ELG6380 Theory of Semiconductor

Devices

Trevor J Hall
trevor.hall@uottawa.ca

Photonic Technology Laboratory (PTLab)

Centre for Research in Photonics
School of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science
Advanced Research Complex
University of Ottawa, Canada
ELG6380 Theory of Semiconductor Devices

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
 What is a semiconductor?
10 8  σ  ρ 1  103 S/cm
J  E
σ - conductivity ρ - resistivity
J - current density E - electric field
• Low resistivity ()  ‘conductor’
• High resistivity  ‘insulator’
• Intermediate resistivity  ‘semi-conductor’
– Conductivity () lies between that of conductors and insulators
– Generally crystalline in structure
• Recently non-crystalline semiconductors have become important.

3
A selection of semiconducting materials

4
Concept of Unit Cell

5
Crystallographic Notation
 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

Silicon Crystal Structure

• Unit cell of silicon crystal is

cubic.

• Each Si atom has 4 nearest

neighbors.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 7

 Silicon Wafers and Crystal Planes

 The standard notation

z z z

for crystal planes is

y y y based on the cubic
x x
unit cell.
(100) x (011) (111)

 Silicon wafers are

usually cut along the
(100) plane with a flat
or notch to help orient
Si (111) plane the wafer during IC
fabrication.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 8
 Bond Model of Electrons and Holes
Si Si Si  Silicon crystal in
a two-dimensional
Si Si Si representation.

Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

 When an electron
(a)
breaks loose and becomes(b)a conduction
electron, a hole is also created.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 9
 Dopants in Silicon

Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si As Si Si B Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

 As, a Group V element, introduces conduction electrons and creates

N-type silicon, and is called a donor.
 B, a Group III element, introduces holes and creates P-type silicon,
and is called an acceptor.
 Donors and acceptors are known m0 q4
Hydrogen: E = = 13.6 eV
as dopants. Dopant ionization ion
8e0 2h2
energy ~50meV (very low).

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 10

GaAs, III-V Compound Semiconductors, and Their Dopants

Ga As Ga

As Ga As

Ga As Ga

GaAs has the same crystal structure as Si.

GaAs, GaP, GaN are III-V compound semiconductors, important for
optoelectronics.
Which group of elements are candidates for donors? acceptors?

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 11

 Energy Band Model
} Empty upper bands

(conduction band)
2p

2s
(valence band)

} Filled lower bands

(a) (b)

Energy states of Si atom (a) expand into energy bands of Si crystal (b).
 The lower bands are filled and higher bands are empty in a semiconductor.
The highest filled band is the valence band.
The lowest empty band is the conduction band .

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 12

 Energy Band Diagram

Conduction band Ec

Band gap
Eg

Ev
Valence band

Energy band diagram shows the bottom edge of conduction band,

Ec , and top edge of valence band, Ev .
 Ec and Ev are separated by the band gap energy, Eg .

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 13

 Doping
By substituting a Si atom by an impurity atom from group V or group III a mobile
electron or hole is created

3 electrons participate in bonding. Unsatisfied

5th
4 electrons participate in bonding.
electron is easily dislodged to become
available for conduction. Donor site
becomes positively charged
bond easily accepts bonding electrons from other
sites to complete all bonds but creating a ‘hole’ that
is available for conduction. Acceptor site becomes
negatively charged.

14
 Donor and Acceptor in the Band Model

Conduction Band Ec
Donor Level Ed
Donor ionization energy

Acceptor ionization energy

Acceptor Level
Ea
Ev
Valence Band

Ionization energy of selected donors and acceptors in silicon

Donors Acceptors
Dopant Sb P As B Al In
Ionization energy, E c –E d or E a –E v (meV) 39 44 54 45 57 160

•Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 15

 1.4 Semiconductors, Insulators, and Conductors
Ec
Top of
conduction band
E g= 9 eV empty
Ec
E g = 1.1 eV filled
Ev Ev Ec

Si (Semiconductor) SiO (Insulator) Conductor

2

Totally filled bands and totally empty bands do not allow

current flow. (Just as there is no motion of liquid in a
. totally empty bottle.)
totally filled or
Metal conduction band is half-filled.
Semiconductors have lower E 's than insulators and can be
g
doped.
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 16
 1.5 Electrons and Holes

electron kinetic energy

increasing electron energy

increasing hole energy

Ec

Ev

hole kinetic energy

Both electrons and holes tend to seek their lowest

energy positions.
Electrons tend to fall in the energy band diagram.
Holes float up like bubbles in water.

Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 17

 1.5.1 Effective Mass
The electron wave function is the solution of the three
dimensional Schrodinger wave equation
2
 2  V ( r )   
2m0
The solution is of the form exp(  k  r)
k = wave vector = 2π/electron wavelength
For each k, there is a corresponding E.

qe d 2 E F
accelerati on   2 2

 dk m
2
effective mass  2
d E / dk 2
Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits (C. Hu) Slide 18
 Effective Mass
𝑑𝜔 1 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑣𝑔 1 𝑑2 𝐸 𝑑 ℏ𝑘
𝑣𝑔 = = ⟹ = 2 2
𝑑𝑘 ℏ 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑡 ℏ 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑡

1 𝑑𝐸 1 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝐸 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ 𝐹= =
𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 ℏ𝑘 ∗
𝑑𝑣𝑔 ∗
1
𝐹= =𝑚 ⟹ 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑2 𝐸
ℏ2 𝑑𝑘 2
 What is a hole?
• Mobile positive charge associated with a half-filled covalent bond
• Treat as a positive charge associated with a half-filled covalent bond
• Fluid analogy:

20
ELG6380 Theory of Semiconductor Devices

EQUILIBRIUM CARRIER STATISTICS

21
 Density of states
• Number of states per unit volume in the energy interval E1 to
E2 is: E2


 dE
g E 
E1
• g(E) is the distribution in energy of the ‘density of states’
• Should be found by projecting the states of the E-k band-
structure onto the E axis whilst preserving their number. This
is involved.
• Fortunately an excellent approximation may be made for
energies close to the bottom of the conduction band and the
top of the valence band.
22
Particle in a box approximation for a
conduction band electron

23
The box

24
 Derivation
 2  2  2
   k 2
  0 ; 0  x  a, 0  y  b, 0  z  c
x 2
y 2
z 2

where
 2k 2
k  2mE  , E 
2m
seperation of variables   x, y, z    x  x  y  y  z z  
 2 x  2 y  2 z
 x x  0  k y2 y  0 ,  z z  0
2 2
k , k
x 2
y 2 z 2

k 2  k x2  k y2  k z2
 x, y, z   A sin k x x sin k y y sin k z z 
But   0 on boundaries 
k x a  n x , k y b  n y , k z c  n z ; nx , n y , nz  1,  2,  3
25
Particle in a box: k-space unit cell

3
One solution in a volume of
abc
26
 Integration over spheres in k-space

Only positive indices Surface area of sphere 4 k 2

correspond to distinct states

27
 Tying up loose ends
unit cell, spin,
abc
(# states/unit vol of k - space)  2
3
positive octant

(# states for k : k  dk )  2 3 4 k 2 dk  abc  2 k 2 dk

1 abc 1
8  
but
 2k 2 2mE
E  k2  2
2m 
 2k  2 2mE 2
dE  dk  2
dk   E dk
m m  m
1 m dE 1
 dk  , k 2 dk  3
m 2mE dE
 2 E 

(# states for E : E  dE )  abc  2 3 m 2mE dE

1 1
 


g E dE 
1 1
m 2mE dE 28
 
2 3
Modification for Band-structure
g E  
1 1
m 2mE
 
2 3

g E   n E  Ec dE
1 1 *
m 2 m *
, E  Ec
 
2 3 n

g E   2 3 m*p 2m*p Ev  E dE , E  Ev

1 1
 
CB
mn*  mn* GaAs

m 6
*
n
23
m m 
*
l
*2
t
13
Si

m 4
*
n
23
m m 
*
l
*2
t
13
Ge
VB
m 
* 32
p  m  
* 32
hh  
 m * 32
lh GaAs, Si, Ge 29
Fermi distribution: placing balls in boxes

30
 Combinatorics
Si !
Wi 
N i !Si  N i !
W   Wi , N   Ni , E   N i Ei
i i i

ln W    ln Si !  ln  N i !  ln Si  N i !

i

Stirling' s Approximation
ln  x!  x ln  x   x , x  
ln W    Si ln Si   Si  N i ln  N i   N i  Si  N i  ln Si  N i   Si  N i 
i

  Si ln Si   N i ln  N i   Si  N i  ln Si  N i 

i

Lagrange Multipliers
ln W  N , E   Si ln Si   N i ln  N i   Si  N i  ln Si  N i     N i    N i Ei
i i i


ln W  N , E   ln  N i   1  ln Si  N i   1     Ei  0
N i

S 
f Ei  
Ni 1
ln i  1     Ei  0 , 
 Ni  Si 1  exp  Ei 
31
 , ?
• should agree with classical Boltzmann distribution at high energy according
to correspondence principle fixes =1/KT
•  is dimensionless and may be written = Ef/KT where Ef is an unknown
parameter with dimensions of energy
• behaviour as kT0 confirms these are good choices with a positive Ef - the
Fermi Energy.

exp   E   1
  E  Ef 
f E   exp   E   exp   
  KT 

Ef 1
  , 
KT KT
32
 Fermi-Dirac Statistics

f E  
1
 E  E f 
Probability f(E)

