Application and Maintenance of Steam Traps

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NMAC Tech Note
Application and Maintenance

of Steam Traps
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EPRI Powering Progress
R E P O R T S U M M A R Y
Application and Maintenance of Steam Traps

This Tech Note provides an overview of steam trap selection, routine
operational checks, and maintenance of the various types of steam
traps that are normally installed in power plants. Operation of the
various types of traps is explained with the help of schematic draw-
ings. The advantages and limitations of each type are described in
detail and are also presented in tabular form for a quick comparison
of each type’s properties. Finally, a method of calculating the cost of
trap maintenance in a plant is given along with an example. This
document will assist maintenance personnel in understanding the
operation of steam traps and in verifying their operation. This docu-
ment can also be effectively used by training instructors to develop
course material.
INTEREST CATEGORIES
BACKGROUND In a power generating station, there can be hundreds of
Maintenance practices steam traps. Improper functioning of steam traps can result in loss of steam,
Nuclear plant operation and equipment unavailability, damage, and corrosion. These factors have economic
maintenance consequences on plant operation. This Tech Note has been developed to
Engineering & technical provide utility personnel with information on steam trap design, selection,
support application, and maintenance.
Training
OBJECTIVES
KEYWORDS
• To provide general information on the types of steam traps normally used in
power plants
Maintenance
• To provide the necessary guidance to power plant personnel responsible for
Steam traps the selection, operation, and maintenance of steam traps
Condensate
Valves
APPROACH A scope of work was prepared with input from a number of utility
personnel familiar with the maintenance of steam traps in a nuclear power
plant. Based on this input, a draft document was developed and submitted for
review by the Technical Review Committee consisting of the utility personnel,
trap manufacturers, and vendors of trap checking equipment. Comments from
this committee were evaluated and incorporated into the final document.
RESULTS This guide presents information necessary for plant engineers and
maintenance staff to diagnose and solve the problems with steam trap mainte-
nance. It describes the operation of various types of steam traps, their selection
and installation, available trap checking devices, and inspection and mainte-
nance requirements for proper operation. This document is divided into eight
sections and five appendices. The appendices provide specific information on
topics like drip traps, tracer line traps, safety factors in trap selection, and so
on. An appendix is also included that shows a method of calculating steam trap
survey and repair costs.
EPRI TR-105853s Electric Power Research Institute December 1996

PROJECT
EPRI Project Manager: Vic Varma
Nuclear Power Group
Contractor: Jack Scott, Consultant
For further information on EPRI research programs, call EPRI
Technical Information Specialists, 415/855-2411.
TR-105853
Final Report
December 1996
Prepared by
Jack Scott
Consultant
Prepared for
Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center
1300 Harris Boulevard
Charlotte, North Carolina 28262
Operated by
Electric Power Research Institute
3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304
EPRI Project Manager
Vic Varma
Nuclear Power Group
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All rights reserved.
EPRI Licensed Material
PREFACE
Steam traps are found wherever steam is used. Steam traps are automatic
valves that allow condensate to pass into drains while preventing the loss of
steam. In a large industrial complex like a power generating station, there
might be hundreds of steam traps in use. Improper functioning of the steam
traps can result in loss of steam, equipment unavailability, damage, and
corrosion. All the above factors have direct economic consequences on plant
operation. There is no single trap that will satisfy all applications. Due to the
variety of applications and the wide range of available steam traps, it is
important to fully understand their operation. Because of the large number of
steam traps in a power plant, some of which can be located in inaccessible
places, their maintenance is usually neglected.
This document addresses the basics of selection, application, and mainte-
nance of steam traps. It also shows the common installation errors to avoid. A
detailed list of references is provided for those who want to obtain additional
information on this topic.
NMAC Tech Note iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
NMAC would like to acknowledge Armstrong International and Yarway

Corporation for granting us permission for use of their material and provid-
ing technical reviews in the preparation of this document. We are also in-
debted to the following individuals for providing key information and
reviewing the drafts prior to this publication.
Kevin McLeod Ontario Hydro
Gulshan Bhayana Illinois Power Co.
Herb Walker Georgia Power Co.
Cary Campbell Georgia Power Co.
John Gwin Georgia Power Co.
Scott French Armstrong International, Inc.
Carolyn F. Roberts Armstrong International, Inc.
John E. Todd Keystone Yarway Corp.
Terry O’Hanlon UE Systems
Mohammad Nurul Hossain TLV America Corp.
NMAC Tech Note v

CONTENTS
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
2. Industry Standards .................................................................................... 3
3. Terms and Definitions ............................................................................... 5
4. Trap Selection ............................................................................................ 9

4.1 Additional Selection Criteria .............................................................. 10
Corrosion .......................................................................................... 10
Dirt ..................................................................................................... 11
Gases ................................................................................................ 11
Water Hammer ................................................................................... 11
5. Steam Trap Applications......................................................................... 13

5.1 Protection Service ............................................................................. 14
5.2 Process Service ................................................................................ 14
6. Steam Trap Types, Advantages, and Limitations ................................. 15

6.1 Disc Trap ........................................................................................... 17
6.2 Piston/Impulse Trap .......................................................................... 19
6.3 Closed Float and F&T Traps ............................................................. 21
6.4 Inverted Bucket Traps ....................................................................... 23
6.5 Bimetallic Traps ................................................................................ 25
6.6 Bellows Traps ................................................................................... 27
6.6.1 Fail Closed Design ................................................................. 28
6.6.2 Fail Open Design ................................................................... 29
6.7 Orifice Traps ..................................................................................... 30
6.8 Summary of Trap Characteristics ..................................................... 31
NMAC Tech Note vii

7. Steam Trap Installation ........................................................................... 33

7.1 Piping and System Problems Affecting Steam Trap
Performance ..................................................................................... 34
7.2 The Basic Trap Installation ............................................................... 35
7.2.1 Steam Trap Location—The Inlet and Outlet Piping ................ 35
7.2.2 Siphon or Lift Fittings ............................................................. 36
7.3 The Steam Distribution System—Drainage Trapping ....................... 36
7.4 Condensate Lifting ............................................................................ 37
7.5 Vacuum Breakers .............................................................................. 38
7.6 Auxiliary Air Vents ............................................................................. 39
7.7 Multiple Heating Coils ....................................................................... 39
7.7.1 Unit Trapping .......................................................................... 39
7.9 By-Passes ......................................................................................... 40
8. Steam Trap Maintenance, Checking, Inspection,

and Troubleshooting ............................................................................... 41
8.1 Trap Checking ................................................................................... 43
8.2 Trap-Checking Devices ..................................................................... 44
8.3 Basic Trap-Checking Methods .......................................................... 45
8.4 Steam Trap Failure Causes .............................................................. 47
8.4.1 By-Passes ................................................................................ 47
8.5 Additional Checking for Traps ........................................................... 49
8.6 Corrective Actions ............................................................................. 49
References ................................................................................................... 51
Appendix A: Selection Criteria for Steam Line Drip Traps ...................... 53
Appendix B: Steam Tracing Line Traps ..................................................... 57
Appendix C: Process Traps for Heating Liquids ...................................... 61
Appendix D: Process Traps for Heating Air .............................................. 65
Appendix E: Safety Load Factors .............................................................. 67
Appendix F: Commercially Available Trap Selection and

Checking Devices .................................................................................... 69
Trap Management Systems ...................................................................... 70
Infra-Red Thermometers ........................................................................... 71
Ultrasonic Leak Detection .......................................................................... 71
Appendix G: Economics of Steam Trap Surveys and Repairs ................ 73

Definitions .................................................................................................. 73
Basic Assumptions .................................................................................... 74
Cost Estimate Example ............................................................................. 75
Evaluation .................................................................................................. 78
viii NMAC Tech Note

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Typical Applications of Steam Traps .......................................... 2
Figure 2 Accumulation of Condensate in a Sagging Steam Line .......... 11
Figure 3(a) Disc Trap (Schematic) ................................................................ 17
Figure 3(b) Disc Trap (Cross Section) .......................................................... 18
Figure 4(a) Piston/Impulse Trap (Schematic) .............................................. 19
Figure 4(b) Piston/Impulse Trap (Cross Section) ........................................ 20
Figure 5(a) Float and Thermostatic Trap (Schematic) ................................ 21
Figure 5(b) Float and Thermostatic Trap (Cross Section) .......................... 22
Figure 6(a) Inverted Bucket Trap (Schematic) ............................................. 23
Figure 6(b) Inverted Bucket Trap (Cross Section) ...................................... 24
Figure 7(a) Bimetallic Steam Trap (Schematic) ........................................... 25
Figure 7(b) Bimetallic Steam Trap (Cross Section) ..................................... 26
Figure 8(a) Bellows/Thermostatic Steam Trap (Schematic)....................... 27
Figure 8(b) Bellows/Thermostatic Steam Trap (Cross Section) ................ 28
NMAC Tech Note ix

Figure 9(a) Fixed Orifice Drainer (Schematic) ............................................. 30
Figure 9(b) Fixed Orifice Drainer (Cross Section)....................................... 31
Figure 10 A Typical Steam Trap Installation.............................................. 35
Figure 11 A Typical Lift Fitting Application ............................................... 36
Figure 12 Elevated Discharge and Backpressure .................................... 37
Figure 13 Typical Installation of Vacuum Breakers and Air Vents .......... 38
Figure 14(a) Unit Trapping (Recommended) ................................................. 39
Figure 14(b) Group Trapping (Not Recommended) ...................................... 40
Figure 15 Typical By-Pass Installation ...................................................... 40
Figure A-1 Steam Line Drip Piping

(a) Vertical Piping for Freeze Proofing
(b) Vertical Piping for Freeze Proofing
(c) Vertical Piping Alternative for Extreme Cold Environment ....... 55
Figure B-1 Typical Steam Tracer Piping ...................................................... 58
x NMAC Tech Note

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 General Operating Characteristics of Steam Traps ................ 16
Table 2 Application Guidelines for Steam Traps .................................. 32
Table 3 Trap-Checking Frequency with Respect to Trap

Applications ................................................................................ 43
Table 4 Advantages and Limitations of Trap-Checking Methods ....... 46
Table 5 Expected Trap Characteristics .................................................. 47
Table 6 Normal Operation and Failure Causes for Various Types

of Traps........................................................................................ 48
Table 7 Additional Checking ................................................................... 49
Table 8 Corrective Actions ...................................................................... 49
Table A-1 Typical Condensate Loads for Steam Line Drip ...................... 54
Table A-2 Drip Pocket Size ......................................................................... 55
Table B-1 Typical Condensate Loads for Steam Tracer Lines

(Lbs/Hr/100 Ft) ............................................................................ 59
Table B-2 Suggested Length of Tracer Lines (1/2” Tube) ........................ 59
NMAC Tech Note xi

Table C-1 Estimated Condensate Loads for Heating

Liquids (Lbs/Hr) .......................................................................... 63
Table D-1 Typical Condensate Load for Heating Air ................................ 66
Table E-1 Recommended Safety Factors .................................................. 68
Table F-1 Suppliers and Services .............................................................. 70
Table G-1 Survey of Plant Operations ....................................................... 74
Table G-2 Typical Steam Loss Values with Condensate in

Discharge .................................................................................... 77
Table G-3 Steam Trap Maintenance Cost Estimate

(Worked-Out Example) ............................................................... 79
Table G-4 Steam Trap Maintenance Cost Estimate (Blank Form) ........... 80
xii NMAC Tech Note

1
INTRODUCTION
Steam traps are automatic valves the function of which is to allow the con-
densate to pass while preventing the passage of steam. Steam traps are also
expected to pass air and other non-condensible gases without the loss of
steam. There is no universal trap for all applications. Traps come in a variety
of shapes and sizes, designed for use on a wide range of pressures and
condensate load conditions. A trap must be selected carefully for its function.
Criteria for selection might be its responsiveness to changing system pres-
sures and condensate flow rates, installation requirements, or ease of mainte-
nance. This document discusses only the type of steam traps generally used
in nuclear power plants.
Trap applications can be divided into two major groups:
• Traps designed for draining process equipment, such as heat exchangers
and room heaters. These traps are often referred to as process traps.
• Traps designed to provide a protective function. These include applica-
tions where the normal condensate loads are small, such as steam header
drip, tracer heating, and turbine drains.
Figure 1 is a schematic showing a typical steam condensate system.
NMAC Tech Note 1

Steam Header
Air
Heater
High Trap
Pressure
Steam Heat
Exchanger
Turbine End of
Drain Main
Trap
Trap
Tracer
Traps
Steam Condensate Return

Generator
Receiver
Figure 1
Typical Applications of Steam Traps
There are three basic types of steam traps:

• Thermostatic traps. Traps that are actuated by temperature-sensitive
devices. They attempt to sense the difference between steam and conden-
sate by their temperature. Therefore, this type of trap can discriminate
between steam and cooler non-condensible gases. Most thermostatic
traps are either actuated by a bimetallic thermostat or use bellows filled
with vaporizing liquid.
• Thermodynamic traps. Traps that are actuated by principles of thermody-
namics and fluid dynamics. This type uses flash or live steam to close the
valve. Disc traps, piston traps, and lever traps fall into this category.
• Mechanical traps. Traps that are actuated by a float, which responds to
changes in condensate level. Float and thermostatic traps, inverted
bucket traps, and open bucket traps are mechanical traps.
These basic types of steam traps are described in detail in later sections.
2 NMAC Tech Note

2
INDUSTRY STANDARDS
An organization called the Fluid Controls Institute has been active for several
years on the subject of steam traps. It has developed a number of standards
that have been voluntarily implemented by the industry. At present, the
following are the accepted industry standards in the United States:
• ANSI/FCI-85-1: Standard for Production Testing of Steam Traps
• ANSI/FCI-69-1: Pressure Rating Standard for Steam Traps
• ANSI/FCI-65-3: Operating Principles and Standard for Determining
Steam Trap Capacity Ratings
• ANSI/ASME PTC-39.1: Condensate Removal Devices for Steam Systems
(this standard covers the steam trap testing for capacity and steam loss.)
Definition of a Steam Trap: ANSI/FCI 85-1 and 69-1 define a steam trap as a
“self-contained valve which automatically drains the condensate from a
steam containing enclosure while remaining tight to live steam, or if neces-
sary, allowing steam to flow at a controlled or adjusted rate. Most steam traps
will also pass non-condensible gases while remaining tight to live steam.”
Expanding on this definition, a more detailed understanding of the expected
capabilities and limitations of steam traps can be obtained. This understand-
ing is important to steam trap checking and troubleshooting.
NMAC Tech Note 3

