$ O W I N G RECURRENCES

Structure Page No.

9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Linear Homogeneous Recurrences 48
9.3 Linear Non-homogeneous Recurrences 52
( 9.4 Some Other Methods 57
Method of Inspection
Metl~oklof Telescoping Sums
A/Iet,liod of Iteration
Meth~dof Substitution
\,

9.5 Summary , 65

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In tlle two previous units of this block, you have studied about setting up
, recurrences &tld how td solve them by the use of generating functions. In this V .
unit we concentrat,e on other methods of findine solutions of recurrence
equat',ions.
To begit, with, we shall develop the gkneral theory for solving a linear
l~omogeneousrecurrence with constant coefficients. Following this, we shall
disc,:~ss some general theory for solving a linear nhn-homogeneous recurrence
whose ii~+$ornogeneouspart is a polynomial or a n exponential firnction. 'We
shall concludc tBe-unit by illustrating several techniques developed:for
solving recurrences wllicbmay otherwise be hard to solve by more standard
P
mcihods. We shall also lo k at examples of red-life applications of the
t,heory we discuss.
As you cau see, this unit is closely linked with Unit 7. So, please glance over
that unit again before going further.
Let us now clearly spell out the objectives of this unit.

0b ject ives
After reading this unit, you should be able to
r find the characteristic polynomial, equation and roots of a linear,.
.
I homogeneous recurrence relation with constant coefficients;
I
r solve any linear, homogeneous recurrence relation with constant .
, . coeAicients;
I.

/ r solve linear, non-homogeneous recurrences with constant coeffic$~lts when

the non-homogenous part is "either a polynomial or a n exponential
function;
0 solve recurrence relations by the method of inspection/telescopic
t
4 sums/iteration/~bstitution,wherever applicable.
E 47
a
 Recurrences
I 9.2 LINEAR HOMOGENEOUS RECURRENCE S
! -

You would recall from ~ d i 7t that the general form of a linear,

non-homogeneous recurrence of order k is
+ + + f k ( n ) ~ , -+~ g(n), n 2 k,
un = fL.(n)un-l f2(n)un-2 . . .
where each fj and g is a function of n. It i s ho~nogeneousif g is identically
zero, and non-homogeneous otherwise.
Now, let us assume that g is non-zero. Then, associated with the
non-homogeneous recurrence is the homogeneous recurrence .

which we get by simply setting to zero. the non-homogeneous part.

Let us concentrate on recurrences whose homogeneous parts are linear. You
know that the most general linear homogeneous equation with constant ,
coefficients is
U,= + + +
c ~ u , ~ --~. C ~ U , - ~ , n 2 k,
where the ci are constants, i.e., ci E O V i.
Related
'I
to this is an equation that we shall now define.
Definitions: The characteristic equation, or auxiliary equation, of the
linear, homogeneous recurrence (I) is the equation
k
Z - C I Z k-1.- C2Zk-2 - .!. - Ck-12 - ck = 0.
(2)
The roots of the characteristic equation (2) are called the characteristic
roots of (1).
The multiplicity of a characteristic root a! of (I) is the greatest integer
. m such that (2.- G Z ) is.a
~ factor of the characteristic
.-.
polynomial of (I),
i.e., of zk - c,zk-l - - - Ck.
+ a

Notice that the characteristic equatidn is simply obtained by setting the ~ t h

term of the sequence {u,) equal to zm in the recurrenoe, and simplifying.
For instance, the characteristic equation of the recurrence
u n + ~ = 2 u -un-,,
n n _ >2, is 1 '

z ~ =+22"~ - z"-~, i.e., z4 = 2z2.- 1.

herbf fore, the characteristic roots of tLis recurrence are 1 and -1, 'both ivith
multiplicity 2. I

Now, given the characteiistic roots of a recurrence, how do we solve it? As

jrou know from Unit 8; solving a recurrence means finding a sequence
{a,) that satisfies it, where a, is a function of n. Often if we can find such a
sequence, then we shall (somewhat carelessly!) say an is a soluticm.
Now, to try and understand how to solve recurrences like ( I ) , let us consider
the recurrence '
a, = 16q1-2.
. From Unit 8, you know that bits solution is of the form
an = ~ ( 4 ) t" B(-4)n, where A and B are constants. Observe that 4 and -4
a r e the roots of the characteristic equation, z2 "16, of the given recurrence.
Both these roots have multiplicity 1.
. Now let us consider the recurrence
a an+, = +4% - 8an-l.
 you cjn check that its characteristic polynomial is Solving R.ecurrences

