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CROSS-SECTIONS
by
Matthew J. Vensko
Master of Science
University of Pittsburgh
2008
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
by
Matthew J. Vensko
It was defended on
and approved by
ii
LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF STRUCTURES WITH MONOSYMMETRIC
CROSS-SECTIONS
Lateral-torsional buckling is a method of failure that occurs when the in-plane bending capacity
of a member exceeds its resistance to out-of-plane lateral buckling and twisting. The lateral-
been long discussed and well covered. The buckling of members with monosymmetric cross-
sections is an underdeveloped topic, with its derivations complicated by the fact that the centroid
and the shear center of the cross-section do not coincide. In this paper, the total potential energy
The total potential energy equation is the sum of the strain energy and the potential
energy of the external loads. The theorem of minimum total potential energy exerts that setting
the second variation of this equation equal to zero will represent a transition from a stable to an
unstable state. The buckling loads can then be identified when this transition takes place. This
thesis will derive energy equations in both dimensional and non-dimensional forms assuming
iii
that the beam-column is without prebuckling deformations. This dimensional buckling equation
The ability of these equations to predict the lateral-torsional buckling loads of a structure
is demonstrated for different loading and boundary conditions. The accuracy of these predictions
is dependent on the ability to select a suitable shape function to mimic the buckled shape of the
beam-column. The results provided by the buckling equations derived in this thesis, using a
suitable shape function, are compared to examples in existing literature considering the same
The finite element method is then used, along with the energy equations, to derive
element elastic and geometric stiffness matrices. These element stiffness matrices can be
transformed into global stiffness matrices. Boundary conditions can then be enforced and a
generalized eigenvalue problem can then be used to determine the buckling loads. The element
elastic and geometric stiffness matrices are presented in this thesis so that future research can
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1
3.1.1 Displacements...........................................................................................34
3.1.2 Strains.......................................................................................................41
v
3.4 ENERGY EQUATION FOR LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING......................49
4.1.1 Displacements............................................................................................54
5.0 APPLICATIONS....................................................................................................................64
vi
6.3 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD CONSIDERING PREBUCKLING
DEFLECTIONS........................................................................................................109
7.0 SUMMARY...................................................................................................................115
APPENDIX A..............................................................................................................................118
APPENDIX B..............................................................................................................................143
BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................156
WORKS CITED..............................................................................................................156
WORKS CONSULTED..................................................................................................158
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1b Beams of Rectangular Cross-Section with Axial Force and End Moments.................6
Figure 2.2 Linearly Tapered Beam Subjected to Equal and Opposite End Moments.....................9
Figure 2.4a Monosymmetric Beam Subjected to End Moments and Axial Load.........................14
Figure 3.2 External Loads and Member End Actions of Beam Element......................................30
viii
Figure 5.1 Monosymmetric Beam with Subjected to Equal End Moments..................................65
Figure 5.3 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Concentrated Central Load ( βx = − 0.6) .........................................75
Figure 5.4 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Concentrated Central Load ( βx = − 0.3) .........................................76
Figure 5.5 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Concentrated Central Load ( βx = − 01
. ) .........................................76
Figure 5.6 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Concentrated Central Load ( βx = 0) .............................................77
Figure 5.7 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Concentrated Central Load ( βx = 01
. ) ...........................................77
Figure 5.8 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Concentrated Central Load ( βx = 0.3) ...........................................78
Figure 5.9 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Concentrated Central Load ( βx = 0.6) ...........................................78
Figure 5.11 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ( βx = − 0.6) .......................................84
ix
Figure 5.12 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ( βx = − 0.3) .......................................84
Figure 5.13 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ( βx = − 01
. ) .......................................85
Figure 5.14 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ( βx = 0) ...........................................85
Figure 5.15 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ( βx = 01
. ) .........................................86
Figure 5.16 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ( βx = 0.3) .........................................86
Figure 5.17 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Subjected to a Uniformly Distributed Load ( βx = 0.6) .........................................87
Figure 5.19 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section Subjected to a
Concentrated End Load ( βx = − 0.6) ......................................................................94
Figure 5.20 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section Subjected to a
Concentrated End Load ( βx = − 0.3) .....................................................................95
Figure 5.21 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section Subjected to a
Concentrated End Load ( βx = − 01
. ) ......................................................................95
x
Figure 5.22 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section Subjected to a
Concentrated End Load ( βx = 0) ..........................................................................96
Figure 5.23 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section Subjected to a
Concentrated End Load ( βx = 01
. ) ........................................................................96
Figure 5.24 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section Subjected to a
Concentrated End Load ( βx = 0.3) ........................................................................97
Figure 5.25 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section Subjected to a
Concentrated End Load ( βx = 0.6) ........................................................................97
xi
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Description
A area of member
E modulus of elasticity
F axial load
G shear modulus
xii
[ge] element local geometric stiffness matrix for initial load set
J torsional constant
K beam parameter
L member length
Mx bending moment
P concentrated load
xiii
γP non-dimensional concentrated load
q distributed load
U strain energy
u’ out-of-plane rotation
xiv
v in-plane bending displacement
v’ in-plane rotation
w axial displacement
βx monosymmetry parameter
xv
εP longitudinal strain of point Po
λ buckling parameter
ρ degree of monosymmetry
ω warping function
xvi
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The members of a steel structure, commonly known as beam-columns, are usually designed with
structural stability and economic efficiency and include angles, channels, box-beams, I-beams,
etc. These members are usually designed so that the loads are applied in the plane of the weak
axis of the cross-section, so that the bending occurs about the strong axis. However, when a
beam, usually slender in nature, has relatively small lateral and torsional stiffnesses compared to
its stiffness in the plane of loading, the beam will deflect laterally and twist out of plane when
the load reaches a critical limit. This limit is known as the elastic lateral-torsional buckling
load.
The lateral buckling and twisting of the beam are interdependent in that when a member
deflects laterally, the resulting induced moment exerts a component torque about the deflected
longitudinal axis which causes the beam to twist (Wang, et al. 2005). The lateral-torsional
buckling loads for a beam-column are influenced by a number of factors, including cross-
sectional shape, the unbraced length and support conditions of the beam, the type and position of
the applied loads along the member axis, and the location of the applied loads with respect to the
This paper will focus on the lateral-torsional buckling of steel I-beams with a
1
and the centroid of the cross-section do not coincide. The significance of this can be explained
by the Wagner effect (Anderson and Trahair, 1972), in which the twisting of the member causes
the axial compressive and tension stresses to exert an additional disturbing torque. This torque
can reduce the torsional stiffness of a member in compression and increase the torsional stiffness
and tensile stresses balance each other exactly and the change in the torsional stiffness is zero. In
I-beams with monosymmetric cross-sections where the smaller flange is further from the shear
center, the Wagner effect results in a change in the torsional stiffness. The stresses in the smaller
flange have a greater lever arm and predominate in the Wagner effect. The torsional stiffness of
the beam will then increase when the smaller flange is in tension and decrease when the smaller
flange is in compression.
When a structure is simple, such as a beam, an energy method approach may be used
directly to calculate the lateral-torsional buckling load of the structure. Assuming a suitable
shape function, the equations derived using the energy method can provide approximate buckling
loads for the structure. However, when a structure is complex, this is not possible. In this case,
the energy method in conjunction with the finite element method may be used to calculate the
The finite element method is a versatile numerical and mathematical approach which can
encompass complicated loads, boundary conditions, and geometry of a structure. First, element
elastic stiffness and geometric stiffness matrices are derived for an element using the energy
equations for lateral-torsional buckling. The structure in question must be divided into several
elements, and a global coordinate system can be selected for that structure. The element elastic
stiffness and geometric stiffness matrices are transformed to the global coordinate system for
2
each element, resulting in global element elastic and geometric stiffness matrices for the
structure. After this assembly process, boundary conditions are enforced to convert the structure
from an unrestrained structure to a restrained structure. The derived equilibrium equations are in
the form of a generalized eigenvalue problem, where the eigenvalues are the load factors that,
when multiplied to a reference load, result in lateral-torsional buckling loads for the structure.
The main objective of this thesis is to formulate equations for lateral-torsional buckling
of monosymmetric beams using the energy method. Suitable shape functions will be applied to
these equations to provide approximate buckling solutions that can be compared to previous data.
The finite element method will be used to derive element elastic and geometric stiffness matrices
that can be used in future works in conjunction with computer software to determine lateral-
3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This section reviews available literature that explores lateral-torsional buckling as the primary
state of failure for beams used in structures. A beam that has relatively small lateral and
torsional stiffnesses compared to its stiffness in the plane of loading tends to deflect laterally and
twist out of plane. This failure mode is known as lateral-torsional buckling. Two methods are
used to derive the critical load values that result in lateral-torsional buckling beam failure: the
method utilizing differential equilibrium equations and the energy method. The differential
equilibrium method of stability analysis assumes the internal and external forces acting on an
object to be equal and opposite. The energy method refers to an approach where the total
potential energy of a conservative system is calculated by summing the internal and external
energies. The buckling loads for the system can then be approximated if a suitable shape
function for the particular structure is used, thus reducing the system from one having infinite
degrees of freedom to one having finite degrees of freedom. This approach is known as the
Rayleigh-Ritz method. This method will provide acceptable results as long as the assumed shape
function is accurate. Both the differential equilibrium method and energy methods are examined
4
2.1 EQUILIBRIUM METHOD
The closed form solutions for various loading conditions and cross-sections are demonstrated
below using the equilibrium method. The beams are assumed to be stationary and therefore the
sum of the internal forces of the structure and the external forces is assumed to be zero. The
equation from which the buckling loads can be solved. The beams are assumed in this section to
be elastic, initially perfectly straight, and in-plane deformations are neglected. Rotation of the
beam, φ , is assumed small, so for the small angle relationships sin φ = φ and cos φ = 1 can be
used.
Consider a simply supported beam with a uniform rectangular cross section as shown in
Figure 2.1a and Figure 2.1b. Note that u, v and w are the displacements in the x-, y-, and z-
directions, respectively. The section rotates out of plane at an angle φ . The differential
equilibrium equations of minor axis bending and torsion of a beam with no axial force (F = 0)
d2 u
EI y = − M xφ (2.1)
dz 2
dφ du
GJ = Mx + Mz (2.2)
dz dz
Ehb 3 Ghb 3
where EI y = and GJ =
12 3
5
EI y represents the flexural rigidity of the beam with respect to the y-axis and GJ represents the
torsional rigidity of the beam with respect to the z-axis. M x and M z are the internal moments
of the beam acting about the x-axis and the z-axis, respectively. In Eq. (2.1), the component of
M x in the y-direction is represented by − M x sin φ which, by way of the small angle theorem,
du
represented by M x .
dz
x y
M M
F F
z
L
y
Figure 2.1b Beams of Rectangular Cross-Section with Axial Force and End Moments
6
2.1.1 Closed Form Solutions
Case 1: A beam that is subjected to only equal end moments M about x-axis
This loading case is shown in Figure 2.1b, with F = 0. Since there is no torsional component of
the moment, let Mx = M and Mz = 0. The equilibrium equations given in Eq. (2.1) and (2.2)
reduce to
d2 u
EI y = −M φ (2.3)
dz 2
dφ du
GJ = M (2.4)
dz dz
d 2 u − Mφ
= (2.5)
dz 2 EI y
d 2 u GJ d 2 φ
= (2.6)
dz 2 M dz 2
d 2φ M2
+ φ=0 (2.7)
dz 2 GJEI y
Solving the second order differential equation yields the general solution as
⎛ Mz ⎞⎟ ⎛ Mz ⎞⎟
φ ( z) = A sin⎜⎜ + B cos⎜⎜ (2.8)
⎝ EI y GJ ⎟⎠ ⎝ EI y GJ ⎟⎠
7
The constant A may then not be equal to zero because it provides a trivial solution. Therefore at
z=L
M cr L
sin =0 (2.9)
EI y GJ
Solving for Mcr to provide the smallest nonzero buckling load yields
π EI y GJ
M cr = (2.10)
L
where Mcr is the critical value of M that will cause the beam to deflect laterally and twist out of
plane.
Case 2: A linearly tapered beam with a rectangular cross section that is subjected to only equal
z
For this case, consider a linearly tapered beam with initial depth ho which increases at a rate δ
L
z
h( z ) = (1 + δ )ho (2.11)
L
In Eq. (2.11), h(z) is the linear tapered depth of the beam as a function of z, ho is the depth of
8
M
M
z
h o
h (z)
(1 + δ ) h o
L
y
Figure 2.2 Linear Tapered Beam Subjected to Equal and Opposite End Moments
EI y = EI oη (2.12)
GJ = GJ o η (2.13)
ho b 3 ho b 3 z
where I o = , Jo = , and η = 1 + δ . (2.14)
12 3 L
Substituting Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13) into the equilibrium equations yield
d 2u
EI oη 2 = − Mφ (2.15)
dz
dφ du
GJ o η = M (2.16)
dz dz
dη δ
= (2.17)
dz L
9
(2.18)
dφ dφ dη δ dφ
= =
dz dη dz L dη
and
d 2φ ⎛ δ ⎞ d 2φ
2
=⎜ ⎟ (2.19)
dz 2 ⎝ L ⎠ dη 2
Substituting Eqs. (2.17) – (2.19) into the equilibrium Eqs. (2.15) and (2.16) yield
⎛δ⎞ d u
2 2
EI o η⎜ ⎟ = − Mφ (2.20)
⎝ L ⎠ dη 2
⎛ δ ⎞ dφ ⎛ δ ⎞ du
GJ o η⎜ ⎟ = M⎜ ⎟ (2.21)
⎝ L ⎠ dη ⎝ L ⎠ dη
Differentiating Eq. (2.21) and combining it with Eq.(2.20) in order to eliminate u yields
d 2φ dφ
η2
2 + η + k 2φ = 0 (2.22)
dη dη
where
M 2 L2
k =
2
(2.23)
EI o GJ o δ 2
Applying the boundary condition φ = 0 at z = 0, B is equal to zero. The constant A may then not
be equal to zero because it provides a trivial solution. Therefore the boundary condition φ = 0 at
η = (1 + δ ) yields
Solving for Mcr to provide the smallest nonzero buckling load yields
10
πδ EI o GJ o
M cr = (2.26)
ln(1 + δ ) L
where Mcr is the critical value of M that will cause the beam to deflect laterally and twist out of
plane. It is important to recognize that if δ = 0 , meaning that the beam is not tapered, Eq. (2.26)
reduces to
π EI o GJ o
M cr = (2.27)
L
Case 3: A simply supported beam with a concentrated load, P, at midspan (at z = L/2)
For this case, consider a non-tapered beam with a concentrated load, P, at midspan as shown in
Figure 2.3.
z
L
y
11
The moments Mx and Mz are derived using basic equilibrium concepts as
Pz
Mx = (2.28)
2
P
Mz = ( u∗ − u) (2.29)
2
Where u* represents the lateral deflection at the centroid of the middle cross section and u
By substituting the relationships for M x and M z into Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), the differential
d2 u Pz
EI y 2
=− φ
dz 2 (2.30)
dφ Pz du P
GJ = + (u∗ − u)
dz 2 dz 2 (2.31)
d 2φ P2z2
+ φ=0 (2.32)
dz 2 4 EI y GJ
z
η= (2.33)
L
P 2 L4
ζ= (2.34)
4 EI y GJ
d 2φ
+ ζ 2η 2φ = 0 (2.35)
dη 2
12
The general solution utilizes Bessel functions (Arfken, 2005) of the first kind of orders 1/4 and -
⎡ ⎛ ζη 2 ⎞ ⎛ ζη 2 ⎞ ⎤
φ = η ⎢ AJ1/ 4 ⎜ ⎟ + BJ −1/ 4 ⎜ ⎟⎥ (2.36)
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
dφ 1
Applying the boundary conditions φ = 0 at η = 0 and = 0 at η =
dη 2
⎛ζ⎞ ζ
gives J − 3/ 4 ⎜ ⎟ = 0 then = 10585
. yielding an expression for the buckling load, Pc, as
⎝ 8⎠ 8
16.94
Pc = EI y GJ (2.37)
L2
Case 4: A simply supported I –beam with a monosymmetric cross-section subjected to equal end
In this case, consider a non-tapered monosymmetric I-beam subjected to end moments, M, and
an axial force, F, as shown in Figure 2.4a with the cross-section of the beam shown in Figure
2.4b.
13
M M
F
F z
L
y
Figure 2.4a Monosymmetric Beam subjected to End Moments and Axial Force
IyT
shear center, s
yo
x centroid, o h
IyB y
The minor axis distributed force equilibrium equation and the distributed torque equilibrium
equation for the member can be expressed as (Kitipornchai and Wang. 1989)
d 4u d 2φ d 2u
EI y 4 = − ( M + Fy o ) 2 − F 2 (2.38)
dz dz dz
dφ d 3φ du
(GJ − F ⋅ ro + Mβx )
2
− EI w 3 = M (2.39)
dz dz dz
14
EI w = EI y ρ(1 − ρ)h 2 (2.40)
I yT I yT
ρ= = (2.41)
( I yT + I yB ) Iy
where I yT and IyB are the second moments of inertia about the y-axis of the top and bottom
flanges, respectively, as shown in Figure 2.4b. Because the beam has a monosymmetric cross-
section, the centroid of the beam, o, and the shear center, s, do not coincide. This introduces a
term, y o , which represents the vertical distance between the centroid and the shear center. The
polar radius of gyration about the shear center, ro, can be expressed as
Ix + Iy
ro 2 = + yo 2 (2.42)
A
1⎛ 2 ⎞
βx = ⎜ ∫ x ydA + ∫ y 3 dA⎟ − 2 y o (2.43)
Ix ⎝ A A ⎠
where x and y are coordinates with respect to the centroid. βx accounts for the Wagner effect,
which is the change in effective torsional stiffness due to the components of bending
compressive and tensile stresses that produce a torque in the beam as it twists during buckling.
Recognizing that, since the beam is simply supported, the boundary conditions become
d 2φ
φ = 0 and = 0 at z = 0, L.
dz 2
With the elimination of u and the implementation of the above boundary conditions, Eqs. (2.36)
and (2.39) yield a closed form solution for critical values F and M (Trahair and Nethercot, 1984)
as
15
⎛ F ⎞⎛ F Mβx ⎞
( M + Fy 0 ) 2 = ro 2 Fz FE ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎜1− + 2 ⎟ (2.44)
⎝ FE ⎠ ⎝ Fz ro Fz ⎠
π 2 EI y
FE = (2.45)
L2
GJ ⎛ π 2 EI w ⎞
Fz = ⎜ 1 + ⎟ (2.46)
ro 2 ⎝ GJL2 ⎠
In order to obtain a non-dimensional elastic buckling moment, use is made of the non-
π 2 EI y h 2
K=
4GJL2 (2.47)
4 ⎛ Ix + Iy ⎞
η= ⎜ ⎟ (2.48)
h2 ⎝ A ⎠
2 y0
υ=
h (2.49)
F
Λ = (2.50)
FE
⎡ βx
λ = ⎢− υΛ + (1 − Λ )⎤⎥ K (2.51)
⎣ h ⎦
ML
γ =
EI y GJ
(2.52)
Where h is the distance between the centroids of the top and bottom flange and K is the beam
parameter. The practical range for values of K is between 0.1 and 2.5, with low values
16
corresponding to long beams and/or beams with compact cross-sections, and higher values
Using the above nondimensional parameters, Eq. (2.44) may be rewritten as (Wang, et al. 2005)
The non-dimensional buckling equation shown above is the general solution of M for
monosymmetric beams. Eq. (2.53) is a versatile equation because it also accurately predicts the
lateral-torsional buckling loads for beams of doubly symmetric cross-sections by simplifying the
terms in the equation so that the monosymmetric parameter, β, is equal to zero and the degree of
1
monosymmetry, ρ , is reduced to .