A steam trap:
• Discharges condensate
• Prevents or limits the discharge of steam (it is preferred to have tight
closing on steam to avoid confusion in trap checking.)
• Automatically opens and closes (or throttles) the flow:
— At the saturated steam temperature
— Below the saturated steam temperature (also called subcooled con-
densate)
• Discharges liquid for freeze protection
• Drains non-condensible gases, such as air and CO2 during:
— Start-up
— Normal running conditions
Proper functioning of a steam trap as defined can be achieved when:
• A pressure differential exists, that is, the trap inlet is greater than the
pressure at the outlet that will promote flow.
• Condensate and non-condensibles are fluids and require a positive
differential pressure for flow to occur.
• Some heat exchange takes place to form condensate. This can be acciden-
tal, intentional and at a constant or variable rate.
• It is desirable that both condensate and non-condensible gases be dis-
charged. Among the reasons for this are: to avoid corrosion, shock,
vibration, or water hammer, and to provide effective heat transfer.
• External and internal materials must be suitable for both the design and
operating conditions (for example, pressures and temperatures).
4 NMAC Tech Note

3
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Some of the technical terms related to the steam traps used in this document
are defined below.
air binding When a steam trap closes due to the presence of
air rather than steam. This slows down the ability
of a steam system to reach its desired temperature.
blow-down valve A valve used to blow pipeline dirt or scale from a
strainer, screen, or boiler drum.
British thermal unit (BTU) A unit of heat measurement defined as the
amount of heat required to raise one pound of
water through one degree Fahrenheit. This unit is
used to indicate the amount of heat “stored” in
any source.
capacity (of a trap) The amount of condensate discharged by a steam
trap at specific conditions of condensate tempera-
ture and pressure differential (between its inlet
and outlet). Capacity is measured in pounds per
hour and usually is the maximum rating for the
trap.
condensate The liquid formed as a result of steam changing
from vapor back to a liquid.
NMAC Tech Note 5

cool steam trap A steam trap that discharges condensate at a

temperature significantly below the saturation
temperature is referred to as a cool trap even
though it might be at a temperature above 212ºF.
cycle The normal opening and closing action of a
steam trap to pass condensate and then stop the
passage of steam.
dirt pocket A length of pipe in the discharge line of steam-
heated equipment that allows the collection (by
gravity) of pipeline scale and dirt.
drip pocket A length of pipe attached to the bottom of a
steam line to collect condensate. It is usually
located along steam lines, at expansion loops or
expansion joints, elbows, steam risers, inlets to
control/regulate valves and inlets to the turbine.
The purpose is to collect and store condensate.
Usually the pipe is the same diameter as the
steam line and about 2 to 3 feet long.
discharge temperature The condensate temperature (at a steam trap
inlet) when it is being discharged. This is com-
monly referred to as the condensate temperature
at which a steam trap starts to open.
dry steam Steam in which no water droplets are suspended.
Same as saturated steam.
enthalpy The energy content of a fluid, including both heat
and mechanical energy, BTU/lb. See sensible heat
and latent heat of vaporization.
flash steam Vapor or steam that forms when hot condensate at
high pressure is discharged to a lower pressure.
flash tank A vessel or tank where flash vapor is accumu-
lated for subsequent use.
hot steam trap A steam trap that discharges condensate at a
temperature within 10 degrees of the saturation
temperature.
latent heat of vaporization Heat that produces a change of state without a
change in temperature, such as changing water
into steam—sometimes simply referred to as
latent heat.
live steam An expression commonly used to describe useful
steam that is able to do useful work—at its
original pressure. Flash steam exists at atmo-
spheric pressure.
6 NMAC Tech Note

modulate The partial opening and closing of a steam trap,

thereby regulating the discharge flow of conden-
sate. Modulation is in contrast to a full open or
full closed mode of operation.
process steam trap A steam trap that discharges condensate from
equipment used in the heating of some product
as distinct from a protection service application.
protection steam trap A steam trap that discharges condensate from an
application, such as a steam header (to protect it
from water hammer) or from a tracer application,
providing protection from freezing.
psig Pounds per square inch gage. This is a measure
of pressure excluding the atmospheric pressure
(as measured by a pressure gage).
safety load factor A factor, by which the calculated condensate load
is multiplied, to determine the required trap
capacity to serve its application. The safety load
factor is used to accommodate system variables
and uncertainties affecting the condensate flow
rate and the ability of the trap to drain as required.
sizing The process of matching the condensate drainage
requirements of an application to a steam trap
having the required capacity.
saturated condensate Condensate at a temperature equal to steam at
the same pressure.
saturated steam (dry) Steam that contains no moisture. Usually referred
to as dry steam.
saturation curve Graphic representation of the boiling point of
water at various pressures (the pressure and
temperature at which saturated steam and
condensate can exist).
saturation temperature The temperature at which saturated steam and
condensate can exist.
sensible heat Heat that produces a temperature rise in a body
(such as water).
steam binding Steam keeping a steam trap closed and preventing
the discharge of condensate that has formed
upstream of the trap. This results when the con-
densate line to the steam trap inlet is subjected to
heating or lowering of pressure so that the conden-
sate is changed in part back into steam, thereby
blocking the flow of condensate to the trap.
NMAC Tech Note 7

steam separator A device that removes entrained water droplets

from steam flow.
steam tables Tables that list the properties of steam and con-
densate at various pressures and temperatures.
steam tracing The use of steam to: 1) heat or maintain the
temperature of a liquid in a pipeline, 2) prevent
water lines and related equipment from winter
freeze-ups, and 3) provide uniform temperature
in and around instruments to help maintain their
calibration.
steam trap A self-contained valve that automatically drains
condensate and discharges air and non-
condensible gases from a steam-containing pipe
or vessel.
steam trap standard A preferred type of steam trap and piping
configuration for removing condensate from
each designated piece of equipment in a steam
system.
subcooling The temperature difference between that of
steam and the condensate being discharged by a
steam trap. This subcooling or suppression will
be at least 2 or 3 degrees and sometimes much
more. Certain applications benefit from steam
traps that discharge condensate with a small
amount of subcooling, while others will benefit
from a large amount of subcooling.
superheat Sensible heat that is added to dry saturated
steam.
suppression See subcooling.
total heat of steam The sum of BTUs per pound of both the sensible
heat (of condensate) and the latent heat (of
vaporization).
water hammer See water hammer in Section 4.1 of this guide.
wet steam Steam containing suspended water droplets. Wet
steam has a lower heat content than dry steam,
but exists at the same temperature as saturated
steam.
8 NMAC Tech Note

4
TRAP SELECTION
Steam trap selection requires evaluating the relative benefits and limitations
associated with each trap type (thermostatic, thermodynamic, and mechani-
cal), and matching them with the needs or criteria of the application. A long
list of criteria needs to be evaluated for proper selection of a steam trap:
• Design pressure and temperature (range) of the system. The trap shell
should be adequate for these conditions.
• Safety, including plant standards.
• Efficiency. Generally a consideration of steam loss.
• Service life.
• Ease of checking. Usually while the trap is installed and operating.
• Sensitivity to backpressure.
• Resistance to freeze damage.
• Dirt sensitivity.
• Installation versatility.
• Air venting.
• Responsiveness to changing loads.
• Resistance to shock, vibration, and water hammer.
• Predominant failure mode.
NMAC Tech Note 9

• Discharge mode.
• Condensate discharge temperature relative to saturation curve.
• Magnitude of condensate subcooling.
• Ease of maintenance.
• Supplementing accessories or features.
• Commercial consideration.
• Appropriate size for the pressures and loads.
Selection of a thermostatic, thermodynamic, or a mechanical trap for a
particular service depends on the needs that are considered most important
for plant operation. Each trap technology has its unique advantages and
disadvantages (see Section 6).
Up to this point, emphasis has been focused on matters relating to the heat
4.1 Additional
Selection Criteria content of steam and water. However, there are some additional consider-
ations associated with steam systems that have special significance for the
steam trap user and designer alike. All steam systems must deal with prob-
lems of corrosion, air and gas venting, dirt (usually corrosion products), and
water hammer. Steam traps are both a victim of these problems and a poten-
tial solution.
An important part of getting any steam system to operate efficiently is the
removal of air from it. Air is a poor conductor of heat, and mixtures of air
and steam have less heat content than steam alone at the same pressure. Both
of these factors have an especially adverse affect on heat transfer rates. Air is
eliminated from the steam system by thermostatic air vents and by steam
traps. Some traps are much more effective air eliminators than others.
Corrosion
All steam systems and their associated components suffer from the effects of
corrosion. Corrosion attacks boiler tubes, steam piping, heat exchangers,
valve components, and fittings such as steam traps. Over time all these items
can fail due to corrosion. The primary defense against corrosion is a carefully
monitored and maintained feedwater treatment system that controls the
gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) that promote corrosion. Carbon dioxide
(CO2) by itself is not corrosive, but it can combine with free hydrogen to form
carbonic acid, which is corrosive. A principal reason that stainless steel is
used extensively in steam traps is to resist the effects of corrosion and pro-
long the life of the trap.
10 NMAC Tech Note

Dirt
The trash and accumulated debris in a newly installed piping steam system
can be extensive. In older systems dirt, corrosion products, and sealants used
to repair leaky joints continue to plague components such as small valves,
instruments, and steam traps. Y-type strainers are recommended to protect
important components from trash and dirt.
Gases
Carbon dioxide, oxygen, and occasionally hydrogen are present in steam
systems. Free oxygen is a normal constituent of water, but it is principally the
boiling process that volatilizes the carbonates in water to produce carbon
dioxide. Both carbon dioxide and oxygen foster corrosion. An important
function of a steam trap is to assist in purging these non-condensable gases
from the steam system.
Water Hammer
Condensate always collects in the low points of a steam system unless a
special effort is made to drain it away or to eliminate the low point. Figure 2
shows a sagging steam header that has allowed condensate to accumulate.
Steam flowing in the main steam lines, often at surprisingly high speeds (90
miles per hour or more is not unusual), will pick up slugs of condensate and
slam them into valves, elbows, steam traps, or other such equipment with
devastating effects. Steam trap users are best advised to correct water ham-
mer at its source by following good piping design practice.
Additional sources of water hammer include hydraulic shock and thermal
mixing. Both of these sources require piping that is flooded with liquid to
produce the noise.
Figure 2
Accumulation of Condensate in a Sagging Steam Line
NMAC Tech Note 11

5
STEAM TRAP APPLICATIONS
Steam trap application is the process of matching a steam trap to the needs of
a steam system and its associated equipment. This involves a three-step
process:
1. Identify the equipment to be drained along with its pressure and tem-
perature ratings.
2. Correctly size the equipment by calculating the condensate load. These
calculations are not discussed here because most trap manufacturers offer
computer discs to do the job.
3. Select a type of steam trap that is suitable for the application and load. Do
not select a steam trap based solely on the pipe size.
It is possible to classify steam trap applications in a number of different
ways. This guide addresses only industrial steam trapping in contrast to the
steam trapping associated with low pressure (below 15 psi) heating, ventilat-
ing, and air conditioning (HVAC) field. There is some overlap, of course, but
industry has tended to recognize these two major groups of users.
As mentioned earlier, industrial steam trapping applications can be divided
into two major classifications: protection and process service.
NMAC Tech Note 13

Steam line drip. Drainage of the condensate that forms in the pipes delivering
5.1 Protection
Service steam from a boiler to a specific point of use. This helps prevent damaging
water hammer and promotes the delivery of dryer steam to plant equipment.
Adequately sized and properly positioned drip pockets are needed. These
drip pockets are placed at the inlet to turbines, valves, expansion loops/
joints, and various locations along a steam line. See Appendix A for addi-
tional details about condensate loads, and so on.
Steam tracing. Drainage of the condensate that forms in the small steam lines
or steam jackets used to heat valves, field instruments, and the liquids in
larger pipelines during freezing conditions or when product temperature
must be maintained at specified levels. See Appendix B for additional details
about condensate loads, and so on.
Condensate loads experienced by protection traps in tracer and steam main
drip service can be calculated by the use of standard formulas. These loads
are generally quite small and normally steady. Experience has shown that
trap oversizing is a common problem in this area. In general, oversizing
means that the trap has too much capacity for the condensate load. Some-
times oversizing can occur if too high a safety factor (a factor of 10:1 or
higher) is used during trap selection. As noted in Appendix E, safety load
factors usually range from 1–4.
Drainage of the condensate that normally forms when steam is used to heat
5.2 Process Service
liquids, gases, or solids in any industrial process. Traps must be sized to
match the condensate drainage requirement of a particular piece of equip-
ment with a steam trap’s condensate handling capacity at the operating
pressure and temperature conditions to which it will be exposed.
Standard formulas exist to calculate the condensate loads that process traps
will experience when serving any of the following four classes of equipment:
1. Steam heats a liquid indirectly through a metal wall (see Appendix C).
2. Steam heats air or a gas indirectly through a metal wall (see Appendix D).
3. Steam heats a solid or slurry indirectly through a metal wall.
4. Steam heats a solid through direct contact.
Note: Items (3) and (4) are usually not applicable in a power plant.
Calculated condensate loads for process traps are normally increased by
using a safety load factor to compensate for system unknowns. Guidelines
for the selection of safety load factors are given in Appendix E. In general,
the more that is known about the conditions associated with an application,
the smaller will be the factor. Most steam trap manufacturers can offer and
provide computer discs to perform all the needed calculations, sizing, and
recommendations.
14 NMAC Tech Note

6
STEAM TRAP TYPES, ADVANTAGES,
AND LIMITATIONS
As stated earlier, there are three basic types of steam traps:

• Thermodynamic
• Thermostatic
• Mechanical
Except for fixed orifice drainers, all steam traps have a valve and a seat.
• Thermodynamic traps. Thermodynamic traps utilize live steam or flash
steam, developed during the discharge of hot condensate, to control the
opening and closing of the trap. Thermodynamic traps are available in
several forms for a wide variety of applications. An early type is the fixed
orifice drainer that was improved upon by the introduction of the im-
pulse or variable orifice piston trap. The lever and disc traps were subse-
quent extensions of thermodynamic traps.
Fixed orifice drainers are a form of steam trap without a valve and seat.
• Thermostatic traps. Thermostatic traps utilize the temperature of the fluid
reaching the trap. They open on cool fluid (condensate), but close when
the condensate temperature approaches the temperature of steam. The
thermostatic traps include the bimetallic, the balance pressure bellows,
the float, and the thermostatic types.
NMAC Tech Note 15