k'
z3 - 2z2 - 4z+ 8, i.e., ( z - ( z + 2 ) .
So, its characteristic roots ar 2 (with multiplicitjr 2) and -2 (with
rnultiplidity 1).
applying the.tkchniques of Unit 8, you can also check that the general
solution of the give11 recurrence is
an = (Ao,+ A1n)(2), + Bo(-2)n,Ao,Al,BoE C.
We can ,write this as
an + +
= AbC(n, O)21 A;C(l.+ n, 1)2" BoC(n,O)(-2)",Ab, A;, B, E C .
Have these exarnples given you an inkling of the general form of the solution
of (1) in terms pf its characteristic roots? Match your conclusions with the
following theorem.
T h e o r e m 1: A sequence {a,) satisfies the linear, homogeneous recurrence
" relation with constant coefficients
U, = id^^^^-^ - + +
Cl{U,,-k7 n 1 k, ,

if and only if each a, is a sum of expressions of the form

+ + + +
boC(n,O)ar blC(l n, 1)af . . . b,,-,C(mi - 1 n, mi - 1)af +
where , a2, . are the characteristic roots of multiplicity ml, m2, .; , respec-
tively, and the bjs are constants.
Proof:. We recall from Theorem 1 in Unit 8 that the gencrating function,
U(z), of the sequence {u,) is of the form p(z)/q(z), where p and q are
polynomials with degp c g e g q, and q(z) = 1 - clz - c2z2- . . - ckzk
Now, - clZ]'-l - c2 zlc-2 - . . . - Cl<-lZ - cl<= (z - q)'"'
..
I-I
i

I
I - clt - c2t2 - . - cktk= n i
(1 - 1
where we put t = -.
z
I ~ ( 2 )
:. U(z) = -, where. q(z) = n(1- aiz)? &d deg p < deg q.
Y (4 i

So, using p a r t k l fractions, we can express U(z) as a linear combination of

<
terms of the form (1- cuiz)-j-l, where 0 j _< mi - 1. Since the coeficient of For j 2 0,
zn in the expansion of (1 - aiz):-l equals C(-j - l , n ) a r , i.e., C(j n, j)$, + c(-j,n)
the theorem follows. = (-l)"C(j + n - 1,n)
Note that each an in thc theorem is actually a finite linear co~nbinationof
terTs of the'form njan, where a is a characteriitic root of multiplicity m,
and Q 5 j 5 m - 1. This is because the binomial coefficients Cdj n, j) are +
themselves polynomials of degree j in the variable n. It is often easier to
expresa the solution in this form, as for instance, w h e n t h e characteristic
roots \are all distinct, i.e., of multiplicity one. In this situation, the
form of the solution sequence is
k
-

,where the a j s are the characteristic roots and Ajs are constants that are to
f
be deermined by the initial conditions.
8 .*
Let us look'at some examples of how Theo~em1 can be applied. While doing
SO,' let us see how the solution depends on the initial conditions.

~ k a r n ~1:
l e Solve the recurrence a, = 4an-2; where
a),ao = 4, al = 6
Solution: The roots of the characteristic equation of the recurrence,' z2 = 4,
are -+2. Thus, by Theorem 1, the general solution is of the form
a; = ~ ( 2 ) +
" B(-2)", where A and B arearbitrary constants.
a) Now, if a. = 4 and al = 6, then the general solution gives us
A + B = 4 a n d 2 A - 2 B =6.
7 1
'
.: A = - ,B = -.
2 2
So the solution is a, = 7(2)"' - (-2)"-'.
b) If a. = 6 and a2 = 20, the general solution yields
A + B = 6 a n d ' 4 ~ + 4=~20.
Since these equations are inconsistent, t h e r e is n o solution.
c) Ifa, = 6 , a 2 = 2 0 , weget
2(A-B)=Gand4(A+B)=20.
So, A = 4, B = 1, and the solution is
+
a, = 4(2)" (-2)".

In the example above you have seen bow important the initial conditions are..
You have also seer1 that sometimes these conditions can be such that no
solution is possible.
Now consider a second order linear homogeneous recurrence with constant
coefficieilts that you solved in Unit 8 by making use of generating functions.
This equation can also be solved by applying Theorem 1, as you will just see.
Example 2: Obtain the solution for the recurrence relation satisfied by the
Fibonacci sequence (see Problem 1, Unit 7).
Solution: Recall that the Fibonacci sequence {F,) satisfies

The characteristic equation, z2 - z - 1= 0, has distinct roots a = (1 &)/2 +

and P = (1 - &)/2. Therefore, by ~Keorem1, for some constants A and B,
F~= Aan + Bpn, n 2 1. (4)
This is the general solution for the recurrence (3).
As you have seen in the previous example, the values of A and B depend on
the initial conditions, i.e., the first two terms of the sequence.
Since +1 = Act + BP.
= 1, (4)
Since F2 = 1,(4) +1 = Aa2 + BP2.
Also, since a and P are roots of z2 - z - 1= 0,