2
17
2.2 ENERGY METHOD
The second method used for determining lateral-torsional buckling loads in thin-walled
structures is the energy method. The energy method serves as a basis for the modern finite
structures. The energy method is related to the differential equations of equilibrium method in
that calculus of variation can be used to obtain the differential equations derived by the first
method. The energy method is based on the principle that the strain energy stored in a member
during lateral-torsional buckling is equal to the work done by the applied loads. The critical
buckling loads can then be obtained by substituting approximate buckled shapes back into the
energy equation if the shape function is known. This approach is known as the Rayleigh-Ritz
method.
The strain energy stored in a buckled member can be broken down into two categories,
the energy from St. Venant torsion and from warping torsion. Pure or uniform torsion exists
when a member is free to warp and the applied torque is resisted solely by St. Venant shearing
stresses. When a member is restrained from warping freely, both St. Venant shearing stresses
and warping torsion resist the applied torque. This is known as non-uniform torsion.
18
2.2.1 Uniform Torsion
When a torque is applied to a member that is free to warp, the torque at any section is resisted by
shear stresses whose magnitudes vary based on distance from the centroid of the section. These
shear stresses are produced as adjacent cross-sections attempt to rotate relative to one another.
The St. Venant torsional resistance must directly oppose the applied torque as
dφ
Tsv = GJ
dz (2.57)
where φ is the angle of twist of the cross-section, G is the shearing modulus of elasticity, J is the
torsional constant, and z is direction perpendicular to the cross section, as illustrated in Figure
2.5.
T
z
19
2.2.2 Non-uniform Torsion
If the longitudinal displacements in the member are allowed to take place freely and the
longitudinal fibers do not change length, no longitudinal stresses are present and warping is
permitted to take place. However, certain loading and support conditions may be present that
prevent a member from warping. This warping restraint creates stresses which produce a torsion
in the member. Non-uniform torsion occurs when both St. Venant and warping torsion act on the
same cross section. The expression for non-uniform torsion can be given as
T = Tsv + Tw (2.58)
Tw = V f h (2.59)
where Vf is the shear force in each flange and h is equal to the height of the section. Recognizing
that the shear in the flange is the derivative of the moment present in the flange, Eq. (2.59)
becomes
dM f
Tw = − h (2.60)
dz
The bending moment in the upper flange, Mf, can be written in terms of the displacement in the
x-directon, u , as
d 2u
M f = EI f (2.61)
d z2
Recognizing that
φh
u= (2.62)
2
20
and introducing the cross-sectional property known as the warping moment of inertia
I f h2
Iw = (2.63)
2
d 3φ
Tw = − EI w (2.64)
dz 3
The differential equation for non-uniform torsion is obtained by substituting Eq. (2.57) and Eq.
dφ d 3φ
T = GJ − EI w 3 (2.65)
dz dz
The first term refers to the resistance of the member to twist and the second term represents the
resistance of the member to warp. Together, the terms represent the resistance of the section to
an applied torque.
The strain energy stored in a twisted member can be broken into two categories, the
energy due to St. Venant torsion and the energy due to warping torsion. The strain energy due to
Tsv dφ
dU sv = (2.66)
2
where it can be seen that the change in strain energy stored in element dz due to St. Venant
torsion is equal to one half the product of the torque and the change in the angle of twist.
21
Tsv
dφ = dz (2.67)
GJ
Tsv 2
dU sv = dz (2.68)
2GJ
Substituting Eq. (2.57) into Eq. (2.68) and integrating results in the expression for strain energy
⎛ dφ ⎞
L 2
∫
1
U sv = GJ ⎜ ⎟ dz (2.69)
2 0
⎝ dz ⎠
The strain energy due to the resistance to warping torsion of an I-beam, for example, is equal to
the bending energy present in the flanges. The bending energy stored in an element dz of one of
the flanges is equal to the product of one half the moment and the rotation as
2
1 ⎛ d 2u ⎞
dU w = EI f ⎜ 2 ⎟ dz (2.70)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠
Integrating Eq. (2.71) over the length of the member, L, and multiplying by two to account for
the energy in both flanges results in the expression for the strain energy in a member caused by
resistance to warping.
2
L
⎛ d 2φ ⎞
∫
1
Uw = EI w ⎜ 2 ⎟ dz (2.72)
2 0 ⎝ dz ⎠
The total strain energy in a member is then represented by the addition of Eqs. (2.69) and (2.72).
2 2
⎛ dφ ⎞ ⎛ d 2φ ⎞
L L
∫ ∫
1 1
U= GJ ⎜ ⎟ dz + EI w ⎜ 2 ⎟ dz (2.73)
2 o
⎝ dz ⎠ 2 0 ⎝ dz ⎠
22
2.2.4 Solutions Using Buckling Shapes
Case 5: A simply supported, doubly symmetric I-beam that is subjected to only equal end
The loading in this case is identical to Case 1, but this case consists of a beam with an I cross-
The boundary conditions for the case of uniform bending are given below.
d 2u d 2v
u= v= = =0 at z = 0, L (2.74)
dz 2 dz 2
d 2φ
φ= 2 =0 at z = 0, L (2.75)
dz
In order to find the critical moment by use of the energy method, it is necessary to find
the moment for which the total potential energy has a stationary value. The strain energy stored
in the beam consists of two parts; the energy due to the bending of the member about the y-axis
and the energy due to the member twisting about the z-axis. The total strain energy for the
section is
2 2 2
⎛ d 2u⎞ ⎛ dφ ⎞ ⎛ d 2φ ⎞
L L L
∫ ∫ ∫
1 1 1
U = EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ dz + GJ ⎜ ⎟ dz + EI w ⎜ 2 ⎟ dz (2.76)
2 0 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 0
⎝ dz ⎠ 2 0 ⎝ dz ⎠
The strain energy, U, must now be added to the potential energy of the external loads, Ω, to
determine a stationary value for Π = U + Ω . For a member subjected to uniform bending, the
external potential energy is equal to the negative product of the applied moments and the angles
23
Ω = − 2 Mψ (2.77)
where ψ is the angle of rotation about the x-axis of the beam and can be expressed as
du dφ
L
∫
1
ψ= dz (2.78)
2 0 dz dz
Combining Eqs. (2.77) and (2.78) yields an expression for the potential energy of the external
loads as
du dφ
L
Ω = −M
∫ 0 dz dz
dz (2.79)
and yields the following expression for the total potential energy of the beam.
2 2 2
⎛ d 2u⎞ ⎛ dφ ⎞ ⎛ d 2φ ⎞ du dφ
L L L L
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
1 1 1
Π = EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ dz + GJ ⎜ ⎟ dz + EI w ⎜ 2 ⎟ dz − M dz
2 0 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 0 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 0 ⎝ dz ⎠ 0 dz dz
(2.80)
As stated at the beginning of this section, the Rayleigh-Ritz method for determining critical loads
requires the assumption of suitable expressions for buckling modes. The following buckling
πz
u = A sin (2.81)
L
πz
φ = B sin (2.82)
L
Substituting the buckled shapes into Eq. (2.80) and identifying that
L
πz L
πz
∫ ∫
L
sin 2 dz = cos2 dz = (2.83)
0 L 0 L 2
EI y A 2 L ⎛ π ⎞ 4 GJB 2 L ⎛ π ⎞ 2 E I w B 2 L ⎛ π ⎞ 4 MABL ⎛ π ⎞ 2
Π = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ (2.84)
4 ⎝ L⎠ 4 ⎝ L⎠ 4 ⎝ L⎠ 2 ⎝ L⎠
24
Setting the derivative of Π with respect to A and B equal to zero, the critical moment can be
obtained.
d Π EI y π
2
= A − MLB = 0 (2.85)
dA L
dΠ ⎛ E I wπ 2 ⎞
= MLA − ⎜ GJL + ⎟B= 0 (2.86)
dB ⎝ L ⎠
If the deformed configuration of the beam is to yield a nontrivial solution, the determinant of the
EI y π 2 ⎛ E I wπ 2 ⎞
⎜ GJL + ⎟ − M 2 L2 = 0 (2.88)
L ⎝ L ⎠
Solving for M in Eq. (2.88) yields the critical moment for a simply supported beam in uniform
bending as
π ⎛ π2⎞
M cr = EI y ⎜ GJ + EI w 2 ⎟ (2.89)
L ⎝ L ⎠
Case 6: A doubly symmetric I-beam with fixed ends that is subjected to only equal end moments
M about x-axis
Consider an I-beam whose ends are free to rotate about a horizontal axis but restrained against
25
M M
z
L
y
du
u= =0 at z = 0, L (2.90)
dz
d 2v
v= =0 at z = 0, L (2.91)
dz 2
dφ
φ= =0 at z = 0, L (2.92)
dz
⎛ 2π z ⎞
u = A⎜ 1 − cos ⎟ (2.93)
⎝ L ⎠
⎛ 2 π z⎞
φ = B⎜ 1 − cos ⎟ (2.94)
⎝ L ⎠
Substituting the buckled shapes into Eq. (2.80) and using the simplification in Eq. (2.83), the
π2 ⎛ A2π 2 π2 ⎞
Π = ⎜ 4 EI y + GJB 2
+ 4 EI B 2 − 2 MAB⎟ (2.95)
l ⎝ L2 w
L ⎠
26
Setting the derivative of the Π equations with respect to A and B equal to zero, yield the
dΠ π 2 ⎛ π2 ⎞
= ⎜ 8 EI y A 2 − 2 MB⎟ = 0 (2.96)
dA L ⎝ L ⎠
dΠ π 2 ⎛ π2 ⎞
= ⎜ 2GJB + 8 EI w B 2 − 2 MA⎟ = 0 (2.97)
dB L ⎝ L ⎠
⎡ π2 ⎤
⎢ 4 EI y L2 − M ⎥ ⎧ A⎫
⎢ 2 ⎥⎨ ⎬ = 0 (2.98)
π B
⎢ − M GJ + 4 EI w 2 ⎥ ⎩ ⎭
⎢⎣ L ⎥⎦
If the deformed configuration of the beam is to yield a nontrivial solution, the determinant of the
π2 ⎛ π2 ⎞
4 EI y ⎜ GJ + 4 EI ⎟ − M2 = 0 (2.99)
L2 ⎝ w
L2 ⎠
2π ⎛ π2 ⎞
M cr = EI y ⎜ GJ + 4 EI w 2 ⎟ (2.100)
L ⎝ L ⎠
It is interesting to note that the critical moment for the restrained beam is proportional to that of
the simply supported beam. If the warping stiffness is negligible compared to that of the St.
Venant stiffness, the critical moment for the fixed beam is twice that of the hinged beam. If the
St. Venant stiffness is negligible compared to that of the warping stiffness, the critical moment of
the fixed beam is four times that of the hinged beam. The reason for this is that lateral bending
strength and warping strength depend of the length of the beam, where St. Venant stiffness does
27
3.0 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF BEAM-COLUMNS
The energy method detailed in Chapter 2, in conjunction with the Raleigh-Ritz method, is useful
in determining closed form or approximate solutions, with a high degree of accuracy, when a
suitable buckling mode can be identified. In more complex structural systems, identification of
the buckling mode is not possible. In this case, a finite element approach is an ideal method that
may be used to calculate the buckling load. In order to formulate element elastic and geometric
stiffness matrices that represent different load cases, one approach is to derive total potential
energy of a beam-column element with a concentrated force, distributed force, end moments, and
an axial force. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to derive energy equations for a beam-
become large enough to render its in-plane state unstable. When the loads on the member reach
these critical values, the section will deflect laterally and twist out of the plane of loading. At
critical loading, the compression flange of the member becomes unstable and bends laterally
while the rest of the member remains stable restraining the lateral flexure of the compression
flange, causing the section to rotate. This is common in slender beam-columns with insufficient
lateral bracing that have a much greater in-plane bending stiffness than their lateral and torsional
stiffnesses. It is important to know the critical load for lateral-torsional buckling because this
28
method of failure is often the primary failure mode for thin-walled structures. The focus of this
chapter is to formulate energy equations that can be used to derive element elastic and geometric
2. The beam-column remains elastic. This implies that the member must be long and
slender.
3. The cross-section of the member does not distort in its own plane after buckling and
The orientation of the member used to derive the energy equations is depicted in Figure
3.1 using the xyz coordinate system with the origin being at o. The x-axis is the major principle
axis and the y-axis is the minor principle axis with the z-axis being oriented along the length of
the member, coinciding with the centroidal axis of the undeformed beam-column.
z‐axis h
o
z
y
29
The displacements in the x, y, and z directions are denoted as u, v, and w, respectively. If
loading occurs in the yz plane, the member will have an in-plane displacement, v, in the y-
dv
direction and an in-plane rotation . A member loaded along the z-axis will have a
dz
du
the x-direction, an out-of-plane rotation, , an out-of-plane twisting rotation, φ , and an out-of-
dz
dφ
plane torsional curvature, . It is assumed in this chapter that in-plane deformations w, v, and
dz
dv
are very small and therefore can be neglected. In the next chapter, the energy equations
dz
derived in this chapter will be expanded to include these displacements, which are known as
prebuckling deformations.
The applied loads on the beam column include; (1) a distributed load, q, which acts at a
height a above the centroidal axis (2) a concentrated load, P, which acts at a height e above the
centroidal axis (3) a concentric axial load, F (4) end moments, M1 and M2, as shown below.
z P
q
e
F F a
z
M 1 M 2
V 1 V2
y
Figure 3.2 External Loads and Member End Actions of Beam Element
30
The energy equations for the lateral-torsional buckling of a member with a
monosymmetric cross-section differ from those of a member with a double symmetric cross-
section because the centroid and the shear center do not coincide on a monosymmetric beam-
column, as shown in Figure 3.3. This introduces the term, y o , into the derivation representing
IyT
shear center, s
yo
x centroid, o h
IyB y
The change in effective torsional stiffness of the member due to the components of
bending compressive and tensile stresses that produce a torque in the beam as it twists during
buckling is referred to as the Wagner effect (Anderson and Trahair, 1972). In a beam with a
doubly-symmetric cross-section, these compressive and tensile stresses balance each other and
do not affect the torsional stiffness of the beam. For the case of monosymmetry, these tensile
and compressive stresses do not balance each other and the resulting torque causes a change in
the effective torsional stiffness of the member from GJ to (GJ + Mx βx) (Wang and Kitipornchai,
1986). Because the smaller flange of the beam is farther away from the shear center than the
31
larger flange, it creates a larger moment arm and predominates in the Wagner effect. This means
that when the smaller flange is in tension, the effective torsional stiffness of the beam is
increased while the effective torsional stiffness is reduced when the smaller flange is in
compression. This inconsistency adds to the complexity of the energy equation derivations for
The energy equation for an elastic thin-walled member is derived by considering the strain
energy stored in the member, U, and the potential energy of the external loads, Ω , as
Π =U +Ω (3.1)
The strain energy present in the member is the potential energy of the internal stresses
and strains present in the beam-column, while the potential energy of the loads represents the
negative of the work done by external forces. The total potential energy increment may be
written as
1 2 1
ΔΠ = δ Π + δ Π + δ 3 Π +... (3.2)
2! 3!
The theorem of stationary total potential energy states that of all kinematically admissible
deformations, the actual deformations (those which correspond to stresses which satisfy
equilibrium) are the ones for which the total potential energy assumes a stationary value (Pilkey
total potential energy states that this stationary value of Π at an equilibrium position is
minimum when the position is stable. Therefore the equilibrium position can be considered
stable when
32
1 2
δ Π>0 (3.3)
2
1 2
δ Π<0 (3.4)
2
Therefore, the critical condition for buckling would be when the total potential energy is equal to
zero, thus representing the transition from a stable to unstable state (Pi, et al., 1992).
1 2
δ Π=0 (3.5)
2
1 2
2
(δ U + δ2Ω) = 0 (3.6)
The strain energy portion of the total potential energy may be expressed as a function of the
longitudinal and shear strains as well as stresses. Assume an arbitrary point Po in the cross
section of the thin walled member. The strain energy of the member can be expressed as
∫ ∫ (ε σ )
1
U= p p + γ pτ p dA dz (3.7)
2
L A
where
33
τ p = shear stress of point Po
∫ ∫ (δε δσ )
1 2 1
δ U= p p + δγ pδτ p + δ 2 ε pσ p + δ 2 γ pτ p dA dz (3.8)
2 2 L A
in the following section in order to derive the energy equation for lateral-torsional buckling.
3.1.1 Displacements
are defined. In the fixed global coordinate system oxyz, the axis oz is fixed and coincides with
the centroidal axis of the undeformed beam. The axes ox and oy represent the principle axes of
o
z
x
ô z
y
x
y
34
The second set of coordinate systems is a moving, right hand, local coordinate system,
. The origin of this coordinate system is at point o located on the centroidal axis of the
oxyz
beam and moves with the beam during displacement, as shown in Figure 3.4. The axis
coincides with the tangent at o after the centroidal axis has been deformed. The principle
oz
and oy
axes of the deformed beam are ox .
When the beam column element buckles, point Po on the beam moves to point P. This
deformation occurs in two stages. Point Po first translates to point Pt by the displacements u, v,
and w. The point Pt then rotates through an angle θ to the point P about the line on where the
line on passes through the points o and o . After the rotation, the moving local coordinate
becomes fixed. The transition of point Po to point P can be seen in Figure 3.5. The
system oxyz
, oy
directional cosines of the moving axes ox , and oz
relative to the fixed global axes ox, oy,
and oz can be determined by assuming rigid body rotation of the axes through an angle θ (Pi, et
al., 1992).
z
o zˆ z
Po
xˆ P
x y
Pt
0
zˆ
y ô
x̂ n
35
The displacements of point Po can be expressed as (Pi, et al., 1992)
⎧ up ⎫ ⎧ u ⎫ ⎧ x ⎫ ⎧ x ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ v p ⎬ = ⎨ v ⎬ + TR ⎨ y − y o ⎬ − ⎨ y − y o ⎬ (3.9)
⎪ w ⎪ ⎪ w⎪ ⎪ − ωk ⎪ ⎪ 0 ⎪
⎩ p⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ z⎭ ⎩ ⎭
Where up, vp, and wp are total displacements of general point Po ( x , y ,0) . Note that u, v, and w
are shear center displacements and ( y − y o ) is the distance between the centroid and the shear
center, as seen in Figure 3.3. ω is the section warping function (Vlasov, 1961) and − ω k z is
The first term on the right side of the equation contains the shear center displacement as
the point Po translates laterally to point Pt. The remaining terms on the right side of the equation
represent the rotation of point Pt to its final destination at point P. TR is defined as the rotational
⎡ θ y 2 θz 2 θ xθ y θ xθ z ⎤
⎢1 − − − θz + θy + ⎥
⎢ 2 2 2 2 ⎥
⎢ θ x θ y θx 2 θz 2 θ yθ z ⎥
TR = ⎢ θ + 1− − − θx + (3.10)
2 2 2 2 ⎥
⎢ θ yθ z θ x θ y ⎥⎥
2
⎢ − θ y + θ xθ z
2
θx + 1− −
⎢⎣ 2 2 2 2 ⎥⎦
where θ x , θ y , and θz are components of the rotation θ in the x, y, and z directions, respectively
(Torkamani, 1998).
represents the strain. Δ u, Δ v , and ( Δ z + Δ w) are components of the deformed element length
36
Δ z(1 + ε ) on the ox, oy, and oz axes, respectively. The relationship between the deformed
coordinate system.
