Gandhi
chose Jawaharlal Nehru, and got the other possible contenders, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, to endorse his choice.

In India’s early decades, the Congress enjoyed a large majority by virtue of being a
driving force behind India’s independence. Meanwhile, within the Congress, Nehru
consolidated his power. Patel died in 1950, C Rajagopalachari, a dissenter when it came
to Nehru’s economic policies, was marginalised, and Nehru faced no challenges while he
was alive.

When Nehru died in 1964, no one could have foretold that the Congress would become
a feudal party. The main contenders for the prime ministership, K Kamaraj, Lal Bahadur
Shastri and Morarji Desai, were all popular leaders in their own right. Shastri got the job,
but didn’t live long. Indira Gandhi was appointed prime minister. She took over the
party, filled the key positions with her sycophants, and even ran a dictatorship for a
couple of years, aided by her son, Sanjay. The Congress became dependent on the
charisma of her family and the brand value of her family name.

India, meanwhile, has moved on from the Congress. For such a heterogenous country to
be so dominated by one party was an aberration, and it will never happen again. Politics
in India is now local. People choose their MPs based on local considerations, sometimes
at the constituency level, and sometimes at the level of the state. National trends have
ceased to matter. The coalitions that come to power after an election may change, but all
talk of “the will of the people” is naïve generalization.10

10
See Amit Verma, “Where is Inner Party Democracy in India”,
http://www.indiauncut.com/iublog/article/where-is-inner-party-democracy-in-india/ as accessed on
27-08-2016 at 09:25 p.m. IST.

14
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

STATUS QUO:

One look at the various political parties in India, will conform that our democracy is only
skin deep. While the leaders give customary lip service to democracy, their autocratic
streak is all too evident in their dealings within their own political parties. Not only do
they shamelessly promote their kith and kins, they run their parties as personal fiefdoms.
They also prevent free voicing of opinions. Any contrarian voice against the ruling clique
even at ‘Inner Party Fora’ leads to swift expulsion. Even though it is now established,
that dissent is the true essence of democracy, no political party, without exception,
provides any space for dissent. How can such a situation be conducive for the growth
and prosperity of democratic values in our polity?

Not too long ago, Government formation at the center was held hostage to the equitable
distribution of power within the progeny of Karunanidhi from his three marriages. The
recent clamour in Andhra Pradesh for anointing the political novice son of the late Chief
Minister as the CM, is symptomatic of the same problem. Indian political history is
replete with instances of dynastic successions. Led by the redoubtable Nehru- Indira
Gandhi- Rajeev- Sonia- Rahul, off late this virus has been contracted by practically every
state satrap be it Lalu – Rabri & Paswans in Bihar, Patnayaks in Orissa, Badals in Punjab,
Abdullahs and Sayeeds in J&K, Pawars and Thakareys in Maharasthtra, Gaudas in
Karnataka, Mulayam clan in U.P., Karunanidhi clan in Tamil Nadu etc. The examples are
endless on both sides of the divide. The oft repeated, specious argument that one should
not object to politician’s son becoming a politician where there is no objection to a
doctor’s son becoming a doctor and an engineer’s son becoming an engineer etc., does
not hold much water. The objections are not just based on the relatives joining politics
but more importantly on the complete absence of any due process and the walkover
awarded to these star politicians. Obviously it is at the cost of more deserving leaders and
it discourages those without such affiliations to enter politics.

All our politics is identity politics. Politicians go out there claiming to represent different
minority groups - for all groups are minority groups in our countries, even Hindus, split
by caste and region and language - and get people to vote for them for visceral,
emotional reasons. The loyalties they evoke are tribal ones.11

11
See Amit Verma, “Where is Inner Party Democracy in India”,
http://www.indiauncut.com/iublog/article/where-is-inner-party-democracy-in-india/ as accessed on
28-08-2016 at 06:25 p.m. IST.

15
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

India has among the oldest active politicians in the world. Manmohan Singh - nominated
to his post by Congress owner Sonia, and not elected to it, for all practical purposes -
leads the government at 75; LK Advani, the leader of the opposition, is 80. Contrast
these leaders with Gordon Brown (56), Nicolas Sarkozy (53) and Angela Merkel (53).
Barack Obama (46) is an embryo compared to our leaders.

The reason for this is obvious. In the absence of robust, inner-party democracy, young
leaders find it hard to rise within the system - unless, like Rahul Gandhi, Sachin Pilot,
Manvendra Singh, Akhilesh Yadav, Omar Abdullah and Jyotiraditya Scindia, they’re some
bigwig’s son taking charge of an inheritance. The old fogeys stay in charge, consolidate
their positions, and promote their sycophants.

