Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
.………………….
Central Committee
Department of Pharmaceutics
…………………..
2000 - 2001
Dear Students,
Best Regards
Central Committee
Department of pharmaceutics,
Faculty of Pharmacy and Health Sciences
2
Table of Contents
Part 2 Powders
Exp. (1) Introduction 9
Determination of angle of repose of powders
Part 3 Granules
Exp. (1) Introduction 25
Preparation of Effervescent Sodium Citra tartarate
granules
Exp. (2) Preparation of Effervescent Pot. Citra Tartarate 29
granules
Exp. (3) Preparation of Dried dibasic sodium phosphate 30
granules
Exp. (4) Preparation of Sulfate citra Tartarate effervescent 30
granules
Part 4 Tablets
compressed tablet 32
Exp. (1) Preparation of 80 tablets of Aspirin using Direct 35
Compression Method
3
Exp. (2) Preparation of 80 tablets of Aspirin U.S.P using 36
Slugging Method
Exp. (3) Preparation of 100 tablets of Chewable Antacid tablets 38
using Wet Granulation Method
Evaluation of Tablets 39
Exp. (1) A) Unofficial tastes: 39
-Determination of tablet hardness
- Measurement of Friability
Exp. (2) B) Official standards : 44
- Determination of Weight Variation
- Determination of Content Uniformity
Exp. (3) - Tablet disintegration 47
- Tablet dissolution
Part 5 Capsules
Exp. (1) Introduction 50
- Preparation of Ephedrine Sulfate and Phenobarbital
Capsules
Exp. (2) - Preparation of Analgesic Cachets 56
- Preparation of Atropine Sulfate Capsules
Part 6 Suppositories
Exp. (1) Introduction 58
Calibration of the mould (using Oily Base )
Calculation of displacement value of solid
medication in suppositories ( using C.B. bases )
Preparation of Iodoform suppositories
Exp. (2) Preparation of Glycerogelatin bases ( Aqueous 64
Base )
Calibration of Suppository Molds with
Glycerinated Gelatin Base
4
Part 1
5
Experiment (1) :
Trituration method:
Rx
Corn starch 98 g
Light magnesium oxide 2g
Send 20 g
Sig. : to be used U.D.
Procedure :
1- Pulverize starch and magnesium oxide to fine powders , and pass through a
90-mesh sieve.
2- Triturate the two powders ( starch over magnesium oxide ) in a mortar with
pestle, using geometrical dilution method .
Calculation :
6
Liquids Aliquot Method:
This technique is similar to the trituration method but employs liquid rather
than solid diluents. It is used only when the product to be dispensed is a liquid. A
weighable quantity of drug is dissolved in a calculated volume of a suitable solvent,
usually water or ethanol. Then, an aliquot of the solution containing the desired
amount of drug is removed.
Use the liquid aliquot method to prepare, label and dispense the following
prescription.
Rx
Amaranth 0.0075%
Aqua Dist. q. s ad. O. i
Calculation :
Rx
Sodium Salicylate 0.5 g
Sodium metabisulfite 0.05g
Double strength chloroform water 26.25 ml
Water ad. 50 ml
Note : Because of the limitation of the prescription balance you should use Aliquot
method to accurately deliver sodium bisulfite (dissolve 0.2 g of sodium bisulfite in 4
ml of water and use 1 ml for the prescription.
7
Part 2
Powders
8
Introduction :
Below is a list of mesh sizes and the size of the mesh opening in millimeters
(1/1000 of a meter) or microns (1/1,000,000) of a meter. Of coarse there is a
correlation between the size of the mesh opening and the particle size of the sifted
powder. As the opening becomes smaller, so will be resulting particle size. Most of
the particles of a sifted powder will have approximately the size as the mesh
opening.
9
Mesh Opening Size
Mesh Size
millimeters microns
Number
2 9.52 9520
4 4.76 4760
8 2.38 2380
10 2.00 2000
20 0.84 840
30 0.59 590
40 0.42 420
50 0.297 297
60 0.250 250
70 0.210 210
80 0.177 177
100 0.149 149
120 0.125 125
200 0.074 74
The USP 24/NF19 uses descriptive terms to define powder fineness. The table
below shows the correlation their classification
10
Trituration is the continuous rubbing or grinding of the powder in a mortar
with a pestle. This method is used when working with hard, fracturable
powders.
Classification of Powders :
Bulk Powders:
Bulk powders are non potent and can be dosed with acceptable accuracy and
safety using measuring devices such as the teaspoon, cup, or insufflator. This
practically limits the use of orally administered bulk powders to antacids, dietary
supplements, laxatives, and a few analgesics. Many bulk powders are used topically.
Divided Powders :
Dusting Powders :
11
Dusting powders are fine medicinal (bulk) powders intended to be dusted on the
skin by means of sifter-top containers. A single medicinal agent may be used as a
dusting powder; however, a base is frequently used to apply a medicinal agent and to
protect the skin from irritation and friction. Bentonite, kaolin, kieselguhr,
magnesium carbonate, starch, and talc are used as inert bases for dusting powders.
Powder bases absorb secretions and exert a drying effect, which relieves congestion
and imparts a cooling sensation. All extemporaneous dusting powders should be
passed through a 100-200 mesh sieve to ensure that they are grit free and will not
further mechanically irritate traumatized areas.
Douche Powders :
Douche powders are used to prepare solutions that cleanse the vagina. Most
douche powders are used for their hygienic effects, but a few contain antibiotics.