Dividing the previous equations by Δ z , and taking the limit as Δ z goes to zero gives
du Δu Δ z (1 + ε ) l z
= lim = lim = (1 + ε ) l z (3.14)
dz Δz→ o Δ z Δz→ o Δz
dv Δv Δ z (1 + ε ) mz
= lim = lim = (1 + ε ) mz (3.15)
dz Δz → o Δ z Δz→ o Δz
θ xθ z
lz = θ y + (3.16)
2
θ yθ z
mz = −θ x + (3.17)
2
Therefore
du ⎛ θθ ⎞
= ⎜ θ y + x z ⎟ (1 + ε ) (3.18)
dz ⎝ 2 ⎠
dv ⎛ θ yθ z ⎞
= ⎜ − θx + ⎟ (1 + ε ) (3.19)
dz ⎝ 2 ⎠
37
By disregarding higher order terms, strain is eliminated and Eqs. (3.18) and (3.19) become
du ⎛ θθ ⎞
≈ ⎜θ y + x z ⎟ (3.20)
dz ⎝ 2 ⎠
dv ⎛ θ yθz ⎞
≈ ⎜ − θx + ⎟ (3.21)
dz ⎝ 2 ⎠
dv 1 du
θx = − + θz (3.22)
dz 2 dz
du 1 dv
θy = + θz (3.23)
dz 2 dz
θ xθ y
l y = −θz + (3.24)
2
θ xθ y
mx = θ z + (3.25)
2
θ xθ y θ xθ y
The projections − θ z + and θz + and ox
of unit lengths along the oy axes onto the ox
2 2
and oy axes, respectively, can be used to define the the mean twist rotation, φ , of the ox
and oy
1 ⎡⎛ θ xθ y ⎞ ⎛ θ xθ y ⎞ ⎤
φ= ⎢⎜ θz + ⎟ − ⎜ − θz + ⎟⎥ (3.26)
2 ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
Which simplifies to
φ = θz (3.27)
38
Substituting the expressions for θ x , θ y , and θz into the rotational transformation matrix, TR ,
yields
⎡ lx ly lz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
TR = ⎢mx my mz ⎥ (3.28)
⎢ nx ny nz ⎥⎦
⎣
Where
2
1 ⎛ du ⎞ 1 1 du dv
lx = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ − φ 2 − φ (3.29)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 2 dz dz
2 2
1 du dv 1 ⎛ du ⎞ 1 ⎛ dv ⎞
l y = −φ − + ⎜ ⎟ φ− ⎜ ⎟ φ (3.30)
2 dz dz 4 ⎝ dz ⎠ 4 ⎝ dz ⎠
du
lz = (3.31)
dz
2 2
1 du dv 1 ⎛ dv ⎞ 1 ⎛ du ⎞
mx = φ − − ⎜ ⎟ φ+ ⎜ ⎟ φ (3.32)
2 dz dz 4 ⎝ dz ⎠ 4 ⎝ dz ⎠
2
1 ⎛ dv ⎞ 1 1 du dv
my = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ − φ 2 + φ (3.33)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 2 dz dz
dv
mz = (3.34)
dz
du dv 1 du 2
nx = − − φ+ φ (3.35)
dz dz 4 dz
dv du 1 dv 2
ny = − + φ+ φ (3.36)
dz dz 4 dz
2 2
1 ⎛ du ⎞ 1 ⎛ dv ⎞
nz = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ (3.37)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 ⎝ dz ⎠
d lx d mx d nx
kz = ly + my + n (3.38)
dz dz dz y
39
Substituting l x through n y into the previous expression yields a nonlinear expression for
torsional curvature as
dφ 1 ⎛ d 2 u dv d 2 v du ⎞
kz = + ⎜ − ⎟ (3.39)
dz 2 ⎝ dz 2 dz dz 2 dz ⎠
Eliminating second and higher order terms, the expression for torsional curvature may be
simplified to
dφ
kz = (3.40)
dz
Substituting Eqs. (3.29) – (3.37) into Eq. (3.9) yield the displacement of an arbitrary point Po in
terms of shear center displacements, rotations, and the section warping. The total displacements
up, vp, and wp can be considered the sum of linear and quadratic components of the form
⎧ u p ⎫ ⎧ u pl ⎫ ⎧ u pn ⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ v p ⎬ = ⎨ v pl ⎬ + ⎨ v pn ⎬ (3.41)
⎪w ⎪ ⎪w ⎪ ⎪w ⎪
⎩ p ⎭ ⎩ pl ⎭ ⎩ pn ⎭
where
⎧ ⎫
⎧ u pl ⎫ ⎪ u − ( y − y o )φ ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ v pl ⎬ = ⎨ v + xφ ⎬ (3.42)
⎪w ⎪ ⎪ du dv dφ ⎪
⎩ pl ⎭ ⎪ w − x − y −ω ⎪
⎩ dz dz dz ⎭
⎧ 1 ⎛ ⎛ du ⎞ 2 ⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ dv ⎞ ⎞ 1 ⎛ du dv 1 ⎛ du ⎞ 2 1 ⎛ dv ⎞ ⎞
2
du dφ ⎫
⎪ − x ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ + φ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ φ ⎟ − ( y − y o )⎜
2
− ⎜ ⎟ φ + ⎜ ⎟ φ⎟ − ω ⎪
⎪ 2 ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠ 2 ⎝ dz dz 2 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠ dz dz ⎪
⎧ u pn ⎫
⎪ ⎪⎪ 1 ⎛ du dv 1 ⎛ dv ⎞ 1 ⎛ du ⎞ ⎞ 1 ⎛ ⎛ dv ⎞ 2 du dv ⎞ dv dφ ⎪⎪
2 2
⎪
⎨ v pn ⎬ = ⎨ − x ⎜ + ⎜ ⎟ φ − ⎜ ⎟ φ⎟ − ( y − y o )⎜ ⎜ ⎟ + φ 2 − φ⎟ − ω ⎬
⎪w ⎪ ⎪ 2 ⎝ dz dz 2 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ dz dz ⎠ dz dz ⎪
⎩ pn ⎭ ⎪ ⎛ dv 1 du 2 ⎞ ⎛ du 1 dv 2 ⎞ 1 dφ ⎛ ⎛ du ⎞
2
⎛ dv ⎞ ⎞
2 ⎪
⎪ − x ⎜ φ − φ ⎟ + ( y − y o )⎜ φ + φ ⎟ + ω ⎜⎜ 2⎟ + ⎜ 2⎟ ⎟ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎝ dz 4 dz ⎠ ⎝ dz 4 dz ⎠ 2 dz ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠ ⎪⎭
(3.43)
40
The relationship between the displacement of the shear center, ws, and the displacement of the
⎛ dv 1 dv 2 du ⎞
ws = w − y o ⎜ − φ − φ⎟ (3.44)
⎝ dz 2 dz dz ⎠
du p du dφ dφ ⎛ du dv ⎞
= − y + y o + Ox ⎜ , , φ ⎟ (3.45)
dz dz dz dz ⎝ dz dz ⎠
dv p dv dφ ⎛ du dv ⎞
= − x + Oy ⎜ , , φ ⎟ (3.46)
dz dz dz ⎝ dz dz ⎠
dw p dw d 2u d 2v d 2φ dφ dv d 2v dφ du d 2u ⎛ du dv ⎞
= − x 2 − y 2 − ω 2 − x − xφ 2 + y + y φ 2 + Oz ⎜ , , φ⎟
dz dz dz dz dz dz dz dz dz dz dz ⎝ dz dz ⎠
(3.47)
The terms Ox, Oy, and Oz represent terms that are second order or higher and may be
disregarded.
3.1.2 Strains
The longitudinal normal strain εp of point P can be expressed in terms of the rates of change of
1 ⎛ ⎛ du p ⎞ ⎞
2 2 2
dw p ⎛ dv p ⎞ ⎛ dw p ⎞
εp = + ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎟ (3.48)
dz 2 ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠
2 2 2
⎛ dw p ⎞ ⎛ du p ⎞ ⎛ dv p ⎞
For small strains, ⎜ ⎟ is small compared to ⎜ ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟ and can be disregarded.
⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠
Therefore
41
1 ⎛ ⎛ du p ⎞ ⎞
2 2
dw p ⎛ dv p ⎞
εp = + ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎟ (3.49)
dz 2 ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠
Substituting in the derivatives of the displacements up, vp, and wp of point Po yields
d 2 φ 1 ⎛ ⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ dv ⎞ ⎞ du dφ
2 2
dw d 2u d 2v d 2v d 2u
εp = − x 2 − y 2 −ω 2 +
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ − x 2 φ + y 2 φ + y o
dz dz dz dz 2 ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠ dz dz dz dz
( )
2 ⎛ dφ ⎞
2
1 2
+ x + ( y − y o ) ⎜ ⎟ (3.50)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠
dδ w d 2δ u d 2δ v d 2δφ dδ u du dδ v dv d 2δ v d 2v d 2δ u
δε p = −x
− y
−ω + + −x
φ − x 2 δφ + y 2 φ
dz dz 2 dz 2 dz 2 dz dz dz dz dz 2 dz dz
+ y
d 2u
dz 2 δφ + y o
dδ u dφ
dz dz
+ y o
du dδφ
dz dz
(
+ x 2 + ( y − y o ) )
2 dδφ dφ
dz
(3.51)
⎛ dδ u ⎞ ⎛ dδ v ⎞ d 2δ v d 2δ u dδ u dδφ
( )
2 2
2 ⎛ dδφ ⎞
2
δ 2ε p = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ − 2
x δφ + 2
y 2 δφ + 2 y o
+ x 2 + ( y − y o ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ dz 2
dz dz dz ⎝ dz ⎠
(3.52)
It is assumed that the second variations of the displacements in Eq. (3.52) vanishes. The
above equations contain a combination of the strains before and after buckling. In this case, the
prebuckling displacements are defined as v and w. During buckling, the displacements are
defined as δ u and δφ . Therefore, the displacements u, φ , δ v , and δ w are equal to zero and
The equations for longitudinal strain and its first and second variation thus become
2
dw d 2 v 1 ⎛ dv ⎞
εp = − y 2 + ⎜ ⎟
(3.53)
dz dz 2 ⎝ dz ⎠
42
d 2δ u d 2δφ d 2v
δε p = − x −ω − x 2 δφ (3.54)
dz 2 dz 2 dz
⎛ dδ u ⎞ d 2δ u dδ u dδφ
( )
2 ⎛ dδφ ⎞
2 2
δ 2ε p = ⎜ ⎟ + 2 y 2 δφ + 2 y o
+ x 2 + ( y − y o ) ⎜ ⎟ (3.55)
⎝ dz ⎠ dz dz dz ⎝ dz ⎠
The shear strains due to bending and warping of the thin walled section are neglected. The shear
dφ
γ p = −2t p (3.56)
dz
Where tp represents the distance of Po from the midthickness line of the cross-section.
dδφ
δγ p = − 2t p (3.57)
dz
δ 2γ p = 0 (3.58)
⎧σ p ⎫ ⎡ E 0⎤⎧εp ⎫
⎨ ⎬= ⎢ ⎨ ⎬ (3.59)
⎩τp ⎭ ⎣ 0 G ⎥⎦ ⎩ γ p ⎭
Mx =
∫ yσ dA
A
p (3.60)
43
F=
∫ σ dA
A
p (3.61)
So that
F M x y
σp = + (3.62)
A Ix
∫ xdA
A
∫ =0
= ydA
A
(3.63)
∫ x ydA
A
=0 (3.64)
A=
∫ dA (3.65)
Ix =
∫ y dA
A
2
(3.66)
Iy =
∫ x dA
A
2
(3.67)
These section properties are valid for not only monosymmetric beams, but doubly symmetric
ones as well. To solve the energy equation for monosymmetric beams, additional section
I yC I yC
ρ= = (3.68)
I yT + I yC Iy
44
Where I yT and I yC are the minor axis second moments of area of the tension and compression
flanges, respectively (Kitipornchai and Trahair, 1980). The value of ρ(can range from 0 to 1,
with doubly symmetric I-beams having a value of 0.5. The warping moment of inertia given in
I w = ρ(1 − ρ) I y h 2 (3.69)
J= ∑ bt 3
3
(3.70)
Ix + Iy
ro 2 = + y o 2 (3.71)
A
1⎛ ⎞
βx = ⎜
Ix ⎝ ∫
A
x 2 y dA +
∫
A
y 3 dA⎟ − 2 y o
⎠
(3.72)
where ro is the polar radius of gyration for the beam about the shear center. βx is known as the
monosymmetric parameter (Trahair and Nethercot, 1984) . The term βx arises from the Wagner
effect discussed previously in this chapter when the compressive stresses do not equally oppose
the tensile stresses in a member. In the case of doubly symmetric beams, the stresses balance
each other and βx is equal to zero. When the smaller flange of a monosymmetric beam is in
Conversely, when the smaller flange is in tension, the effective torsional stiffness is greater and
βx is positive.
45
3.2 STRAIN ENERGY EQUATION FOR MONOSYMMETRIC BEAM-COLUMN
With the newly introduced section properties, the second variation of the strain energy of the
2
⎧ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
δ U= ⎨ EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ + GJ ⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤
2
+ F ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎜ dz ⎟ ⎜ dz ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥
⎟ + 2 y o ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎣
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz (3.73)
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
The equations for the potential energy possessed by the loads, or the work done by external
forces, are derived by multiplying the loads by their corresponding displacements, and summing
them up.
46
Ω = −
∫
L
(v q q )dz − ∑ (v P − dvdz
P
M
M + wF F ) (3.74)
∫ (δ v q)dz − ∑
1 2 ⎛ 2 dδ 2 v M ⎞
δ Ω =− 2
q ⎜ δ vP P − M + δ 2 wF F ⎟ (3.75)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠
L
Where
dv M
= rotation caused by moment M
dz
vq = v + my a − a (3.76)
47
Where
2
1 ⎛ dv ⎞ 1 1 du dv
my = 1 − ⎜ ⎟ − φ 2 + φ (3.77)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠ 2 2 dz dz
Therefore,
1 ⎡ ⎛ dv ⎞ 2 du dv ⎤
v q = v − (a − y o )⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + φ 2 − φ⎥ (3.78)
2 ⎣ ⎝ dz ⎠ dz dz ⎦
1 ⎡ ⎛ dv ⎞ 2 du dv ⎤
v P = v − (e − y o )⎢ ⎜ ⎟ + φ 2 − φ⎥ (3.79)
2 ⎣ ⎝ dz ⎠ dz dz ⎦
dv M dv
= (3.80)
dz dz
Because the effects of prebuckling are negected, the deformation v and its derivatives are
reduced to zero. These effects will be implemented in a later section. The displacements
1
vq = −
2
( a − y o )φ 2 (3.81)
1
vP = −
2
(e − y o )φ 2 (3.82)
dv M
=0 (3.83)
dz
48
1
δ 2 vq = −
2
( a − y o )(δφ )
2
(3.84)
1
δ 2vP = −
2
(e − y o )(δφ ) 2
(3.85)
dv M
=0 (3.86)
dz
1 2
2
δ Ω =
1
2 ∫
q(a − y o )(δφ ) dz +
L
2 1
2 ∑ P(e − y )(δφ)
o
2
(3.87)
MONOSYMMETRIC BEAMS
The second variation of the total potential energy equation for lateral torsional buckling of
monosymmetric beams is the sum of the second variation of the strain energy equation given in
Eq. (3.74) and the second variation of the potential energy of the loads given in Eq. (3.87), as
shown below.
49
2
⎧ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
δ Π = ⎨ EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ + GJ ⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤
2
+ F ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎜ dz ⎟ ⎜ dz ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥
⎟ + 2 y o ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎣
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
+
1
2∫q(a − y o )(δφ ) dz +
L
2 1
2 ∑ P(e − y )(δφ)
o
2
=0 (3.88)
Where
z2
M x = M 1 + V1 z − q for 0 < z < z p
2
M x = M 1 + V1 z − q
z2
2
( )
− P z − z p for z p < z < L
The terms in the energy equation can be separated into three groups. The first group consists of
the terms that contain the buckling rigidities EIy, GJ, and EI ω and represent strain energy stored
during buckling. The second group consists of the terms that contain the stress resultants F and
Mx, which represent the work done by the applied loads at the shear center. The third group
consists of the remaining terms which represent the work done by transverse forces q and P.
50
3.5 NON-DIMENSIONAL ENERGY EQUATION FOR LATERAL-TORSIONAL
BUCKLING
The energy equation presented in the previous section has limitations in predicting a lateral-
torsional buckling parameter obtained from the solution of the eigenvalue problem because it
depends on beam properties such as E, G, L, etc. Elimination of these properties through a non-
dimensional analysis will provide more general results to determine critical loads and moments
π 2 EI ω π 2 EI y h 2
K= ≈ (3.89)
GJL2 4GJL2
PL2
γP = (3.90)
EI y GJ
qL3
γq = (3.91)
EI y GJ
βx EI y
βx = (3.92)
L GJ
ro EI y
ro = (3.93)
L GJ
51
2 y o
yo = (3.94)
h
δ u EI y
δu = (3.95)
L GJ
FL2
F= (3.96)
EI y
M1 L
M1 = (3.97)
EI y GJ
V1 L2
V1 = (3.98)
EI y GJ
z
z= (3.99)
L
zp
zp = (3.100)
L
2a
a= (3.101)
h
2e
e= (3.102)
h
where
The application of these parameters to the energy equation derived in the previous section yield a
non-dimensional energy equation that provides a buckling parameter for lateral torsional
52
2Π L
Π = (3.103)
GJ
⎧ ⎛ d 2 (δ u ) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ 2
2
⎫
1 2 ⎛
d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
∫
1 2 1 ⎪⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ K ⎜ ⎟ ⎪
δ Π = ⎨⎜ ⎜ dz ⎟ + π 2 ⎜ dz 2 ⎟ ⎬ dz
2 2 0 ⎪⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
1 ⎡ ⎛ d (δ u ) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δ u ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤
2
+F
∫ 0
⎢⎜
⎢ ⎜⎝ dz ⎟⎠
⎣
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎜ dz ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥dz
⎟ + 2 yo ⎜
⎝
⎟⎜
⎠ ⎝
⎟
⎠
2 2 ⎜
⎝
⎟ ⎥
⎠ ⎦
1 ⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤
2
+ M
∫ 0
⎢⎜
⎢ ⎜⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠
⎣
⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ dz
⎝ ⎠ ⎦
K⎡
∑ 2⎤
1
∫ q (a − y o )(δφ ) dz + Pi (e − y o )(δφi ) ⎥
2
+ ⎢ (3.104)
π⎣ 0 ⎦
where
z2
M x = M 1 + V1 z − q for 0 < z < z p
2
M x = M 1 + V1 z − q
z2
2
( )
− P z − z p for z p < z < 1
53
4.0 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF MONOSYMMETRIC BEAMS
In the previous chapter, the effects of prebuckling deflections were ignored. These effects are
ignored assuming that the thin-walled object is almost perfectly straight and any deformation is
so small that it may be disregarded. This assumption is only valid when the ratios of minor axis
flexural stiffness and torsional stiffness to the major axis flexural stiffness are very small. In the
case where the ratios are not small, the effects of prebuckling deflections may significantly alter
4.1.1 Displacements
In the previous chapter, the expression for torsional curvature was simplified to include just the
first term because the other terms in the expression were deemed to be relatively small. To
consider the effects of prebuckling deflections, the torsional curvature, kz, must be represented
by:
54
1 ⎛ d 2 u dv du d 2 v ⎞
kz = φ 2 + ⎜ 2 − ⎟ (4.1)
2 ⎝ dz dz dz dz 2 ⎠
⎡ du dv dφ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ dv 1 du 2 ⎞ ⎛ du 1 dv 2 ⎞
w p = ⎢ w − x − y − ω ⎥ + ⎢ − x ⎜ φ − φ ⎟ + y ⎜ φ + φ ⎟
⎣ dz dz dz ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ dz 4 dz ⎠ ⎝ dz 4 dz ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎛ d 2 u dv d 2 v du ⎞ 1 ⎛ dφ 1 ⎛ d 2 u dv d 2 v du ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ du ⎞ 2 ⎛ dv ⎞ 2 ⎞ ⎞ ⎤
− ω ⎜⎜ ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟− ⎜ + ⎜ 2 − ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎝ dz dz dz dz ⎠ 2 ⎝ dz 2 ⎝ dz dz dz dz ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠ ⎠ ⎥
⎦
(4.2)
dw p dw d 2u d 2v d 2 φ ω ⎡ d 3 u dv d 3 v du ⎤ ⎡ dφ dv d 2 v 1 dφ du
= − x 2 − y 2 − ω 2 − ⎢ 3 − − x ⎢ +φ 2 − φ
dz dz dz dz dz 2 ⎣ dz dz dz 3 dz ⎥⎦ ⎣ dz dz dz 2 dz dz
1 2 d 2u ⎤ ⎡ dφ du d 2 u 1 dφ dv 1 2 d 2 v ⎤ ⎛ du dv ⎞
− φ 2 ⎥ +
y ⎢ + φ 2 + φ + φ 2 ⎥ + Oz ⎜ , , φ⎟
4 dz ⎦ ⎣ dz dz dz 2 dz dz 4 dz ⎦ ⎝ dz dz ⎠
(4.3)
where Oz represents functions which are 4th order or higher and disregarded for simplicity.
