A major role of the CELL WALL is to form a framework for
the cell to prevent over expansion. Cellulose fibers,
structural proteins, and other polysaccharides help to
maintain the shape and form of the cell. Additional
functions of the cell wall include:
Support: The cell wall provides mechanical strength and
support. It also controls the direction of cell growth.
Withstand turgor pressure: Turgor pressure is the force
exerted against the cell wall as the contents of the cell push
the plasma membrane against the cell wall. This pressure
helps a plant to remain rigid and erect, but can also cause a
cell to rupture.
Regulate growth: The cell wall sends signals for the cell to
enter the cell cycle in order to divide and grow.
Regulate diffusion: The cell wall is porous allowing some
substances, including proteins, to pass into the cell while
keeping other substances out.
Communication: Cells communicate with one another via
plasmodesmata (pores or channels between plant cell walls
that allow molecules and communication signals to pass
between individual plant cells).
Protection: The cell wall provides a barrier to protect
against plant viruses and other pathogens. It also helps to
prevent water loss.
Storage: The cell wall stores carbohydrates for use in plant
growth, especially in seeds.
Plant PLASTIDS are a group of closely related membrane-
bound organelles that carry out many functions. They are
responsible for photosynthesis, for storage of products such
as starch, and for the synthesis of many types of molecules
that are needed as cellular building blocks. Plastids have the
ability to change their function between these and other
forms. Plastids contain their own DNA and some ribosomes,
and scientists think that plastids are descended from
photosynthetic bacteria that allowed the first eukaryotes to
make oxygen. The main types of plastids and their functions
are:
CHLOROPLAST are the organelle of photosynthesis. They
capture light energy from the sun and use it with water and
carbon dioxide to make food (sugar) for the plant. The
arrangement of chloroplasts in a plant’s cells can be seen in
Figure below.
CHROMOPLAST make and store pigments that give petals
and fruit their orange and yellow colors.
A THYLAKOID is a sheet-like membrane-bound structure
that is the site of the light-dependent photosynthesis
reactions in chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. It is the site
that contains the chlorophyll used to absorb light and use it
for biochemical reactions. Also known as LAMELLAE
Thylakoids that make up GRANA contain important light-
absorbing pigments, such as chlorophyll. When light strikes
these pigments, they split water, releasing oxygen as a
byproduct in the process of photolysis.
Grana are stacks of structures called thylakoids, which are
little disks of membrane on which the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis take place. Stacked into grana,
the shape of the thylakoids allow for optimum surface area,
maximizing the amount of photosynthesis that can happen.
STROMA, in botany, refers to the colorless fluid surrounding
the grana within the chloroplast.
Within the stroma are grana, stacks of thylakoids, the sub-
organelles, the daughter cells, where photosynthesis is
commenced before the chemical changes are completed in
the stroma.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-
dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it
to make the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH.
During the second stage, the light-independent reactions
use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.
LEUCOPLAST do not contain pigments and are located in
roots and non-photosynthetic tissues of plants. They may
become specialized for bulk storage of starch, lipid, or
protein. However, in many cells, leucoplasts do not have a
major storage function. Instead, they make molecules such
as fatty acids and many amino acids.
a. Amyloplasts: These leucoplasts convert glucose to
starch for storage. The starch is stored as granules
in amyloplasts of tubers, seeds, stems, and fruit.
The dense starch grains cause amyloplasts to
sediment in plant tissue in response to gravity. This
induces growth in a downward direction.
Amyloplasts also synthesize transitory starch. This
type of starch is stored temporarily in chloroplasts
to be broken down and used for energy at night
when photosynthesis does not occur. Transitory
starch is found primarily in tissues where
photosynthesis occurs, such as leaves.
 b. Elaioplasts: These leucoplasts synthesize fatty acids Protection - some vacuoles store and release chemicals that
and store oils in lipid-filled microcompartments are poisonous or taste bad to deter predators from
called plastoglobuli. They are important to the consuming the plant.
proper development of pollen grains.
Seed germination - vacuoles are a source of nutrients for
c. Etioplasts: These light-deprived chloroplasts do not
seeds during germination. They store the necessary
contain chlorophyll but have the precursor pigment
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats needed for growth.
for chlorophyll production. Once exposed to light,
chlorophyll production occurs and etioplasts are
converted to chloroplasts.
d. Proteinoplasts: Also called aleuroplasts, these CELL SAP the liquid inside the large central vacuole of a
plant cell that serves as storage of materials and provides
leucoplasts store protein and are often found in
mechanical support, especially in non-woody plants. It has
seeds.
also a vital role in plant cell osmosis.The cytosol, which is
the watery fluid component of the cytoplasm.
The liquid found inside the plant cell vacuole referred to as
VACUOLES are fluid-filled, enclosed structures that are
the cell sap is a dilute fluid consisting of water, amino
separated from the cytoplasm by a single membrane. They
acids, glucoseand salts.
are found mostly in plant cells and fungi. However, some
protists, animal cells, and bacteria also contain vacuoles.
Vacuoles are responsible for a wide variety of important
functions in a cell including nutrient storage, detoxification,
and waste exportation. You are a eukaryote. Your cells are eukaryotic. Eukaryotic
cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a
Function nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled,
Plant cell vacuoles perform a number of functions in a cell such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects.
including:
 Contain membrane-bound organelles, including
Turgor pressure control - turgor pressure is the force nucleus
exerted against the cell wall as the contents of the cell push  Bigger in size
the plasma membrane against the cell wall. The water filled
Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do
central vacuole exerts pressure on the cell wall to help plant
not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound
structures remain rigid and erect.
organelle. Prokaryotes include two groups: bacteria and
Growth - the central vacuole aids in cell elongation by another group called archaea.
absorbing water and exerting turgor pressure on the cell
 Do not contain a nucleus or other membrane-bound
wall. This growth is aided by the release of certain proteins
organelles
that reduce cell wall rigidity.

Storage - vacuoles store important minerals, water,

nutrients, ions, waste products, small molecules, enzymes,
and plant pigments.

Molecule degradation - the internal acidic environment of a

vacuole aids in the degradation of larger molecules sent to
the vacuole for destruction. The tonoplast helps to create
this acidic environment by transporting hydrogen ions from
the cytoplasm into the vacuole. The low pH environment
activates enzymes, which degrade biological polymers.

Detoxification - vacuoles remove potentially toxic

substances from the cytosol, such as excess heavy metals
and herbicides.