Douche powders are prescribed as a matter of convenience for the patient, since a
powder is more portable than a bulky solution. The formula is developed so that a
teaspoonful or tablespoonful of powder dissolved in a specified volume of water
provides the desired concentration. The pH usually ranges from 3.5 to 5 when the
solution is prepared. Feminine bulb syringes or fountain syringes are used for
vaginal irrigation. Since many of the ingredients are volatile (e.g., menthol, thymol,
and volatile oils), douche powders should be packaged in glass jars with a wide
mouth. Some commercial douche powders are available in metal foil packets, which
contain the proper amount of powder for a single douche. Many douches are also
available as prepared unit of use solutions in disposable applicators.
Insufflations:
Powder Sprays:
12
uniformity of application. In general, powders that are to be packaged as powder
sprays must not contain particles greater than 50 microns if they are to be sprayed
successfully.
Experiment (1)
Procedure :
4- Measure the diameter of the formed circle ( take the average of two diameters )
5- Repeat the process three times and calculate the average diameter (d ) , and the
radius r = d / 2 .
6- The height of the heap ( the distance between the horizontal surface and the lower
tip of the funnel is called ( h )
13
Table (1)
Height Radius
Powder h/r Remark
(h) (r)
Lactose
2 % Talc
Aspirin
Magnesium Stearate
Sodium Alginate
Lactose + 2% Talc
14
Experiment (2)
A) Preparation of Divided Powders :
Rx
Magnesium trisilicate
Tribasic calcium phosphate
Activated charcoal aa 0.19 g
Procedure:
Rx
Camphor 0.1 g
Starch 0.6 g
Zinc Oxide 0.3 g
Send 20 G
15
Procedure:
1. Weigh the camphor and try to pulverize in the mortar with pestle.
2. Add few drops of alcohol and pulverize.
3. Mix starch and zinc oxide and gradually add to camphor while
triturating until uniformity .
4. Pass through 90-mesh sieve.
Rx
Magnesium trisilicate 250g
Chalk, in powder 250g
Sodium bicarbonate 250g
Heavy magnesium carbonate 250g
Procedure:
Storage:
Store in a dry place, in amber glass screw capped jar or plastic pot.
The powder should be taken mixes with a little water or other fluid between
meals, if counter prescribed prolong use should be discouraged without medical
advice.
16
D) Preparation of oral re-hydration salts BP for three separate 200ml doses of
solution. Pack the powder for each dose.
Note: The ingredients are all active the preparation may be flavored if required.
Procedure:
1. Make a small excess to allow for losses in the mortar.
2. Mix the powders in a mortar in order of increasing bulk pass the resulting mix
through a 250m sieve.
3. lightly remix and pack.
Storage:
Store in a dry place , supply each dose 8.80g in an individual
amber glass screw capped jar or plastic pot.
17
Experiment (3) : Particle Size Analysis
1. Tables :
The most precise and general method of data presentation is the tabular
form , since the data can be expressed explicitly . The table can be a listing of
size versus one of the many ways of expressing their distribution . e.g. Size
frequency or size cumulation.
2. Graphs.
Histograms :
Size frequency curve is a smooth curve drawn through the mid points of
the bars of a histogram .
Cumulative Plots :
18
Microscopy
Procedure :
19
Cumulative
Size Size
mid-size Number n Over- Over-
group group in n*d Counting
(d) (n) % Size Size
in mm microns
20
Illustrated Example
[ (n%*(dr))3]
Mean Volume Surface diameter, dsv = _______________ =56.77 µ
[ (n%*(dr))2]
[ (n%*(dr))4]
Mean Weigh diameter, dw = _______________ = 7.05 µ
[ (n%*(dr))3]
21
22
n%
Frequency (n%)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
1.135 - 4.54
0.0
4.54 - 9.08
9.08 - 13.62
13.62 - 18.16
18.16 - 22.70
50.0
22.70 - 31.78
31.87 - 40.86
Histogram
40.86 - 49.94
Mid. Size
94.94 - 59.02
100.0
Partical Size Range (u)
59.02 - 77.18
77.18 - 95.34
95.34 - 113.50
150.0
Sieving
This is the simplest and most widely used method of determining particle size
distribution . Results are obtained on weight basis , it useful to a practical lower limit
of 76 µ .
Procedure :
Weigh accurately about 100 gm . of the supplied powder , place on the top
sieve of the stack of sieves , cover and shake for 10 minutes . Weigh the remaining
powder on each sieve . Tabulate your results and calculate d av.
Plot the weight distribution curve and the cumulative undersize curve of the
results .
Cumulative%
Screen- Mean
Weight %Weight
opening Screen Weight-size
Retained Retained Over- Over-
opening
Size Size
23
Part 3
Granules
24
Granulation
25
Similar calculations show that 2.24 gm of sodium bicarbonate react with 2 gm of
tartaric acid
Thus, with the acids in a ratio of 1:2, it has been calculated that 3.44 g (1.2 g +
2.24 g) of sodium bicarbonate is necessary to react stoichiometrically with the 3 g of
combined acids. To enhance the flavor, the amount of sodium bicarbonate may be
reduced to 3.4 gm to allow for a small amount of unreacted acid to provide a tart
taste.
The ratio of two acids should be adjusted as excess tartaric acid will lead to
tough mass , while excess of citric acid will lead to soft mass .