• Mechanical traps. Mechanical traps utilize the difference in density be-

tween the liquid and steam that reaches the trap. They open to liquid or
condensate, but close on steam or gas. The mechanical traps include the
float, the open bucket, and the inverted bucket type traps. Today the float
is usually limited to applications where air venting is not an issue. The
open bucket trap has been replaced by the inverted bucket trap.
A float and thermostatic (F&T) trap combines the principle of the mechanical
type with a balanced pressure bellows to provide air venting.
A basic understanding of how each type of trap works will help in selecting
the optimum trap for each application. This understanding is also essential
when attempting diagnostic troubleshooting of steam traps or steam trap-
ping systems.
Table 1 summarizes some of the major steam trap characteristics. A more
detailed discussion follows.
Table 1
General Operating Characteristics of Steam Traps
Trap Types → Disc Impulse/ Bellows Bimetallic Float and Inverted Orifice
Piston Thermostatic Bucket
Condition ↓
Discharge Cyclic Cyclic Cyclic/ Modulating/ Modulating Cyclic Continuous
Modulating Cyclic
Discharge Hot Hot Hot/ Hot/ Hot Hot Hot
Temperature Subcooled Subcooled
Air Venting Fair Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Limited(1) Fair(6)
Dirt(5) Good Good Good Fair Good Good Fair
Superheat Excellent Excellent Good (2) Good Limited(2) Limited(1) Excellent
(2) (2)
Water Hammer Excellent Excellent Limited Good Limited Excellent Excellent
Response Good Excellent Excellent Fair Excellent Good (6)
(3) (4)
Failure Mode Open Open Open/ Open Closed Varies (6)
Closed
Notes:
1. Available with an extra large vent in the bucket or a separate air vent.
2. The manufacturer should be consulted.
3. Normally fails closed if the float collapses or the differential pressure is too high. It can fail open if the bellows fail to open or float mechanism
breaks due to shock and water hammer.
4. Excessive differential pressure might cause the trap to fail closed. The trap will fail open if priming is lost.
5. Indicates how well the trap type can "tolerate" dirt.
6. The orifice is always “open” and usually is sized to handle a maximum of condensate load. If the orifice is fully “loaded” (as on start-up), it
cannot vent air, because the opening is sealed with condensate.
16 NMAC Tech Note

Disc traps utilize the heat energy in hot condensate and the kinetic energy in
6.1 Disc Trap
steam to open and close the valve disc. They sense the difference between
liquid, and gas or vapor. Figures 3(a) and 3(b) illustrate a disc trap.
Note: Each type of trap is illustrated using two figures. Figure 3(a) is a
schematic showing the basic principles of trap operation. Figure 3(b) is a
cross sectional view of a typical industrial trap.
Outlet
Port
Inlet Flash Vapor Closes
Seating Surface Port Valve Disc
Bonnet Chamber
Valve Disc
Steam &
Condensate In Liquid & Flashing
Condensate Out
Figure 3(a)
Disc Trap (Schematic)
During start-up, pressure created by cold condensate lifts the valve disc off
the seating surface. This opens the inlet port and outlet port, allowing dis-
charge. As fluid reaches the inlet port, there is a decrease in pressure and an
increase in velocity (in accordance with the laws of fluid dynamics). If the
fluid is hot condensate near steam temperature, the lower pressure will cause
it to flash into steam or vapor (in accordance with the laws of thermodynam-
ics). The resulting high velocity flow beneath the disc, with its attendant
localized pressure reduction under the disc, causes it to snap shut. Flow
through the trap stops until the pressure in the chamber over the disc drops
sufficiently to allow the inlet pressure to force the disc off its seat. This cycle
(that is, the disc opening to allow the flow to condensate, and closing on high
velocity flash vapor) repeats itself.
NMAC Tech Note 17

Flash Vapor Closes

Valve Disc
Bonnet Chamber
Valve Disc
Seating
Surfaces
Outlet Port
Inlet Port
Steam & Liquid &

Condensate Flashing
In Condensate
Out
Figure 3(b)
Disc Trap (Cross Section)
Disc traps are most frequently used in light condensate load applications
such as drips and tracers and are known as “hot” traps, that is, quickly
discharging very hot condensate immediately after it forms.
Advantages:
• Simple construction.
• Small size and light weight.
• Can be mounted in any position.
• Rugged, withstands water hammer.
• Not damaged by freezing.
• Not impaired by superheat.
• Suitable for wide pressure range.
• Discharge temperature closely follows the saturation curve.
• Easily checked in field.
• Failure mode, gradually and predictably open over time .
Disadvantages:
• Limited air handling capability.
• Excessive backpressure can prevent the trap from closing.
• Discharge noise level can be high.
• Dirt can increase the cycle rate, causing premature wear.
18 NMAC Tech Note

Piston (or impulse) traps utilize the heat energy in hot condensate, and the
6.2 Piston/Impulse
Trap kinetic energy in steam to open and close a valve. Like disc traps, they sense
the difference between a liquid, and gas or vapor. Figures 4a and 4b illustrate
a piston/impulse trap.
Flash Vapor Closes Piston Valve

First Orifice
Second Orifice (Control Orifice)
Control Chamber
Seat
Piston Valve
Steam &
Condensate Out
Figure 4(a)
Piston/Impulse Trap (Schematic)
Introduced in the 1930s the impulse piston trap was the first thermodynamic
trap. It is a “hot” trap that provides excellent service in high pressure
applications.
At start-up, pressure created by the inlet fluid lifts the piston valve, allowing
discharge of condensate. During this phase, the control chamber pressure
remains low because the second or control orifice, can discharge more liquid
than can be supplied to the control chamber through the first orifice. When
the temperature of the condensate arriving in the control chamber ap-
proaches steam temperature, that is, saturation temperature, flashing will
occur due to the low pressure in the control chamber. This flashing of the hot
condensate in the control chamber chokes the flow through the control
orifice, causing an increase in control chamber pressure. This increased
pressure, acting on a larger effective area of the piston valve than the inlet
pressure, causes it to snap shut—preventing steam flow through the trap
seat. When cooler condensate reaches the trap, causing the control chamber
pressure to drop, flashing ceases and the trap opens again to repeat the cycle.
NMAC Tech Note 19

Flash Vapor
Closes Piston
Valve
2nd Orifice
1st Orifice Piston Valve
Seat
Liquid &
Steam & Flashing
Condensate Condensate
In Out
Figure 4(b)
Piston/Impulse Trap (Cross Section)
The control orifice provides a continuous discharge that is helpful in passing

air or other non-condensible gases during normal operation and start-up.
The piston valve remains closed in the presence of steam because the pres-
sure on top of the piston acts on a larger effective area than the inlet pressure
under it. Steam loss through the control orifice occurs only in the absence of
condensate.
Advantages:
• Small size, light weight.
• Can be mounted horizontal bonnet up or vertical discharge down.
• Not impaired by superheat.
• Suitable for high pressure.
• Good response to changing condensate loads.
• Good air handling.
• Primary failure mode—open.
• Condensate discharge temperature follows the saturation curve.
20 NMAC Tech Note

Disadvantages:
• Excessive backpressure can prevent the trap from closing.
• Limited operating pressure range.
• Difficult to field check because of the continuous control flow discharge.
If the condensate is completely absent in the system, a small steam
discharge might be noticed through the control orifice.
The closed float trap is one of the oldest type of steam traps on the market,
6.3 Closed Float and
F&T Traps but it is still in widespread use. The opening and closing of the valve is
caused by changes of the condensate level within the trap shell.
When the trap is empty, the weight of the float closes the valve. As conden-
sate enters the trap, the float rises and opens the valve, allowing condensate
to be discharged. The float is designed to provide sufficient force to overcome
the differential pressure across the valve. The internal float and valve con-
figuration is such that the condensate level is always above the valve, thus
creating a continuous water seal at its seat. Actual construction varies widely
depending upon the manufacturer. While most designs employ a linkage-
pivot system, one particular design uses no linkage at all and relies on a free-
floating ball to achieve the desired action.
An inherent disadvantage of a simple float trap is that it cannot discharge air
or non-condensible gases. It is, therefore, necessary to install an auxiliary
thermostatically activated air vent. For this reason, these traps are known as
float and thermostatic (F&T) traps (see Figures 5(a) and 5(b)).
Steam &
Condensate In
Air Vent
Steam
Space
Condensate
Level
Valve
Float Lever Liquid & Flashing

Seat Condensate Out
Figure 5(a)
Float and Thermostatic Trap (Schematic)
NMAC Tech Note 21

Steam &
Condensate In
(side)
Steam Space
Bellows/Air Vent
Float
Lever
Valve
Seat
Liquid Level
Liquid &
Flashing Condensate
Out (side)
Figure 5(b)
Float and Thermostatic Trap (Cross Section)
Advantages:
• Quick response to changes in condensate load.
• Continuous discharge.
• The condensate discharge temperature closely follows the saturation
curve.
• Unaffected by sudden pressure changes.
• The function is not impaired by high backpressures.
Disadvantages:
• Requires auxiliary air vent, which is an additional source of potential
failure.
• Continuous discharge can make field checking difficult.
• The primary failure mode is closed.
• Not self-draining.
• Float easily damaged by water hammer.
• Relatively large and heavy.
22 NMAC Tech Note

• Does not withstand freezing.

• Can be mounted only in one position.
• Suitable for only relatively low pressures.
Inverted bucket traps are members of the mechanical trap family, and use an
6.4 Inverted Bucket
Traps open “inverted bucket” as the actuator. The trapping principle utilizes the
difference in density between a gas and a liquid. For steam traps, steam is the
gas and condensate is the liquid. Figures 6(a) and 6(b) illustrate an inverted
bucket trap.
Seat
Steam Spaces
Liquid & Flashing Condensate Level
Condensate Out
Steam Bubbles
Valve Vent Hole
Lever Inverted Bucket
Steam &
Condensate In
Figure 6(a)
Inverted Bucket Trap (Schematic)
The construction of the trap is such that the trap inlet leads into the bottom
and open end of the inverted bucket. Discharge is through an outlet valve
above the inverted bucket.
Steam entering the inverted and submerged bucket, produces buoyancy and
causes it to float upward and close the outlet valve. This prevents the dis-
charge of steam. Steam in the bucket, both condenses and leaks through the
vent, allowing the bucket to sink and pull the valve off the seat to discharge
condensate. The weight of the bucket must be sufficient to overcome the
closing force created by the differential pressure across the valve. Inverted
bucket traps discharge condensate intermittently at very near saturation
temperature. The cycle is repeated after each discharge. If for any reason the
bucket sinks and does not refloat, the trap will continue to lose steam along
with the flow of condensate. This is known as “loss of prime.”
After each discharge, fresh condensate enters the bucket.
NMAC Tech Note 23

Liquid & Flashing Condensate Out
Steam Space
Seat
Liquid Level
Valve
Vent Hole
Lever
Inverted
Bucket
Steam & Condensate In
Figure 6(b)
Inverted Bucket Trap (Cross Section)
Air or non-condensible gases entering the trap cause the bucket to float and
close the valve. Because they cannot condense as steam does, these gases
cause the trap to remain closed. In order to overcome this problem, the
bucket has a hole to vent air and steam. The size of this hole has to be rela-
tively small to prevent excessive loss of steam in addition to the air.
While most inverted bucket traps utilize a linkage system to obtain their
desired action, one particular design uses no linkage at all and depends upon
a free-floating, open, spherically-shaped float in its operation.
Advantages:
• Rugged.
• The condensate discharge temperature follows the saturation curve.
• Reliable.
• Cyclic operation.
24 NMAC Tech Note

Disadvantages:
• Marginal air handling during start-up.
• Not self-draining.
• Subject to freeze-ups.
• Not suitable for superheat when insulated.
• Can lose prime, and is not always self-priming.
• Can be mounted only in a single position.
• Failure mode is unpredictable (open or closed).
• Continuous venting of steam through the bucket vent.
Bimetallic steam traps utilize the sensible heat in the condensate in conjunc-
6.5 Bimetallic Traps
tion with line pressure to open and close a valve mechanism. Figures 7(a) and
7(b) illustrate a bimetallic trap.
Hot or Subcooled
Liquid Condensate Bimetallic Elememts
Steam or
Condensate Out
Valve Seat
Figure 7(a)
Bimetallic Steam Trap (Schematic)
The valve and seat system is usually arranged to produce a “flow under the
seat” condition. Supply pressure, in other words, tends to open the valve.
The bimetallic elements are in the form of small discs and are arranged to
produce a closing force with increasing temperature. This closing force is in
opposition to the opening force created by the supply pressure. Some bime-
tallic traps use a single leaf element rather than the stacked disc elements
shown in Figure 7(a).
NMAC Tech Note 25

Hot or Subcooled
Condensate
Bimetallic
Elements
(Stack)
Steam & Liquid &

Condensate Flashing
In Condensate
Out
Seat
Valve
Figure 7(b)
Bimetallic Steam Trap (Cross Section)
The traps are generally factory-adjusted so that at saturated steam condi-

tions, the temperature-created force of the bimetallic elements prevails,
closing the valve and preventing loss of steam. As the temperature of the
condensate cools, the line pressure becomes the dominant force, causing the
valve to open and allowing the discharge of condensate. Backpressure in a
closed return system provides an additional closing force, resulting in a
lower opening temperature than the same trap discharging to the atmo-
sphere. The discharge temperature, therefore, is affected by backpressure.
A design problem for bimetallic traps is created by the non-linearity of the
saturation curve. Shaping and stacking techniques of the bimetallic elements
have made it possible for these traps to have a discharge temperature that
approximates the saturation curve. This has expanded the useful pressure
range of bimetallic traps without adjustment.
The modern bimetallic trap has many technical and practical advantages. It
is most commonly used in Europe but is seeing increased service in North
America.
Advantages:
• Rugged.
• Energy efficient.
• Self-draining.
26 NMAC Tech Note

• Resistant to freeze damage.

• Withstands water hammer.
• Capable of discharge temperature adjustment.
• Can be mounted in several positions.
• Primary failure mode—open.
Disadvantages:
• Dirt particles can prevent tight valve closing.
• Condensate discharge temperatures do not follow the saturation curve
closely.
• Difficult to field check when operating in a throttling mode.
• Discharge temperature is made lower as backpressure increases.
• Relatively slow response to changing condensate loads.
• Bimetallic elements are relatively susceptible to corrosion.
Bellows traps are thermostatic traps that respond to changes in the tempera-
6.6 Bellows Traps
ture and pressure of the steam supply to open and close a valve. The valve
actuator is a capsule or bellows filled with a vaporizing liquid, and because it
has both a fixed and a free moving end, it opens or closes the valve in re-
sponse to internal pressure changes. Temperature changes in the fluid out-
side the bellows produce temperature and pressure changes within the
bellows (Note that “fluid” here means liquid or gas in the system). The most
frequently used actuating element is a corrugated bellows. Single-diaphragm
capsules are also used but provide a correspondingly shorter stroke. Figures
8(a) and 8(b) illustrate a bellows trap.
Steam and/or Hot

Condensate Depending Bellows
On Trap Design
Valve
Steam &
Condensate Out
Seat
Figure 8(a)
Bellows/Thermostatic Steam Trap (Schematic)
NMAC Tech Note 27

This simple operating principle provides many desirable operating characteris-

tics. For example, the number of degrees below steam temperature at which
the trap opens can be varied so the trap provides either a “hot” or “cold”
discharge. Also the normal failure mode (open or closed) can be changed.
The characteristics of the actuating system can be affected by the liquid fill
and natural free length of the actuator. The principle can best be explained by
considering a bellows, even though they apply equally well to single dia-
phragm capsules.
Bellows Seat
Valve
Liquid &
Steam & Flashing
Condensate Condensate
In Out
Figure 8(b)
Bellows/Thermostatic Steam Trap (Cross Section)
Modern bellows/diaphragm traps have been improved in design, construc-

tion, and material to minimize their inherent disadvantages. Today, they play
an important role in steam trap application.
6.6.1 Fail Closed Design