1 ⎛ ⎛ du p ⎞ ⎞
2 2
dw p ⎛ dv p ⎞
εp ≈ + ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎟ (4.4)
dz 2 ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠
55
du p dv p
Substituting the displacements and derived in the previous chapter and the new
dz dz
dw p
expression for considering prebuckling deflections yields
dz
dw d 2u d 2v d 2 φ ω ⎡ d 3 u dv d 3 v du ⎤ ⎡ dφ dv d 2 v 1 dφ du
εp = − x 2 − y 2 − ω 2 − ⎢ 3 − 3 −
x + φ − φ
dz dz dz dz 2 ⎣ dz dz dz dz ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ dz dz dz 2 2 dz dz
⎡ dφ du d 2 u 1 dφ dv 1 2 d 2 v ⎤ 1 ⎛ ⎛ du ⎞ ⎛ dv ⎞ ⎞
2 2
1 2 d 2u ⎤
− φ +
y + φ + φ + φ + ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
4 dz 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ dz dz
⎣ dz 2 2 dz dz 4 dz 2 ⎥⎦ 2 ⎝ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎠
1 ⎛ dφ ⎞
(( y − y ) ) du dφ
2
2
+ ⎜ ⎟ + x 2 + y o (4.5)
2 ⎝ dz ⎠ o
dz dz
dδw d 2δ u d 2δ v d 2δ φ ⎡ d 2v d 2δ v 1 dφ du 1 dδ φ du
δ εp = − x 2 − y
2 − ω 2 − x⎢
2 δφ + φ 2 − δφ − φ
dz dz dz dz ⎣ dz dz 2 dz dz 2 dz dz
1 dφ dδ u 1 d 2 u 1 d 2δ u ⎤ ⎡ d 2u d 2δ u 1 dφ dv
− φ − φδ φ 2 − φ 2 2 ⎥ +
y ⎢ 2 δ φ + 2 φ + δφ
2 dz dz 2 dz 4 dz ⎦ ⎣ dz dz 2 dz dz
1 dδ φ dv 1 dφ dδ v 1 d 2 v 1 d 2δv ⎤ dδ u dφ du dδ φ
+ φ + φ + φδ φ 2 + φ 2 2 ⎥ + yo
+ y o
2 dz dz 2 dz dz 2 dz 4 dz ⎦ dz dz dz dz
(
+ x + ( y − y o )
2 2
) dδφ dφ ω ⎡ d 3δ u dv d 3 u dδ v d 3 v dδ u d 3δ v du ⎤
− ⎢ +
dz dz 2 ⎣ dz 3 dz dz 3 dz
−
dz dz
−
dz 3 dz ⎦
⎥
dδ u du dδ v dv
+ + (4.6)
dz dz dz dz
56
⎛ dδ u ⎞ ⎛ dδ v ⎞ d 2δ v dδ φ du dφ dδ u dδφ dδ u
2 2
⎡
δ εp = ⎜
2
⎟ +⎜ ⎟ − x ⎢ 2δ φ 2 − δφ − δφ −φ
⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎣ dz dz dz dz dz dz dz
1 2
2 d u d 2δ u ⎤ ⎡ d 2δ u dδ φ dv dφ dδ v
− (δφ ) 2 − φδ φ 2 ⎥ + y ⎢ 2δ φ
2 + δφ + δφ
2 dz dz ⎦ ⎣ dz dz dz dz dz
dδ φ dδ v 1 d 2δ v dδ u dδ φ
( )
2 ⎛ dδ φ ⎞
2 2
2 d v
+ + (δ φ ) 2 + φδ φ 2 + 2 yo
+ x 2 + ( y − y o ) ⎜ ⎟
dz dz 2 dz dz dz dz ⎝ dz ⎠
⎡ d 3δ u dδ v d 3δ v dδ u ⎤
− ω⎢ 3 − ⎥ (4.7)
⎣ dz dz dz 3 dz ⎦
The deformations are assumed to occur in two stages; a prebuckling state {0, v , w,0}
followed by a lateral buckling state {δ u, 0, 0, δ φ} . This allows for the following simplication to
be applied to the expression for longitudinal strain and it variations (Pi et al., 1992)
u, φ , δ v , δ w = 0
2
dw d 2 v 1 ⎛ dv ⎞
εp = − y + ⎜ ⎟ (4.8)
dz dz 2 ⎝ dz ⎠
⎡ d 2δ u d 2 v ⎤ ⎡ d 2δ φ 1 ⎛ d 3δ u dv d 3 v dδ u ⎞ ⎤
δ ε p = − x ⎢ 2 + 2 δ φ ⎥ − ω ⎢ 2 + ⎜ − ⎟⎥ (4.9)
⎣ dz dz ⎦ ⎣ dz 2 ⎝ dz 3 dz dz 3 dz ⎠ ⎦
⎛ dδ u ⎞ d 2δ u 1 dδ φ dv ⎤ dδ u dδ φ
2
⎡ 2
2 d v
δ εp = ⎜
2
⎝ dz ⎠
⎟ + y ⎢ 2δ φ
dz 2 +
2
(δ φ ) dz 2 + δφ
dz dz ⎦
⎥ + 2 y o
dz dz
⎣
( )
⎛ dδ φ ⎞
2
+ x + ( y − y o )
2
2
⎜ ⎟ (4.10)
⎝ dz ⎠
57
4.1.3 Shear Strain
The effects of shear strain due to bending and warping are neglected. The shear strain due to
uniform torsion is
γ p = −2t p k z (4.11)
Substituting the unsimplified expression for torsional curvature, γ p becomes (Vlasov, 1961)
⎛ dφ 1 ⎛ d 2 u dv d 2 v du ⎞ ⎞
γ p = −2t p ⎜ + ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎟ (4.12)
⎝ dz 2 ⎝ dz dz dz dz ⎠ ⎠
⎛ dδ φ1 ⎛ d 2δ u dv d 2 v dδ u ⎞ ⎞
δ γ p = −2 t p ⎜ + ⎜ − ⎟⎟ (4.13)
⎝ dz 2 ⎝ dz 2 dz dz 2 dz ⎠ ⎠
δ 2γ p = 0 (4.14)
DEFLECTIONS
Substituting the revised expressions for longitudinal and shear stress and their variations into the
strain energy equation given in Chapter 3 with the linearized stress resultants
dw
F = EA (4.15)
dz
58
d 2v
M x = − EI 2 (4.16)
dz
yield the strain energy equation for monosymmetric beam-columns considering prebuckling
⎡ d 2 (δ u) d 2 v ⎤ ⎡ d (δφ ) 1 ⎛ dv d 2 (δ u) d 2 v d (δ u) ⎞ ⎤
2
⎧ 2
1 2 1 ⎪
δ U = ∫ ⎨ EI y ⎢ 2 + 2 δφ ⎥ + GJ ⎢ + ⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎥
⎟⎥
2 2L ⎪ ⎢⎣ dz dz ⎥⎦ ⎢ dz 2 ⎝ dz dz dz dz ⎠⎦
⎩ ⎣
⎡ d 2δφ 1 ⎛ dv d 3 (δ u) d 3 v d (δ u) ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ 2
2
+ EI w ⎢ 2 +
⎜ − 3 ⎟ ⎥ + F ⎢⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣ dz 2 ⎜⎝ dz dz 3 dz dz ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎢ ⎜⎝ dz ⎟⎠
⎦ ⎣
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎫
⎛ d 2 v ⎞ 2 ⎤⎥ ⎪
⎢ ⎜
+ M x 2⎜ ⎟ ⎜
δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ δφ ⎬ dz (4.17)
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
DEFLECTIONS
The displacements and rotations of load points must be re-derived considering prebuckling
deflections. The second variations of the displacements due to the distributed and concentrated
59
⎛ dδ u dv ⎞
δ 2 v P = − (e − y o )⎜ (δφ ) 2
− δφ⎟ (4.18)
⎝ dz dz ⎠
⎛ dδ u dv ⎞
δ 2 v q = − (a − y o )⎜ (δφ ) 2
− δφ ⎟ (4.19)
⎝ dz dz ⎠
Substituting the new expressions for the second variations of the displacements of the loads into
the potential energy equation given in Chapter 3 yields the new potential energy of the loads
equation as
(4.20)
The energy equation for lateral torsional buckling of monosymmetric beam-columns considering
prebuckling deformations is determined by substituting Eq. (4.17) and Eq. (4.20) into Eq. (3.6)
as
60
⎡ d 2 (δ u) d 2 v ⎤ ⎡ d (δφ ) 1 ⎛ dv d 2 (δ u) d 2 v d (δ u) ⎞ ⎤
2
⎧ 2
⎪
∫
1 2 1
δ Π = ⎨ EI y ⎢ 2 + 2 δφ ⎥ + GJ ⎢ + ⎜⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎥
⎟⎥
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ dz dz ⎥
⎦ ⎢ dz 2 ⎝ dz dz dz dz ⎠⎦
L ⎣
2
⎡ d 2δφ 1 ⎛ dv d 3 (δ u) d 3 v d (δ u) ⎞ ⎤
+ EI w ⎢ 2 + ⎜ 3
− 3 ⎟⎥
⎢⎣ dz 2 ⎝ dz dz dz dz ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δ u) d (δφ ) dv dδφ ⎞ 2⎤
dδφ ⎞ ⎥
2 ⎛
⎢
+F ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜
+ 2 yo ⎜
+ δφ ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜
⎟ 2
⎟
⎢ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz dz dz dz ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎫
⎛ d 2 v ⎞ 2 ⎤⎥ ⎪
⎢ ⎜
+ M x 2⎜ ⎟ ⎜
δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ δφ ⎬ dz
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
⎛ dδ u dv ⎞
∫
1
q(a − y o )⎜ (δφ ) −
2
+ δφ ⎟ dz
2 ⎝ dz dz ⎠
L
The first two lines on the right side of the equation contain terms involving buckling rigidities
EIy, GJ, and EI ω and represent the strain energy stored during prebuckling and buckling. The
third and fourth line of the equation contain terms involving the stress resultants F and Mx, which
represent the work done by the applied loads at the shear center, considering the effects of
prebuckling. The final two lines of the equation represent the work done by the distributed load,
In order to linearize the new energy equation, the second order in-plane displacements are
neglected in order to avoid a quadratic eigenvalue equation (Roberts, 2004). The new energy
61
⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ d 2 (δ u) d 2 v ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞
2 2
1 2
2
1
δ Π = ∫ EI y ⎜⎜
2L
[
⎝ dz ⎠
2
⎟
⎟ + 2 EI y
dz 2 dz 2
δφ + GJ ⎜
⎜ dz ⎟
⎝
⎟
⎠
d (δφ ) ⎛ dv d 2 (δ u) d 2 v d (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2
+ GJ ⎜ − 2 ⎟ + EI ω ⎜⎜ ⎟
dz ⎜⎝ dz dz 2 dz dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟
⎠
d 2 (δφ ) ⎛ dv d 3 (δ u) d 3 v d (δ u) ⎞
+ EI ω ⎜ − 3 ⎟
dz 2 ⎜⎝ dz dz 3 dz dz ⎟⎠
⎡ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δ u) d (δφ ) ⎞ 2⎤
dδφ ⎞ ⎥
2 ⎛
⎢
+F ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜
+ 2 y o ⎜ ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜
2
⎟
⎢ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ⎢ 2⎜⎜
⎢ ⎝ dz ⎠
⎣
2
⎟ δφ + βx ⎜
⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dz ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎭
2 ∫
⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz + 1 q(a − y o )(δφ ) 2 dz
+
1
2 ∑ P(e − y o )(δφ ) = 0
2
(4.22)
Comparing this equation to Eq. (3.88) in the previous chapter, the only terms that differ are
1 ⎡ d 2 (δ u) d 2 v d (δφ ) ⎛ dv d 2 (δ u) d 2 v d (δ u) ⎞
2 ∫L ⎢⎣
⎢ 2 EI y δφ + GJ ⎜ − 2 ⎟
dz 2 dz 2 dz ⎜⎝ dz dz 2 dz dz ⎟⎠
d 2 (δφ ) ⎛ dv d 3 (δ u) d 3 v d (δ u) ⎞ ⎤
+ EI ω ⎜ − 3 ⎟ ⎥ dz (4.23)
dz 2 ⎜⎝ dz dz 3 dz dz ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎦
d 2v Mx
2 = − (4.24)
dz EI x
Likewise,
dv Mx
dz
= ∫− EI x
dz + C (4.25)
62
d 3v 1 dM x Vy
= − = − (4.26)
dz 3 EI x dz EI x
dv dv (0)
The constant C is a function of and is calculated at z = 0 as C = .
dz dz
Iy d 2 (δ u) ⎛ Mx ⎞ d (δφ ) d 2 (δ u)
∫− 2I ∫
1
Mx δφ + GJ ⎜ − dz + C⎟
2 x dz 2 ⎝ EI x ⎠ dz dz 2
L
M d (δφ ) d (δ u) ⎛ ⎞ d 2 (δφ ) d 3 (δ u)
∫
Mx
+ GJ x + EI ω ⎜ − dz + C⎟
EI x dz dz ⎝ EI x ⎠ dz 2 dz 3
Iω d 2 (δφ ) d (δ u) ⎤
V ⎥ dz (4.27)
I x y dz 2 dz ⎥⎦
63
5.0 APPLICATIONS
This chapter will present examples using the buckling equation derived in Section 3.4 (Eq.
(3.88)) to determine approximate solutions for specific loading and boundary conditions. These
solutions will be obtained by assuming suitable shape functions for the displacement u and
rotation φ during buckling. The solutions will then be compared to examples presented in other
literature that used different methods, including differential equilibrium equation method for the
first example and the method of finite differences for the remaining examples, to obtain buckling
results to demonstrate the validity of the buckling equations presented in this paper.
END MOMENTS, M
This example will derive the lateral-torsional buckling moment, Mcr, for a simply-supported
beam whose ends are restrained from twist subjected to equal end moments, as shown in Figure
5.1.
64
M M
x
y
L
y
⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎧ 2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪
δ Π = ⎨ EI y ⎜⎜ 2
⎟ + GJ ⎜
⎟
⎟ ⎜
⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤
2
+ F ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎜ dz ⎟ ⎜ dz ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥
⎟ + 2 y o ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎣
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
+
1
2 ∫
q(a − y o )(δφ ) dz +
L
2 1
2 ∑ P(e − y )(δφ)
o
2
= 0 (5.1)
65
⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎧ 2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
δ Π = ⎨ EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ + GJ ⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz (5.2)
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
For a simply-supported beam, the following shape functions can be used to solve this problem.