Aim of Granulation:
26
Methods of preparation :
1- Fusion method
In the fusion , the one molecule of water present in each molecule of citric
acid acts as the binding agent for the powder mixture . After weighing the
required amount of powders they are mixed together to ensure the uniformity of the
mixture. Then the powder is placed on a porcelain dish on boiling water bath and
stirred with the help of a glass rod . The heat causes the release of the water of
crystallization from the citric acid which in turn dissolves a portion of the powder
mixture, setting of the chemical reaction and the consequent release of some carbon
dioxide. This causes the softened mass of powder to become somewhat spongy, and
when of the proper consistency as bread dough ,it is removed from the oven and
rubbed through an acid resistant sieve to produce granules are dried at temperature
not more than 54 – 60 o C and transferred to containers which are then promptly and
tightly sealed . The fused method is used in the preparation of most commercial
effervescent powder .
Calculation :
Calculate for slight excess due to the mechanical loss ( loss from handling the
materials and during the preparation ) and the chemical loss (loss from liberation of
CO2 & H2O , the chemical loss nearly equals to 1/7 formula).
27
Experiment 1:
1110 g
These amounts of the ingredient base will give 1000 g only , thus 110 g
which is lost due to liberated CO2 & H2O ( chemical loss).
calculation:
33.3 g. Total
Thus 33.3 g is the total amount of ingredient after adding the amounts which
can loose during handling and during chemical reactions.
28
If the amount of sodium bicarbonate is not known , calculate it as follows :
In the prescription the amount used is 510 g ,so the final solution will be
slightly acidic.
Experiment 2:
Rx
Pot. citrate 200 g.
Tartaric acid 477 g.
Citric acid 252 g.
Sucrose 150 g.
29
Experiment 3 :
Rx
Dried dibasic sodium phosphate 200g
Sodium bicarbonate 477g
Tartaric acid 252g
Citric acid monohydrate 162g
Experiment 4:
Rx
Doses :
16 g as cathartic.
2.5 g as mild Laxative .
30
Part 4
Tablets
31
Compressed Tablets
Introduction :
The compressed tablet is one of the most popular dosage forms today. About
one-half of all prescriptions dispensed are for tablets. Usually one considers a
compressed tablet as an oral medication; however, tablets have many other uses. The
sublingual tablet, the pellet, the wafer, the troche, and the vaginal insert are
manufactured by the same procedure as an oral tablet.
Tablets contains certain excipients selected to aid the processing and improve
the properties of the product .
Tablet Excipients :
1) Fillers : used to increase the bulk of the tablet . it is generally not feasible to
make tablets with a weight of loss than about 70 mg. It is essential that fillers be
inert and stable .
A - Soluble : lactose , sucrose , mannitol , sorbitol .
B – Insoluble: calcium sulfate , dicalcium phosphate , tricalcium
phosphate , starch , calcium carbonate .
2) Binders : the substance that glue powders together and cause them to form
granules are the binders or adhesives. They are either sugars or polymeric
materials.
Examples
- Water .
- Ethanol ,
- Acacia mucilage (10-20%) and it gives hard ,friable granules ,
-Tragacanth mucilage (10-20%) ,
- Gelatin solutions (2-10%) , they are strong sdhesive ,use warm.
-Starch mucilage (5-10 %) , one of the best general adhesieves ,use warm.
- Glucose syrup (25-50%) , strongly adhesive , tablet may soften in high
humidity
- PVP (3-15%)
32
- Cellulose derivative (5-10 %)
33
- Bentonite ( 5-15 % w/w)
34
Experiments :
There are three methods of commercially making compressed tablets:
1) The Direct Compression Method :
A compressible vehicle is blended with the medicinal agent, and if necessary,
with a lubricant and a disintegrant, and then the blend is compressed. Substances
that are commonly used as directly compressible vehicles are: anhydrous lactose,
dicalcium phosphate (Emcompress), granulated mannitol, microcrystalline cellulose
(Avicel), compressible sugar (Di-Pac), starch (Sta-Rx 1500), hydrolyzed starch
(Celutab), and a blend of sugar, invert sugar, starch and magnesium stearate (Nutab).
Experiment 1 :
Preparation of 80 tablets of Aspirin using Direct Compression Method
Prepare 80 tablets of Aspirin each containing 325 mg.
Procedure :
1. Screen aspirin on 40 mesh sieve to remove the fine particles.
2. Blend all the ingredients in a mortar using plastic spatula.
3. Compress into tablets using 9 mm standard concave punches.
35
2) The Dry Granulation Method (Slugging Method) :
The ingredients in the formulation are intimately mixed and precompressed on
heavy duty tablet machines. The slug which is formed is ground to a uniform size
and compressed into the finished tablet.
However, when direct compression is not possible due to the properties and
those of the drug ,and wet granulation cannot be used because the drug is sensitive
to moisture and heat, then dry granulation remains the only method available.
Experiment 2 :
Preparation of 80 tablets of Aspirin U.S.P using Slugging Method :
Prepare 80 tablets of aspirin U.S.P. (fine)
36
3) The Wet Granulation Method :
This method has more operational manipulations, and is more time-consuming
than the other methods.
The wet granulation method is not suitable for drugs which are thermo labile or
hydrolysable by the presence of water in the liquid binder. The general steps
involved in a wet granulation process are:
The powdered ingredients are weighed and mixed intimately by
geometric dilution.
The granulating solution or binder is prepared.