So, we get
1 = A a 2 + B P 2 = A ( a , + l ) + B ( / 3 + l ) = ( A ~ + B P ) + ( A + B )= l + ( A + B ) .
+
Therefore, A I3 = 0.
heref fore, A(n - P) = 1, and

*** I
?,
i
Now consider an example in which no initial conditions are given.
 FJxnmple 3: Solve the sixth order linear, homogeneous recurrence relation Solving Recurrences

Solution: The first 'step is to identify the characteristic roots together with
their multiplicities. The characteristic equation is
z6+x5-11~4-13~3+26~2+20~-24=0 .
i.e.', ( Z - I ) ~ ( - +
z 3) ( Z 2)3 = 0.
Since the root 1 is of multiplicity two, the root 3 of multiplicity one and the
root (-2) of multiplicity three, by Theorem 1 we lcnow that u, is a linear
of the six terms
+ + + n, 0)3", C(0 + n,O)(-2)", C(1+ I)(-2)"
C(0 n, 0).l1', C ( l n, l ) . l nC(0
, 11,
+
and C(2 n, 2) (-2)",
(1 + n) (2 + n)
i.e., u, = a + b(1+ n) +c.3" +d(-2)"-te(l+n)(-2)"+f. .(-2)",
2
where a , . . . , f are coristanl,~which can be determjned if any six consecutive
terms (typically, the first six) of the sequence arc known. Since no initial
conditions i r e given, we can only simplify the expression 1;o the form
+ + + +
u, = A Bn (3.3" (D En -t ~ n ~ ) ( - 2 ) "where , A , . . . , F are constants.
*** *
So far we have solved Iinellr recurrence relations by using Theorcm 1. Now let
us solve a non-linear recurrence relation, by reducing it to a lincas relation.
\

Example 4: Solve the recurrence 3 5aa, where a,, > 0 i n d a. = 2.

Also find a,.

Solution: The given recurrence is a quadratic relation. ,But, if we put

b,'= a:', the relation becomes
b,+, = 5bn, b o -- 4.
From Theorem 1, you know that its solution is
b , = A(5)11,A a constant.
' Now, bo = 4 + A = 4.

.'. b, = 4(5)".
Since a; is the' positive square root of b,,
ih = 2(5)"12 for n 2 0.
:. a, = 1250.

Wlly don't you try some exercises now? +

E l ) Find the general solution of the recurrence relation

an = 3cl,-l.

E2) Determine constants cl and c2 such that the recursion

U, + +
c ~ u ~ c -~ u ~ 0 has the characteristic roots 1 f fl.
~ , -=

E3) Find the solution of the following recurrence equation satisfied by P:;:'
the number of partitions of n into two parts in non-increasing order:
a -I?,-,, n > 3 , P y = o , P ~= 1,P:= 1
p; = p:-, +.P,--,

In this section we have seen some .ways of solving linear homogeneous

recurrences with constant coeflicients. You have also seen lzow some
non-linear recurrences can be reduced t o such linear recurrences, and hence
Ir
solv&b.+L'ot us now see how to use what we have discussed here for solving
non-homogeneous recurrences with constant coefficients.
 9.3 LINEAR N,ON-HOMOGENEOUS
RECURRENCES
In this secti.on we shall look at some general theory pertaining to findink
solutions of equations like u, = +
3n5 ,- 2". More 'generally, we shall
stugy equations of the form
U, = + c ~ u , - +~ :. . +
C~U,-~ + g(n),n 2 k. (5)
~ o o k i nat~( 5 ) , you may wonder if the solutions of (1) and (5) are linked.
The following theorems tell us something about this.
I1
; Theorem 2: If (an}nto and {bn},go are two sequehces, ex11 satisfying the
non-homogeneous recurrence (5), then {d,,), with d, = a, -bn, n 2 0, satisfies
( the associated homogeneous recurrence (1).
, Progf: Since {a,) and {b,) satisfy ( 5 ) , and d, = a, - b,, for n > 0 we get
d, = a, - b,
= [clan-l + + Ckan-k+ g(n)]- [clbnVl+ .. + ckbn+ + g(n)]
= + - +~
* ~ d ~ - ~ ~ .