⎛ π z⎞
u( z ) = A sin⎜ ⎟ (5.3)
⎝ L⎠
⎛ π z⎞
φ ( z) = B sin⎜ ⎟ (5.4)
⎝ L⎠
The first variation of u and φ , as well as their first and second derivatives are needed to solve
⎛ π z⎞
δ u = δ A sin⎜ ⎟ (5.5)
⎝ L⎠
⎛ π z⎞
δ φ = δ B sin⎜ ⎟ (5.6)
⎝ L⎠
d (δ u) ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π z⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ δ A cos⎜ ⎟ (5.7)
dz ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
d (δ φ ) ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π z⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ δ B cos⎜ ⎟ (5.8)
dz ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
66
d 2 (δ u) ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π z⎞
= − ⎜ ⎟ δ A sin⎜ ⎟ (5.9)
d z2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
d 2 (δ φ ) ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π z⎞
= − ⎜ ⎟ δ B sin⎜ ⎟ (5.10)
d z2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
L
⎧⎛ π ⎞ 4 2⎛
π z⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π z⎞
∫
1 2 1
2
δ Π =
2
⎜
⎨⎝ ⎠ ⎟ EI y (δ A) 2
sin ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ GJ (δ B) cos2 ⎜
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L⎠
2
⎝ L⎠
⎟
0 ⎩ L
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π z⎞
4
+ ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B) sin 2 ⎜
2
⎟
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
⎡ ⎛ π⎞ 2⎛ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π z ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
(5.11)
The following integrations will be necessary to evaluate Eq. (5.11)
L
⎛ π z⎞
∫
L
sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ dz = (5.12)
0 ⎝ L⎠ 2
L
⎛ π z⎞
∫
L
cos2 ⎜ ⎟ dz = (5.13)
0 ⎝ L⎠ 2
L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
4 2 4
1 2 1 ⎧⎛
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ EI y (δ A) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ GJ (δ B) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B)
2 2 2
δ Π = ⎨⎜
2 2 ⎩⎝ ⎠
2 L⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 L⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 L⎝ ⎠
⎡ ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎤⎫
2
⎪
+ M ⎢ − 2⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (δ A)(δ B) + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (δ B) ⎥ ⎬ dz (5.14)
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭
67
The critical buckling load occurs when the second variation of total potential energy is equal to
⎡⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎜ ⎟ EI y − M
1 L ⎛ π ⎞ ⎧ δ A⎫ ⎢⎢ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥ ⎧ δ A⎫
2 T
1 2 ⎥⎨ ⎬ = 0
δ Π = ⎜ ⎟ ⎨ ⎬
2 2 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎩ δ B⎭ ⎢ ⎛ π⎞ ⎥ ⎩δ B⎭
2
2
⎢ − M GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω + Mβx ⎥
⎣ ⎝ L⎠ ⎦
(5.15)
Since δ A and δ B are not equal to zero
⎡⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ EI y − M ⎥ ⎧ δ A⎫
⎢ L ⎥⎨ ⎬ = 0 (5.16)
⎛ π⎞ ⎥ ⎩δ B⎭
2
⎢
⎢ − M GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω + Mβx ⎥
⎣ ⎝ L⎠ ⎦
If the deformed configuration of the beam is to yield a nontrivial solution, the determinant of the
⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎞
M − ⎜ ⎟ EI y βx M − ⎜ ⎟ EI y ⎜ GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω ⎟ = 0
2
(5.17)
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ ⎝ L⎠ ⎠
Solving Eq. (5.17) for M gives the critical moment for lateral torsional buckling of a
( EI ) β
2
2
1⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2 4 2 4
y x
M cr = ⎜ ⎟ EI y βx + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ EI y GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI y EI ω (5.18)
2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠ 4 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
The beam stiffness parameter and the monosymmetric parameter were given in Section 3.5 under
non-dimensional analysis as
68
π 2 EI ω
K= (5.19)
GJL2
βx EI y
βx = (5.20)
L GJ
Rewriting Eq. (5.18) in terms of K and βx yields the elastic critical moment as
⎡ ⎛ πβ ⎞
2 ⎤
π ⎢ πβ ⎥
M cr = EI y GJ 1 + K +
2
⎜ ⎟ + (5.21)
L ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
This result for the lateral torsional buckling moment of monosymmetric I-beams under a
uniform moment matches the solution given by (Kitipornchai, et al. 1986) for F = 0 when the
elastic critical moment was derived using the differential equilibrium method illustrated in
69
5.2 SIMPLY-SUPPORTED MONOSYMMETRIC BEAM SUBJECTED TO
This example will present the lateral-torsional buckling load, Pcr, for a simply-supported beam
whose ends are restrained from twist subjected to a concentrated central load that is applied to
P
x
z
y
L
y
There is no axial force or uniformly distributed load acting on the beam. Therefore, F = 0 and
70
⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎧ 2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
δ Π = ⎨ EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ + GJ ⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz (5.22)
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
Since this beam is also simply supported, the same buckling modes shapes will be used as in
Section 5.1. The moment along the beam, M x ( z ) , for a beam with a concentrated central load
can be expressed as
P L
M x ( z) = z for 0≤ z≤ (5.23)
2 2
P L
M x ( z) = ( L − z) for ≤ z ≤ L (5.24)
2 2
Substituting Eqs. (5.3) – (5.10) and Eqs. (5.23) – (5.24) into Eq. (5.22) yields
L
⎧⎛ π ⎞ 4 2⎛
π z⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π z⎞
∫
1 2 1
⎨ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ EI y (δ A) sin ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ GJ (δ B) cos2 ⎜
2 2
δ Π = ⎟
2 2 0 ⎩ L ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎫
4
+ ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B) sin 2 ⎜
2
⎟ ⎬ dz
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎭
L
⎧ − 2P ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎞
∫
1 2
+ ⎨ z⎜ ⎟ ⎜ δ A sin⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ δ B sin⎜ ⎟⎟
2 0 ⎩ P ⎝ ⎠
L ⎝ ⎝ L ⎠⎠⎝ ⎝ L ⎠⎠
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎫
2
P
+ zβx ⎜ ⎟ (δ B) cos2 ⎜
2
⎟ ⎬ dz
2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎭
L
⎧ − 2P ⎛ π⎞ ⎛
2
⎛ π z⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎞
∫
1
+ ⎨ ( L − z ) ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ δ A sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ δ B sin ⎜ ⎟⎟
2 L
⎩ P ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ ⎝ L ⎠⎠⎝ ⎝ L ⎠⎠
2
71
π ⎛ π z⎞ ⎫
2
( L − z) βx ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ (δ B) cos2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ dz
P 2
+ (5.25)
2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎭
The following integrations will be necessary to evaluate Eq. (5.25)
L
⎛ π z⎞ L2 L2
∫
2
z sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ dz = + (5.26)
0 ⎝ L⎠ 16 4π 2
L
⎛ π z⎞ L2 L2
∫
2 z
cos2 ⎜ ⎟ dz = − (5.27)
0 2 ⎝ L⎠ 32 8π 2
L
⎛ π z⎞ L2 L2
∫ L
2
( L − z) sin ⎜ ⎟ dz =
⎝ L⎠
2
+
16 4π 2
(5.28)
L
( L − z) ⎛ π z⎞ L2 L2
∫ L
2
2
cos ⎜ ⎟ dz =
2
⎝ L⎠
−
32 8π 2
(5.29)
1 ⎧⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
2 2 2
1 2
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ EI y (δ A) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ GJ (δ B) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B)
2 2 2
δ Π = ⎨⎜
2 2 ⎩⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠
⎡ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ L2 L2 ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ L2 L2 ⎞ 2⎤
+ ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟ P⎜ + ⎟ (δ A)(δ B ) + ⎜ ⎟ Pβ ⎜ − 2 ⎟ (δ B ) ⎥
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 16 4π ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 32 8π ⎠
2 x
⎦
⎡ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ L2 ⎛ π⎞ 2 ⎤⎫
2
L2 ⎞ ⎛ L2 L2 ⎞ ⎪
+ ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟ P⎜ + ⎟ (δ A)(δ B ) + ⎜ ⎟ Pβ ⎜ − ⎟ (δ B ) ⎥ ⎬
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 16 4π ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 32 8π ⎠
2 x 2
⎦ ⎪⎭
(5.30)
Which simplifies to
72
1 L ⎛ π ⎞ ⎡⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2 2 2
1 2
y( ) ( ) ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B)
2 2 2
δ Π = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎟ EI δ A + GJ δ B +
2 2 2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎣⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
⎛ π 2 + 4⎞ ⎛ π 2 − 4⎞ 2⎤
− PL⎜
⎝ 4π 2 ⎠
⎟ (δ A)(δ B ) + PLβ x ⎜
⎝ 8π 2 ⎠
⎟ (δ B ) ⎥ (5.31)
⎦
The critical buckling load occurs when the second variation of total potential energy is equal to
zero, as
⎡ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π 2 + 4⎞ ⎤
T⎢ ⎜ ⎟ EI y − PL⎜ ⎟ ⎥ δA
1 L ⎛ π ⎞ ⎧ δ A⎫ ⎢ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 8π 2 ⎠
2
1 2
δ Π = ⎜ ⎟ ⎨ ⎬ ⎥ ⎧⎨ ⎫⎬ = 0
2 2 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎩ δ B⎭ ⎢ ⎛ π 2 + 4⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π 2 − 4 ⎞ ⎥ ⎩ δ B⎭
2
2
⎢− PL⎜ ⎟ GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω + PLβx ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 8π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 8π 2 ⎠ ⎦
(5.32)
⎡ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π 2 + 4⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ EI y − PL⎜ ⎟ ⎥ δA
⎢ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 8π 2 ⎠ ⎥ ⎧⎨ ⎫⎬ = 0 (5.33)
⎢ ⎛ π 2 + 4⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π − 4 ⎞ ⎥ ⎩ δ B⎭
2
⎢− PL⎜ ⎟ GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω + PLβx ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 8π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 8π 2 ⎠ ⎦
If the deformed configuration of the beam is to yield a nontrivial solution, the determinant of the
2
⎛ π 2 + 4⎞ 2 2 ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π 2 − 4⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎞
⎜ ⎟ L P − ⎜ ⎟ EI y βx ⎜ ⎟ LP − ⎜ ⎟ EI y ⎜ GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω ⎟ = 0
⎝ 8π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 8π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ ⎝ L⎠ ⎠
(5.34)
Solving Eq. (5.34) for P gives the critical buckling load for lateral torsional buckling of a
73
1
⎧ ⎡
( )β ( ) ( )
2 2 2
Pcr = ⎨ 4 16 EI y
2
π 8 − 8 EI y βx 2 π 10 + EI y βx 2 π 12
(π + 4) L ⎢
2 3 ⎩ ⎣ 2 x
( ) ( ) ( )
+ 4 EI y GJL2 π 10 + 32 EI y GJL2 π 8 + 64 EI y GJL2 π 6 + 4 EI y EI ω π 12 ( )( )
⎫⎪
] ( )
1
( )( )
+ 32 EI y EI ω π 10
( )
+ 64 EI y ( EI ω )π 8 2
( )
+ 4 EI y βx π 6 − 16 EI y βx π 4 ⎬ (5.35)
⎪⎭
PL2
γP = (5.36)
EI y GJ
Rewriting Eq. (5.35) in terms of the non-dimensional beam stiffness parameter, K , given
in Eq. (5.19) and the monosymmetric parameter, βx , given in Eq. (5.20), as well as the loading
parameter, γ P , shown in Eq. (5.36) yields the elastic critical load parameter for a simply-
γP =
(π 2
1
+ 4)
2 {4[(π 12
− 8π 10 + 16π 8 )βx 2 + (4π 10 + 32π 8 + 64π 6 )
1
⎫
+ (4π 10
+ 32π + 64π ) K
8 6
] + (4π
2 2 6
− 16π 4 )βx ⎬
⎭
(5.37)
This result can then be compared to the results given in (Anderson and Trahair, 1972) where the
critical load parameters were obtained using the method of finite differences. Figures 5.3 – 5.9
compare the solution presented in Eq. (5.37) with the results given by Anderson and Trahair at
various values of K and βx . The results obtained by this research using approximate shape
functions are more accurate as the values for βx become closer to zero, representing a doubly-
74
symmetric beam. Thus, the shape functions used in this example more accurately predict the
Figure 5.3 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
75
Figure 5.4 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Figure 5.5 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
76
Figure 5.6 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Figure 5.7 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
77
Figure 5.8 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Figure 5.9 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
78
5.3 SIMPLY-SUPPORTED MONOSYMMETRIC BEAM SUBJECTED TO
This example will present the lateral-torsional buckling load, qcr, for a simply-supported beam
whose ends are restrained from twist subjected to a uniformly distributed load that is applied to
x
z
y
L
y
There is no axial force or concentrated load acting on the beam. Therefore, F = 0 and P = 0 .
Since the uniformly distributed load, q, is applied at the beam’s shear center, (a − y 0 ) = 0 .
79
⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎧ 2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
δ Π = ⎨ y⎜
EI 2 ⎟ + GJ ⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω⎜ 2 ⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ dz ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz (5.38)
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
Since this beam is also simply supported, the same buckling modes shapes will be used as in
section 5.1. The moment along the beam, M x ( z ) , for a beam with a uniformly distributed load
can be expressed as
qz
Mx = ( L − z) for 0≤ z ≤ L (5.39)
2
Substituting Eqs. (5.3) – (5.10) and Eq. (5.39) into Eq. (5.38) yields
L
⎧⎛ π ⎞ 4 2⎛
π z⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π z⎞
∫
1 2 1
⎨ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ EI y (δ A) sin ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ GJ (δ B) cos2 ⎜
2 2
δ Π = ⎟
2 2 0 ⎩ L ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎫
4
+ ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B) sin 2 ⎜
2
⎟ ⎬ dz
⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎭
L
⎧ − 2qz ⎛ π⎞ ⎛
2
⎛ π z⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ π z⎞ ⎞
∫
1
+ ⎨ ( L − z ) ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ δ A sin⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ δ B sin⎜ ⎟⎟
2 0 ⎩ 2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ ⎝ L ⎠⎠⎝ ⎝ L ⎠⎠
π ⎛ π z⎞ ⎫
2
( L − z) βx ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ (δ B) cos2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎬ dz
qz 2
+ (5.40)
2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎭
80
L
⎛ π z⎞ L3 L3
∫
0
( zL − z ) sin ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ dz = 12 + 4π 2
2 2
(5.41)
L
(zL − z 2 ) ⎛ π z⎞ L3 L3
∫
0 2
cos ⎜ ⎟ dz =
2
⎝ L⎠
−
24 8π 2
(5.42)
1 ⎧⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ L⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
4 2 4
1 2
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ EI y (δ A) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ GJ (δ B) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B)
2 2 2
δ Π = ⎨⎜
2 2 ⎩⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠
⎡ ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ L3 L3 ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ L3 L3 ⎞ 2 ⎤⎪ ⎫
+ ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟ q⎜ + ⎟ (δ A)(δ B ) + ⎜ ⎟ qβ ⎜ − 2 ⎟ (δ B ) ⎥ ⎬ (5.43)
⎣ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ 12 4π ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 24 8π ⎠
2 x
⎦ ⎪⎭
Which simplifies to
1 L ⎛ π ⎞ ⎡⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2 2 2
1 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ EI y (δ A) + GJ (δ B) + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω (δ B)
2 2 2
δ Π =
2 2 2 ⎝ L⎠ ⎣⎝ L⎠ ⎝ L⎠
⎛ π 2 + 3⎞ ⎛ π 2 − 3⎞ 2⎤
− qL2 ⎜
⎝ 6π ⎠ 2 ⎟ (δ A)(δ B ) + qL2
β x⎜
⎝ 12π ⎠2 ⎟ (δ B ) ⎥ (5.44)
⎦
The critical buckling load occurs when the second variation of total potential energy is equal to
zero, as
⎡ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π 2 + 3⎞ ⎤
T⎢ ⎜ ⎟ EI y − qL ⎜
2
⎟ ⎥ δA
1 L ⎛ π ⎞ ⎧ δ A⎫ ⎢ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 12π 2 ⎠
2
1 2
δ Π = ⎜ ⎟ ⎨ ⎬ ⎥ ⎧⎨ ⎫⎬ = 0
2 2 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎩ δ B⎭ ⎢ ⎛ π 2 + 3⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π − 3⎞ ⎥ ⎩ δ B ⎭
2 2
2
⎢− qL2 ⎜ ⎟ GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω + qL2 βx ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 12π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 12π 2 ⎠ ⎦
(5.45)
Since δ A and δ B are not equal to zero
81
⎡ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π 2 + 3⎞ ⎤
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ EI y − qL2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ δA
⎢ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 12π 2 ⎠ ⎥ ⎧⎨ ⎫⎬ = 0 (5.46)
⎢ ⎛ π 2 + 3⎞ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ π − 3⎞ ⎥ ⎩ δ B ⎭
2
⎢− qL ⎜2
⎟ GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ω + qL2 βx ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ 12π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ ⎝ 12π 2 ⎠ ⎦
If the deformed configuration of the beam is to yield a nontrivial solution, the determinant of the
2
⎛ π 2 + 3⎞ 4 2 ⎛ π ⎞ 2 ⎛ π 2 − 3⎞ 2 ⎛ π⎞
2
⎛ ⎛ π⎞
2
⎞
⎜ ⎟ L q − ⎜ ⎟ EI β ⎜ ⎟ L q − ⎜ ⎟ EI ⎜ GJ + ⎜ ⎟ EI ⎟ =0
⎝ 12π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ y x
⎝ 12π 2 ⎠ ⎝ L⎠ y
⎝ ⎝ L⎠ ω
⎠
(5.47)
Solving Eq. (5.47) for q gives the critical buckling load for lateral torsional buckling of a
1
⎧ ⎡
( )β ( ) ( )
2 2 2
q cr = ⎨ 6 9 EI
2
π 8 − 6 EI y βx 2 π 10 + EI y βx 2 π 12
(π + 3) L ⎢ y
2 4 ⎩ ⎣ 2 x
( ) ( ) ( )
+ 4 EI y GJL2 π 10 + 24 EI y GJL2 π 8 + 36 EI y GJL2 π 6 + 4 EI y EI ω π 12 ( )( )
⎫⎪
] ( )
1
( )( )
+ 24 EI y EI ω π 10
( )
+ 36 EI y ( EI ω )π 8 2
( )
+ 4 EI y βx π 6 − 12 EI y βx π 4 ⎬
⎭⎪
(5.48)
The non-dimensional loading parameter, γ q , was given in section 3.5 as
qL3
γq = (5.49)
EI y GJ
Rewriting Eq. (5.48) in terms of the non-dimensional beam stiffness parameter, K , given
in Eq. (5.19) and the monosymmetric parameter, βx , given in Eq. (5.20), as well as the loading
82
parameter, γ q , shown in Eq. (5.49) yields the elastic critical load parameter for a simply-
γq =
(π 2
1
+ 3)
2 {4[(π 12
− 6π 10 + 9π 8 )βx 2 + (4π 10 + 24π 8 + 36π 6 )
1
⎫
+ (4π 10
+ 24π + 36π ) K
8 6
] + (4π
2 2 6
− 12π 4 )βx ⎬
⎭
(5.50)
As in section 5.1, this result can then be compared to the results given in (Anderson and Trahair,
1972) where the critical load parameters were obtained using the method of finite differences.
Figures 5.11 – 5.17 compare the solution presented in Eq. (5.50) with the results given by
Anderson and Trahair at various values of K and βx . As in the example in Section 5.2, the
results obtained by this research using approximate shape functions are more accurate as the
83
Figure 5.11 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Figure 5.12 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
84
Figure 5.13 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Figure 5.14 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
85
Figure 5.15 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
Figure 5.16 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
86
Figure 5.17 Buckling Load: Simply Supported Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
87
5.4 CANTILEVER WITH END POINT LOAD, P
This example will present the lateral-torsional buckling load, Pcr, for a cantilever beam subjected
to a concentrated central load that is applied at the end of the beam to its shear center, as shown
in Figure 5.18.
P
x
z
y
L
y
There is no axial force or uniformly distributed load acting on the beam. Therefore, F = 0 and
88
⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎧ 2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
δ Π = ⎨ EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ + GJ ⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz (5.51)
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
The moment along the beam, M x ( z ) , for a beam with a concentrated central load can be
expressed as
M x ( z ) = − P( L − z ) for 0≤ z ≤ L (5.52)
⎛ πz⎞ ⎛ πz⎞
Several shape functions including u( z ) = A⎜ 1 − cos ⎟ and φ ( z ) = B⎜ 1 − cos ⎟ were
⎝ 2 L⎠ ⎝ 2L⎠
experimented with to accurately predict the buckled shape of a cantilever beam. It was
determined that in order to obtain acceptable results, a more complicated shape function in the
( 2r − 1)π z ⎤
n
∑
⎡
u( z ) = Δ r ⎢1 − cos ⎥ (5.53)
r =1 ⎣ 2L ⎦
n
⎡ ( 2r − 1)π z ⎤
φ ( z) = ∑ θr ⎢1 − cos 2L ⎥ (5.54)
r= 1 ⎣ ⎦
The first variation of u and φ , as well as their first and second derivatives are needed to solve
n
⎡ ( 2r − 1)π z ⎤
δu = ∑ δ Δ r ⎢1 − cos 2L ⎥ (5.55)
r= 1 ⎣ ⎦
89
n
⎡ ( 2r − 1)π z ⎤
δφ = ∑ δθr ⎢1 − cos 2L ⎥ (5.56)
r= 1 ⎣ ⎦
d (δ u) n
⎛1 ⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ 2r − 1 ⎞
dz
= ∑ ⎜⎝ 2 δ Δ r sin⎜⎝ 2 L
π z⎟
⎠ L
π⎟
⎠
(5.57)
r= 1
d (δφ ) n
⎛1 ⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ 2r − 1 ⎞
dz
= ∑ ⎜⎝ 2 δθr sin⎜⎝ 2 L
π z⎟
⎠ L
π⎟
⎠
(5.58)
r= 1
d 2 (δ u) ⎛1n
⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ ( 2r − 1) 2 2 ⎞
= ∑ ⎜⎜ δ Δ r cos⎜ π z⎟ π ⎟⎟ (5.59)
dz 2 r= 1⎝ 4
⎝2 L ⎠ L2 ⎠
d 2 (δφ ) ⎛1
n
⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ ( 2r − 1)
2 ⎞
dz 2
= ∑ ⎜⎝ 4 r ⎝ 2 L ⎠ L2 π 2 ⎟⎟⎠
⎜ δ θ cos⎜ π z ⎟ (5.60)
r=1
90
⎧ ⎛ n ⎛1
2
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ ( 2r − 1) 2 2 ⎞ ⎞
δ Π = ∫ ⎨ EI y ⎜⎜ ∑ ⎜⎜ δ Δ r cos⎜ π z⎟ π ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟ +
2 2L ⎪ ⎝ r=1⎝ 4 ⎝ 2 L ⎠ L 2
⎠⎠
⎩
2
⎛ n ⎛1 ⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ 2r − 1 ⎞ ⎞
+ GJ ⎜ ∑ ⎜ δ θr sin⎜ π z⎟ π⎟ ⎟
⎝ r= 1⎝ 2 ⎝2 L ⎠ L ⎠⎠
2
⎛ n ⎛1 ⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ ( 2r − 1)
2 ⎞⎞
EI ω ⎜ ∑ ⎜ δ θr cos⎜
⎜ ⎜ π z⎟ π 2⎟ ⎟
⎟⎟
⎝ r= 1⎝ 4 ⎝2 L ⎠ L2 ⎠⎠
⎡ ⎛ n ⎛1 ⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ ( 2r − 1)
2 ⎞⎞⎛ n ⎡ ( 2r − 1)π z ⎤ ⎞
− P( L − z) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ∑ ⎜⎜ δ Δ r cos⎜ π z⎟ π 2⎟ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎟ ∑ δ θr ⎢1 − cos ⎥⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ r = 1 ⎝ 4 ⎝2 L ⎠ L 2
⎠ ⎠ ⎝ r= 1 ⎣ 2L ⎦⎠
2 ⎤⎫
⎛ n ⎛1 ⎛ 1 2r − 1 ⎞ 2r − 1 ⎞ ⎞
+ β x ⎜ ∑ ⎜ δ θr sin⎜ π z⎟ π⎟ ⎟ ⎥ ⎪⎬ dz (5.61)
⎝ =
⎝2 ⎝2 L ⎠ L ⎠⎠ ⎥⎪
r 1 ⎦⎭
Therefore integrating Eq. (5.51) with respect to z gives
π 4 EI y ⎡ n ⎤ GJπ 2 ⎡ n ⎛ ⎛ ( 2r − 1) 2 π 2 EI ω ⎞ 2 ⎞ ⎤
1 2
2
δ Π =
64 L3
(
⎢ ∑ ( 2r − 1) δ Δ r 2
⎢⎣ r = 1
4
)⎥+
⎥⎦ 16 L
⎢ ∑ ⎜ ( 2r − 1) 4 ⎜⎜ 1 +
⎢⎣ r = 1 ⎜⎝ ⎝ 4GJL2
⎟⎟ δ θr ⎟ ⎥
⎠ ⎟⎥
⎠⎦
Pπ 2 ⎡ n ⎛ ⎛ 1 3 ⎞ ⎞⎤
+ ⎢ ∑ ⎜⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ ( 2 r − 1) 2
δ θ r δ Δ ⎟
r⎟⎥
4 ⎢⎣ r = 1 ⎝ ⎝ 4 ( 2r − 1) 2 π 2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎞⎞⎞⎤
P ⎢ n ⎛⎜ ⎛ n ⎛ 1 − ( − 1) r + s− 1 1 − ( − 1) r − s 4
+ ∑ ( 2 r − 1) 2
δ Δ r⎜ ∑
⎜ δ θ ⎜
s⎜ + − ⎟⎟⎟⎥
2⎟⎟⎟⎥
4 ⎢ r = 1 ⎜⎝ ⎝ s= 1, s≠ r ⎝ 2( r + s − 1)
2
2 ( r − s) 2
(2r − 1) ⎠ ⎠ ⎠
⎣ ⎦
Pβ x π 2 ⎡ n ⎛⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎞⎤
+ ⎢ ∑ ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟( )2
2 2 − 4 2r − 1 δ θr
2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ (5.62)
8 ⎢⎣ r = 1 ⎝ ⎝ ( 2r − 1) π ⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦
Taking the derivative of Eq. (5.62) with respect to δΔr and δθr yields the following set of
91
⎛1 ⎞
d ⎜ δ 2Π ⎟
⎠ π 2 ( 2r − 1) 4 γ c ( 2r − 1) ⎛ 1
2
⎝2 3 ⎞
= δΔ r + ⎜ − 2 2 ⎟ δθ r
dδ Δ r 32 4 ⎝ 4 ( 2r − 1) π ⎠
γ c ( 2r − 1) 2 ⎡ n ⎛ ⎛ 1 − ( − 1) r + s− 1 1 − ( − 1) r − s 4 ⎞ ⎞⎤
+ ⎢ ∑ ⎜ ⎜⎜ + − ⎟ δθ ⎟ ⎥ = 0
4π 2 ⎢⎣ s= 1, s≠ r ⎜⎝ ⎝ 2 ( r + s − 1) 2 2(r − s) 2 ( 2r − 1) 2 ⎟⎠ s ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
(5.63)
for r = 1, ....., n.