Even otherwise, nomination of candidates for elections by Political parties is done

without any transparent due process. It is subject to the whims of the ruling clique. In
some cases, sale of party tickets to the highest bidder has also come into light. It may
seem like an internal matter of the respective political party, but it has an important
bearing on the quality of choice (or lack of it) available to the electorate.

Hence this process needs to be brought under public scrutiny. We need to devise a
model where party members duly elect their candidates for each constituency after
following a due process.12

Party system is an integral part of parliamentary democracy. It plays a crucial role in

deciding not just the candidates but also the ‘party line’ on critical issues. This ‘party line’
is then enforced in the legislatures using the anti-defection bill, if required. Normally the
political satrap’s whim becomes the will of the people. Hence political parties cannot be
left solely to the discretion of their leaders alone. They need to be more tightly regulated
by an outside agency. While the election commission mandates timely election of party
functionaries, in most cases it is a mere formality. Active electioneering is discouraged
and a consensus is concocted to keep the status quo going.

Inner party democracy will add more depth and meaning to our democracy. It will also
have a direct impact on the kind of people joining politics and a bearing on the choice
available to the electorate.

12
See http://www.nobribe.org/tag/inner-party-democracy , accessed on 26-08-2016, at 7:30 p.m. IST.

16
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Chapter 8: CONCLUSION

It is submitted by the scholar that ‘Inner Party Democracy’ must be treated as the
quintessential of the growth, evolution and perfection of democracies in their entirety.

Our country sees an absence of such functioning at the party level. The major parties of
the country follow an undemocratic system of authoritarianism and command. While
the BJP and the Congress leaders have at times displayed certain traits to implement the
same, the absence of a set of norms governing such functioning shows large gaps in the
current system of our democracy.

Rahul Gandhi has on several occasions hinted a shift in Congress functioning towards
such a system; concrete steps however, are yet to be seen.13 The congress party founded
in 1985 on the lines of trust in the authoritarian members of the party, provided they
delivered results has undergone changes with the coming of various party leaders. The
party’s functioning though is largely undemocratic.

“Inner party democracy takes many forms and can manifest itself in diverse ways. The ultimate objective
is to be as inclusive and representative as possible, keeping in mind the inherent propensities of party
functionaries to filter information as it moves upwards. Therefore the first stage is in the selection of party
functionaries, where some element of democratic functioning is necessary, if the next stage of distribution of
party tickets for elections is not to be totally rigged. Parties can also introduce gender sensitivity in their
organisational structures without waiting for any legislation mandating quotas. Finally, the representation
of all the three levels of what is after all a multilevel federal system is of the utmost importance if
democratisation is to take root in the polity.”14

13
See Balvir Arora, “Can Democracy Flourish With Undemocratic Parties”,
http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070815/independence/main3.htm, As accessed on 23-08-2016
at 8:00 p.m. IST: The author in the course of this article seeks to analyse the Indian scenario on ‘Inner
Party Democracy’ and helps the reader understand the merits of its existence.
14
Ibid.

17
 POLITICAL SCIENCE PROJECT - INNER PARTY DEMOCRACY

Newer generations of volunteers are however, showing a willingness to place a premium

upon meritocracy and pay heed to the voices of all stakeholders in party functioning.

Countries like the USA and nations of the European Union have provisions in party
policy and the Constitution itself to ensure democratic functioning at the party level.
The concept of preliminaries in the United States gives the people a say in the selection of
the candidate for the Presidential Elections in the country. Similarly countries of the
European Union have provisions in their Constitutions to facilitate democratic
functioning of parties.

Our country too sees the need of such a system; adding to the importance of this need is
the culture of secularism and the existence of varied communities that necessitate
inclusion and wider participation. The prevailing system does not promote the interests
of the larger population and hence needs to change. ‘Inner Party Democracy’ represents
that change.

18
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Chomsky, Naom. Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy.
(1st Edition). New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006.

 Chomsky, Naom. Deterring Democracy, (1st Edition). London: Verso Publications, 1991.

 Giddens, Anthony. The Third Way: The renewal Of Social Democracy, (1st Edition).
London: Polity Press, 1998.

 Dahl, Robert A . On Democracy, (1st Edition). Yale: Yale University Press, 1998.

 Tilly, Charles. Democracy, (1st Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

WEBSITES REFFERED:

 http://www.bundestag.de/htdocs_e/parliament/function/germanlaw.pdf

 http://www.servat.unibe .ch/law/icl/sp00000_html

 http://www. Parliamento.pt/ingles_cons_leg/crp_ing/index.html

 http://www.indiauncut.com/iublog/article/where-is-inner-party-democracy-in-
india/

 http://www.nobribe.org/tag/inner-party-democracy

 http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070815/independence/main3.htm

19