, This'shows that {d,) satisfies (I), i.e., we have proved the st,atcrnent.
I
I

Now, can you see how we can use Theorem 2 along with Theorem 1 to iind
I the general form of any solution of (5)? The following result explicitly
answers
.. this question.
-Theorem 3: Every solution of the recurrence (5) is of the form a, $ b,, where
A particular solution a, is any particular solution of (5) and b, is any solution of its associated
of (5) is any sequence . homogeneous.recurrence (1). .
{a)that satisfies (5). Proof: Let a, be any particGlar solution of (5). Now, Theorem 2 tells us
that t,he difference of any two solutions of (5) is s solulion of (I).'
So, every solution u, of (5) sztisfies u, - a, = b,, where b,, satisfies (I),
+
Therefore, u, = a, b,, where a, is a particular solution of (5) and b,, is a
solution of (I).
We have proved the two theorems above only for l i n e a ~recurrence relations ,
with constant coefficient. But they hold true in the general case also. This is
, what the following exercise is about.
,

E4) State and prove the analogues of he or ems 2 and 3 for general
recurrendes of the form
u, = fl (n)u,-l+ f2 (n)u,-2 + . . + f,$(n)u,-k 4 g(n), 1
where the fis and g are.functions of n. I

I
I I
-

In view oi the two theorems above, to solve (5) we must look for any o n e
I
solution of (5) and the general form of the solution of (1). Let, us consider
an example.
Example 5: Find the complete solution of the recurrence
a, = 3a,-l - 4n, n _> 1.
'
Solution: The required solution, as Theorern 3 says, is the sum ofikhe
general solution of a, ='3an-1 and any solution of the given recurrence.
. .
From E l you know that the general solution of an = 3a, is
an = b.3",
where b is a constant,
52
I

-
 NOW, let us consider tlle non-homogeneous part too. ire have Solving R,ecurren'ces
an = 3andl - 4n.
+
Let us sec if an can b e of the form An 13,A, B E C .
If it is, then
A n + B = 3[A(n - 1) + B ] - 4n = n ( 3 A L 4) - 3 A + 313.
Comparing the coefficients of n, we get
A=3A-4andB=3B-3Ar- .
i.e., A = 2 and B = 3.
+
So, a,, = 211 3 works, and hence is a p a r t i c u l a r solution of the givcn
recurrence.
So, the total solut,ion of the recurrence will be
+ +
an = b.3" 2n 3, b E C.
I

Ih the example abovc, we have obtained a particular solution by guess work.

In Inany cases we need i,o use such a n approacli. Unlike the hotnogeneous
case, there is no gencrd ind,llod to obtain a particular soluiion for a
non-liorr~ogcneousreci~rrc;lcci But there arc techniques available for ccrt,nin
recurrc;icc~,including Ilic onc given in Example 5. The following theorems
tell us about two special cascs.
T h e o r e m 4: A part,icular solution of (5) with non-homogeneous part an(',
where a is a. ltnowri ronstanl and d E N, is of Ihe form
+
i) A, -1- A L n4-A2n% . AA,,nd,'if
+ 1 is n o t a characteristic r o o t pf (5);
+ + +
ii) Ao~l'T' AI~i"'S1 . . A(,n'n-(-dlif 1 is a charact,c.risl,icroot of (5) with
inultiplicity m, ..
wllere A,, A, , . . . , A, arc constailts.
T h e o r e m 5: A particulss solution of (5) with non-lioniogeneous part as''
(where a is a ltrlowri const,nut) is of bhc form
i) Ar", if r is n o t a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r o o t of (5);
ii) Aiin'r", if r is a cliaractcristic root d (5) with inultiplicity rn,
whcre A is a, constant,.
We wid1 riot prove tliese results Ilerc, but shall look a t a few oxamples of toheir
use. Yoii rnny rccall llaving encuuntored soine of these examplcs in prc?vious
units.
43xarnple 6: Find t,hc soliltion bo tlic recurrence in Problem 3 of Sec. 7.2,
+ >
namely, L,, = L ,,-, n, n 2, with L1 = 2.
Solution: Obscrve thai, 1 is Ihc only dlnractcristic root of this rccurreiice.
So, the general soliltion to thc Iioniogcueous part of this rccurrcnce is simply
a.l n = a, wliwc 'n, is a constant.
Now, the non-homogeneous part of the recurrence is n. So, applying
Theorem 4(ii) with In = 1 and d = 1, we see that a particular solution of this
recurrence is of the forril
+
Aon A,n2, A,,, A, E C .
To find the values of A, alld Al, wc set L, -r A,n +
A] 1i2 iii the securrence
relation to get
Aon-t-A1ll" A,(n- 1) + ~ , ( n - l ) ~ + n
= (-Ao + A L )+ (A, - 2A, + l ) n + ~ ~ n "
Comparing the collstant terms and Che coeficicnts of 11, we get
+
'0 = -Ao A,, A, = A, - 2A1 1. +
\ Recurrences Now, taking the sum of both the solutions, we get
I
L,=a+
n(n 1) +
2
The initial.kondition L1 = 2 tells us that a =' 1, so that