The powders and the granulation solution are kneaded to proper
consistency.
The wet mass is forced through a screen or wet granulator.
The granules are dried in an oven or a fluidized bed dryer.
The dried granules are screened to a suitable size for
compression.
A lubricant and a disintegrating agent are mixed with the
granulation.
The granulation is compressed into the finished tablet.
37
Experiment 3 :
Preparation of 100 tablets of Chewable Antacid tablets using
Wet Granulation Method :
Prepare 100 Chewable antacid tablets .
Procedure:
1. Mix the first three ingredients and moisten with a 10 % gelatin solution until
formation of coherent mass.
2. Granulate by passing through 10 mesh screen.
3. Dry at 50o C. Overnight, screen the drug granules through 20/35 mesh.
4. Add the oil of peppermint mixed with talc and finally the magnesium stearate.
5. Mix for 5 minutes in a cubic mixer.
6. Compress using 12 mm flat face punishes.
38
Evaluation of Tablets
Tablets are evaluated by a variety of methods.
A) Unofficial Tests :
1.Tablet hardness
The tablets must be hard enough to withstand mechanical stress during
packaging, shipment, and handling by the consumer. Section <1216> of the USP
24/NF19 outlines a standard tablet friability test applicable to manufactured tablets.
Most compounding pharmacy would not have the apparatus specified in Section
<1216>. However, there are several hand operated tablet hardness testers that might
be useful. Examples of devices are the Strong Cobb, Pfizer, and Stokes hardness
testers. The principle of measurement involves subjecting the tablet to an increasing
load until the tablet breaks or fractures. The load is applied along the radial axis of
the tablet. Oral tablets normally have a hardness of 4 to 8 or 10 kg; however,
hypodermic and chewable tablets are much softer (3 kg) and some sustained release
tablets are much harder (10-20 kg).
Experiment 1 :
39
Hardness Tester _______________
Tablet Mean
Hardness 1 Hardness 2 Hardness 3
Type Hardness
Comment on Results :
2. Friability Test:
Measurement of Friability : This test is designed to measure the ability of
the tablet to withstand handling and transportation.
40
Procedure : ( using Roche Friabilator ) :
1. Take 20 tablets dedust and weigh them (wo)
2. Place tablets in friability drum , switch on the apparatus adjusting the timer to 4
min. , and the speed at 25 r.p.m.
3. At the end of the operation the tablets are removed , de dusted and re- weighed
(w) . should any tablet break the batch is rejected .
4. Friability B is expressed as a percentage loss in weight :
B =100 (1 - (w/wo ) )
5. If value of B is 1.0 % or less , the batch is accepted .
41
B) Official Standards(U.S.P.)
I ) Uniformity of Dosage Units :
Analytical determination of tablet content:
This probably will not be done due to the requirement of specialized
equipment. However, the weight variation of the tablets can be measured by
weighing each individual tablets and determining the percent difference from the
intended amount. Guidelines in the USP 24/NF19 Supplement 1 indicate that each
tablet "shall be not less than 90% and not more than 110% of the theoretically
calculated weight for each unit."
Experiment 2 :
Determination of Weight Variation:
The total weight of a tablet is determined by the depth of the die cavity, bulk
density of granules or powder, and uniformity of particulate flow. Even with a
proper granulation having uniform flow, a volume fill is not as accurate as a fill
based on weight. Therefore, tablet weight variations must fall within certain
specifications established by the USP.
Tablets are required to meet a weight variation test where the active ingredient
comprises a major portion of the tablet , tablets containing 50 mg or less of active
ingredients , comprising less than 50% by weight of the tablet should pass a content
uniformity test.
Procedure :
Select 30 tablets and proceeds as follows ;
1) Weigh accurately 10 tablets individually and calculate the average weight .
2) Calculate the average value of drug content as % following the assay procedure
using another sample obtained from the same batch .
3) Calculate the relative standard deviation (RSD)
[ Note : use excel program ]
42
Tablet Weight of Tablet % Labeled
# (mg) Claim
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Note: Labeled claim is 750 mg
Mean (as % of labeled claim) _________
Standard Deviation __________
RSD __________
43
Determination of Content Uniformity:
NOTE: Tablets should be analyzed in the same order as the weight variation
test so that a comparison between weight variation and content uniformity can
be made.
Determine the content of active ingredient of the tablets by the procedure given
below.
- Select 30 tabs and proceed as follows :
- Assay 10 tablets individually as directed in the assay in the individual monograph
unless otherwise specified in the test for content uniformity
- Calculate RSD as before.
A) If the average of the limits specified in the potency definition in the individual
monograph is 100 % or less :
For weight variation , or content uniformity :
The requirements are met if the amount of the active ingredient in each of 10
tablets tested lies within the range of 85 % to 115 % of the label claim and relative
standard deviation is less than or equal to 6.0% .
If one tablet is outside the range of 85% to 115 % of the label claim and no
tablet is outside the range of75 % to 125 % of the label claim or if RSD is greater
than 6 , or if both conditions prevail , test 20 additional units the requirements are
met if not more than one tablet of the 30 is outside the range of85 % to 115 % if the
label claim and no tablet is outside the range of 75 % to 125 % of the label claim and
RSD of the 30 tablets does not exceed 7.8 % .
44
B) If the average of the limits specified in the potency definition in the individual
monograph is greater than 100 % :
1. If the average value of the tablets tested is 100 % or less , The requirements are
as in (A) .