And
⎛1 ⎞
d ⎜ δ 2Π ⎟ ⎡
⎝2 ⎠ ( 2r − 1) 2 ( 2r − 1) 4 K 2 γ c ( 2r − 1) 2 ⎛ 1 1⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ + + β⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ δθ
dδθr ⎣ 8 32 4 ⎝ ( 2r − 1) 2 π 2 4 ⎠ ⎦ r
γ c ( 2r − 1) 2 ⎡ 1 3 ⎤
+ ⎢ − 2 2 ⎥δ Δ r
4 ⎣ 4 ( 2r − 1) π ⎦
γc ⎡ n ⎛ ⎛ 1 − ( − 1) r + s− 1 1 − ( − 1) r − s 4 ⎞ ⎞⎤
+ ⎢ ∑ ( 2 s − 1) ⎜⎜
⎜ 2
+ − ⎟⎟ δ Δ s ⎟ ⎥
4π 2 ⎢⎣ s= 1, s≠ r ⎜⎝ ⎝ 2 ( r + s − 1)
2
2 ( r − s) 2 ( 2r − 1) 2 ⎠ ⎟⎥
⎠⎦
γc ⎡ n ⎛⎛ 1 1 − ( − 1) r + s− 1 1 − ( − 1) r − s ⎞ ⎞⎤
+ ⎢ ∑ ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ( 2r − 1)( 2 s − 1) β − ⎟ ⎟
⎟ s⎟ ⎥ = 0
δθ
π2 ⎢⎣ s= 1, s≠ r ⎝ ⎝ 4 2( r + s − 1) 2 2(r − s) 2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦
(5.64)
for r = 1, ....., n.
92
PL2
γP = (5.65)
EI y GJ
Eqs. (5.63) and (5.64) are evaluated at n = 7 with the results in the form
⎧Δ1⎫ ⎧Δ1⎫
⎪θ ⎪ ⎪θ ⎪
⎪ 1⎪ ⎪ 1⎪
⎪ # ⎪ ⎪ # ⎪
[ A]⎨ ⎬ − γ P [ B]⎨ ⎬ = 0 (5.66)
⎪ # ⎪ ⎪ # ⎪
⎪Δ 7 ⎪ ⎪Δ 7 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎩ θ7 ⎭ ⎩ θ7 ⎭
Where
[ D] = [ A] −1 [ B] (5.68)
⎧Δ1⎫
⎪θ ⎪
⎪ 1⎪
⎪ # ⎪
α=⎨ ⎬ (5.69)
⎪ # ⎪
⎪Δ 7 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩ θ7 ⎭
1
λ= (5.70)
γP
Where [A] and [B] are 14 by 14 matrices with the terms of each matrix given in Appendix B.
The eigenvalues, λ, can be derived from Eq. (5.67), which yield the critical load, as shown in Eq.
(5.70).
93
This result can then be compared to the results given in (Anderson and Trahair, 1972) where
the critical load parameters were obtained using the method of finite differences. Figures 5.19 –
5.25 compare the results obtained using Eqs. 5.63 and 5.64 at values of n = 3, 5, and 7 with the
results given by Anderson and Trahair at various values of K and βx . The shape functions
using trigonometric series appear to have the same limitations as the ones used for the simply-
supported beams where the predicted buckling moment is more accurate when the beam is closer
to being doubly-symmetric, with the best predicted result occurring for higher values of n.
94
Figure 5.20 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
95
Figure 5.22 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
96
Figure 5.24 Buckling Load: Cantilever Beam with Monosymmetric Cross-Section
97
The finite element method is a numerical technique used to solve problems that may be
otherwise difficult to solve analytically. In this chapter, the finite element method will be used in
conjunction with the energy method to establish finite element equations that can be used to
solve for the elastic lateral buckling load. The basic concept behind the finite element method is
to model a continuum with infinite degrees of freedom and as a system of elements having finite
degrees of freedom. These elements are assembled to accurately approximate the behavior of the
entire system.
The first step toward formulating a finite element solution is to divide the system into a
number of discrete elements. These elements are connected by nodes, which are common points
shared by adjacent elements that establish the continuity of the system. The size of the elements
are arbitrary and should be selected to closely model the behavior of the entire system. After the
elements have been defined and nodes selected, a displacement function is established for each
functions are usually polynomial functions representing a unit displacement of a particular node
and zero for the other nodes. The number of polynomial functions used to describe each element
relationship and a stress-strain relationship are then defined for each element from the shape
functions.
98
The principle of minimum total potential energy will be used to derive the element
stiffness matrix and an element geometric stiffness matrix. Once these matrices are obtained,
they can be converted to the global coordinate system and assembled into a global stiffness
matrix to represent the entire system. The matrix can then be partitioned into free and restrained
degrees of freedom by the application of boundary conditions. The section of the global stiffness
matrix and geometric stiffness matrix containing the free degrees of freedom can then be used to
In this project, the structural system that the finite element method is being applied to is
any plane frame. Each frame element has six nodal degrees of freedom, which means twelve
total degrees of freedom for each element. The coordinate system for the beam-column elements
Figure 6.1 shows the top view of the element with a displacement u(z) at a distance z
along the element, which is the lateral bending in the x direction. Of the four out-of-plane nodal
coordinates shown, u1 and u3 are the out-of-plane nodal displacements at nodes 1 and 2,
respectively, and u2 and u4 are the out-of-plane nodal rotations of nodes 1 and 2, respectively.
Figure 6.2 shows the elevation view of the element with a displacement v(z) at a distance
z along the element, which is the in-plane bending in the y direction. Of the four in-plane nodal
coordinates shown, v1 and v 3 are the in-plane nodal displacements at nodes 1 and 2,
respectively, and v 2 and v 4 are the in-plane nodal rotations of nodes 1 and 2, respectively.
Figure 6.3 shows the elevation view of the element with a displacement φ ( z ) at a distance
z along the element, which is the torsional rotation in the z-direction. Of the four nodal
coordinates shown, φ1 and φ3 are the torsional rotations at nodes 1 and 2, respectively, and φ2
99
u1 u3
u4
z
u2
u (z)
x
v1 v3
v 4
z
v 2
v (z)
y
φ1 φ3
z
φ2 φ4
φ(z)
y
100
The displacement functions for the generalized displacements u(z), v(z), and φ(z) are
(Roberts, 2004)
u( z ) = [ N ]{ u} (6.1)
v ( z ) = [ N ]{ v} (6.2)
φ ( z) = [ N ]{φ} (6.3)
where
⎡ 1 1 3 1 1 3 2 2 ⎤
N = ⎢ 3 (2 z 3 − 3z 2 L + L3 ) (z L − 2z 2 L2 + zL3 ) (− 2z 3 + 3z 2 L) 3 ( z L − z L )⎥
⎣L L3 L3 L ⎦
(6.4)
and
{ u} = {u1 u2 u3 u4 }
T
(6.5)
{ v} = {v1 v 2 v 3 v4 }
T
(6.6)
{φ} = {φ 1 φ2 φ3 φ4 }
T
(6.7)
The matrix [N] is the shape function matrix for each element. Each term in the shape
function matrix represents the shape of the displacement function when the element degree of
freedom corresponding to the shape function has a unit value and all other degrees of freedom
δv ( z) = [ N ]{δv} (6.9)
δφ ( z) = [ N ]{δφ} (6.10)
101
The element stiffness matrix for the structure is derived using the principle of minimum
total potential energy. In order to apply the finite element method, the structure must be
separated into a finite number of elements. The total potential energy for the system may be
expressed as
1 2 1
δ Π = ∑ (δ 2U e + λδ 2 Ω e ) = 0 (6.11)
2 2
1 2 1
where δ U e and λδ 2 Ω e are the second variation of the strain energy stored in each element
2 2
and the work done on each element, respectively. The term λ represents the buckling load
factor which the initial load set has to be multiplied by to obtain the buckling load.
The strain energy stored and the work done on each individual element may be expressed
as
1 2
2
1
2
T
([ ] [ ]){δ d }
δ Π = {δ d e } k e + λ g e e (6.12)
where
⎧ u1 ⎫
⎪u ⎪
⎪ 2⎪
⎪ φ1 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
φ
{d e } = ⎪⎨ u2 ⎪⎬ = the local nodal displacement vector for each element (6.13)
⎪ 3⎪
⎪ u4 ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪ φ3 ⎪
⎪⎩ φ4 ⎪⎭
102
λ = the buckling parameter for each element
The element local stiffness matrix and geometric stiffness matrix are both 8 by 8 matrices
representing eight local displacements for each element corresponding to the displacements
when buckling occurs. The arrangement of each matrix is shown below with both matrices being
103
To obtain the stiffness matrices, the lateral torsional buckling equation must be re-
written in terms of the initial load set. The second variation of total potential energy then
becomes
2
⎧ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2 2
∫
1 2 1 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
δ Π = ⎨ EI y ⎜ 2 ⎟ + GJ ⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
2 2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
L
⎡ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ 2 ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤
2
+ λF ⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎜ dz ⎟ ⎜ dz ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥
⎟ + 2 y o ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ dz ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
⎣
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ λ M x ( z) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
+
1
2 ∫
L
2 1
λ q(a − y o )(δφ ) dz + λ
2 ∑ P(e − y )(δφ)
o
2
=0 (6.16)
[ ]
where the first three terms will contribute to the element elastic stiffness matrix, k e , and the
rest of the equation will contribute to the element geometric stiffness matrix, g e . [ ]
The first three terms of the buckling equation, Eq. (3.88), that will contribute to the
104
⎧ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞
2
⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎛ d 2 (δφ ) ⎞
2
⎫
∫
1 ⎪ ⎪
⎨ EI y ⎜⎜ 2
⎟ + GJ ⎜
⎟
⎟ ⎜
⎜ dz ⎟ + EI ω ⎜ dz 2 ⎟
⎟ ⎬ dz (6.17)
2 ⎪⎩ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
L ⎭
∫
1
{δε} T [ D]{δε} dz (6.18)
2 L
⎧⎪ d 2 (δ u) d (δφ ) d 2 (δφ ) ⎫⎪
T
{δε} = ⎨ 2 − ⎬ (6.19)
⎪⎩ dz dz dz 2 ⎪⎭
⎡ EI y 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
[ D] = ⎢ 0 GJ 0 ⎥ (6.20)
⎢⎣ 0 0 EI w ⎥⎦
Substituting the first variation of the displacement functions into the generalized strain vector
yields
⎡ [ N , zz] [ 0] ⎤
⎧ {δ u}⎫
⎢
{δε} = ⎢ [ 0] [ N , z] ⎥⎥ ⎪⎨ ⎪⎬ (6.21)
⎪ {δφ}⎪⎭
⎢⎣ [ 0] − [ N , zz ]⎥⎦ ⎩
⎡ [ N , zz] ⎡ [ N , zz]
T
[ 0] ⎤ [ 0] ⎤
⎧⎪ {δ u}⎫⎪ ⎥ ⎧⎪ {δ u}⎫⎪
T
∫
1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎨ ⎬ [ 0] [ N , z ] [ D ] [ 0] [ N , z ] ⎥ ⎨⎪ {δφ}⎬⎪dz (6.22)
⎩ {δφ}⎪⎭
2 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
L⎪
⎢⎣ [ 0] − [ N , zz]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ [ 0] − [ N , zz]⎥⎦ ⎩ ⎭
105
⎡ [ N , zz ] ⎡ [ N , zz]
T
[ 0] ⎤ [ 0] ⎤
∫
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
[k ]
e = ⎢ [ 0] [ N , z] ⎥ [ D] ⎢ [ 0] [ N , z] ⎥⎥dz (6.23)
⎢⎣ [ 0] − [ N , zz]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ [ 0] − [ N , zz ]⎥⎦
L
The terms of the elastic stiffness matrix are then rearranged to their appropriate locations as
The contribution of the lateral torsional buckling equation in terms of the initial load set to the
106
⎪ ⎢ ⎜ ( )⎟ ⎛ d (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤
⎧ ⎡⎛ d δ u ⎞ 2 2
∫
1
⎟ + 2 y o ⎜ dz ⎟ ⎜ dz ⎟ + (ro + y o )⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥
λ F⎨ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 2 2 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2 ⎢
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ dz ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦
L
⎡ ⎛ d 2 (δ u) ⎞ ⎛ d (δφ ) ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
2
+ M x ( z ) ⎢ 2⎜⎜ ⎟ δφ + βx ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎜ dz ⎟ ⎥ ⎬ dz
⎢ ⎝ dz 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪
⎣ ⎭
+
1
2 ∫
L
2 1
λ q(a − y o )(δφ ) dz + λ
2 ∑ P(e − y )(δφ) o
2
=0 (6.25)
1
∫
2 L
1
{δε} T [ D]{δε} dz + λ
2 ∑ P(e − y )(δφ)
o
2
(6.26)
⎧ d (δ u) d 2 (δ u) d (δφ ) ⎫
T
{δε} = ⎨ δφ ⎬ (6.27)
⎩ dz dz 2 dz ⎭
⎡ F 0 0 y o F ⎤
⎢ 0 0 M x ( z) 0 ⎥
[ D] = ⎢ ⎥
M x ( z ) q(a − y o )
(6.28)
⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ y o F 0 0 F (ro 2 + y o 2 ) + ( M x ( z ) βx )⎦
Substituting the first variation of the displacement functions into the generalized strain vector
yields
107
⎡ [ N , z] [0] ⎤
⎢
[ N , zz] [0] ⎥⎥ ⎧{δ u}⎫
{δε} = ⎢⎢ 0 (6.29)
[] [ N ] ⎥ ⎨⎩{δφ}⎬⎭
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ [0] [ N , z]⎥⎦
which is substituted into Eq. (6.26) as follows.
⎡ [ N , z] ⎡ [ N , z]
T
[ 0] ⎤ [ 0] ⎤
T⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎧
1 ⎧⎪ {δ u}⎫⎪ ⎢[ N , zz] [ 0] ⎢[ N , zz ] [ 0] ⎥ ⎪⎨ {δ u}⎪⎬dz
⎫
∫ ⎨ ⎬
2 L⎪⎩ {δφ}⎪⎭ ⎢ [ 0]
⎢
[ N]
⎥ [ D]
⎥
⎥
⎢ [ 0]
⎢
[ N] ⎥ ⎪ {δφ}⎪
⎥⎩ ⎭
⎢⎣ [ 0] [ N , z]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ [ 0] [ N , z]⎥⎦
1 ⎪⎧ {δ u}⎪⎫ ⎪⎧ {δ u}⎪⎫
T
+ λ⎨
2 ⎪⎩ {δφ}⎪⎭
[
T
]
⎬ [ 0] [ N ] P(e − y o ) [ 0] [ N ] ⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ {δφ}⎪⎭
[ ] (6.30)
z= zp
⎡ [ N , z] ⎡ [ N , z]
T
[ 0] ⎤ [ 0] ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
[ N , zz] [ 0] ⎢ [ N , zz ] [ 0]
[ ]
ge = ⎢
L
⎢
∫
⎢ [ 0] [ N]
⎥ [ D]
⎥
⎥
⎢ [ 0]
⎢
[ N]
⎥dz
⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ [ 0] [ N , z]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ [ 0] [ N , z]⎥⎦
1
+
2
[ ]
[ 0] [ N ] P(e − yo ) [ 0] [ N ]
T
[ ] (6.31)
z= zp
108
The terms of the geometric stiffness matrix are then rearranged to their appropriate locations as
DEFLECTIONS
The terms of the second variation of the total potential energy equation that account for
prebuckling are
⎡ Iy d 2 (δ u) ⎛ z
⎞ d (δφ ) d (δ u)
2
∫ ∫
1 M x ( z)
⎢ − 2 M x ( z) δφ + GJ ⎜ − dz + C⎟
2 ⎣ Ix dz 2 ⎝ 0 EI x ⎠ dz dz 2
L
M x ( z ) d (δφ ) d (δ u) ⎛ z
M x ( z) ⎞ d 2 (δφ ) d 3 (δ u)
+ GJ
EI x dz dz
+ EI ω ⎜
⎝ ∫0
−
EI x
dz + C⎟
⎠ dz 2 dz 3
Iω d 2 (δφ ) d (δ u) ⎤
+ V ⎥ dz (6.33)
I x y dz 2 dz ⎥⎦
⎛ z
M x ( z) ⎞
When integrating ⎜
⎝ ∫
0
−
EI x
dz⎟ , M x ( z) will be redefined as
⎠
H x ( z) =
∫ M (η)dη
0
x (6.34)
1 2 1 3
H x ( z) = M 1 z + V z − qz for 0 ≤ z ≤ zp (6.35)
2 1 6
1 2 1 3 1
H x ( z) = M 1 z + V1 z − qz − P( z 2 − zz p ) for zp ≤ z ≤ L (6.36)
2 6 2
109
Substituting H x ( z) into the prebuckling energy equation and rearranging in terms of initial load
set gives
⎡ d 2 (δφ ) d 3 (δ u) d (δφ ) d 2 (δ u) ⎤ ⎡ Iy d 2 (δ u)
∫ ∫
1 1
⎢ EI ω C + GJC ⎥ dz + λ ⎢ − 2 M ( z ) δφ
2 ⎢⎣ dz 2 dz 3 dz dz 2 ⎥⎦ 2 ⎣ Ix x dz 2
L L
Iω d (δφ ) d (δ u) GJ
2 3
d (δφ ) d (δ u) GJ 2
d (δφ ) d (δ u)
− H x ( z) − H ( z ) + M ( z )
Ix dz 2 dz 3 EI x x dz dz 2 EI x x dz dz
Iω d 2 (δφ ) d (δ u) ⎤
+ V ⎥ dz (6.37)
I x y dz 2 dz ⎥⎦
where the first bracketed term of this equation contributes to the elastic stiffness matrix and the
remaining terms contribute to the geometric stiffness matrix. Eq. (6.12) can then be expressed as
1
2
( (
{δ d e }T [ k e ] + [ k e ] P + λ [ ge ] + [ ge ] P )){δ d }
e (6.38)
where [ke] and the [ge] are the same elastic and geometric stiffness matrices, respectively, that
were derived in the previous two sections and [ke]P and [ge]P represent the prebuckling effects
DEFLECTIONS
The terms from the prebuckling energy equation (Eq. 4.27) that contribute to the elastic
110
⎡ d 2 (δφ ) d 3 (δ u) d (δφ ) d 2 (δ u) ⎤
∫
1
⎢ EI ω C + GJC ⎥ dz (6.39)
2 ⎢⎣ dz 2 dz 3 dz dz 2 ⎥⎦
L
∫
1
{δε} T [ D]{δε} dz (6.40)
2 L
⎧⎪ d 2 (δ u) d 3 (δ u) d (δφ ) d 2 (δφ ) ⎫⎪
T
{δε} = ⎨ 2 ⎬ (6.41)
⎪⎩ dz dz 3 dz dz 2 ⎪⎭
⎡ GJ ⎤
⎢ 0 0
2
0 ⎥
⎢ EI ω ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥
[ D] = ⎢ GJ 2 ⎥ (6.42)
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ EI ω ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
Substituting the first variation of the displacement functions into the generalized strain vector
yields
⎡ [ N , zz] 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
[ N , zzz] 0 ⎥ ⎧{δ u}⎫
{δε} = ⎢⎢ 0 (6.43)
[ N , z] ⎥ ⎨⎩{δφ}⎬⎭
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦
which is substituted into Eq. (6.40) as follows.