***
.Example 7: Rani takes a loan of R rupees which is to be paid back in T
months. If I is the interest rate per month for the loan, what constant
payment P must she make at the end of each period?
Solution .: Let a, denote the amount Rani owes at the end of the nth
month, i.e., after the nth payment. Then the problem can bei;written'as
%+I = a , + I a n - P , 0 ~ n 5 T - l , a 0= R , a , = 0.
+
So, the homogeneous part contributes b ( l I)" to the solution, b being a
constant.
..
Using TheoreaS(i), with r = 1, we see that ,the non-homogeneous part
contributes A, a constant.
But then;putting a, = A in our recurrence relation, we get
+
A = A(1 I) - P +
A = P/I.
Thus, a, = b(l +I)" P/I. +
Then, a. = R + b + P / I = R + b = R - P / I
I + +
Also, 93 0 =%b ( l I ) ~P/I = 0
.: P =
+
IR(l I ) ~
I
[I - (1 I)T] +
***
I
Example 8: Solve the recurrence u, = aundl + c.an, n 2 1, where a and c
I
are known constants.
I
Solution: Using Theorem 5, we get

I I
u, = A.an + Bnan,
A and B being constants.
n
= a (A+Bn) for n 2 0.
I

***
Now, here are some simple exercises for you,

E5) Solve the recurrence Tn = 2Tn-1 + 1, n 2 2, with T I = 1. (see Problem

2, Sec. 7.2).

E6) The population of a species of snails in a certain lake triples every year.
Starting with 1000 such snails, and finding 1500 of them the following
year, 200 are removed from the lake to increase them in other lakes.
Similarly, at the end of every year 200 are removed. If a,represents the
I
snail population in the lake after n years, find and solve a recurrence
relation for a,, n 2 0.

Now let us ansider a result which tells us how to find a particular solution
for recurrences with non-homogeneous parts which are linear combi~lationsof
nd and r n , r a constant.
1

Theorem 6 (superposition Principle): If {a,) is a solution of

Un = CIUn-l +
C2%-2 + +
' ' Ckun-k +
gl (n)
and {b,) is a solution of I

I
 un = CIUn-1 + C2Un-2 -1 . . . + C~<Un-k+ g2 (n), ,Solving Recurrences
+
then, fo'r constant,^ A and B, Aa, Bb, is a solution of
+ + +
un = c l u n - ~ . . - + C ~ U , - I ~ Agl(n) Bg2(n).
Proof: For 112 lr, we have Aa, + Bb,
= A [ ~ , ~ n -+
l + Ckan-l< +
' ' ' + B[b,-, +.. + ckbn-k + g2(n)]
= c1 (A%-, + B b n - ~ ) + + ~ k ( ~ & n -+k Bb,-k) + {Agl(n) + Bg2(n)}.
This means that Aa, + B b , is a solution of (5) with g(n) = Agl (n) + Bg2(.).
In view of Theorem 6, we can combine the results of Theorems 4 and 5 to get
solutions of non-homogeneous recurrences like the following one.
Example 9: Obtain the general solution of the recurrence
v, - 7v;,-, + = 5.2" - 4.3", n 2 2.
Solution: Since there are no initial conditions and the equation is of second
order, we can only expect a general solution involving two constants.
To begin with, the homogeneous part v, - 7v,-, +
1 2 ~ ,=~ 0- has
~ the
2
+
characteristic polynomial z - 72 12,'i.e., (z - 3)(z - 4). Consequently, itis
geneid solution is of the form a.3" -I- b.4", where a, b E C .
Now let's consider the non-hornogencous part. It consists of two terms, one
of which is a power of orie of the characteristic roots. By Tlieorems 5 and 6,
+
we must set v, = c.2" dn.3" in order to find a particular solution.
When we do this, the recurrence relation gives us
+ + +
2n-2c(4 - 14 12) 3"-'d [9n - 21(n - 1) 12(n- 2)] .= 5.2" - 4.3". ,
2"-'(c - 10) = 3"-' (d - 12)
>
Since this equalit,y is true for every n 1, we see that 2"-l J ( d- 12) for every
n 2 1. This can only be true if d - 12 = 0, i.e., d = 12: This forces
c - 10 = 0 to be true, i.e., c = 10.
Putting all this information together, we get
v, = 10.2" + ( a + 12n)3" +b.4", whcre a , b E C . .

Let us go back to Theorem G for a moment.' Will the superposition principle

be true for linear h o ~ n o ~ e n e o u
recurrences
s too? Actually, it will, and we
have been using this fact quite a lot. Try and pinpoint where we have first
used it for such recurrences.
,
Here are some exercises now

E7) If the recurrence u, + +

clu,,-, -t C ~ U , - ~= an b has a general solution
+
u, = A.2" B.5" 4-3n - 5, find a , b , c l and c2.