1  exp  
1  k BT 
Boltzmann’s constant

Temperature T=0
0.5
Temperature T>0

The Fermi Energy

Energy E
0 Ef

33
Energy-band diagram of an intrinsic
semiconductor

•Ef

34
n-type semiconductor

Ef

35
p-type semiconductor

Ef

36
Equilibrium Carrier Distributions

37
Band Bending

PE  qV  Ec  Eref


V 
1
Ec  Eref 
q
1
E  V  Ec ,
q
.E  e 1  , .D   

38
Effective Density of Conduction / Valence
Band States
g c E  f E dE , g v E 1  f E dE
Etop Ev
n p
Ec Ebottom

little error if Etop   , Ebottom  

n  N C F  Ec  E f  kT  , p  N v F  E f  Ev  kT 
2 2
 2mn* kT  3  2m*p kT  3
N C  2  , N v  2 
2  h 2 
 h   
note

 1 2 d
F     exp   ,  
2

 0 1  exp    
hence for Ec  E f & E f  Ev greater th an ~ 3kT

n  N C exp  Ec  E f  kT  , 
p  N C exp  E f  Ev  kT 39
 ni and the np product
for a non - degenerate semiconduc tor

np  N c N v exp  E g kT  , E g  Ec  Ev
for an intrinsic semiconduc tor
n  p  ni
2
i 
n  N c N v exp  E g kT  , E g  Ec  E v

np  n2
i

40
ELG6380 Theory of Semiconductor Devices

TRANSPORT

41
 Drift

m* v n  qEt  t n   m*u n , u n  v n || E

n t  tn  m N
1 1 1
m *

N
n v n  qE N *
u
n
n

m* v  qE m

v  E ,   q m m* 42
Drift Current & Ohm’s Law

Q p  qpv p tA , Qn  qnvntA

J p  qpv p , J n  qnv n
v p   pE , v n  nE

J p  qp p E , J n  qn n E
J p   pE , J n   nE
 p  qp p ,  n  qn n 43
 Diffusion

J p  qDpp , J n  qDnn
44
 Charge Continuity
Continuity Equation Gauss’ Theorem

 .D  
.J  
t
Maxwell’s ‘H’ equation & displacement current

 
  H  J  D  .J  .D  0
t t
45
 Einstein Relationship
in equilibriu m in equilibriu m
n p
J drift  J diff  q n nE  qDn 0 , J drift  J diff  q p pE  qD p 0 ,
x x
 
Dn  Dp 
E ln n  E ln  p 
 n x  p x
but in equilibriu m but in equilibriu m

n  N c exp  Ec  E f  kT  
p  N v exp  E f  Ev  kT 
Dn  1   Dn q  Dp  1  Dn q 
E  Ec     

 n  kT x   n kT x E  E v   
 p  kT x   n kT x


Dn kT
 Dn kT
n q 
n q

46
 Dielectric Relaxation
Gauss’ Theorem & Electric
Continuity Equation & Ohm’s Law Material Equation


.J  
t
.D  
.E  
 .eE  
t
Charge relaxation

 
   0   t    0 exp  t  d  ,  d  e 
t e

47
 Local Charge Neutrality

.eE  
  q p  n  N  N 
D

A 
For uniformly doped material under equilibrium conditions,
there will be no carrier diffusion current (carrier density will be
uniform) or carrier drift current (equilibrium) and hence no
electric field or net charge density.

 
pn N  N  0 D A

48
 Putting it together
Continuity Equation for electrons Continuity Equation for holes

n 1 p 1
 g n  rn  .J n  g p  rp  .J p
t q t q
rn  n  n  rp  p  p 
Current due to electrons Current due to holes

J n  qn nE  qDnn J p  q p pE  qDpp

49
ELG6380 Theory of Semiconductor Devices

PN JUNCTION THE PROTOTYPE

DEVICE
Electron diffusion across a pn junction

51
Reverse bias condition

52
Forward bias condition

53
 p-n junction at zero bias
Minority thermally generated
electrons swept across junction by
depletion field
p
Energetic majority electrons
Ec
surmount barrier

Ec

Ev

Energetic majority holes

surmount barrier Ev
Minority thermally generated holes n
swept across junction by depletion
field

54
 p-n junction with forward bias
Minority thermally generated
electrons swept across junction by
depletion field
p (+)
Ec Increased number of energetic
majority electrons surmount
reduced barrier

eVpn Ec

Ev
Increased numbers of
energetic majority holes
surmount barrier Ev
Minority thermally generated holes n (-)
swept across junction by depletion
field

55
 p-n junction with reverse bias
p (-) Minority thermally generated
electrons swept across junction by
depletion field

Ec Reduced numbers of
energetic majority electrons
surmount increased barrier

eVpn Ec

Ev

Reduced numbers of
energetic majority holes Ev
surmount increased barrier
Minority thermally generated holes n (+)
swept across junction by depletion
field

56
p-n junction I-V characteristics

57