111
⎡ [ N , zz] ⎡ [ N , zz]
T
0 ⎤ 0 ⎤
T⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎧⎪ {δ u}⎫⎪ [ N , zzz] 0 ⎥ ⎧⎪ {δ u}⎫⎪
⎢[ N , zzz]
∫
1 ⎢ 0 ⎥
C ⎨ ⎬ [ D]
[ N , z] ⎥ ⎨⎪⎩ {δφ}⎬⎪⎭
dz (6.44)
2 L⎪⎩ {δφ}⎪⎭ ⎢ 0 [ N , z] ⎥ ⎢ 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦
The stiffness matrix can then be expressed as
⎡ [ N , zz] ⎡ [ N , zz]
T
0 ⎤ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
[ N , zzz] ⎥ [ D] ⎢ [ N , zzz]
∫
0 0
[k ]e P =C ⎢
⎢ 0 [ N , z] ⎥ ⎢ 0
⎥ dz
[ N , z] ⎥
(6.45)
L
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦
The elastic stiffness matrix considering prebuckling deflections, [ k e ] P , is again an 8 by 8
matrix. The terms of [ k e ] P are then rearranged to their appropriate locations as shown in Eq.
DEFLECTIONS
The terms from the prebuckling energy equation Eq. (4.27) in terms of the initial load set
112
⎡ Iy d 2 (δ u) Iω d 2 (δφ ) d 3 (δ u) GJ d (δφ ) d 2 (δ u)
∫
1
λ ⎢ − 2 M x ( z) δφ − H ( z) − H ( z)
2 ⎣ Ix dz 2 Ix x dz 2 dz 3 EI x x dz dz 2
L
GJ d (δφ ) d (δ u) I ω d 2 (δφ ) d (δ u) ⎤
+ M x ( z) + Vy ⎥ dz (6.46)
EI x dz dz Ix dz 2 dz ⎥⎦
∫
1
λ {δε} [ D]{δε} dz
T
(6.47)
2 L
⎧ d (δ u) d 2 (δ u) d 3 (δ u) d (δφ ) d 2 (δφ ) ⎫
T
{δε} = ⎨ δφ ⎬ (6.48)
⎩ dz dz 2 dz 3 dz dz 2 ⎭
⎡ GJM x ( z) Iω Vy ⎤
⎢ 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 EI x 2I x ⎥
⎢ I y M x ( z) GJH x ( z) ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 − − 0 ⎥
Ix 2 EI x
⎢ ⎥
⎢ I ω H x ( z) ⎥
0 0 0 0 0 −
⎢ 2I x ⎥
[ D] = ⎢ I y M x ( z) ⎥
⎢ 0 − 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ Ix ⎥
⎢ GJM x ( z ) GJH x ( z ) ⎥
⎢ − 0 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 EI x 2 EI x ⎥
⎢ IωVy I ω H x ( z) ⎥
⎢ 2I 0 − 0 0 0 ⎥
⎣ x 2I x ⎦
(6.49)
113
Substituting the first variation of the displacement functions into the generalized strain vector
yields
⎡ [ N , z] 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ [ N , zz] 0 ⎥
⎢[ N , zzz] 0 ⎥ ⎧{δ u}⎫
{δε} = ⎢ 0 ⎥ (6.50)
⎢ [ N ] ⎥ ⎨⎩{δφ}⎬⎭
⎢ 0
⎢
[ N , z] ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦
which is substituted into Eq. (6.47) as follows.
⎡ [ N , z] ⎡ [ N , z]
T
0 ⎤ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ [ N , zz] 0 ⎥ ⎢ [ N , zz ] 0 ⎥
⎪⎧ {δ u}⎪⎫ ⎢ [ N , zzz] ⎢ [ N , zzz ] ⎥ ⎪⎧ {δ u}⎪⎫
T
⎥
∫
1 0 0
λ ⎨ ⎬ ⎢ ⎥ [ D] ⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ dz (6.51)
2 L⎪⎩ {δφ}⎪⎭ ⎢ 0 [ N] ⎥ ⎢ 0 [ N] ⎥ ⎪⎩ {δφ}⎪⎭
⎢ 0
⎢
[ N , z] ⎥⎥ ⎢ 0
⎢
[ N , z] ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦
The geometric stiffness matrix can then be expressed as
⎡ [ N , z] ⎡ [ N , z]
T
0 ⎤ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ [ N , zz ] 0 ⎥ ⎢ [ N , zz ] 0 ⎥
⎢ [ N , zzz ] 0 ⎥ ⎢ [ N , zzz ] ⎥
∫
0
[g ]
e P = ⎢
0 [ N] ⎥
⎥ [ D] ⎢
[ N] ⎥
⎥ dz (6.52)
L⎢ ⎢ 0
⎢ 0
⎢
[ N , z] ⎥⎥ ⎢ 0
⎢
[ N , z] ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 [ N , zz]⎥⎦
The geometric stiffness matrix considering prebuckling deflections, [ g e ] P , is again an 8 by 8
matrix. The terms of [ g e ] P are then rearranged to their appropriate locations as shown in Eq.
114
7.0 SUMMARY
Lateral-torsional buckling occurs when a beam has a relatively small lateral and torsional
stiffness compared to its stiffness in the plane of loading, causing the beam to deflect laterally
and twist out of plane when it reaches a critical load. This load is known as the lateral-torsional
buckling load, or LTB load. A review of existing literature was presented to demonstrated
previous methods used to derive the LTB load, including the differential equilibrium method of
stability and energy methods. The derivations of the LTB load for structures with doubly-
symmetric cross-sections have been long discussed and readily available. Lateral-torsional
derivations complicated by the fact that the centroid and the shear center do not coincide in these
cross sections. The purpose of this study was to derive equations for lateral-torsional buckling of
structures with monosymmetric cross-sections, examine the validity of these equations using
approximate shape functions and comparing these results to other analysis, and use the finite
element method to obtain element elastic stiffness and geometric stiffness matrices that may be
used in future research, in conjunction with computer software, to predict the LTB load for
complex systems.
the theorem of minimum total potential energy. The total potential energy of the system is the
sum of the strain energy and the potential energy of the external loads. This theorem indicates
115
that the critical condition for buckling occurs when the second variation of the total potential
energy is equal to zero, representing the transition from a stable to an unstable state.
The energy equations in this paper are derived for cases both ignoring and considering
thin-walled structures that their effect on the lateral-torsional buckling load is negligible. This
assumption is only valid when the ratios of minor axis flexural stiffness and torsional stiffness to
the major axis flexural stiffness are very small. When these ratios are not small, the effects of
prebuckling deformations will significantly alter the LTB load and cannot be ignored. A non-
dimensional buckling equation is also presented for cases without prebuckling displacements.
The advantage of this form is that the solution can be transferred to other structural systems with
The validity of these energy equations for the lateral-torsional buckling of beam-column
paper. Suitable trigonometric shape functions for beams that are simply supported and cantilever
are used to compare the buckling results obtained from the present research to results obtained in
previous literature using the method of finite differences. The derived energy equations prove to
be accurate in predicting critical loads for different boundary and loading conditions, with the
degree of precision based on the ability of the shape function to predict the buckled shape of the
beam.
The finite element method is used to project the energy equations for lateral-torsional
conditions, and geometry. The expression for the second variation of total potential energy is
116
used to derive element elastic stiffness and geometric stiffness matrices for the structure. These
matrices can then be transformed to a global coordinate system for each element and assembled
so boundary conditions can be used to transform the structure from unrestrained to restrained.
The result is a generalized eigenvalue problem that will produce lateral-torsional buckling loads
for the structure. The objective is that future research can utilize these stiffness matrices, along
with computer software, to develop models of complex systems with monosymmetric beam-
117
APPENDIX A
12E I 2E I
y y
k = k =
11 3 26 L
L
12E I
6E I ω 6G J
y k = +
k = 33 3 5L
12 2 L
L
6E I
−12E I ω GJ
y k = +
k = 34 2 10
15 3 L
L
−12E I
6E I ω 6GJ
y k = −
k = 37 3 5
16 2 L
L
6E I
4E I ω GJ
y k = +
k = 38 2 10
22 L L
−6E I 4E I
ω 2G J L
y
k = k = +
25 2 44 2 15
L L
118
−6E I 4E I
ω GJ y
k = − k =
47 2 10 66 L
L
12E I
2E I ω 6GJ
ω GJ L k = +
k = − 77 3 5L
48 L 30 L
12E I −6E I
y ω GJ
k = k = −
55 3 78 2 10
L L
−6E I 4E I
y ω 2GJ L
k = k = +
56 2 88 L 15
L
119
A.2 ELEMENT GEOMETRIC STIFFNESS MATRIX
6F
g11 =
5 L
F
g12 =
10
1 ⎡
( −q) L − 7 L V 1 + 7 L P − 84 M 1 − 84 P z p + 84 y o F⎤⎦
2
g13 = ⎣
70 L
−1 2 1 1 1
g14 = qL − M1 − P zp + yo F
140 10 10 10
−6F
g15 =
5L
F
g16 =
10
g17 =
−1
70 L
( 34 q L − 77 L V 1 + 77 L P − 84 M 1 − 84 P z p + 84 y o F)
2
3 2 1 1 1 1 1
g18 = qL − L V1 + LP− M1 − P zp + yo F
70 10 10 10 10 10
120
2F L
g22 =
15
11 2 1 1 11 11 1
g23 = qL − L V1 + LP− M1 − P zp + yo F
420 5 5 10 10 10
1 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
g24 = qL − L V1 + L P− L M1 − L P zp + L yo F
210 30 30 15 15 15
−F
g25 =
10
−F L
g26 =
30
−23 2 1 1 1 1 1
g27 = q L + L V1 − L P + M1 + P zp − yo F
210 5 5 10 10 10
1 3 1 1 1
g28 = qL + L M1 + L P zp − L yo F
210 30 30 30
121
1⎡⎣13 L2 q a − 13 L2 q y o − 6 L2 q β x + 21 L β x V 1 − 21 L β x P + 42 F ( ro) 2
g33 =
35 L
1 ⎡ 2
+ 42 F ( y o) + 42 β x M 1 + 42 β x P z p ⎤⎦ +
3⎤
2
6
⎣ p
2 ( z ) 3
− 3 ( z p ) 2
L + L ⎦ P ( e − y o)
L
11 2 11 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
L q yo − L q β x + L β x V1 − L β x P + F ( ro) + F ( yo)
2
g34 = L q a−
210 210 28 10 10 10 10
1 1 1 ⎡
2 ( zp) − 3 ( zp) L + L ⎤⎦ P ( e − yo) ⎡⎣( zp) L − 2 ( zp) L + zp L ⎤⎦
3 2 3 3 2 2 3
+ β x M1 + β x P zp + ⎣
10 10 6
L
g35 =
1
70 L
(
2
q L + 7 L V 1 − 7 L P + 84 M 1 + 84 P z p − 84 y o F )
−17 2 1 1 1 1 1
g36 = qL + L V1 − LP− M1 − P zp + yo F
420 10 10 10 10 10
−3 ⎡
(−3) L q a + 3 L q y o − 4 L q β x + 14 L β x V 1 − 14 L β x P + 28 F ( ro) + 28 F ( y o) +
2 2 2 2 2
g37 = ⎣
70 L
1 ⎡
+ 28 β x M1 + 28 β x P zp⎤⎦ + 2 ( zp ) − 3 ( zp ) L + L ⎤⎦ P ( e − y o) ⎡⎣(−2) ( zp ) + 3 ( zp ) L⎤⎦
3 2 3 3 2
6
⎣
L
122
−13 2 13 2 1 2 1 1 1
F ( ro) + F ( y o) +
2 2
g38 = L qa+ L q yo + L q βx+ β x M1
420 420 70 10 10 10
1 1 ⎡
2 ( z p ) − 3 ( z p ) L + L ⎤⎦ P ( e − y o) ⎡⎣( z p ) L − ( z p ) L ⎤⎦
3 2 3 3 2 2
+ β x P zp + ⎣
10 6
L
1 1 1 1 1 2
L F ( ro)
3 3 3 2 2 2
g44 = L qa− L q yo − q βx L + L β x V1 − L βxP+
105 105 105 30 30 15
2 2 2 1 ⎡ 2
L F ( y o) + ⎣( zp ) L − 2 ( zp ) L + zp L ⎤⎦ P ( e − y o)
2 3 2 2 3
+ L β x M1 + L β x P zp +
15 15 15 6
L
1 2 1 1 1
g45 = qL + M1 + P zp − yo F
140 10 10 10
−1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1
g46 = qL + L V1 − L P+ L M1 + L P zp − L yo F
84 30 30 30 30 30
13 2 13 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1
g47 = L q a− L q yo + L q β x − L β x V1 + L β x P − F ( ro) − F ( yo) − β x M1
420 420 28 10 10 10 10 10
1 1 ⎡ 3
1− β x P zp +
6 ⎣( zp) L − 2 ( zp) 2 L2 + zp L3⎤⎦ P ( e − yo) ⎡⎣(−2) ( zp) 3 + 3 ( zp) 2 L⎤⎦
10 L
123
−1 3 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
g48 = L q a+ L q yo + q β x L − L β x V1 + L β x P − L F ( ro) − L F ( yo) − L β x M1 −
140 140 140 60 60 30 30 30
1 1 ⎡ 3
( zp ) L − 2 ( zp ) L + zp L ⎤⎦ P ( e − yo) ⎡⎣( zp ) L − ( zp ) L ⎤⎦
2 2 3 3 2 2
1− L β x P zp + ⎣
30 6
L
6F
g55 =
5L
−F
g56 =
10
−1 ⎡
( −34) q L + 77 L V 1 − 77 L P + 84 M 1 + 84 P z p − 84 y o F⎤⎦
2
g57 = ⎣
70 L
−3 2 1 1 1 1 1
g58 = qL + L V1 − LP+ M1 + P zp − yo F
70 10 10 10 10 10
2F L
g66 =
15
−79 2 9 9 11 11 1
g67 = qL + L V1 − LP+ M1 + P zp − yo F
210 10 10 10 10 10
4 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 2
g68 = qL − L V1 + L P− L M1 − L P zp + L yo F
105 10 10 15 15 15
124
1 ⎡
13 L q a − 13 L q y o − 6 L q β x + 21 L β x V 1 − 21 L β x P + 42 F ( ro) + 42 F ( y o)
2 2 2 2 2
g77 = ⎣
35 L
1 ⎡ 2
+ 42 β x M 1 + 42 β x P z p ⎤⎦ + ( −2) ( z p ) + 3 ( z p ) L⎤⎦ P ( e − y o)
3 2
6
⎣
L
−11 11 1 1 1 1 1
F ( ro) − F ( y o) −
2 2 2 2 2
g78 = L qa+ L q yo − L q βx− βx M1 − βx P zp
210 210 70 10 10 10 10
1 ⎡
( −2) ( z p ) + 3 ( z p ) L⎤⎦ P ( e − y o) ⎡⎣( z p ) L − ( z p ) L ⎤⎦
3 2 3 2 2
+ ⎣
6
L
1 1 3 1 1 2
L F ( ro)
3 3 3 2 2 2
g88 = L qa− L q yo − qβxL + L β x V1 − L βxP+
105 105 70 10 10 15
2 2 2 1 ⎡ 2
2 2⎤
L F ( y o) + ( ) ( ) ⎦ P ( e − y o)
2 3
+ L β x M1 + L β x P zp + ⎣ z p L − z p L
15 15 15 6
L
125
A.3 ELEMENT NON-DIMENSIONAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
k = 12 2
11 1 6K
k = +
34 10 2
π
k =6
12
2
−6 12 K
k = −
37 5 2
π
k = −12
15
2
1 6K
k =6 k
38
= +
16 10 2
π
k =4
22 2
2 4K
k = +
44 15 2
π
k = −6
25
2
−1 6K
k = −
47 10 2
k =2 π
26
2
6 12 K
2 −1 2K
k = + k = +
48 30 2
33 5 2 π
π
126
k = 12 2
55 6 12 K
k = +
77 5 2
π
k = −6 2
56 −1 6K
k = +
78 10 2
π
2
k =4 2 4K
66 k = +
88 15 2
π
127
A.4 ELEMENT NON-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRIC STIFFNESS MATRIX
6F
g =
11 5
−2 F
g =
12 5
6M V 6F y 6Pz
P 1 1 P o p