E8) Solve the recurrence v, - 7v,-, +

l 6 ~ , , --~ = 2" + 3,, with the
initial terms vo = 1, v, = 0, v2 = 1.

So far we have seen how to solve (5) if g(n) is of the form an d , arn or a lincar
combination of terms of these types. There is one more type of
non-homogeneous part [,hat we shall discuss now.
Theorem 7: A particular solution of (5) with non-homogencous part andrn,
where a and r are known constants and d E N, is of the form
n
ij Ar (A o + A, n + .. +
~ ~ nif n~e i t)h e,r r n o r 1 a r e characteristic
r o o t s of (5);
ii) Anmrn(A, Aln ++ --
+ ~ ~ nif e~i t h)e r ,r o r 1 ( b u t not b o t h ) is a
characteristic root 01 (5) with multiplicity m;
 .-
Recurrences + + +
iii) Anml'"'~n(Ao Aln . . . Ac,nd),if.r and 1 b o t h are characteristic
roots of (5) with multiplicities ml and m2, respectively,
where A, Ao,A l l - . . , Ad are constants.
,

As before, we shall not prove this result, but shall show how it can be applied,
Example 10: Find a linear homogeneous recurrence with constant
coefficients for which the characteristic roots are 1 with multiplicity two(-1
with multiplicity three and 2 with multiplicity five. Further, assume that the
non-homogeneous part is a linear combinatipn of n ( _ l j n ,n2.2" and 3" plus a,
polynomial of degree three.
Solution: We wish to solve a recurrenve which has 10 characterjstic roots.' .
So, it is of the form I

% . is (a-1)2(z+1)3(z-2)51
i.:~.,- C I Z 9 - . . . - C9Z - C1O -
'where we know that the characteristic polynomial of the homogeneous part

(Z - I ) ~ (+z 1 1 3 (-~ 215.

So, by Theorem 1, the form of the general solution to the hornogeneo~~s
will be
part
I

(A,+Aln).l"+(B~+Bln+~2n2)(-l)n+(CO+'~ln+~~~+~4n4)211, (6).
where the As, Bs and Cs are constants.
i

Now, by Theorem 4, you know that the form of the particular solution
correspondjng t o the third degree polynomial is
n 2(D o + D16 + ~~n~+ D3113),wher,e the Ds are constants.
I;'roin Theorem 7 you know that the form of the solution corresponding to
bn(-1)" is n"-1)"(?Eo'+ ~ ~ nand ) ,to
+
+ Fin F2n2),where the Es and Fs are constants.
cn2.2" is 117.2"(~o
From Theorem 5, you know that the.part of the solution 'correspondi~lgto
d.3n is G.(3)", G being a-constant. '
Thus, the particular solution is of the form

'
' n2(~0+Dln+~2n2+~3n3)x+n5(-1)n(Eo-~E,n)
+J ( 2 " ) ( F 0+ F,n + F&') + G(3") '
1
Therefore, the complete solution is the sum of thc expressiorls in (6) and (7).
5
(7)

St*

Here's an exercise of'the same type for you.

E9) Find a recurrence relation with constalit coeflicients for which the
characteristic roots are 3 with multiplicity 1 and -2 with multiplicity
2. The relation also has a non-homogeneous part which is a liacitl.
combination of 2", n(-1)" and a polynomial of degree 2.

In this section we have considered some general methods for tsclclillg spekial .
kinds of non-homogeneous recurrences. While studying them yon would have
noticed that the solution af the non-liornogeneo~part is depc?ndent on
-whether a characteristic root of the recurrence occurs in this p,2rl;.
Now that you have studied this section and Unit 8, car1 you solve? all thi:
problems given in Unit 7? What about the 'divide and conqucrl problem'!
To solve this pr.oblern and other recurrences with n o n - h o r r ~ o g c n ~ o ~ ~ s
different from the ones looked at in this section, we need to look at some Solving Rec~irrences
other sblution techniques. Let us do so now.

9.4 SOME OTHER METHODS

In the previous section we have seen how to deal with two ltiilds of
non-homogeneou~parts of linear recurrences. There are many other kinds of
recurrences that we can solve by some special methods. We shall look at four
of these methods in this section.