This is the most common design and implies that the bellows remain ex-
panded upon rupture. This is accomplished during manufacture by evacuat-
ing the bellows initially to obtain a contract assembled free length. During
normal operation when the bellows is hot, the pressure inside the bellows
approaches the steam supply pressure, causing it to expand. Evacuated
bellows are usually filled with water. The inherent advantage is that the
condensate discharge temperature of traps having such a bellows closely
follows the steam saturation curve.
28 NMAC Tech Note

Advantages:
• Excellent air handling capability.
• Energy efficient.
• Self-draining.
• Various condensate discharge temperatures are available, depending on
the bellows’ design.
• Condensate discharge temperature follows the saturation curve.
• Can be mounted in several positions.
• Small size and weight.
Disadvantages:
• Bellows elements tend to be failure prone, especially when subjected to
water hammer.
• Difficult to field check when operating in a throttling mode.
• Generally not suited for high pressure applications.
• Limited superheat capability.
• The short stroke diaphragm design is susceptible to dirt-initiated failures.
• Failure mode unpredictable but usually open.
• Tend to discharge continuously on small condensate loads, making it
difficult to check function.
6.6.2 Fail Open Design

This implies that the natural free length must contract the bellows away from
the seat. To make this arrangement functional, the bellows must be filled
with a liquid having a boiling point lower than that of water. For the bellows
to expand, the internal pressure must be higher than the external steam
pressure.
Low boiling point liquids, such as alcohol or ether, are frequently used in
bellows but have the disadvantage that their saturation curve does not
correspond exactly to that of steam. As a result, steam traps having such
bellows will discharge condensate having different levels of subcooling over
a wide pressure range.
The advantage of a fail open design is that it seldom fails closed.
NMAC Tech Note 29

Fixed orifice traps or drainers are seldom used because of their limitations.
6.7 Orifice Traps
This device consists of one or more successive orifices. Where two or more
orifices are used, condensate passes through a number of successive cham-
bers where flashing occurs. This creates a restricting or choking effect and
allows the use of larger and less dirt-sensitive orifices for a given condensate
capacity. In some designs, these “fixed” orifices are actually adjustable
valves. Figures 9(a) and 9(b) illustrate one form of a fixed orifice drainer.
Steam, Flash, or Liquid

in Intermediate Chamber
Steam &
Condensate In Steam and/or Flashing
Condensate Out
First Orifice Second Orifice
Figure 9(a)
Fixed Orifice Drainer (Schematic)
Advantages:
• No moving parts.
• Suitable for high pressure application.
• Not damaged by freezing.
• Function not impaired by superheat.
• Can be mounted in any position.
Disadvantages:
• To ensure condensate drainage and control steam loss, the orifice size
must be carefully selected for each installation. To prevent steam blow,
the orifice must be flooded with condensate.
• Cannot respond to varying condensate loads.
• Inefficient if oversized.
• Dirt particles can impair performance.
• Difficult to field check because of continuous discharge.
• In the absence of condensate, the trap passes live steam.
30 NMAC Tech Note

Steam, Flash or 2nd Orifice

Liquid In
Intermediate
Chamber 1st Orifice
Steam & Steam and/or

Condensate Flashing Condensate
In Out
Figure 9(b)
Fixed Orifice Drainer (Cross Section)
A summary of advantages, disadvantages, and application recommendations

6.8 Summary of
Trap Characteristics for various types of steam traps is shown in Table 2.
NMAC Tech Note 31

32

Table 2
Application Guidelines for Steam Traps
Trap Type Advantages Disadvantages Recommendations

Thermostatic
Bimetallic Rugged and simple construction Subcooled discharge and condensate back-up Not suitable for process heat exchangers, steam
Slow response headers, turbine drains, and wherever condensate
Dirt might prevent closing. back-up cannot be tolerated.
Bi-metal elements deteriorate with age.
Requires frequent adjustment.
Bellows Low cost Bellows tend to fail, especially with water hammer. Not recommended for high load heat exchangers
Small size and weight Bellows might corrode due to chemicals in condensate. or superheated steam systems, and systems
Ease of installation Susceptible to dirt and dust failures subjected to severe shock.
Ease of maintenance
No adjustment needed
Thermodynamic

Disc Low cost Not recommended for pressures below 3.0 psig or Not recommended if backpressure exceeds 50% to
Small size and weight above 300 psig. 80% of inlet pressure.
Rugged and simple construction High backpressure might prevent closing.
Can be installed horizontal or vertical Marginal air handling capacity
Can withstand water hammer Dirt can increase cycle rate and wear.
Failure is gradual and predictable
Performance easily checked in field
Piston/Impulse Rugged construction Excessive backpressure can prevent closing. Use should be limited to continuous medium
Can withstand water hammer Performance is difficult to field check due to continuous capacity heat exchangers.
Can be installed horizontal or vertical control flow discharge. Piston traps should be avoided in super heated
Good response to changing condensate load There is a small continuous loss of steam through the steam service. They are also not recommended
control orifice when condensate loads are at or near zero. when condensate is discharged to a return system,
which is vented to a return line with pressure
greater than 25% to 50% of trap inlet pressure.
Mechanical
Float and Simple construction Relatively large and heavy Suitable for steam systems where pressure varies
Thermostatic Unaffected by pressure changes Does not withstand freezing widely
Responds quickly to load changes Operates only in one position These traps are also suitable for systems where
Discharge temperature follows saturation curve Cannot discharge air or non-condensible gases high backpressure is expected (backpressure will
(separate air vent is required) reduce the trap capacity).
Backpressure has no adverse effect
Water seal formed by condensate prevents live steam Not self-draining
NMAC Tech Note
loss. Fails closed

Orifice No moving parts Continuous discharge Proper sizing is required to avoid excessive loss
Rugged Difficult to check and overload of the return system.
Withstands waterhammer and freezing Does not handle load variations efficiently Do not use any sealing compound for installation.
Low cost Does not handle air in high condensate loads Sealing compound might get carried into the
piping system and plug other unprotected
Small size and weight Small dirt particles can accumulate on the orifice “walls”
components.
and impair discharge.
7
STEAM TRAP INSTALLATION
Steam trap problems are often traceable to the piping design. This section
deals with piping system problems (for example, water hammer, freezing,
dirt, air binding, and so on), basic installation, trap location, siphon and/or
lift fittings, distribution drainage, condensate lift, vacuum breakers, air vents,
multiple heating coils, unit trapping, bypasses, and so on.
Condensate should be free to drain to and from a steam trap by gravity.
Restrictions that can increase flow resistance or elevate backpressure should
be avoided. Such restrictions might be the result of undersized valving or
excessive reduction in pipeline size. When condensate must be lifted (or
raised) to a trap or to an elevated return main, care must be taken to avoid
steam binding or excessive backpressure.
Steam traps should be installed so that operational checks and maintenance
activities can be easily performed. Adequately sized strainers with a blow-
down valve can be justified for steam trap protection and as a device for trap
checking. Air vents, vacuum breakers, and check valves might be needed to
solve specific problems that otherwise adversely affect a steam trap’s func-
tion and operation.
Condensate removal from a steam system cannot be an after-thought. The
absence of problems associated with water hammer, corrosion, dirt, and
freeze-ups is usually the result of careful planning and conscious effort to
avoid the root causes of these problems.
There are piping practices that must be followed if steam trapping problems
are to be avoided. Some pieces of heat exchange equipment might have
NMAC Tech Note 33

special piping requirements to achieve good trap performance, but most do

not. This section addresses the generalized rules for good piping practice and
proper steam trap installation.
“Good practice” evolves as knowledge is gained about both the cause of

7.1 Piping and
System Problems problems and the techniques used to avoid their repetition. The following is a
Affecting Steam Trap review of some common problems affecting trap performance and service life:
Performance
• Water hammer. When slugs of water move through a piping system at high
velocity, damage occurs to steam traps and other important equipment,
including the piping system itself. Good piping practice promotes good
drainage and prevents the accumulation of water and water hammer.
• Freeze-ups. The shut-down of a poorly drained system in freezing condi-
tions is an invitation to trouble. In extremely cold conditions, insulated
condensate return systems can freeze. Assuming that equipment is not
damaged by ice, start-ups become extremely tedious because ice block-
ages prevent the needed circulation of steam to bring the system up to
temperature.
• Dirt. By their design and location, steam traps are at low points and
generally have small passages that are subject to obstruction. Corrosion
products and pipeline trash are the usual culprits. A clogged steam trap
means trouble because it is no longer able to drain condensate from the
equipment it was meant to serve. Dirt pockets and strainers help to
protect the trap against dirt.
• Air binding. At start-up, systems (including pipes and heaters) can be full
of air. Some traps have difficulty differentiating between steam and air.
When such traps restrict the venting of air and delay the heating of the
system, they are considered to be “air binding.” Thermostatic air vents
and thermostatic traps are commonly used to improve air venting.
• Steam binding. Certain applications, piping configurations, and steam
trap types tend to create conditions in which steam at the trap keeps it
closed, thereby preventing condensate that has formed upstream of the
trap from being drained.
• Backpressure. Small levels of backpressure found in a properly designed
condensate return system are generally not a problem. It is the unex-
pected elevated levels of backpressure that result in trap malfunction. An
inadequately sized return system can also create elevated pressures and
steam trapping problems. Oversized traps, blowing bypasses, and failed
traps contribute to this condition of elevated backpressure.
• Corrosion. Corrosion is best controlled by proper water treatment. Any
piping arrangement that interferes with the free drainage of condensate
can increase the potential for corrosion problems.
34 NMAC Tech Note

Figure 10 shows a typical steam trap installation in a closed condensate

7.2 The Basic Trap
Installation return system.
Overhead Return Line
Test
Steam Tee
Equipment
Steam
Drip Header Valve
Strainer Union
Trap
Trap Check
Dirt Valve
Strainer & Pocket
Blow-DownValve
Return Line
Figure 10
A Typical Steam Trap Installation
Several of its features apply to any installation:

• Strainers with blow-down valves. Unless a steam trap has an integral
strainer installed immediately upstream, it should have a separate
strainer and blow-down valve. The blow-down valve permits easy
cleaning of the strainer screen and is often used when a system or piece
of equipment is slow to heat up. The valve is also used for diagnostic
purposes.
• Test “T”. Regular verification that a steam trap is functioning properly is
common practice in all well-maintained plants.
• Isolation Valves. Isolation valves are necessary to permit the maintenance
that all steam traps ultimately require. They are also required when using
the test “T.” Valves should be fully ported (such as ball or gate valves) to
minimize pressure drops that cause condensate flashing or raise
backpressure.
7.2.1 Steam Trap Location—The Inlet and Outlet Piping

Steam traps should be installed several feet below the outlet of the equip-
ment being served with the inlet piping sloping toward the trap for gravity
drainage. A drip or dirt leg that is the same size pipe as the equipment drain
connection helps to settle the dirt and serve as a condensate collecting reser-
voir. Pipes and fittings ahead of the trap should be equal to or one size larger
than the trap pipe size. This reduces the potential for the formation of flow-
induced flash vapor that can interrupt the trap discharge. Discharge piping
should be amply sized to accommodate flash vapor and minimize
backpressure. For short discharge lines, use pipe that is equal to trap pipe
size; for longer lines, use one pipe size larger.
NMAC Tech Note 35

7.2.2 Siphon or Lift Fittings

When it is not possible to install a trap below the low point of the equipment
being drained, a lift fitting or water seal is necessary. This might take the
form of either a “U” shaped lift fitting or a small pipe or tube within the
larger coil.
Without such an arrangement, steam reaches the trap and keeps it closed
(steam binding) before the coils have been adequately drained. The trap
should be located below the high point of the loop (for example, going over
the side of the tank). A check valve is installed just ahead of the trap to
prevent back flow into the coil as shown in Figure 11.
To
Swing Check Return
Process Valve
Liquid
Slope
Small
Pipe To
Return
Steam Large
Coil
Condensate
Figure 11
A Typical Lift Fitting Application
Good drainage of steam headers and branch lines is mandatory. A piping

7.3 The Steam
Distribution System— system that sags or otherwise allows pockets of condensate to form creates
Drainage Trapping conditions that cause water hammer and its associated damage. Such sys-
tems, when shut down in freezing climates, experience additional problems
because of unwanted ice formation. All natural drainage points and low
points in a steam line or main require a steam trap and, in fact, steam main
drip service is the most common trap application. Where long pipe runs exist
without natural drainage points, they need to be created in the form of drip
pockets at intervals of approximately 300 feet. Drip pockets should be the
same diameter as the main or branch line because this helps to prevent
condensate from being carried past the pocket by high velocity steam.
Drip pockets and drip traps should be placed upstream of temperature
control, pressure reducing, and stop valves to prevent damage and ensure
dry steam supply to the instruments. Drip traps are also required at expan-
sion joints and loops and the terminal ends of steam mains.
36 NMAC Tech Note

The steam header itself should have a slope of about one inch in twenty feet
to facilitate condensate drainage by gravity. Steam supply lines should
always be tapped off the top of the steam main. This helps deliver dry steam
to the equipment.
When the condensate discharged from a steam trap must be raised to a

7.4 Condensate
Lifting collecting manifold or header, it is necessary to ensure that the discharge
pressure at the trap is sufficient to overcome the vertical lift plus the pressure
in the overhead return line. If this is not the case, reverse flow will take place.
Every foot of elevation following a trap adds nearly 1/2 psi to the
backpressure at the trap outlet. It is important that the total backpressure
does not exceed the allowable limits of the particular type of trap selected.
Figure 12 shows an example of the method used in estimating backpressure
Steam In
5 psi
Condensate
Return
Control
Valve
6 Feet 1/2 psi

Per Foot
Creates 3 psi
Pipe Flooded
Swing Check With Condensate
Valve
Trap 3 psi + 5 psi = 8 psi

Sufficient Length
to Prevent Coil
Corrosion and/or
Freezing
Dirt Total Backpressure
Pocket at Trap Outlet
Figure 12
Elevated Discharge and Backpressure
NMAC Tech Note 37

when a trap is discharging to an overhead return line. Note that pipe, valves,
and fitting pressure losses will contribute to the backpressure. In the example
shown, a check valve is installed at the bottom of the riser. This is to prevent
backflow from the return into the heating coils. If this happens, corrosion
will occur when the system is shut down. Check valves tend to leak over
time and, in this example, would be effective only during relatively brief
shut-down periods. For longer shut-downs, the coils and pipes should be
completely drained of any accumulated condensate.
When a steam system is allowed to cool down, it is not just the temperature
7.5 Vacuum Breakers
that drops. If the system is closed and pressurized, the pressure in the
system will decay to a vacuum unless some mechanism permits the entrance
of atmospheric air to achieve atmospheric pressure. Such a mechanism is
called a vacuum breaker. It is essentially a check valve, closed to internal
pressure, but open when that internal pressure becomes less than atmo-
spheric. Figure 13 shows schematically the installation of a vacuum breaker
on a air heating coil. If the upper shut-off valve is closed while the heating
unit is in operation, condensate cannot drain out of the unit. As the heating
unit cools, it is possible for condensate that has drained into the return
system earlier to be drawn back into the unit, unless a vacuum breaker
functions to permit air to enter the system.
Steam In Vacuum
Breaker
Air Heating Coil Air