g = − − − + −
13 10 5 10 70 5 5
M Pz 2F y
−P 1 p o
g = − − −
14 140 10 10 5
−6 F
g =
15 5
F
g =
16 10
11 V 6M 6Pz 6F y
−17 P 1 11 P 1 p o
g = + − + + −
17 35 10 10 5 5 5
128
V M Pz Fy
3P 1 P 1 p o
g = − + − − +
18 70 10 10 10 10 10
7F
g =
22 15
4V 3M 3Pz 2F y
P 1 4P 1 p o
g = − + − − −
23 14 15 15 5 5 5
V 2M 2Pz 7F y
2P 1 P 1 p o
g = − + − − +
24 105 15 15 15 15 15
2F
g =
25 5
−F
g =
26 5
16V 7M 7Pz 2F y
3P 1 16P 1 p o
g = − + − − +
27 7 15 15 5 5 5
2V M Pz Fy
−P 1 2P 1 p o
g = + − + + −
28 21 15 15 5 5 5
129
2
p⎦ 2 ⎣ ( p )
⎤
+ 42 β π M + 42 β π P z +
1⎡
2 z
3
− 3 (z ) + 1 P (e − y )
2 ⎤ K
x 1 x p ⎦ o π
−1
g
34
=
840π ⎣ o x x 1 x ( o)
⎡(−22) P K a + 22P K y − 3 P β π + 42β π V − 42β π P + 336 r 2 π
+ 336 y ( o)2 π + 168β x π M1 + 168β x π P zp⎤⎦
( ) ( p) ⎦ ⎣( p) ( p) p⎦ ( o) π
⎡2 z 3 − 3 z 2 + 1⎤ ⎡ z 3 − 2 z 2 + z ⎤ P e − y K
1
+
2⎣ p
6M V 6F y 6Pz
−P 1 1 P o p
g = + + + − +
35 10 5 10 70 5 5
M V Fy Pz
−P 1 1 17 P o p
g = − + − + −
36 10 10 10 420 10 10
−3
g
37
=
140π ⎣ o x x 1 x ( o) ( o)
⎡(−3) P K a + 3 P K y − 4 P β π + 14β π V − 14β π P + 56 r 2 π + 56 y 2 π
+ 28β π M + 28β π P z ⎤ + ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1⎡
2 z − 3 z + 1⎤ ⎡(−2) z + 3 z ⎤ P e − y
3 2 3 2 K
x 1 x p⎦ 2⎣ p p ⎦⎣ p p ⎦ o π
130
( o) ( o)
⎡(−13) P K a + 13P K y + 6 P β π + 84 r 2 π + 84 y 2 π + 42β π M
1
g =
38 840π ⎣ o x x 1
+ 42β π P z ⎤ + ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1⎡
2 z − 3 z + 1⎤ ⎡ z − z ⎤ P e − y
3 2 3 2 K
x p⎦ 2⎣ p p ⎦⎣ p p ⎦ o π
M Pz 2F y
P 1 p o
g = + + +
45 140 10 10 5
V M Pz Fy
−P 1 P 1 p o
g = + − + + −
46 84 30 30 30 30 5
( o) ( o)
⎡13P K a − 13P K y − 3P β π + 42β π V − 42β π P + 336 r 2 π + 336 y 2 π
1
g =
47 840π ⎣ o x x 1 x
π + 84β π M + 84β π P z ⎤ + ( z ) − 2 ( z ) + z ⎤ ⎡( z ) − ( z ) ⎤ P ( e − y )
1⎡ 3 2 3 2 K
x 1 x p⎦ 2⎣ p p p⎦⎣ p p ⎦ o π
131
6F
g =
55 5
−F
g =
56 10
11V 6M 6Pz 6F y
17P 1 11P 1 p o
g = − + − − +
57 35 10 10 5 5 5
V M Pz Fy
−3 P 1 P 1 p o
g = + − + + −
58 70 10 10 10 10 10
2F
g =
66 15
9V 11M 11P z Fy
−79 P 1 9P 1 p o
g = + − + + −
67 210 10 10 10 10 10
V 2M 2Pz 2F y
4P 1 P 1 p o
g = − + − − +
68 105 10 10 15 15 15
132
2
⎤
+ 42 β π M + 42 β π P z +
1⎡
(−2) ( z ) + 3 ( z )
3 2⎤
P (e − y )
K
x 1 x p⎦ 2 ⎣ p p ⎦ o π
−1
g =
78 420π ⎣ o x ( o) ( o)
⎡11PK a − 11PK y + 3Pβ π + 42 r 2 π + 42 y 2 π + 21β π M + 21β π Pz ⎤
x 1 x p⎦
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1⎡
(−2) z + 3 z ⎤ ⎡ z − z ⎤ P e − y
3 2 3 2 K
+
2⎣ p p ⎦⎣ p p ⎦ o π
133
−6C E I
ω CGJ
k = −
p11 3 2L
L
6C E I
ω CGJ
k = +
p18 3 2L
L
CGJ
k =
p23 2L
−3C E I
ω CGJ
k = −
p24 2 4
L
−C G J
k =
p27 2L
3C E I
ω CGJ
k = +
p28 2 4
L
−C G J
k =
p36 2L
134
6C E I
ω CGJ
k = +
p45 3 2L
L
−3C E I
ω CGJ
k = −
p46 2 4
L
−6C E I
ω CGJ
k = −
p58 3 2L
L
CGJ
k =
p67 2L
3C E I
ω CGJ
k = +
p68 3 4
L
135
g =
1 ⎛ 5 L4 G J P − 15 G J L3 V + 15 G J L3 P − 180L I V E − 3 L4 I E P
13 ⎝ 1 w 1 y
4
10 L E I ( x)
3 3 2 2 2
+ 6 L I E V − 6 L I E P − 30 L G J M − 30 L G J P z − 360I E M + 30 I E P L
y 1 y 1 p w 1 w
+ 120I E L P − 360I E P z ⎞
w w p⎠
−1 ⎛ 180L I V E − 39 L4 I E P + 84 L3 I E V − 84 L3 I E P + 90 L2 G J M
g =
14 ⎝ w 1 y y 1 y 1
3
30 L E I ( x)
2 4 3
− 30I E P L − 120I E L P + 360I E P z − 14L G J P − 45G J L P + 360I E M
1 w w w p w 1
3 5 4 3 2 3
+ 60I E P L + 28L G J P + 90G J L P − 180L G J P z + 90L G J P z + 45G J L V
w p p 1
2 4 3 2 2 5
+ 240I E L P − 90L G J V − 180L G J M − 360L I V E + 60L I E M + 48L I E P −
w 1 1 w 1 y 1 y
3 3 4 4 2
− 120L I E M − 120L I E P z − 108L V I E + 108L P I E + 60L I E P z − 720I E L P z
y 1 y p 1 y y y p w p
− 720I E L M ⎞
w 1⎠
136
−1 ⎛ 5 L4 G J P − 15G J L3 V + 15G J L3 P − 180L I V E − 3 L4 I E P
g =
17 ⎝ 1 w 1 y
4
10L E I ( x)
3 3 2 2 2
P + 6 L I E V − 6 L I E P − 30L G J M − 30L G J P z − 360I E M + 30I E P L
y 1 y 1 p w 1 w
+ 120I E L P − 360I E P z ⎞
w w p⎠
g =
1 ⎛ 8 L4 G J P − 25G J L3 V + 25G J L3 P − 50L2 G J M − 50L2 G J P z
18 ⎝ 1 1 p
3
20L E I ( x)
4 3 3 2 2
− 180L I V E + 6 L I E P − 14L I E V + 14L I E P − 20L I E M − 20L I E P z
p w 1 y y 1 y y 1 y p
g =
1 ⎛ 360L I V E − 24L4 I E P + 72L3 I E V − 72L3 I E P − 60L2 G J M
23 ⎝ w 1 y y 1 y 1
3
60L E I ( x)
2 4 3
+ 60I E P L + 240I E L P − 720I E P z − 23L G J P − 30G J L P − 720I E M
w w w p w 1
3 5 3 2 3 2
− 120I E P L + 16L G J P + 120L G J P z − 60L G J P z + 30G J L V − 480I E L P +
w p p 1 w
3 2 5 3 3 4
P + 120L G J M + 120L I E M + 48L I E P − 240L I E M − 240L I E P z − 144L V I E +
1 y 1 y y 1 y p 1 y
4 2
+ 144 L P I E + 120 L I E P z + 1440I E L P z + 1440I E L M ⎞
y y p w p w 1⎠
137
−1 ⎡(−360) L I V E − 210L4 I E P + 528L3 I E V − 528L3 I E P − 60I E P L2
g =
24 ⎣ w 1 y y 1 y w
2
( x)
180L E I
4 3 3
− 240I E L P + 720I E P z + 65L G J P + 120G J L P + 720I E M + 240I E P L
w w p w 1 w
5 4 3 3 2 4
− 170L G J P − 240G J L P − 360L G J P z − 120G J L V + 960I E L P + 240L G J V
p 1 w 1
3 2 2 5 3 3
− 360L G J M + 720L I V E + 720L I E M + 660L I E P − 2160L I E M − 2160L I E P z
1 w 1 y 1 y y 1 y p
4 4 2 6
− 1632L V I E + 1632L P I E + 720L I E P z − 2880I E L P z − 2880I E L M − 480L I E P
1 y y y p w p w 1 y
4 4 5 5 2
+ 1440L I E M + 1440L I E P z + 1152L V I E − 1152L P I E + 2880I E L P z
y 1 y p 1 y y w p
g =
1 ⎡(−360) L I V E + 24 L4 I E P − 72 L3 I E V + 72 L3 I E P + 60 L2 G J M
27 ⎣ w 1 y y 1 y 1
3
60 L (E Ix)
2 4 3
− 60 I E P L − 240I E L P + 720I E P z + 23 L G J P + 30 G J L P + 720I E M
w w w p w 1
3 5 3 2 3 2
+ 120I E P L − 16L G J P − 120L G J P z + 60L G J P z − 30G J L V + 480I E L P
w p p 1 w
3 2 5 3 3 4
− 120L G J M − 120L I E M − 48L I E P + 240L I E M + 240L I E P z + 144L V I E
1 y 1 y y 1 y p 1 y
138
g =
1 ⎛ 360L I V E + 24L4 I E P − 48L3 I E V + 48L3 I E P − 40L2 G J M +
28 ⎝ w 1 y y 1 y 1
2
120L E I ( x)
2 4 3
+ 60I E P L + 240I E L P − 720I E P z − 37L G J P − 60G J L P − 720I E M
w w w p w 1
3 5 3 2 3 2
− 120I E P L + 24L G J P + 200L G J P z − 40L G J P z + 60G J L V − 480I E L P
w p p 1 w
3 2 5 3 3 4
+ 200L GJ M − 40L I E M − 48L I E P + 80L I E M + 80L I E P z + 96L V I E
1 y 1 y y 1 y p 1 y
4 2
− 96 L P I E − 40 L I E P z + 1440I E L P z + 1440I E L M ⎞
y y p w p w 1⎠
g =
1 ⎡(−5) L4 G J P + 15G J L3 V − 15G J L3 P + 180L I V E + 3 L4 I E P
35 ⎣ 1 w 1 y
4
10L E I( x)
3 3 2 2 2
− 6 L I E V + 6 L I E P + 30L G J M + 30L G J P z + 360I E M − 30I E P L
y 1 y 1 p w 1 w
− 120I E L P + 360I E P z ⎤
w w p⎦
g
36
=
−1 ( )
⎡ −L4 G J P + 5 G J L3 V − 5 G J L3 P + 15L2 G J M + 15L2 G J P z
⎣ 1 1 p
3
10L E I( x)
4 3 3 2 2
+ 3 L I E P − 8 L I E V + 8 L I E P − 10L I E M − 10L I E P z + 180I E M
y y 1 y y 1 y p w 1
− 720I E L M ⎞
w 1⎠
g =
1 ⎡(−120) L I V E + 61L4 I E P − 144L3 I E V + 144L3 I E P − 90L2 GJ M
46 ⎣ w 1 y y 1 y 1
2
60L E I ( x)
2 4 3
+ 30I E P L + 120I E L P − 360I E P z + 6 L G J P + 30G J L P − 360I E M
w w w p w 1
3 5 4 3 2 3
− 60I E P L − 12L GJ P − 60GJ L P + 180L GJ P z − 90L GJ P z − 30GJ L V
w p p 1
2 4 3 2 2 5
− 240I E L P + 60L GJ V + 180L GJ M + 240L I V E − 160L I E M − 72L I E P
w 1 1 w 1 y 1 y
3 3 4 4 2
+ 200L I E M + 200L I E P z + 168L V I E − 168L P I E − 160L I E P z + 720I E L P z
y 1 y p 1 y y y p w p
+ 720I E L M ⎤
w 1⎦
140
−1 ⎡(−5) L4 G J P + 15G J L3 V − 15G J L3 P + 180L I V E + 3 L4 I E P
g =
57 ⎣ 1 w 1 y
4
10L E I( x)
3 3 2 2 2
− 6 L I E V + 6 L I E P + 30L G J M + 30L G J P z + 360I E M − 30I E P L −
y 1 y 1 p w 1 w
− 120I E L P + 360I E P z ⎤
w w p⎦
g =
1 ⎡(−8) L4 G J P + 25G J L3 V − 25G J L3 P + 50L2 G J M + 50L2 G J P z
58 ⎣ 1 1 p
3
20L E I( x)
4 3 3 2 2
+ 180L I V E − 6 L I E P + 14L I E V − 14L I E P + 20L I E M + 20L I E P z
w 1 y y 1 y y 1 y p
2
+ 360I E M − 30 I E P L − 120I E L P + 360I E P z ⎤
w 1 w w w p⎦
−1 ⎛ L4 G J P − 5 G J L3 V + 5 G J L3 P − 15L2 G J M − 15L2 G J P z
g =
67 ⎝ 1 1 p
3
10L E I( x)
4 3 3 2 2
− 3 L I E P + 8 L I E V − 8 L I E P + 10L I E M + 10L I E P z − 180I E M
y y 1 y y 1 y p w 1
2
− 60L I V E + 15I E P L + 60I E L P − 180I E P z ⎞
w 1 w w w p⎠
141
−1 ⎡(−5) L4 GJ P + 25GJ L3 V − 25GJ L3 P + 75L2 GJ M + 75L2 GJ P z
g =
68 ⎣ 1 1 p
2
( x)
60L E I
4 3 3 2 2
− 12L I E P + 26L I E V − 26L I E P + 30L I E M + 30L I E P z + 540I E M
y y 1 y y 1 y p w 1
142
APPENDIX B
2 2
π K 1
A 11 = A 82 = +
32 32 8
2 2
81 π 81 K 9
A 23 = A 94 = +
32 32 8
2 2
625 π 625 K 25
A 35 = A 10.6 = +
32 32 8
2 2
2401 π 2401 K 49
A 47 = A 11.8 = +
32 32 8
2 2
6561 π 6561 K 81
A 59 = A 12.10 = +
32 32 8
2 2
14641 π 14641 K 121
A 6.11 = A 13.12 = +
32 32 8
2 2
28561 π 28561 K 169
A 7.13 = A 14.14 = +
32 32 8
143
*Only non-zero terms from Matrix [A] are listed.
144
B.1 MATRIX [B] FROM SECTION 5.4
1 3 5
B12 = − B22 =
16 2 2
4π 4π
−3 9 3
B14 = B24 = −
2 16 2
4π 4π
−35 5
B16 = B26 =
2 2
36 π 4π
−35 −91
B18 = B28 =
2 2
36 π 100 π
−99 −3
B1.10 = B2.10 =
2 2
100 π 4π
−99 −187
B1.12 = B2.12 =
2 2
100 π 196 π
−195 −91
B1.14 = B2.14 =
2 2
196 π 100 π
145
−11 13
B32 = B42 =
2 2
36 π 36 π
21 −51
B34 = B44 =
2 2
4π 100 π
25 3 45
B36 = − B46 =
16 2 2
4π 4π
21 49 3
B38 = B48 = −
2 16 2
4π 4π
−171 45
B3.10 = B4.10 =
2 2
196 π 4π
−11 −275
B3.12 = B4.12 =
2 2
36 π 324 π
−299 13
B3.14 = B4.14 =
2 2
324 π 36 π
146
−19 21
B52 = B62 =
2 2
100 π 100 π
5 −75
B54 = B64 =
2 2
4π 196 π
−115 85
B56 = B66 =
2 2
196 π 36 π
77 −203
B58 = B68 =
2 2
4π 324 π
81 3 117
B5.10 = − B6.10 =
16 2 2
4π 4π
77 121 3
B5.12 = B6.12 = −
2 16 2
4π 4π
−403 117
B5.14 = B6.14 =
2 2
484 π 4π
147
−27
B72 =
2
196 π
69
B74 =
2
100 π
−155
B76 =
2
324 π
133
B78 =
2
36 π
−315
B7.10 =
2
484 π
165
B7.12 =
2
4π
169 3
B7.14 = −
16 2
4π
148
B81 =
1
−
3 −7 β x
16 2 B88 =
4π 2
36 π
−β x βx −8019
B82 = + B89 =
16 2 2
4π 100π
−27 9βx
B83 = B8.10 =
2 2
4π 100 π
−3 β x −11979
B84 = B8.11 =
2 2
4π 100π
−875 −11 β x
B85 = B8.12 =
2 2
36π 100 π
5βx −32955
B86 = B8.13 =
2 2
36 π 196π
−1715 13 β x
B87 = B8.14 =
2 2
36π 196 π
149
5 21 β x
B91 = B98 =
2 2
36π 100 π
−3 β x −27
B92 = B99 =
2 2
4π 4π
B93 =
9
−
3 −3 β x
16 2 B9.10 =
4π 2
4π
−9 β x βx −22627
B94 = + B9.11 =
16 2 2
4π 1764π
125
B95 = 33 β x
2 B9.12 =
36π 2
196 π
−15 β x −15379
B96 = B9.13 =
2 2
4π 900π
−4459 −39 β x
B97 =
2 B9.14 =
900π 2
100 π
150
−11 −35 β x
B10.1 = B10.8 =
2 2
900π 4π
5βx −13851
B10.2 = B10.9 =
2 2
36 π 4900π
189 45 β x
B10.3 = B10.10 =
2 2
100π 196 π
−15 β x −1331
B10.4 = B10.11 =
2 2
4π 900π
B10.5 =
25
−
3 −55 β x
16 2 B10.12 =
4π 2
36 π
−25 β x βx −50531
B10.6 = + B10.13 =
16 2 2
4π 8100π
1029 65 β x
B10.7 = B10.14 =
2 2
100π 324 π
151
B11.1 =
13 −49 β x βx
2 B11.8 = +
1764π 16 2
4π
−7 β x 3645
B11.2 = B11.9 =
2 2
36 π 196π
−459 −63 β x
B11.3 = B11.10 =
2 2
4900π 4π
21 β x −33275
B11.4 = B11.11 =
2 2
100 π 15876π
1125 77 β x
B11.5 = B11.12 =
2 2
196π 324 π
−35 β x 2197
B11.6 = B11.13 =
2 2
4π 1764π
B11.7 =
49
−
3 −91 β x
16 2 B11.14 =
4π 2
36 π
152
−19 −63 β x
B12.1 = B12.8 =
2 2
8100π 4π
9βx 81 3
B12.2 = B12.9 = −
2 16 2
100 π 4π
B12.3 =
5 −81 β x βx
2 B12.10 = +
36π 16 2
4π
−3 β x 9317
B12.4 = B12.11 =
2 2
4π 324π
−2875 −99 β x
B12.5 = B12.12 =
2 2
15876π 4π
45 β x −68107
B12.6 = B12.13 =
2 2
196 π 39204π
3773 117 β x
B12.7 = B12.14 =
2
324π 2
484 π
153
21 77 β x
B13.1 = B13.8 =
2 2
12100π 324 π
−11 β x 9477
B13.2 = B13.9 =
2 2
100 π 484π
−675 −99 β x
B13.3 = B13.10 =
2 2
23716π 4π
33 β x 121 3
B13.4 = B13.11 = −
2 16 2
196 π 4π
B13.5 =
2125 −121β x βx
2 B13.12 = +
4356π 16 2
4π
−55 β x 19773
B13.6 = B13.13 =
2 2
36 π 484π
−9947 −143 β x
B13.7 = B13.14 =
2 2
39204π 4π
154
−27 −91 β x
B14.1 = B14.8 =
2 2
33124π 36 π
13 β x −25515
B14.2 = B14.9 =
2 2
196 π 81796π
621 117 β x
B14.3 = B14.10 =
2 2
16900π 484 π
−39 β x 19965
B14.4 = B14.11 =
2 2
100 π 676π
−3875 −143 β x
B14.5 = B14.12 =
2 2
54756π 4π
65 β x 169 3
B14.6 = B14.13 = −
2 16 2
324 π 4π
B14.7 =
6517 −169β x βx
2 B14.14 = +
6084π 16 2
4π
155
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