2. If the average value of the tablets tested is greater than or equal to the average of
the limits specified in the potency definition in the individual monograph , the
requirements are as in (A) . except that the word s “ label claim “ are replaced by
the words “label claim multiplied by the average of the limits specified in the
potency definition in the individual monograph is divided by 100 “ .
If the average value of the tablets tested is between 100 % and the average of the
limits specified in the potency definition in the individual monograph , the
requirements are as in (A) , except that the word s “ label claim “ are replaced by the
words “label claim multiplied by the average value of the tablet tested ( expressed as
% of label claim ) divided by 100 “
45
Experiment 3 :
I) Tablet disintegration :
is an essential attribute for tablets intended for administration by mouth , except
those intended to be chewed before being swallowed and except some types of
sustained release tablets.
Disintegration (for un-coated tablets )
This test is provided to determine compliance with limits on disintegration stated
in the individual monograph . Disintegration does not imply complete solution of the
tablet or even its active constituent .
Complete disintegration is defined as that state in which any residue of the tablet
remaining on the screen of the test apparatus is a soft mass having no palpably firm
core.
Procedure:
1. Place one tablet in each of the six tubes of the basket , add a disk to each tube
46
II) Tablet dissolution :
Disintegration time determination is a useful tool for production control, but
disintegration of a tablet does not imply that the drug has dissolved. A tablet can
have a rapid disintegration time yet be biologically unavailable. The dissolution rate
of the drug from the primary particles of the tablet is the important factor in drug
absorption and for many formulations is the rate-limiting step. Therefore, a
dissolution time is more indicative of the availability of a drug from a tablet than the
disintegration test. Even though this is an important parameter to measure.
Place the stated volume of dissolution medium in the vessel of the apparatus
specified in the individual monograph, assemble the apparatus, equilibrate the
dissolution medium to 37 + 0.5 o C and remove the thermometer. Place one tablet in
the apparatus, and operate at the specified rate of the monograph. At the time
specified, withdraw a sample and perform the analysis as in the monograph. Repeat
the test with additional tablets.
Unless otherwise specified in the individual monograph and the requirements
are met if the quantities of active ingredient dissolved from the tablets tested
conform to the accompanying acceptance table.
ACCEPTANCE TABLE
Stage Number Acceptance Criteria
Tested
S1 6 Each Tablet is not less than Q + 5%
S2 6 Average of 12 tablets (S1+S2) is equal to or
greater than Q, and no unit is less than Q-15 %
S3 12
Average of 24 tablets (S1+S2+S3) is equal or
greater than Q and not more than two tablets are
less than Q-15%
Continue testing through the three stages unless the results conform at either
S1 or S2. The quantity Q, is the amount of dissolved active ingredient specified in
monograph expressed as a percentage of the labeled content. Both the 5% and 15%
value in the acceptance table are percentages of the labeled content.
Dissolution Test For Aspirin Tablets (Uncoated)
- Medium : 0.05 M acetate buffer having pH of 4.5; 500ml
- Time : 30 min , Q : 75 %
47
Assay Procedure :
1) At the time specified, 2 ml aliquot is pipetted out through a Millipore filtration
unit and placed in a 50 ml volumetric flask. Then add 2 ml dissolution medium to
the dissolution vessel.
2) After adjusting volume to 50 ml with 0.1N sulfuric acid, the absorbance of each
solution is measured at 228 nm.
3) The amount of Aspirin dissolved ( C ) =
(Absorbance X Conc. Factor X Dil. Factor X Dissolution Medium Volume) =
(Absorbance X 0.02 X 25 X 500 ) mg.
4) Percentage of Aspirin dissolved at time specified =
5) C/ Label Claim X 100 = C/325 X 100
Dissolution Apparatus :
48
Part 5
Capsules
49
Introduction:
Capsules are gelatin shells filled with the ingredients that make up an
individual dose. Dry powders, semi-solids, and liquids that do not dissolve gelatin
may be encapsulated. Capsules account for about 20% of all prescriptions dispensed.
Capsules have several advantages as pharmaceutical dosage forms:
1. They may be used to mask the unpleasant tastes, aromas, or appearance of a drug.
2. They allow powders to be dispensed in an uncompressed form, thus allowing for
quicker dissolution and absorption of the drug following oral dosing (as compared
with tablets).
3. They offer the pharmacist versatility to prepare any dose desired for a variety of
administration routes (e.g. oral, inhalation, rectal, or to be diluted for vaginal, rectal,
oral or topical use).
4. They may be easier than tablets for some people to swallow.
5. They can be make to alter the release rate of the drug.
variety of colors. The pharmacist can use the different colored capsules to
distinguish two capsule formulations for the same patient, or to encapsulate
unattractive ingredients.
The pharmacist can add a dye to the powder before filling a clear capsule to
impart a color for identification or esthetics.
50
Some types of hard gelatin capsules have a locking cap, which makes it more
difficult to reopen the capsule.
To aid in the selection of the appropriate size, a table, with the capacity of five
common drugs for that particular size capsule, is printed on the box of the capsules.
As a guide, the relative sizes and fill capacities of capsules are given below. By
knowing the bulk density of fill material, proper choice of capsule size is usually
made easier; however, trial and error soon develops the judgment of the beginning
pharmacist.