Vent
Min. as recommended by coil

mgf. up to 3 ft for modulating steam
and freezing air temperature
Air
Condensate Return
Figure 13
Typical Installation of Vacuum Breakers and Air Vents
38 NMAC Tech Note

Air is a poor conductor of heat, and if trapped in a heating coil, it reduces the
7.6 Auxiliary Air
Vents system heating efficiency. Air films on pipes and heat exchanger tubes reduce
the heat transfer rate through their metal walls. Steam mixed with air con-
tains fewer BTUs at a given pressure than steam alone. It is the function of a
steam trap to aid in venting air from a steam system, but auxiliary thermo-
static air vents are often required. Thermostatic devices open when in contact
with cooler air and then close to hotter steam. They greatly speed up the air
purging process. When frequent start-ups and shut-downs are the rule, rapid
air purging is an important consideration. Thermostatic traps are often
favored for their good air-handling characteristics. Figure 13 shows an
installation with auxiliary air vent.
When air is heated as it passes through multiple banks of coils, the first
7.7 Multiple Heating
Coils several coils form the heaviest condensate load. Therefore, traps on the first
and possibly the second coil should be larger than those draining the others.
7.7.1 Unit Trapping

Trap each coil separately as illustrated in Figure 14(a). If more than one coil
or unit is connected to a single trap (as shown in Figure 14(b)), short circuit-
ing is likely to occur due to differences in pressure drops and is not recom-
mended. The coil or unit with the least pressure drop short-circuits the others
and causes uneven or poor heating. Group trapping can also result in incom-
plete removal of air and water logging of some of the units in a group. Piping
to and from the traps should be at least as large as the pipe size of each
individual trap.
Steam Line
Unit
Trapping
Individual
Traps Return
Figure 14(a)
Unit Trapping (Recommended)
NMAC Tech Note 39

Steam Line
Group
Trapping
Single
Trapping
Return
Figure 14(b)
Group Trapping (Not Recommended)
Due to risk of steam loss when left open unnecessarily, by-passes are seldom
7.9 By-Passes
used in most industrial plants. Where shut-down for even a few minutes
cannot be tolerated on a critical installation, the use of a second trap in the
by-pass line can help reduce the risk of steam blow. This is illustrated in
Figure 15. If a by-pass is necessary, make sure it is not left open when not
needed. If used with a bucket trap, arrange the by-pass piping so it is at a
higher level than the trap to avoid losing the prime in the trap.
By-Pass
Steam Condensate
Figure 15
Typical By-Pass Installation
40 NMAC Tech Note

8
STEAM TRAP MAINTENANCE,
CHECKING, INSPECTION, AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
There seems to be a correlation between steam trap failures, steam trapping

problems, and operating stresses. Steam trap failures that are of most concern
are the fail open type, which result in steam loss, and pressurization of return
lines and condensate receivers. However, fail closed traps and backing-up
condensate present other risks, such as damage to turbines, heaters, or other
steam-driven equipment. In outdoor installations, freezing is also a consider-
ation in this situation.
Financial payback, based on reduced loss of steam, is frequently used to
justify steam trap checking, inspection, troubleshooting, and maintenance. In
this regard, protection of equipment and piping (for example, condensate
back-up, corrosion, water hammer, and equipment damage) should also be
considered, though it is difficult to assign a definitive dollar value to this
service. Appendix G provides a method of comparing the cost of steam loss
to the cost of trap maintenance. This method has further been explained with
the help of an example.
Maintenance programs for steam traps basically consist of:
• A knowledgeable trap maintenance team, including a diagnostic specialist
• A plant trapping standard that details the piping configuration and the
type of traps to be used for various applications
NMAC Tech Note 41

• A complete set of maintenance records including drawings identifying

the location of each trap. This document should also include the equip-
ment number for each trap, identification of the equipment being
drained, operating pressure, trap type, and finally, a record of the trap
condition at the time of the survey and any repair or maintenance work
done on it.
Steam trapping problems are situations that result in premature malfunction
of steam traps. Most of these situations are avoidable. Carefully maintained
records will indicate which trap locations experience more than “average”
failures for a particular plant. The leading causes for the steam trapping
problems are:
• Improper steam trap installation
• Improper steam trap sizing and selection
• Overloaded or undersized condensate return
• Leaking or blowing by-passes
• Miscellaneous problems such as:
— Defective check valves
— Missing or clogged strainers
— Dirt
Any piece of equipment operating under higher stress will experience
accelerated aging. The two factors that affect the steam trap operation more
than others are “oversizing” and “overpressure.” Like control valves, an
oversized steam trap operates or functions more frequently, increasing its
rate of wear. Traps operating under increased pressure result in greater forces
and stresses. Again, the rate of wear is increased.
These concepts, along with the considerations based on trap application and
its importance, can be used as a guide in determining the trap-checking
frequency. In the absence of an existing plant program, a suggested guideline
would be as follows:
42 NMAC Tech Note

Table 3
Trap-Checking Frequency with Respect to Trap Applications
Application Trap-Checking Frequency(1)

All After initial installation and/or maintenance
Steam tracing—outdoor, low pressure At the start of seasonal use and during the coldest part of the
season, not less than twice a year
Steam tracing—all others Once a quarter with emphasis during cold periods
Steam drip and turbine drain Major concern is condensate back-up and open bypasses. Check:
Below 300 psi Monthly
300–600 psi Semi-monthly or monthly
Above 600 psi Semi-monthly
Process traps Major concern is condensate back-up and operating pressure.
Check monthly.
NOTES:
1. The scheduling and frequency of a checking program can be readjusted after the results have been monitored over a period of time. In
nuclear power plants, ALARA considerations also influence scheduling of steam trap checking.
In order to provide a thorough understanding of a steam trap maintenance

program, the following topics will be discussed in detail:
• What is meant by “trap checking.”
• Discussion of basic checking methods (sight, sound, temperature), their
advantages and limitations.
• Understanding some key points:
— Normal or expected trap characteristics
— The need to use more than one method when checking traps
— The need to understand the differences between flashing and live
steam, condensate, and steam flow
Finally, the need to know of the existence of various codes and standards.
Recognized groups, such as ASME and ANSI, have applicable standards.
Existing plants have operating and safety standards. Insurance companies
might be able to assist with safety instructions. In the US, there are many
federal, state and local regulations. It is important to be aware of these before
getting too involved with system checking and analysis.
Trap checking is not same as testing. Testing is an objective laboratory

8.1 Trap Checking
activity; trap checking is subjective. It is the activity of comparing expected
results with observed results. The important thing is to have some idea of
what the reasonable expected results could be.
NMAC Tech Note 43

Trap checking can be done by three separate methods without opening the
piping system:
• Sight
• Sound
• Temperature (thermal)
These three basic methods of trap checking are detailed in Section 8.3.
Also, a fourth method can be used, and is briefly mentioned in Table 4, as an
additional checking method. This method uses a pressure gage installed on a
test “T.” The pressure gage can indicate pressure pulses of trap discharge.
This method, however, is inconclusive for continuous flow type traps. Gages
require frequent maintenance (calibration) if they are subjected to shock or
vibration.
To use the various checking methods, different devices or tools are needed.
8.2 Trap-Checking
Devices Some tools are simple, some combine methods, and others are quite complex.
For example, a listening device can simply be a long-handled screw driver or
a piece of pipe, or some amplified/electronic devices can be used. Ampli-
fied/electronic devices make listening possible. Most electronic devices (if
not all) have a meter of some form. The motion of the meter can be observed
(that is, sight), which is especially valuable in places with high ambient noise
level. The motion of the meter needle indicates if a steam trap is open, closed,
or modulating.
A squirt bottle with water can be used and the results can be observed by
sight and/or sound. This is particularly useful on small traps (like disc
traps). Spraying water on the trap bonnet makes it cycle at a high rate and
confirms that it is functioning. If the cycle rate slows down after the water
dries, it implies satisfactory operation.
Temperature can be sensed by simple or complex devices. A safely gloved
hand can tell if the trap is hot or cool. Surface pyrometers, which are rela-
tively inexpensive, provide a meter that can indicate some cycling. Some
pyrometers might not even need a battery for their operation. The surface
temperature of a clean pipe is usually 90%–95% of the internal temperature.
When using a surface pyrometer, measure the trap outlet pipe first and then
the inlet pipe. A clean pipe surface is required for accurate reading.
When using amplified devices, it is important to apply the probe consistently
(for example, probe pressure and location, pipe surface cleanliness, and so
on). When using surface pyrometers, a uniform pressure for 15–30 seconds
on a clean pipe surface is required to achieve consistent results. Infra-red (IR)
devices can provide misleading results due to target size and background
emissivity. For instance, if the IR device is looking at a 4-inch trap 20 feet
away, the device can see everything within a 4-foot diameter circle and
everything behind the trap
44 NMAC Tech Note

When planning to check steam traps, review the following tables and keep
the following points in mind:
• Understand the characteristics of any type of steam trap.
• Use at least two of the three methods for trap checking (sight, sound,
temperature).
• Understand the advantages and limitations of the checking methods.
All checking methods require training, experience, and interpretation. Ob-
served checking results are compared with expected results. Unexpected
results should be investigated further using another method. In closed return
systems, overpressurization can be caused by open by-pass, faulty stop or
check valves, or undersized piping, piping components, and collecting tank.
When using the temperature or sonic probes for checking traps, it is essential
that the test conditions be uniform and consistent for proper comparison and
trending. The contact probes must be placed on clean bare pipe surfaces at
the outlet and inlet of the trap. The measurements must be taken as near the
trap end connections as possible. This is particularly important when using a
sonic probe, because the probe must be closest to the seat orifice. Avoid
measurement on the trap body. The pipe surface provides greater uniformity
of location and wall thickness.
There is no published evidence at this time that any commercial checking
method can actually quantify a leak. The calorimeter test of ASME PTC 39.1
is the generally accepted method for measuring or quantifying steam loss.
Information on some of the commercially available trap-checking methods is
given in Appendix F, but this is not a complete list of all service providers.
There might be other vendors who might provide equipment or services for
trap checking. Also, descriptions given in this appendix are abbreviated and
very basic. For more detailed information, contact the specific supplier.
Table 4 lists the advantages and limitations of the three basic trap-checking
8.3 Basic Trap-
Checking Methods methods. These methods are:
• Sight (visual observation)
• Sound (audible sound, ultrasound, amplified sound)
• Thermal (touch, thermometer, infra-red camera)
Assuming that the traps are installed in accordance with Figure 10, all of the
methods have some common advantages and limitations. All checking
methods require training, experience, and interpretation of the results.
Observed checking results are compared with the baseline or the expected
results. Any unexpected occurrence should be investigated further using
another method. In closed return systems, overpressurization can be caused
by an open bypass, a faulty stop or check valve, or undersized piping, piping
component, and collecting tank.
NMAC Tech Note 45

Table 4
Advantages and Limitations of Trap-Checking Methods
Sight Sound (Audible, Amplified, Ultrasonic) Temperature

Advantages
Advantages
• Can view discharge Audible (Unamplified) • Can be used in open or closed return
• No special tools • Can use in open or closed discharges • Some devices can indicate off-on
• action of traps via meter motion
Can be used for both • Can hear flows and/or trap valve and
open and closed seat impact • Indicates cold or failed closed trap
discharge • Tools low cost, no calibration • Indicates unusual or unexpected
• Need test "T" and extra Ultrasonic or Amplified temperature at trap inlet or outlet
valves for closed return • Can be used to detect unusual
• Similar to first two items above conditions, for example, clogged
• Can hear small flow rates screens, throttled or broken valves,
• Insensitive to ambient or background open by-passes around failed closed
noise traps
(See limitations)
Limitations
• Does not quantify leak Audible • Does not quantify leaks
• Need to understand trap • Does not quantify leak • Need to understand trap operation
operation • Need to understand trap operation • Need to have an idea of expected
• Need to understand flash • Continuous flow noise might indicate
temperatures
• Discharge to atmosphere overloaded trap • Cycling control valves influence
not the same as results.
• Difficult to differentiate between
discharge into closed steam and condensate flow • Cost of devices range from very small
return to very high.
• Operating frequency judgmental
• Possible hazard when • Clean surfaces needed for contact
used with high capacity • Background or ambient noise
traps or on high pressure confusing • Does not always detect failed open
trap, especially if condensate and
• Small leaks undetected
steam are being discharged
• Electrical safety—some devices simultaneously
Ultrasonic • Some devices need calibration
• Same as first five items above • Infra-red devices need calibration.
• Does not distinguish between steam • Consideration of target size and
and condensate flow in all instances emissivity of target are important to
• Not always insensitive to background "viewing at distances."
or ambient noise
• Noise in electrical system if volume
too high
• Head set quality important
• Location of probe on trap, contact
force, pressure drop in trap, wall
thickness of trap, and orifice size
influence results observed.
• Expensive and requires calibration
• Electrical safety—some devices
Table 5 outlines general observations of normally acceptable trap operation and how to interpret specific
failure indications.
46 NMAC Tech Note

Table 5
Expected Trap Characteristics
Indications of Acceptable Trap Indications of Trap Failed Open or Indications of a Trap Closed or
Operation Leaking Backing-up Condensate
SIGHT - Flash condensate SIGHT SIGHT
• Intermittent Discharge − Continuous discharge of steam— − No discharge
blue-white
– Most thermodynamic, inverted − Some discharge, but flow rate is low, or
bucket, and properly sized − No sign of liquid condensate in continuous and little flash
bellows thermostatic discharge
SOUND
• Continuous Discharge − No intermittent discharge
− No flow or low gravel like noise level
– F&T, some thermostatic on light SOUND
TEMPERATURE
load − Continuous whistle like noise
− Inlet temperature more than 15% less
– Some thermodynamic types with TEMPERATURE than steam temperature.
control flow
− High inlet (pyrometer does not
– Some traps produce no flash
indicate cycling)
SOUND
− Return line indicates excessive
− Intermittent or continuous sound-as pressure via high temperature.
above with sight
− Condensate has rough or gravel
sound
− Condensate sound level greater than
steam
− Can feel vibration
TEMPERATURE
− Surface pyrometer might indicate
fluctuation due to expected
intermittent discharge
To assist in checking the individual steam trap, Table 6 shows normal operat-
8.4 Steam Trap
Failure Causes ing characteristics and causes for a trap to fail open or fail closed. The listing
under “All Types” should be used along with the conditions shown for the
specific type of trap under investigation. Table 6 expands on the information
included in Table 5.
8.4.1 By-Passes
Open or leaking by-passes can produce misleading operating results. Often,
leaking or blowing by-passes induce trap failures and/or over pressurize
return lines.
A temperature check on the inlet and outlet of the pipe (not valve body) at
the by-pass usually provides a good clue to the situation. If the by-pass inlet
and outlet temperatures are about the same as the steam trap, there is a
strong indication of an open or leaking by-pass.
NMAC Tech Note 47

