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MEE1004
Topics to be discussed…
throat.
The two conical portions have the same base diameter, but one is
having a shorter length with a larger cone angle while the other is
having a larger length with a smaller cone angle.
Such a constricted convergent-divergent passage was first
demonstrated by an Italian scientist Giovanni Battista Venturi in
1797
Working:
The venturimeter is always used in a way that the upstream part
of the flow takes place through the short conical portion while the
downstream part of the flow through the long one.
This ensures a rapid converging passage and a gradual diverging
passage in the direction of flow to avoid the loss of energy due to
separation.
In course of a flow through the converging part, the velocity
increases in the direction of flow according to the principle of
continuity, while the pressure decreases according to Bernoulli’s
theorem.
The velocity reaches its maximum value and pressure reaches its
minimum value at the throat. Subsequently, a decrease in the
velocity and an increase in the pressure takes place in course of
flow through the divergent part.
Measurement of Flow by a Venturimeter
From continuity
For the manometer we can write
(1)
Where
where, the theoretical discharge rate is predicted by the Eq. (1) with
the measured value of Δh, and the actual rate of discharge is the
discharge rate measured in practice.
Value of Cd for a venturimeter usually lies between 0.95 to 0.98.
Orificemeter
Construction:
An orificemeter provides a simpler and cheaper arrangement
for the measurement of flow through a pipe.
An orificemeter is essentially a thin circular plate with a sharp
edged concentric circular hole in it.
Working
The orifice plate, being fixed at a section of the pipe, creates an
obstruction to the flow by providing an opening in the form of an
orifice to the flow passage.
The area A0 of the orifice is much smaller than the cross-sectional
area of the pipe. The flow from an upstream section, where it is
uniform, adjusts itself in such a way that it contracts until a section
downstream the orifice plate is reached, where the vena contracta is
formed, and then expands to fill the passage of the pipe.
One of the pressure tapings is usually provided at a distance of one
diameter upstream the orifice plate where the flow is almost uniform
(Sec. 1-1) and the other at a distance of half a diameter downstream
the orifice plate.
Considering the fluid to be ideal and the downstream pressure taping
to be at the vena contracta (Sec. c-c), we can write, by applying
Bernoulli’s theorem between Sec. 1-1 and Sec.c-c,
where p1* and pc* are the piezometric pressures at Sec.1-1 and c-c
respectively
From the equation of continuity, A1V1 = AcVc where Ac is the area
of the vena contracta, we get
Where
where 'Δh' is the difference in liquid levels in the manometer and ρm
is the density of the manometric liquid.
The measured value of the piezometric pressure drop for a real fluid
is always more due to friction than that assumed in case of an
inviscid flow, a coefficient of velocity Cv (always less than 1) has to
be introduced to determine the actual velocity Vc
(2)
The value of C depends upon the ratio of orifice to duct area, and
the Reynolds number of flow.
The main job in measuring the flow rate with the help of an
orificemeter, is to find out accurately the value of C at the operating
condition.
The downstream manometer connection should strictly be made to
the section where the vena contracta occurs, but this is not feasible
as the vena contracta is somewhat variable in position and is
difficult to realize.
In practice, various positions are used for the manometer
connections and C is thereby affected. Determination of accurate
values of C of an orificemeter at different operating conditions is
known as calibration of the orifice meter.
A comparison of the typical values of Cd, accuracy, and
the cost of three flow meters
Example:#1
where p and V are the pressure and velocity respectively at the point A
at Sec. I-I, and p0 is the pressure at B which, according to the definition,
refers to the stagnation pressure at point A.
The stagnation pressure p0 consists of two terms, the static pressure, p
and the term ρV2/2 which is known as dynamic pressure
Pitot Tube
Construction:
The principle of flow measurement by Pitot tube was adopted
Simple Pitot Tube (a) tube for measuring the Stagnation Pressure
(b) Static and Stagnation tubes together
The liquid flows up the tube and when equilibrium is attained, the
liquid reaches a height above the free surface of the water stream
Since the static pressure, under this situation, is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure due to its depth below the free surface , the
difference in level between the liquid in the glass tube and the free
surface becomes the measure of the dynamic pressure
Where po, p and V are the stagnation pressure, static pressure and
velocity respectively at point A
Or
Such a tube is known as Pitot tube and provides one of the most
accurate means of measuring fluid velocity
For an open stream of liquid with a free surface , this single tube is
sufficient to determine the velocity
But for a liquid flowing through a closed duct, the pitot tube
measures only the stagnation pressure and so the static pressure
must be measured separately.
Measurement of static pressure in this case is made at the boundary
of the wall
The axis of the tube measuring the static pressure must be
perpendicular to the boundary and free from burrs.
Example #2
(4)
In this equation
N - flow property which is transported
This theorem in its analytical form, ie. Eqn. (4), is used converting
the statement of basic laws of physics as referred to a control mass
system to a statement with reference to a control volume.
Application of the Reynolds Transport Theorem to
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of mass The constancy of mass is inherent in the
definition of a control mass system and therefore we can write
(5)
(6)