9.4.1 Method of Inspection

- .
-
One simple way of solving a recurrence is to write down enough terms in the
sequence until one feels comfortable in guessing the solution. However,
unless the pattern of the sequence is fairly straightforward, it, is not easy to
make a good guess. Usually, if one has made a correct guess here, the
principle of mat8hematicalinductiorl (see Unit 2) can be used to prove the
guess. Let us consicier an example.
Example 1J: Solve, by inspection, the recurrence relation an = an-l + n!n
i f n > 1, 2nd ap = 0.
\

Solution: If wc compute the first five terms of this sequilce, we get,

0,1,5,23 and 119. Can you see what thc nth term might, be? Does adding
one to each term in the sequence help? Doing so would give us a sequencc
+
that you would recognise, i.e., (n I)!. So our initial guess is
a,, q ' ( n + I)! - 1.
Having done the initial work of making a guess, let us attempt t;o prove it by
using induction on n.
The base case is easy to check: so= (0 l ) ! - 1 = 0. +
If we are to assurn? the result fbr n = k, for some k 2 0, then
akrl + + +
= ak -I- (I< l)!(lt 1) = [(k I)! - 11 (k l)!(l< 1) + + +
+ +
= (k -t- I)!(]< 2) - 1 = (k 2)! - 1, as we hoped.
This completes the, proof by induction, and proves our guess.
***
Here's an exercise for you now. ;

E10) Use the method of inspection to solve the recurrence

b, = bn-l + +
4n" 6n 2 4n - 1 for 11 2 1 with bo = 0.

Let us now consider another method for solving recurrences.

9.4.2 Method of Telescoping Sums

This neat method is useful for solving recurrences of the form

k
U, = u,-, + g(n), particularly if g(n) easy to find. More generally, it
n=l
can be uied to evaluate sums of series and products.
This method is based on the fact that the sum of thc first N terms of a scrfes
whose nth term is of the form an - a,-, is simply
+
- "01 (az - a,) + +
-I- (aN-l,- aNA2) (aN- aN-l) = sN- aO.
In much Ihc same manlier, the product of the first N terms of a series with
nth term a,/a,,-l is aN/ao provided, of course, that none of the a,,'s is zero
 TT'llough t,his method appears easy, it is not often that this method can be
applied, and often not, easy to see how to use it even when it can be! Let us
sec a, few irlstitri[:e~of where it can be applied.

I
Example 12: Solve the linear recurrence
~:ir.ll(trltelesc,..!:>i,~g in a,, -- all -1 = Fn+2.-7,-1, 11 2 1,
arii~logjr\vi!,I L ~ . i , i : w1ler.c a. = 2 and .Fidenotes the ith Fibonacci 'number. .
tl~ic:i;uc:ssI)?: ;I (:iliil~j)s~d
tc?lescopi?,nrli!:::~ is the Solution: F'rom Example 2, yon know that
the
tlilLt:l.erir:cl hetxxe.:~.i.ltl 3,+,Jn.-, = (+,+I + F n ) (%+I - Fn) = 3:+1-
c~ut,esradius of t,he So, for n = 1,2,. .. , the recurrence gives us the following equations:
o~.~t;c~rznost t,ube end the
irmor l,a.diusof the
i ~ l n c n l ~ olube.
st

an - an-l = 3,2+1- 3;
On adding these equations, we find that
a, - a0 = F:+~- 3;2
~an=2+F:+1-l=.F:+lf 1

The next example should be familiar to you. Recall, from Sec.8.2, that
denotes the sum of the kth powers of'the first n positive integers.
Example 13: Compute uA,ui and a:, using t,he method uT t(!lcscoping
sums.
Solution: To find a;,
we sum both sides of the identity.
+ 2 +
(k 1)2- k = 2k I from k = 1 to k = n. On doing so, wc get,
II n n

(n + - 1 = C {(k + 1)' - k2) = 2 C k + C 1 = 2n: + n.

Let us now find 0: and rsi.

+
Summing both sides of the identities (k 1)3- k3 = 3k"f 31' + 1 and
+ + +
(k + I)$- k4 = 4k3 6k2 4k 1 from k = 1 lo k = n, we obtain

( n i - ~ -) 1~ = cn

k=l
{(k+ 1)3:k3} =3
n

k=l
.
1c2 3+
n

, k=1
k+
11

I(= 1
I

= 34 + 30: + n, and

= 4 4 + 6 4 + 40; + n.
From the first of these equations, and using the value.oS CJ-; f r o ~ nabove,
+
c: = n(n 1)(2n I)/&. +
Plugging in the values of D; and a: into the second ccluation, we now obtain l
+
a: = {n(n l)/2l2. I

*** )i
While going through thc example above, you may llavo Sclt t,h:~tthero is a I
I
much simpler method to compute CJ:.But the advantage of using t,elescoping I
sums is that it also works for computing ok for labger v:~lucs oE k, where the
simpler method does"not. I
I
Now you can try and obtain the general formula for n:, k 2 1.
I
 1
Solying Recurrences
~ 1 1Find
) a recurrence relation satisfied by the sequence arid hex?:'?
4
compute u,.