"Punch" Method
To hand fill capsules at the prescription counter, the pharmacist generally uses the
"punch" method. The ingredients are triturated to the same particle size and then
mixed by geometric dilution. The powder is placed on a powder paper or ointment
slab and smoothed with a spatula to a height approximately half the length of the
capsule body. The base of the capsule is held vertically and the open end is
repeatedly pushed or "punched" into the powder until the capsule is filled; the cap is
then replaced to close the capsule. Each filled capsule is weighed using an empty
capsule as a counterweight. Powder is added or removed until the correct weight has
been placed in the capsule. The filled capsule is tapped so that no air spaces are
visible within the contents.
It is a good practice to remove from the stock container the exact number of
empty capsules needed before you begin filling them. In this way you avoid
preparing the wrong number of capsules and at the same time avoid contaminating
the empty capsules with drug particles that cling to your hands. Also, since some fill
material will likely be lost in the process of punching capsules, the pharmacist
generally calculates for the preparation of at least one extra capsule to insure enough
fill for the last capsule.
51
The simplest method by which a capsule may be kept free of moisture during
compounding is to wash the hands well, dry them, and keep the fingers dry by
stripping a towel through the cleansed fingers until warmth is felt. An alternative
method is to use the base of one capsule as a holder for other bases during the filling
operation. The capsules do not come in contact with the fingers. The most sure
method of protecting the capsule is to wear finger cots or rubber gloves.
Capsule Machines
Capsule machines are available for filling 50, 100, and 300 capsules at a time.
Each manufacturer's machine is slightly different in its operation, but the series of
operations is the same. Capsules are first loaded into the machine. Most machines
come with a capsule loader which correctly aligns all of the capsules in the machine
base. There are plates on the machine base that can be adjusted. First, the plates are
adjusted to hold the capsule bodies in place while the caps are removed all at one
time. The caps remain in place in the top of the machine for later use. Then the
plates are adjusted again so that the capsule bodies will "drop" into place so that the
tops are flush with the working surface of the plate.
The formulation powder is poured onto the plate and special spreaders and
combs are used to fill the individual capsules. Some manufacturer's have special
shakers that will also help spread the powder and fill the capsules. The powder is
spread evenly over the plate, and the comb is used to tamp and pack the powder into
the capsules. These two processes are repeated over and over again until the capsule
bodies are filled with the powder. All of the caps are then simultaneously returned to
the capsule bodies, and the closed capsules are removed from the machine.
The machine has the advantage of filling many capsules in a timely manner.
However, there is a tendency to pack the capsules in the middle of the plate with
more powder than the capsules along the periphery. It takes practice to ensure that
each capsule has the same amount of drug. A quality control procedure should be
executed with each batch of capsules produced with the machine.
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Final Processing
Once the capsules have been compounded and the capsule closed, the
pharmacist may want to "seal" the capsule. The best way is to use "locking"
capsules, where the body and cap lock together, making it very difficult to open the
capsule again. If using locking capsules, during the filling process the cap is not
completely closed onto the body in the weighing procedure to determine the weight
of powder in the capsule. The locking is done only one time and that is after the
capsule is correctly filled.
If locking capsules are not used, a seal can be made by touching the outer edge of
the body with a moist towel to soften the gelatin. Alternatively, a cotton swab dipped
in warm water can be rubbed around the inner edge of the cap. When the cap is
closed on the body, it is slightly twisted to form the seal.
When compounding and sealing are complete, the capsules may need cleaning
to remove fingerprints, traces of body oils, or loss powder from the capsule.
Fingerprints and oils cannot be effectively cleaned from capsules so the best way to
prevent these problems is to wear gloves during the compounding process. Any
clinging powder can be removed by rolling the capsules between the folds of a
towel.
Additional Considerations :
Capsules are made of gelatin, sugar, and water and contain about 10% to 15%
moisture. Gelatin can absorb up to ten times its weight in water. So if gelatin
capsules are placed in areas of high humidity, they will become malformed or miss
happened as they absorb moisture. On the other hand, if capsules are placed in low
humidity, they become dry and brittle and may crack.
53
To protect capsules from the extremes of humidity, they should be dispensed
in plastic or glass vials and stored in a cool, drug place. It appears that a storage
relative humidity of 30% to 45% is best. Cotton can be placed in the top of the vial
to keep the capsules from rattling.
If powders that are being mixed before encapsulation are very light and fluffy
and "difficult to manage," add a few drops of alcohol, water, or mineral oil. As an
alternative, mix these powders in a plastic bag. If the powders seem to have a "static
charge," use about 1% sodium lauryl sulfate.
Magnesium stearate (less than 1%) can be added to powders to increase their
"flow ability" which makes filling capsules easier. However, magnesium stearate is a
hydrophobic compound and may interfere with the dissolution of the powders.
Experiment ( 1) :
Preparation of Ephedrine Sulfate and Phenobarbital Capsules
Rx
Ephedrine Sulfate 0.025 g.
Phenobarbital 0.015 g.
Make 6 capsules
Sig.: one cap. q.i.d.
Procedure :
54
5- Each filled capsule is weighed using empty capsule as counterpoise, powder is
added or removed until the correct weight is obtained .
6- Finally the capsule is cleaned to remove any trace of powder trapped on the
surface
Calculation:
1. Fill one capsule with lactose in previously described manner and determine the
exact capacity of capsule by weighing suppose it is 0.5 g.