Sound levels at the by-pass outlet should be the same as that observed at the
inlet. If outlet noise is greater than inlet noise, a leak is a safe guess.
Table 6
Normal Operation and Failure Causes for Various Types of Traps
Type of Trap Normal Operation Fail Open Causes Fail Closed Causes
All Types Should observe relatively high trap inlet Excessive valve seat wear Temperature control valve throttled,
temperature, but not superheat Dirt on trap seat insufficient steam pressure
Should observe flash on discharge to Open by-pass constantly blowing Overloaded trap, backing-up cold
atmosphere and see normal condensate
characteristic discharge Overloaded trap, that is,
discharging continuously Clogged strainer
Should hear normal, characteristic Closed stop valve upstream
operation
Closed return line stop valve or check
valve
Disc Traps Normal discharge intermittent Worn seat, disc, or bonnet Installed backward
Should see flash Leaking internal seals/gaskets Air bound
Should hear intermittent discharge, Excessive backpressure See above—all types of traps
possibly clicking of disc on seat See above—all types of traps
Should observe relatively high inlet
temperatures
Impulse/Piston Traps Normal discharge intermittent (with Worn internals Excessive wear on first orifice
continuous flow between discharges) Excessive backpressure Excessive wear on second orifice
Should see flash (continuous and Condensate load too small See above—all types of traps
intermittent)
See above—all types of traps
Should hear continuous and
intermittent flow
Should sense relatively high inlet
temperature
Inverted Bucket Traps Normal discharge intermittent, can be Loss of prime (low load, Dirt-plugged vent
continuous under some conditions of fluctuating pressure differences, Excessive differential pressure
pressure and load superheat)
Worn, oversized seat
Should see flash Worn mechanism, valve, or seat
leak Body filled with dirt
Should hear intermittent discharge—
possibility rattle of bucket or bubbling See above—all types of traps Air bound
of vent flow See above—all types of traps
Should observe relatively high inlet
temperatures
Thermostatic Traps Normal thermostatic discharge Thermal element failure (some Thermal element failed closed
intermittent or continuous depending types) Excessive backpressure (some types)
on load, pressure, or type Improper adjustment or setting See above—all types of traps
Should see flash unless adjusted for Worn valves or seat
subcooled operation
Leaking gaskets
Should hear continuous or modulating
flow See above—all types of traps
Should observe temperature near rated
discharge temperature
Float and Normal discharge continuous, but on Thermal element leaking Thermal element failed closed
Thermostatic Traps light loads might be intermittent Mechanism worn, broken, or held Float collapsed, main valve failed closed
Should see flash open due to dirt or oxides Excessive pressure difference across disc
Should hear continuous discharge Leaking internal seals or gaskets Seat worn (that is, seat diameter too large)
Should observe relatively high inlet See above—all types of traps See above—all types of traps
temperature
48 NMAC Tech Note

Because trap checking is not a pure science, it is beneficial to perform addi-

8.5 Additional
Checking for Traps tional checks in many instances. This would especially be appropriate if a
particular trap location has frequent failures or if checking observations are
unclear or inconclusive. Table 7 is a guide for further checking.
Table 7
Additional Checking
Indications of Trap Failure Action

Open or leaking traps Check for leaking or open by-passes.
Check to see if the down stream valve is open.
Check to see if the down stream check valve is open or stuck closed.
Examine the trap for dirt that is preventing valve closure.
Blow-down strainer to remove condensate and observe if the trap closes.
Closed or backing condensate Drain strainer to see if condensate is backing up and discharge is high
velocity.
Blow-down strainer; the screen might be clogged.
Turn the steam supply on, correct the pressure and temperature?
Put a pressure gage on the strainer blow-down and test "T" valve to verify
operating pressure differential.
Examine the trap for dirt and plugging.
Determine if the trap is air bound.
After checking and confirming that trap failure has occurred, corrective
8.6 Corrective
Actions action is needed. Table 8 suggests corrective actions for either failed open or
failed closed traps.
Table 8
Corrective Actions
Indications of Trap Failure Corrective Action

Open or leaking traps Repair the trap.
Add a strainer with a blow-down valve.
Repair or replace the leaking stop valves.
Review the trap sizing and selection(1).
Closed or backing condensate Select a properly sized trap.
Replace the screen, if clogged.
Repair the trap.
Add a strainer and blow-down valve.
Repair or replace the defective stop and check valves.
Review the trap sizing (2).
Notes:
1. Oversized traps frequently wear faster than expected, producing leaks and defective linkage function. Most traps seldom fail full open. Failure
toward the open position is usually gradual unless the water seal is lost or linkages suddenly fail.
2. The trap might be backing condensate due to changes in operating pressure or process requirements. Traps backing condensate frequently
produce corrosion. These corrosion products result in fouled heat exchange surfaces and clogged screens.
NMAC Tech Note 49

REFERENCES
1. Industrial Steam Trapping Handbook, 3rd Edition, Yarway Corporation.

2. Steam Conservation Guidelines for Condensate Drainage, Handbook N-101,
Armstrong International Inc.
3. Instruments Catalog, EPD Technology Corporation.
4. Equipment Catalog, UE Systems, Inc.
5. TrapMan Catalog, TLV® America Corporation.
NMAC Tech Note 51

APPENDIX A
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR STEAM LINE
DRIP TRAPS
Application. Drip legs with traps are generally installed on steam headers,
turbine drains, control valves, risers, expansion loops, and so on. Adequately
sized drip pockets on the bottom of piping or entrances to devices collect
condensate, which then flows to the steam trap. The trap discharges the
condensate into a closed pressurized return line or into an open atmospheric
drain. Drip traps are classified as protection service traps.
Purpose. To remove condensate from piping, prevent water hammer damage
to the piping, turbines, valves, and other steam-driven equipment. Also
ensures dry steam supply at the point of use.
Steam pressures. Generally constant, with some seasonal variations. Typical
industry pressures are 100 psi–600 psi, but can be as high as 4500 psi. Steam
supply design pressures and actual operating pressures can be different.
Also, superheat is frequently encountered.
Condensate loads. Usually small and constant while in normal operation. Start-
up loads can be heavier. Boiler carry-over produces slugs of condensate that
are unpredictable in magnitude and frequency. De-superheaters that are
malfunctioning can produce unexpectedly high loads. Typical loads are
shown in Table A-1.
NMAC Tech Note 53

Table A-1
Typical Condensate Loads for Steam Line Drip
Condensate Load, Lbs/Hr per 100 Feet of Steam Line

Steam 85% Eff., Insulation, Indoor, 70˚F 85% Eff., Insulation, Outdoor 0˚F Ambient,
Pressure Ambient, Warm-Up Rate 400˚F/Hr, Warm-Up Rate 400˚F/Hr,
PSIG Wind 0 MPH Wind 15 MPH
Warm Up Normal Warm Up Normal

Pipe Size, Inches Pipe Size, Inches Pipe Size, Inches Pipe Size, Inches
4 10 12 4 10 12 4 10 12 4 10 12
50 64 228 271 12 30 36 189 673 801 36 90 107
250 105 373 444 20 50 60 286 1018 1012 55 136 162
550 140 497 592 27 66 79 375 133 1586 72 178 212
1200 212 755 899 41 101 120 544 1933 2300 104 258 308
Notes:
1. No safety factors are included for trap sizing. See Appendix E for safety load factors.
2. Warm-up rates, 400˚F/hr from ambient to saturation temperature.
3. Moisture in steam will increase normal loads. To obtain actual condensate load, multiply a normal load by the amount of
moisture (for example, if moisture is 5%, then multiply by 1.05).
4. For other conditions (that is, pipe sizes, pressures, insulation efficiency, etc.) consult steam trap sizing computer programs
available from trap manufacturers.
Shock, vibration, water hammer. Generally result from inadequate drainage of

condensate, which moves at high velocity. Thermal ratcheting can occur at
start-up. Severe water hammering can come from return lines.
Dirt, corrosion. No unusual problems. Oxides and particles typical to steam
system. If unusual problems exist, verify the condition of the equipment
being protected.
Ambient conditions. Variable. Freezing is the more common concern. See
Figure A-1 for cold environment installations.
Air venting. Need is minimal. Pipe lines are normally provided with air vents
and manual valves. These vents might have to be used during start-ups,
which presents the most common need. Under normal running conditions,
venting of CO2 might be a concern. When CO2 dissolves in condensate, it
forms carbonic acid, which attacks steel.
Drainage to trap. Usually by gravity with the trap installed below the steam
line. Occasionally, piping in trenches or underground have traps installed
above the pipe, but the condensate collecting point is under the pipe. This is
called lift drainage and requires a lift fitting. Turbines and other critical
equipment must always have the trap below the drain point.
54 NMAC Tech Note

Figure A-1
Steam Line Drip Piping
(a) Vertical Piping for Freeze Proofing (b) Vertical Piping for Freeze Proofing
(c) Vertical Piping Alternative for Extreme Cold Environment
Table A-2
Drip Pocket Size
Steam Header Size, Drip Pocket Diameter, Inches

Inches "D"
Recommended Range Used in Industry
1 1 1
2 2 1–2
4 4 1 1 2 –4
6 6 2–4
8 8 3–6
10 10 4–8
12 12 4–10
14 14 5–12
16 16 5–14
18 18 6–16
20 20 6–18
24 24 8–18
Steam trap recommendation. Desired characteristics of the trap to be used are

fail open, self-draining, and capable of being installed in any position. Be-
cause condensate back-up can be dangerous, a trap that responds quickly to
changes in condensate load should be selected. Tolerance to superheat should
be considered. Operating capabilities over a wide range of pressures are
important to standardization.
NMAC Tech Note 55

APPENDIX B
STEAM TRACING LINE TRAPS
Application. Steam tracer lines are small diameter pipes or tubes that run
parallel to a pipeline carrying a product that requires heat. Some grades of
fuel oil, certain chemicals (such as boric acid and sodium hydroxide) used in
power plants might need heat tracing to prevent them from solidification or
crystallization. In other industries, materials like asphalt, sulfur, and wax also
need heat tracing.
Water lines, safety showers, pumps, valves, and other equipment might be
heat traced to prevent them from freezing.
Heat tracing might also be used to maintain uniform temperatures in and
around certain sensitive instruments.
Steam tracing line traps are classified as protection service traps.
NMAC Tech Note 57

Lengths of steam tracers should be limited

Vacuum breakers to help minimize pressure drop, maintain
for maximum freeze Tracer uniform temperatures, and ensure drainage.
protection steam main
Avoid using 1/4" and 3/8" tubing unless
careful consideration is given to its
Steam installation and design. The small tubing
supply is subject to freezing, clogging, and damage.
header
Drip trap
Separate y-strainer
and blow-off valve if needed
Drip
trap
Tracer traps
Union Condensate
collection
manifold Traps discharging
to atmosphere
Test Valve
Use short, pitched
discharge lines
Drain
To return at low point
main or
sewer
Figure B-1
Typical Steam Tracer Piping
Figure B-1 shows a typical heat tracing installation. Whenever possible,
locate traps close together using a condensate return manifold. This also
simplifies maintenance and trap checking. Provide strainers, test “T,” and
suitable block valves. Ensure adequate pressure differential across the trap
for good drainage when discharging to a closed and elevated return system.
Purpose. The heat of steam flows to the product line. Steam condenses and
runs out the end of the pipe or tube to a steam trap. By removing the accu-
mulated condensate in the tracer lines, the heat transfer efficiency is im-
proved. The trap normally discharges the condensate into an atmospheric
drain.
Pressure. Typically 75 psi–400 psi when tracing process materials, but 15 psi–
150 psi is more common in freeze protection applications. Below 40 psi,
condensate return problems increase in closed systems when pressure
differentials are not adequate for good drainage.
Condensate loads. Low (0–40 lb/hr) and relatively steady, varying with
seasonal changes. Long tracing runs, poor insulation, submerged lines can
produce higher loads. Table B-1 illustrates typical condensate loads. Table B-
2 shows recommended maximum lengths of tracer lines.
58 NMAC Tech Note

Table B-1
Typical Condensate Loads for Steam Tracer Lines (Lbs/Hr/100 Ft)
Steam Pressure Fuel Oil, Water,

(psig) Hold at 100˚F Hold at 50˚F
Product Pipe Size, Inches Product Pipe Size, Inches
2 4 2 4
50 5 8 2 1/2 4
150 5 1/4 8 1/2 2 5/8 4 1/2
Notes:
Assumptions made to arrive at the typical condensate loads are:
• Installation - outdoors
• Temperature - 0 ˚F
• Wind velocity - 15 mph
• Dry waterproof insulation - 85% efficient
Table B-2
Suggested Length of Tracer Lines (1/2” Tube)
Steam Pressure Condensate Load,

(psig) Lbs/Hr, per 100 feet
10 20
50 145 ft 90 ft
150 265 ft 170 ft
Notes:
• The data given above are for 1/2-inch tube.
• For 3/8-inch tube, multiply the length by 0.5.
• For 3/4-inch tube, multiply the length by 2.3.
• Avoid using 1/4-inch tubing.
Shock, vibration, water hammer. Modest. If severe, it usually comes from the
return system or an improperly trapped steam supply.
Dirt, corrosion. Generally modest.
Ambient conditions. Outdoors. Freezing, wind, and rain are considerations.
Air venting. Modest need, only on start-up which is usually seldom.
Drainage to trap. Usually by gravity. Lift is sometimes encountered, and this
requires special treatment.
Steam trap recommendation. Desired characteristics of the trap to be used are
fail open, self-draining, light weight, and capable of being installed in any
position. This is due to the fact that tubing is frequently used for tracing and
is not properly supported. There can be many traps installed on this applica-
tion, so a trap that can easily be checked and maintained is desirable.
NMAC Tech Note 59

APPENDIX C
PROCESS TRAPS FOR HEATING LIQUIDS
Application process. Steam heats a liquid indirectly through a metal wall.

Purpose. Raise and/or maintain temperatures in tanks or heaters such as
feedwater heaters, fuel oil heater, reheater’s storage tanks for fuel and/or oil.
Equipment is frequently outdoors.
Description. Steam flows inside tubing or piping contained in the fluid to be
heated. The steam passages are usually arranged to allow condensate to be
collected and discharged at a low point.
Steam pressures. Moderate, in the 15 psi–150 psi range. However, most
applications are temperature-regulated. This results in variation in steam
pressure within the heater/heat exchanger.
Condensate load. Variable, larger loads occur during warming. Loads modu-
late slightly during the time that product temperatures are being held. Load
modulation is due to control valve modulation and changes (if any) in
product throughput volume and temperature. Some typical loads are shown
in Table C-1.
Shock, vibration, water hammer. Present during start-up or in normal operation
if condensate is drawn from the condensate return during the heating/
cooling cycle.
Dirt, corrosion. The most common source is “product” leaking into the
steam/condensate systems.
Ambient conditions. Variable. Some equipment is outdoors (for example,
storage tanks). Some equipment is indoors (for example, steam generator
feedwater heaters).
NMAC Tech Note 61

Air venting. Proper venting is important.