2. Calculate the amounts drugs for 10 capsules and substrate from total amount of
lactose (0.5 g x 10 ) to get amount of lactose which you will use e.g. ( 0.5 g x 10
– (0.025 x 10 + 0.015 x 10 ) ) = 4.6 g lactose
3. Weigh the calculated amounts of lactose ( 4.6 g ) , ephedrine sulfate (0.25 g ) and
Phenobarbital ( 0.15 g ) .
Experiment (2) :
Make 6 Cachets
Sig: 1-2 p.r.n. to relieve pain .
Use : Analgesic .
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Experiment (3) :
Make 6 Capsules
Sig: one cap. t.i.d.
Use : Antispasmodic .
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Part 6
Suppositories
57
Introduction :
Suppositories are medicated, solid bodies of various sizes and shapes suitable
for Introduction into body cavities. The medicament is incorporated into a base such
as cocoa butter which melts at body temperature, or into one such as glycerinated
gelatin or PEG which slowly dissolves in the mucous secretions. Suppositories are
suited particularly for producing local action, but may also be used to produce a
systemic effect or to exert a mechanical effect to facilitate emptying the lower
bowel.
The ideal suppository base should be nontoxic, nonirritating, inert, compatible
with medicaments, and easily formed by compression or molding. It should also
dissolve or disintegrate in the presence of mucous secretions or melt at body
temperature to allow for the release of the medication. As with the ointment bases,
suppository base composition plays an important role in both the rate and extent of
release of medications.
Methods of preparation :
Suppositories can be extemporaneously prepared by one of three methods :
1. Hand Rolling is the oldest and simplest method of suppository preparation and
may be used when only a few suppositories are to be prepared in a cocoa butter base.
It has the advantage of avoiding the necessity of heating the cocoa butter. A plastic-
like mass is prepared by triturating grated cocoa butter and active ingredients in a
mortar. The mass is formed into a ball in the palm of the hands, then rolled into a
uniform cylinder with a large spatula or small flat board on a pill tile. The cylinder is
then cut into the appropriate number of pieces which are rolled on one end to
produce a conical shape.
Effective hand rolling requires considerable practice and skill. The suppository
"pipe" or cylinder tends to crack or hollow in the center, especially when the mass is
insufficiently kneaded and softened.
3. Fusion Molding involves first melting the suppository base, and then dispersing
or dissolving the drug in the melted base. The mixture is removed from the heat and
poured into a suppository mold. When the mixture has congealed, the suppositories
58
are removed from the mold. The fusion method can be used with all types of
suppositories and must be used with most of them.
Suppository Bases :
Suppository bases may be conveniently classified as according to their
composition and physical properties:
Oleaginous (fatty) bases
Water soluble or miscible bases (hydrophilic)
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Suppositories made with glycerinated gelatin must be kept in well-closed
containers in a cool place since they will absorb and dissolve in atmospheric
moisture. In addition, those intended for extended shelf-life should have a
preservative added, such as methylparaben or propylparaben, or a suitable
combination of the two. To facilitate administration, glycerinated gelatin
suppositories should be dipped in water just before use.
Standardization of suppositories :
The Standardization of any supp. Involves the following determinations:
a- Determination of DISPLACEMENT VALUE of the active ingredients
b- Determination of FRACTURE POINT of the prepared supp. ( the weight under
which the supp. Sample collapses under given conditions is taken as a measure of
the strength of the supp. Tested .
c- determination of MELTING TIME of the prepared suppository .
d- determination of UNIFORMITY OF WEIGHT of the prepared suppository .
1) Lubrication of moulds :
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Experiment (1) : ( Oily base )
Procedure :
1) Make sure that the two halves of the suppository mould given to you having the
same number .
2) Lubricate the mould with soap solution by mean of cotton piece , invert the
mould on a porcelain slab to allow the excess of lubricating solution to drain .
3) Wt. an amount of C.B. ( 5 g if you are supplied with a mould of one gram
capacity and 10 g if you are supplied with a mould of two gram capacity ) to
prepare 3 suppositories ( there is a slight excess for mechanical loss ) and melt it
in a porcelain by exposing the crucible for new seconds to steam of a water bath
, remove the crucible away from steam and triturate with a glass rod , repeat until
a uniform cream , which is easily poured, is formed .
4) Pour gradually in a continuos stream the melted C.B. into the lubricated mould
and allow the melted mass to overfill to avoid the formation of holes after cooling
(due to contraction of the mass ).
5) Cool the filled mass for about 10 min. , and after cooling remove the excess C.B.
by sharp knife.
6) Wt. accurately certain number of suppositories and then calculate the average wt.
7) Calculate the correction factor (C.F.) = average weight /nominal capacity
( written on the mould )
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II) Calculation of displacement value of solid medication in suppositories
( using C.B. bases ) :
Displacement value :
Procedure :
N.B. :
The incorporation of each medicament – just after melting the base add
the pulverized and sifted medicament stir carefully until a uniform and
homogenous mass is formed the pour into a lubricated mould .
Avoid overheating during melting the base .
Displacement value of liquid medicaments equal to ONE .
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III) Preparation of Iodoform suppositories :
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Experiment (2) : ( Aqueous bases )
Procedure :
1) In a porcelain dish soak the gelatin powder with amount of H2O present in the
formula for about 5 – 10 min. till it completely wetted and swelled
2) add the amount of glycerin to the soaked gelatin.
3) Put the dish on boiling water bath .