Drainage to trap. Usually by gravity.
Steam trap recommendation. Traps should be carefully selected and sized.
Desired trap characteristics are rugged construction and designed to fail
open to prevent back-up into the equipment. Traps should readily vent air
and non-condensables without air binding.
62 NMAC Tech Note

NMAC Tech Note
Table C-1
Estimated Condensate Loads for Heating Liquids (Lbs/Hr)
Estimated Condensate Loads (lbs/hr)(1)

Steam For Each 100 gpm and 50˚F Holding at Final Temp. Given Below—for Heating from 40˚F to Final Temp Given Below—
Rise in Throughput(2) Each 100 Ft2 of Heater Surface(3) for Each 100 Ft2 of Heater Surface(3)
Pressure Temp. For Heating For Heating
(psig) (˚F) Water Petroleum Water Petroleum Water Petroleum
Products 50˚F 200˚F 50˚F 200˚F 50˚F 200˚F 50˚F 200˚F
10 239 2623 1010 2395 504 590 126 2048 1040 512 261

20 259 2662 1020 2668 753 667 188 2276 1298 568 324
50 298 2741 1060 3263 1290 816 322 2274 1812 693 453
100 338 2841 1090 3923 1880 981 471 3329 2359 832 590
150 366 2917 1120 4425 2324 1106 581 3745 2766 936 692
Notes:
1. Multiply above condensate loads by a safety load fa ctor (usually 2–4) to select a suitably sized steam trap.

2. Figures given are for 100 gpm and 50˚F rise. For other throughputs and temperature rises, multiply by the ratio.
Examples: - A 50 gpm throughput would be 50/100 or 1/2.
- A 300 gpm throughput would be 300/100 or 3.
- A 100˚F rise would be 100/50 or 2.
3. For heater surface areas other than 100 square feet, multiply by the ratio.
Examples: - For 50 sq. ft., use 50/100 = 1/2 the load.
- For 400 sq. ft., use 400/100 = 4 times the load.
63
APPENDIX D
PROCESS TRAPS FOR HEATING AIR
Application process. Steam heats a gas (air) indirectly through a metal wall.
Purpose. To raise and/or maintain air (or gas) temperatures passing through
finned coils, such as unit heaters, air heaters/preheaters, and HVAC units.
Description. Steam flows inside the finned tubes of various designs. Air is
passed over the outside of the finned tubes, usually with a predetermined
velocity. Steam gives up heat, condenses, and the condensate flows to a low
point to be drained.
Steam pressures. Usually low to moderate 15 psi–150 psi. Pressures vary if
heated air temperature is controlled.
Condensate loads. Variable due to varying air temperature (inlet air) and
possibly air velocity, if a thermostatically controlled fan is installed in the
system. Some typical condensate loads are shown in Table D-1.
Shock, vibration, water hammer. Important due to somewhat fragile, thin wall
tubing used for this application. Shock and vibration can also result if
condensate or cool air is entrapped in the heater.
Dirt, corrosion. An important consideration for thin wall tube. The corrosion
source can include carbonic acid from dissolved CO2.
Ambient conditions. Freezing inlet air is an important factor if the condensate
does not drain from the heater.
Air venting. Important to be free of air and non-condensable gases.
NMAC Tech Note 65

Drainage to trap. Must be by gravity. Should have generous (length and

diameter) vertical drainage leg from the heater outlet to the trap inlet.
Steam trap recommendation. The trap should be carefully sized and selected.
The trap should be designed to fail open to prevent back-up and freeze-up in
heater. It should be of rugged construction and vent air and non-
condensables without air binding.
Table D-1
Typical Condensate Load for Heating Air
Estimated Condensate Load (lbs/hr) Unit Heater Correction Factor

Steam For Each 10,000 cfm and For 100 Sq. Ft. of Surface Multiply Unit Heater Ranging (BTU/hr or Lbs/Hr
Temp., Rise Given Below with Surface to Air ∆T of Condensate) by Values Given Below for a
Given Below (Still Air) Given Air Temperature(1)
Pa. Temp. 50˚F 150˚F 200˚F 50˚F 150˚F 200˚F 30˚F 40˚F 50˚F 60˚F 70˚F 80˚F
(psig) (˚F)
10 239 567 1072 2269 9.5 38.8 57.6 1.38 1.29 1.21 1.13 1.06 0.98
20 259 575 1725 2300 9.6 39.3 58.5 1.50 1.42 1.33 1.25 1.17 1.11
50 298 592 1776 2368 9.9 40.5 60.2 1.76 1.67 1.58 1.50 1.42 1.34
100 338 613 1839 2452 10.2 42.1 62.5 2.02 1.93 1.84 1.75 1.66 1.58
Notes:
1. Unit heaters are rated for 2 psi steam and 60 ˚F entering air temperature. Other operating conditions (that is, steam pressure and entering air
temperature) modify the rating.
Examples: — If entering air is 30˚F and steam is 100 psi, the heater consumes and provides nearly twice (2.02) the rating.
— If the rating was 100,00 BTU/hr, (or about 1000 lb/hr of condensate), the "corrected" rating is approximately 200,000 BTU/hr
(or 2000 lb/hr of condensate).
2. Multiply the condensate loads by the safety load factor:

— Use 2–3 if the inlet air is above freezing.
— Use 3–4 if the inlet air is below freezing.
66 NMAC Tech Note

APPENDIX E
SAFETY LOAD FACTORS
In selecting a steam trap, it is customary to multiply the estimated conden-

sate load with a safety factor. Some recommended safety factors are shown in
Table E-1. Theory would suggest that a safety load factor of 1 is a bad prac-
tice; however, experience establishes that trap manufacturers seldom design a
steam trap for light load services with a suitably small seat orifice because it
is so easily blocked with dirt or oxides in normal service. Therefore, a small
safety factor is already built into the design of the trap.
In addition, maximum loads usually occur during start-up, and the conden-
sate being discharged at the time is cool relative to saturation. Under these
conditions, the steam trap is expected to discharge at a greater rate than
when operating at saturation temperature. Finally, many plants use by-pass
valves to handle start-up load and traps to handle only a relatively small
operating load. Under these conditions, using a load factor of 1 in selecting
traps is perfectly reasonable.
NMAC Tech Note 67

Table E-1
Recommended Safety Factors
Application Category Safety Load Factor

Application Application Characteristic Pressure
Description Constant Variable
Transfer steam to Turbine drain, main Small Only due to
point of use drip, expansion joints condensate load 1 start-up or shut-
and loops down
Provide heating to Heat tracing Small Some due to
controls and condensate load 1 seasonal
process piping variations
Heating liquid Batch stills, shell and Gravity drainage
tube heaters, tank 2 3
coils, vats
Heating air Unit heaters, pipe coil, Ambient air
radiators, process air above freezing 2 3
heaters
Ambient air 3 4
below freezing
68 NMAC Tech Note

APPENDIX F
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE TRAP
SELECTION AND CHECKING DEVICES
As an aid to plant maintenance personnel, some of the commercially avail-

able steam trap selection and checking devices are described below. A list of
suppliers of equipment and services is given in Table F-1. This list is not all
inclusive. There might be other manufacturers and suppliers who can pro-
vide similar equipment and services. Also, the list of suppliers in Table F-1
is not a recommendation or endorsement by EPRI/NMAC of their equip-
ment or services. The information provided here is for guidance only. Details
should be obtained directly from the manufacturer or supplier.
NMAC Tech Note 69

Table F-1
Suppliers and Services
Supplier/Address Services/Equipment Provided

Yarway Corporation • Steam traps of all sizes and descriptions
480 Norristown Road • Steam trap selection and sizing program for
P.O. Box 350 use on PCs
Blue Bell, PA 19422
Phone: (610)825-2100 • Technical seminars on steam traps
Fax: (610)825-6679
Armstrong International, Inc. • Steam traps of all sizes and descriptions
816 Maple Street • A video library for personnel training
P.O. Box 408
Three Rivers, MI 49093 • Technical seminars on steam traps
Phone: (616)273-1415 • Steam trap selection and sizing program for
Fax: (616)278-6555 use on PCs
TLV® America Corporation • Computerized steam trap management
6701-K NorthPark Boulevard system (See summary below)
Charlotte, NC 28216 • Steam traps of all sizes and descriptions
Phone: (704)597-9070 (manufactured in Japan)
Fax: (704)597-9082
• Technical seminars on steam traps and
TrapMan
UE Systems Inc. • Ultrasonic valve and steam trap inspection
EPD Technology Corporation system—includes EPD trap manager software
14 Hayes Street • Infra-red thermometers with software
Elmsford, NY 10523-2536
Phone: (800)223-1325 • Surface pyrometers
Fax: (914)347-2181 • Video library available for training
Transcat • Infra-red thermometers
Box D-1 • Surface pyrometers
Rochester, NY 14606
Phone: (800)223-1325
Several trap manufacturers offer devices for checking steam traps. One
Trap Management
Systems manufacturer (TLV ® America) offers a device called TrapMan. Trapman is a
computerized steam trap evaluation and management system that incorpo-
rates two independent test techniques—the measurement of the ultrasonic
waves generated by steam flow and the inlet temperature of the trap. The
system computer has an onboard Read Only Memory (ROM) that carries a
database of a large variety of steam traps from various manufacturers. The
field-recorded measurements are instantly compared with the stored data to
indicate the trap condition (for example, good, leaking, blowing, blocked, not
in service, and so on). TrapMan is comprised of two basic components:
hardware (TM2) for testing and diagnosis of the traps in the field, and
software (PS1) for creating and maintaining the database in a PC. The data
files can be transmitted between the PC and TM2 via an RS-232 cable.
Trap management software supplied by EPD Technology Corporation also
allows the user to maintain trap maintenance and performance records,
conduct audits, and produce reports with graphs and charts. EPD also pro-
70 NMAC Tech Note

vides a total system analysis kit, which, in addition to the software, includes an
ultrasonic detector, infra-red thermometer, and training materials.
Armstrong offers Trap Scan/Trap Alert equipment that can be permanently
installed for automatic trap testing or used as stand-alone systems.
Infra-red (IR) thermometers can be used to measure trap temperatures

Infra-Red Thermometers
without any need of physical contact. IR thermometers are available in
various sophistications—from simple measurement of temperatures, to
computerized data loggers and recorders. A basic IR thermometer can read
up to 750˚F on a target spot size of 2 1/2 inches from a distance of 20 inches.
More sophisticated models can read a target spot of 1 inch from a distance of
15 feet. These instruments are capable of measuring temperatures in real time
and calculate the maximum, minimum, and average temperatures. Emissiv-
ity is adjustable for greater accuracy. They also include a built-in data logger
that can store a large number of data points.
Ultrasonic detectors sense high-frequency short wave signals of ultrasound

Ultrasonic Leak
Detection and translate these sounds into the audible frequency range where they can be
heard through headphones. Sound intensity can also be visually monitored on
a meter. Some instruments allow for tuning for specific frequencies. When
properly tuned for the fluid viscosity, any interference from stray noises is
reduced. To analyze a trap condition through ultrasound, the system operating
conditions and the valve mechanism must be thoroughly understood.
Ultrasonic steam trap inspection equipment is available from a large number
of vendors, including those listed above.
NMAC Tech Note 71

APPENDIX G
ECONOMICS OF STEAM TRAP SURVEYS
AND REPAIRS
This appendix discusses an approach to making cost estimates for steam trap
inspection, maintenance, and repairs of steam traps in a power plant. In
making a purely economic decision for trap maintenance, the cost of lost steam
from failed traps need only to be compared with the cost of trap survey and
maintenance. However, a subjective assessment should also be made for the
equipment protection provided by the steam traps and the avoided cost of
equipment failure. An example is shown in Table G-3. Also, a blank calculation
table (Table G-4) is provided for use with plant-specific data.
The object of a steam trap survey is to uncover failures and take corrective
Definitions
action. Any steam trap survey or inspection is likely to uncover a number of
failed steam traps.
At any given time, 80%–90% of the installed trap population might be deter-
mined to be operating normally or as expected. The balance are so-called
failed traps. These failed traps include traps that are failed open, failed
closed, valved out, out-of-service, or failed from indeterminate causes. For
the purpose of clarification, these conditions are discussed below.
Failed open. These are traps suspected of or determined to be blowing steam.
It is seldom known if the trap has failed full-open, if it is just not closing drop
tight, or how much condensate is present in the observed blowing. These
are the costly failed traps that waste steam. Their repair can be justified
economically.
NMAC Tech Note 73

It is also difficult to determine when a trap failure first occurred. For ex-
ample, if a trap has failed between the time of two surveys, 12 months apart,
did the trap fail immediately after the first or just prior to the second survey?
For the purpose of this economic evaluation, assume that all fail open traps
failed midway between two surveys.
Failed closed. These are traps suspected of not adequately draining all the
condensate. They can be fully or partially failed closed. There is little cost
justification for repair except for the fact that condensate back-up can cause
equipment damage. To prevent equipment damage, sometimes by-pass
valves are opened, blowing more steam than any steam trap. For example, a
1-inch by-pass globe valve that is 10% open will blow approximately 200
lbs/hr of steam at 150 psi. Sometimes large orifice drains are used on steam
turbines in place of steam traps. This is to prevent turbine damage from traps
that might fail closed. In these cases, the steam loss is economically justified
as good insurance for the protection they provide.
Valved out. These are traps that are valved out or isolated for reasons that
might not be immediately known. It might be that the trap has failed open,
failed closed, or is in need of repair and the Operations Department has
temporarily isolated the trap. It might also be that the system is not in
service. However, because it is not operating normally, a routine inspection
could place it into the failed closed category.
Out-of-service. These are traps that are no longer required for operation but
are part of the overall trap population. They should be physically removed
from the piping system as soon as practical.
Indeterminate. These are traps that are in areas that are inaccessible for
regular inspection. The performance of the traps is unknown and, therefore,
is considered as not operating normally.
Assume that there are 200 traps in a plant; and at the beginning of a plant
Basic Assumptions
operating cycle, and all failed traps were repaired and left fully operational.
The survey conducted during the next maintenance outage after one year
might show the following result:
Table G-1
Survey of Plant Operations
Item No. Trap Condition No. of Traps Assumptions

1. Operating normally 172 86% of population
2. Failed open 14 7% of population
3. Failed closed 4
4. Valved out 6
5. Inaccessible, indeterminate, out- 4
of-service
74 NMAC Tech Note