4) Stir gently till complete solubility of gelatin and the formulation of a translucent
mass, avoid air bubbles formation during stirring
5) Pour the translucent mass into mould (previously lubricated with liquid paraffin
or any other oil ) after adding the medicament (if the formula containing
medicament ) and – Take care that preferably JUST FILL the cavities because the
mass does not contract upon cooling .
N.B:
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II) Calibration of moulds:
Calibration of Suppository Molds with Glycerinated Gelatin Base
Glycerinated Gelatin Suppositories have the following proportions of glycerin,
gelatin, and water. Use 25 g of the suppository base for this calibration exercise.
Clean mold with soap and water.
Dry the mold.
Have the mold at room temperature.
Lubricate the mold with light mineral oil.
Mix the glycerin and water together and heat on a steam bath or hot plate for 5
minutes. Gently stir in the gelatin to avoid incorporating air in the mixture.
After the gelatin has been added, continue heating for another 40 - 50 minutes.
Do not allow the temperature to get above 90 - 95°C, as the color will darken.
Remove from the heat and allow the mixture to cool near the melting point
before pouring into the mold.
Overfill the cavities in the mold, cool at room temperature for 30 minutes, and
then place in a refrigerator 15-20 minutes if the suppositories have not
completely congealed.
Carefully remove excess with a hot spatula or knife. Remove suppositories
from mold.
Using only perfect specimens, weigh the suppositories and record the total
weight. Calculate the average suppository weight.
Calculate the correction factor (C.F.) = average weight /nominal capacity
Mold # __________
Total weight for ____ suppositories = _________ g
Average weight for one suppository = _________ g
Correction Factor (C.F.) = _________
Mold lubricant used _____________________
Inspection of Final Product _____________________
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III) Preparation of suppositories using glycerogelatin bases :
Ichthammol Suppository
Rx
Ichthammol 1g
Glycerogelatin base Q.S. 4g
Calculation:
= 5 x 4 - ( ( 5 x 1) / D.V. ) C.F.
= (20 – 5 ) x C.F (either 1.15 or 1.2 according to the formula used)
= 15 x C.F
Then the amount of gelatin , glycerin , H2O can be calculated from the base formula.
After calculation follow the general method of preparation given above taking into
consideration that Ichthammol must be added after formation of translucent mass
and avoid air bubbles formation .
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Boroglycerin Suppository
Rx
Calculation :-
-If we use mould of 2 g capacity the amounts given above multiplied by (2) and so
on.
Procedure :
1) In a porcelain dish soak gelatin in water , then transfer to dish over a water bath .
3) Add the dissolved boric acid the gelatin solution and continue heating over a
water bath until a clear solution produced and constant wt is attained .
N.B.
- Boric acid reacts with glycerin on heating giving glycerol borate which has
an antiseptic action .
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IV) Soap glycerin Suppositories :
Stearin soap ( i.e. cured soap , sodium stearate ) has certain advantages over gelatin
for making glycerin sufficiently hard for suppositories .
The disadvantage is that soap glycerin suppositories are very hygroscopic and
require to be wrapped in waxed paper or pure tin foil and protected from the
atmosphere . The soap is used formed in glycerin solution by interaction between
sodium carbonate and stearic acid .
Rx
Glycerin 90 g
Sodium carbonate ( Cryst.) 2.5 g
Stearic acid 7.5 g
Procedure :
1) Dissolve the sodium carbonate in the glycerin with the aid of gently heat .
2) Add the stearic acid and heat carefully until effervescence ceases and solution is
complete . ( clear solution )
3) Skim the surface and pour the solution when it is quite hot and free from bubbles
( make sure no bubbles interrupt in solution before pouring it )
4) Overfill the mould , because considerable contraction occurs and trim level when
set .
N.B. :
The process may be hastened by heating the mixture over a benzene burner
until the reaction starts , then transferring the dish to water bath .
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Experiment (3) : Macrogol Bases ( Carbowaxes Bases )
Advantages :
7) Supp. Are prepared by fusion method . Macrogol bases are not altered by
overheating ( C.F. from C.B. bases )
Disadvantages :
1) On standing supp. Develops fracture . P.E.G. are soluble in water to the extent of
about 60 % the inclusion of 20 % water will produce a super saturated system
during the fusion process , the system undergoes slow crystallization or
granulation which causes fracture in the suppository .
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1 Macrogol (4000) 33%
Macrogol (6000 ) 47%
Water 20 %
2 Macrogol (1540 ) 33 %
Macrogol ( 6000 ) 47 %
Macrogol ( 400 ) 20 %
3 Macrogol ( 1540 ) 33 %
Macrogol ( 6000 ) 47 %
Water 20 %
4 Macrogol ( 1000 ) 96 %
Macrogol ( 4000 ) 4%
5 Macrogol (1000 ) 75 %
Macrogol ( 4000 ) 25 %
Rx
Paracetamol 200 mg
Caorbowax Q.S. 2.0 g
Cabowax bases :
Macrogol 1000 75%
Macrogol 4000 25%
Calculations:
- C.F. of the base formula used = 1.1
- D.V. of paracetamol = 2.0
Procedure :
1) Weigh amounts of P.E.G. and melt in a porcelain dish on boiling water bath .
2) Make sure that the mould is dry , and warm it at about 50 o C .
3) Dispense the amount of drug in the melted base , and pour in the warmed mould (
no need for lubrication ) .
4) Allow to congeal for 5 min. , and transfer to fridge , if needed.
Use : Antipyretic .
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