As stated before, it is not unusual to find 10%–20% failed traps in a large

power plant during an annual maintenance survey.
Items 2 and 3 in the table deserve immediate attention because these failures
have the most economic impact. A decision is required for items 4 and 5
whether these traps should be removed or receive additional attention. The
"valved out" traps might have failed and are in need of repair, or might have
become unnecessary due to design change. All traps that are determined to
be unnecessary for system operation should be physically removed as soon
as possible. Traps that are inaccessible should be evaluated for their function,
possible relocation, and accessibility. The economic analysis given in this
appendix is based on items 2 and 3, plus the cost of the survey.
Table G-3 shows an example that illustrates the cost estimating method. This
Cost Estimate Example
work sheet lists a number of variables. Given below is the purpose and
definition of each line of the worksheet. A number of assumptions have been
made for the purpose of this illustration. This table is presented for reference
only and can be altered and modified based on actual plant data. Table G-4 is
a blank table, which can be opted into the steam trap maintenance planning
procedures, if desired.
Explanation for Data in Table G-3
• Line 1: Quantity of traps surveyed. This might or might not include all of
the installed and operating traps. When gathering data for actual failure
rates from survey data, it is important to include the same traps in
sequential surveys. For this example, it is assumed that surveys are
conducted 12 months apart.
• Line 2: Number of people doing the survey. This might be a single person
or more than one for safety reasons. Include all people.
• Line 3: Survey labor costs, $/hr. The hourly cost, including all benefits
and overhead expenses for people doing the trap survey. It is assumed
that the survey is done during normal working hours (8 hours per day).
• Line 4: Traps surveyed per day. A typical value can range from 50 to 100
traps per day per person, depending on the experience of the persons
involved and the ease with which traps can be accessed and checked.
• Line 5: Repair Labor Costs, $/hr. These are the fully burdened labor
costs, including all benefits and overhead expenses, for the technicians
repairing the steam traps.
• Line 6: Number of repair technicians employed for this job. This can be a
one person or more than one. Include all people.
NMAC Tech Note 75

• Line 7: Material cost. This is for materials to repair or replace the failed
traps. The total cost can include the administrative cost of material
procurement.
— Line 7(a): Parts/kits. This is the cost of parts for replacing the trap
internals only. This cost varies widely and can be from a few dollars
to several hundred.
— Line 7(b): Complete trap. This is the material cost of the steam trap to
be replaced. Some low pressure traps might cost only $40–$50, while
high pressure traps might run as high as $600–$700.
• Line 8: Cost of steam. Usually expressed in dollars per 1000 lbs of steam.
If this is unknown, $5.00/1000 lbs is typically used.
• Line 9: Annual steam trap failure rate in percent (%). This may have to be
assumed or calculated based on past experience or successive surveys of
the same identical operating trap population.
— Line 9(a): Annual total failure rate (%). This is the failure rate from all
causes. For this example, assume a rate of 14%. In practice, this rate
will vary with applications and operating pressures, but overall in a
well-maintained plant, a total trap failure rate of 14% is not unusual.
— Line 9(b): Annual fail open failure rate (%). For this example, assume
a rate of 7% or half of the total annual failure rate.
• Line 10: Repair/replacement ratio. This is ratio of failed traps that can be
repaired to the ones that need to be replaced. Normally this will be based
on plant maintenance records or past survey data. A certain percentage of
failed traps can be repaired by replacing internal parts, while other traps
might need to be completely replaced. For this example, assume that 95%
of failed traps can be repaired and the other 5% will be replaced.
• Line 11: Trap repair rate. The rate at which the traps can be repaired or
replaced per day on a 8-hour shift.
— Line 11(a): Repair/day. This is the repair rate for traps that need
replacement parts. Some products are easier to repair than others.
Assume that 10 traps can be repaired in a 8-hour day using two
repair technicians.
— Line 11(b): Replace/day. This is the rate at which the traps can be
replaced in a 8-hour day. Assume that 4 traps can be replaced per day
using two repair technicians.
• Line 12: Steam loss. This applies to the traps identified as failed open.
Typical steam loss values provided in Table G-2 assume that:
— The trap is failed open 75% of the time.
— There is condensate present in the discharge.
— The range of steam loss shown is for the range of pressures indicated.
— The failed traps are reasonably sized and selected and not grossly
oversized.
76 NMAC Tech Note

Table G-2
Typical Steam Loss Values with Condensate in Discharge
Trap Type Pressure Range Steam Loss

Steam Drip Traps 600–1000 psi 100–50 lbs/hr
Tracer Line Traps 50–150 psi 15–45 lbs/hr
Liquid Heater Traps 50–150 psi 130–330 lbs/hr
Air Heater Traps 40–150 psi 110–330 lbs/hr
Other Traps (overall value) All pressures 90–100 lbs/hr
Note:
For the purpose of comparison of steam loss, a single 1/8-inch diameter by-pass orifice installed for protection of the
turbines is calculated to blow at least 290 lbs/hr of steam. This works out to approximately $6,350 over 6 months at
$5/1000 lbs of steam.
When calculating steam loss it is better to avoid over estimating the cost of
steam loss for the purpose of cost analysis. Be as reasonable as possible.
• Line 13: Cost of trap survey equipment. This is the purchase cost of all
steam trap survey equipment. This can range from a few hundred to
many thousand dollars. In addition, this equipment will have to be
replaced at the end of its life period.
For this example, assume an equipment purchase cost of $5,000 with a total
equipment life of 5 years. Based on a straight line depreciation method,
annual replacement cost of the survey equipment will be $1000.
• Line 14: Estimated life of survey equipment. Use an average estimated
life of all the survey equipment used for trap checking. For this example,
assume a life of 5 years.
• Line 15: Cost of lost steam/yr. The purpose of this exercise to compare
the annual cost of lost steam with cost of repair/maintenance of steam
traps. From the above data, use the following formula to calculate the
cost of steam loss per year. An assumption has been made that all fail
open traps failed midway between two surveys. Therefore, the value in
this formula has been divided by 2.
Line 12 x 24 hrs. x 365 days x Line 1 x Line 9(b) x Line 8

100 x 1000 x 2
• Line 16: Cost of trap survey. This is the cost of labor to survey all the
traps in the plant. Assuming that a survey is done once a year. Use the
following formula to arrive at this cost,
Line 1 x Line 2 x Line 3 x 8

Line 4
NMAC Tech Note 77

• Line 17: Cost of trap repair. This is the material and labor cost for the
repair and maintenance of the failed traps that could be repaired instead
of using repair parts or kits (that is, no replacement trap required). Use
the following formula to arrive at this cost,
 Line 1 x Line 9(a) x Line 10(a)   Line 6 x Line 5 x 8 hrs.

  x  Line 7(a) + 
 100 x 100   Line 11 
• Line 18: Cost of trap replacement. This is the material and labor cost for
the failed traps that need total replacement. Use the following formula to
arrive at this cost,
 Line 1 x Line 9(a) x Line 10(b)   Line 6 x Line 5 x 8 hrs.

  x  Line 7(b) + 
 100 x 100   Line 11(b) 
• Line 19: Depreciated cost survey equipment. This is simply the annual
depreciation of all the trap survey equipment. This represents the annual
cost that will be required to replace the equipment at the end of its life.
For this example, assume a straight line depreciation method. Use the
following formula to arrive at this cost,
Line 13
Line 14
• Line 20: Total cost of trap maintenance per year. This is simply an addi-
tion of all the survey, labor, material, and equipment cost. Use the follow-
ing formula to arrive at this cost,
Line 16 + Line 17 + Line18 + Line 19
To evaluate if the trap repair and maintenance is economical, compare the

Evaluation
value in line 20 (total cost of maintenance) with the value in line 15 (cost of
steam lost/yr.). If the cost of steam lost is higher, the trap maintenance
program will definitely be economical. However, if the steam loss is less than
the cost of repair, a value judgment must be made whether the equipment
protection provided by the steam traps is important to safety and produc-
tion. An estimated value of avoided loss due to equipment failure should be
added to the cost of lost steam to make an economic decision.
78 NMAC Tech Note

Table G-3
Steam Trap Maintenance Cost Estimate (Worked-Out Example)
Line No. Item Description Formula/Basis Value

1 Qty. of traps surveyed 200.00
2 No. persons employed for survey 1
3 Survey labor cost, $/hr (per person) $30.00
4 No. of traps surveyed/day Between 50–100 75
5 Repair labor cost, $/hr (per person) $30.00
6 No. persons employed for trap repair 2
7 Material cost:
(a) Replacement parts/kits for $80.00
each trap
(b) Complete trap replacement $250.00
8 Cost of steam/1000 lbs $5.00
9 Annual trap failure rate, %:
(a) All trap failures 14%
(b) Failed open traps only 7%
10 Repair/replacement ratio:
(a) % of failed traps to be repaired Assumed 95%
(b) % of failed traps to be replaced Assumed 5%
11 Trap repair rate:
(a) Repaired/day Based on 8-hr day 10
(b) Replaced/day Based on 8-hr day 4
12 Steam loss, lbs/hr See typical values 100
13 Cost of trap survey equipment $5,000.00
14 Estimated life of survey equipment, Assumed 5
years
15 Cost of lost steam/year See formula below $30,660.00
16 Cost of trap survey (1 survey/year) Line 1 x Line 2 x Line 3 x 8 $640.00
Line 4
17 Cost of trap repairs See formula below $3,404.80
18 Cost of trap replacements See formula below $518.00
19 Depreciated cost of survey Line 13 $1,000.00
equipment Line 14
20 Total cost of trap maintenance/year Line 16 + Line 17 + Line 18 + Line 19 $5,562.80
Formula for line 15:
100 x 1000 x 2
Note: Because it was assumed that all trap failures occur halfway between two surveys, the value in line 15
has been divided by 2.
 Line 1 x Line 9(a) x Line 10(a)   Line 6 x Line 5 x 8 hrs. 
Formula for line 17:   x  Line 7(a) + 
 100 x 100   Line 11 
 Line 1 x Line 9(a) x Line 10(b)   Line 6 x Line 5 x 8 hrs. 
Formula for line 18:   x  Line 7(b) + 
 100 x 100   Line 11(b) 
Note: If line 20 is less than line 15, then trap survey and repair is economical.
NMAC Tech Note 79

Table G-4
Steam Trap Maintenance Cost Estimate (Blank Form)
Line No. Item Description Basis Value

1 Qty. of traps surveyed
2 No. persons employed for survey
3 Survey labor cost, $/hr
4 No. of traps surveyed/day
5 Repair labor cost, $/hr
6 No. persons employed for trap repair
7 Material cost:
(a) Replacement parts/Kits for each
trap
(b) Complete trap replacement
8 Cost of steam/1000 lbs
9 Annual trap failure rate, %:
(a) All trap failures
(b) Failed open traps only
10 Repair/replacement ratio:
(a) % of failed traps to be repaired
(b) % of failed traps to be replaced
11 Trap repair rate:
(a) Repaired/day Based on 8-hr day
(b) Replaced/day Based on 8-hr day
12 Steam loss, lbs/hr See typical values
13 Cost of trap survey equipment
14 Estimated life of survey equipment,
years
15 Cost of lost steam/year See formula below
16 Cost of trap survey (1 survey/year) Line 1 x Line 2 x Line 3 x 8
Line 4
17 Cost of trap repairs See formula below
18 Cost of trap replacements See formula below
19 Depreciated cost of survey Line 13
equipment Line 14
20 Total cost of trap maintenance/year Line 16 + Line 17 + Line 18 + Line 19

Formula for line 15:
100 x 1000 x 2
Note: Because it is assumed that all trap failures occur halfway between two surveys, the value in line 15
has been divided by 2.
 Line 1 x Line 9(a) x Line 10(a)   Line 6 x Line 5 x 8 hrs. 
Formula for line 17:   x  Line 7(a) + 
 100 x 100   Line 11 
 Line 1 x Line 9(a) x Line 10(b)   Line 6 x Line 5 x 8 hrs. 
Formula for line 18:   x  Line 7(b) + 
 100 x 100   Line 11(b) 
Note: If line 20 is less than line 15, then trap survey and repair is economical.
80 NMAC Tech Note

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Effective December 6, 2006, this report has been made publicly available in accordance

NMAC Tech Note

Application and Maintenance

Application and Maintenance of Steam Traps

EPRI TR-105853s Electric Power Research Institute December 1996

A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS REPORT:

NMAC Tech Note iii

NMAC would like to acknowledge Armstrong International and Yarway

NMAC Tech Note v

2. Industry Standards .................................................................................... 3

3. Terms and Definitions ............................................................................... 5

4. Trap Selection ............................................................................................ 9

5. Steam Trap Applications......................................................................... 13

6. Steam Trap Types, Advantages, and Limitations ................................. 15

NMAC Tech Note vii

7. Steam Trap Installation ........................................................................... 33

8. Steam Trap Maintenance, Checking, Inspection,

Appendix A: Selection Criteria for Steam Line Drip Traps ...................... 53

Appendix B: Steam Tracing Line Traps ..................................................... 57

Appendix C: Process Traps for Heating Liquids ...................................... 61

Appendix D: Process Traps for Heating Air .............................................. 65

Appendix E: Safety Load Factors .............................................................. 67

Appendix F: Commercially Available Trap Selection and

Appendix G: Economics of Steam Trap Surveys and Repairs ................ 73

viii NMAC Tech Note

Figure 1 Typical Applications of Steam Traps .......................................... 2

Figure 2 Accumulation of Condensate in a Sagging Steam Line .......... 11

Figure 3(a) Disc Trap (Schematic) ................................................................ 17

Figure 3(b) Disc Trap (Cross Section) .......................................................... 18

Figure 4(a) Piston/Impulse Trap (Schematic) .............................................. 19

Figure 4(b) Piston/Impulse Trap (Cross Section) ........................................ 20

Figure 5(a) Float and Thermostatic Trap (Schematic) ................................ 21

Figure 5(b) Float and Thermostatic Trap (Cross Section) .......................... 22

Figure 6(a) Inverted Bucket Trap (Schematic) ............................................. 23

Figure 6(b) Inverted Bucket Trap (Cross Section) ...................................... 24

Figure 7(a) Bimetallic Steam Trap (Schematic) ........................................... 25

Figure 7(b) Bimetallic Steam Trap (Cross Section) ..................................... 26

Figure 8(a) Bellows/Thermostatic Steam Trap (Schematic)....................... 27

Figure 8(b) Bellows/Thermostatic Steam Trap (Cross Section) ................ 28

NMAC Tech Note ix

Figure 9(a) Fixed Orifice Drainer (Schematic) ............................................. 30

Figure 9(b) Fixed Orifice Drainer (Cross Section)....................................... 31

Figure 10 A Typical Steam Trap Installation.............................................. 35

Figure 11 A Typical Lift Fitting Application ............................................... 36

Figure 12 Elevated Discharge and Backpressure .................................... 37

Figure 13 Typical Installation of Vacuum Breakers and Air Vents .......... 38

Figure 14(a) Unit Trapping (Recommended) ................................................. 39

Figure 14(b) Group Trapping (Not Recommended) ...................................... 40

Figure 15 Typical By-Pass Installation ...................................................... 40

Figure A-1 Steam Line Drip Piping

Figure B-1 Typical Steam Tracer Piping ...................................................... 58

x NMAC Tech Note

Table 1 General Operating Characteristics of Steam Traps ................ 16

Table 2 Application Guidelines for Steam Traps .................................. 32

Table 3 Trap-Checking Frequency with Respect to Trap

Table 4 Advantages and Limitations of Trap-Checking Methods ....... 46

Table 5 Expected Trap Characteristics .................................................. 47

Table 6 Normal Operation and Failure Causes for Various Types

Table 7 Additional Checking ................................................................... 49

Table 8 Corrective Actions ...................................................................... 49

Table A-2 Drip Pocket Size ......................................................................... 55

Table B-1 Typical Condensate Loads for Steam Tracer Lines