Let us now look a t Problem 7 of Unit 7, namdly, the nllrnher of

derangements on k symbols, dk.
Example 14: Solye the recurrence
d, =led,-, + (-l)k if lc> 2, with d, = O .
Solution: Loolcing a t the recurrence, it doesn't seem to be in the form in
which we can apply the method of telescoping sums to solve it. But we car1
alter it slightly to bring it into a suitable form. We simply divide each terrri
by k!, and get

Now we can apply the method since the terms are such that if wc wrile down
the eqliations from lc = 2 t o lc = n, and add them, most of 'the terms will get
cancelled. We will only be left with
n
(-1)lC
----
n! I!
I<=% lc=O
Therefore,

In the next example we see how 'telescoping products' can be used for
solving recurrences.
Example 15: Solve the recurrence a, = n3a,-1, n > 1,a. = 2.

Solution : Let us put lc = 1,2, . . . , n, in the equation

a = kc3.
&k- I
We get
'1 = 13

8
n - n".
an-1

-
Multiplying these equations, we get
a
"0
= (n!)3

an = qn!13.

The technique in the example above can be used more generally for
non-homogeneous recurrences of the lype
+
an = f(n)an-l g(n), where f(n) # 0 for all n.
Let us consider a n example of this.

Example 1G: Solve the recurrence u, = ~ u n - 1

1 '
+ -,n1! n 2 1,uo = 1.
 Recurrences . Solution : The homogeneous part of this recurrence is
n -
=1
-. Using the
n
method of telescoping products, we get
1 1 1 1
a n = n- n' -" -1= - 1 n!'
Now, suppose that the solution of the given recurrence is of the form
This method can be u, = anbn,where b, = 1. Then
applied here since 1 1
1
-#OVn>l. a,b, = -%-lbn-ln -
n! +
n 1 . 1
I
+
= anbndl 2, since a, = -4-1
n
1
1
+ b, =. b,-, + '--i = b,-, + 1, since a, =-
an n! '
Now, we can use the method of telescoping sums to solve the recurrepce
b, = b,-, +1, b," = 1. We get
b, = n + l .
n+l
Therefore, u, = anbn= - .
n!
***
Can you clearly spell out the steps we have gone through in ~ x a m p l e16? To
+
obtain a solution of the recurrence n, ='f(n)unPl g(n), the skcps arc:
S t e p 1 : See if f(n) # OVn. Only then can this method be applied.
Step 2 : Find the solution {q}for the homogeneous part of the recurrence.
SO,
% = f(n)%-lQn 2 1.
I '
S t e p 3 : Assume that the solution of the given recurrence is of the form,
, i U, = a,b,.

Then
--
anbn = f (n)an-lbn-l +-g&) ,
= anbn-1 g(n) +
. ' Therefore, b, = b,-l.+ g(n)/a, .
Here is where we use the fact f (n) # 0 V n. (Now?)
' Step 4: Solve the recurrence
bn = b,-, +
g(n)
- '
an
by whichever method you find 'suitablb.
Step 5 : Then the solution to the given recarrknce is u, = anb,,.
- -
Here are some exercises now. I

E12) Show that C(2ia,n) is a solution of Lbe recurrence

. 2(2n-1)
X, = X n - l , n '2 1%
n
E13) Use the method of telescoping sums and products to solve the .
recurrence a, = n3a,-l +
(n!)2if n 2 1 and a" = 1.

E14) Solve the recurrence a, = (n!n)a,_ n 2 1,a,, = 5 .

I
~ e bst now see how telescoping sums can be used efficiently lo sum an infinite I

series, Although this is not an example involving recurrerlcc relations, you

1 60 would get some idea of how this method can be applied to dif1crent problems.

lid*
E x a m p l e 17: Use the method of telescoping sums to sum the infinite series Solving Recurrences;
- 3 +L+-+...+
5
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5
7 2n+ 1
n ( n + l ) ( n + 2)
+ ...
I
Solution: The central idea behind telescoping sums is the expression of the
nth term as a difference of successive terms of a sequence. We would have
been able t o apply this had the nth term in this summation been a product
of only two terms in the denominator. But don't worry! Let us try and
extend the idea.
With three terms in the denominator, we first express the nth term as'a
partial fraction:
+
2n 1 --+
- 112--- 1 312
n(n+l)(n+2) n n+1 n+2'
Now, if ai denotes the it,h term of the series, then

-312
Since -
n
+ -1n + -
112
n
= 0, cancelling groups of such terms, wc get

Therefore, S = lim Sn = 514.

n-+co
***
Why don't you try some exercises now?

E15) By methotls of this sub-section, solve the recurrence

nx, = (n-2)xnV1 + I , n > 1, where xo = O . '

E16) Using the method of telescoping sums, prove the following Fibonacci
identikies

/.

1:
I
And now we shall consider another very commonly used method for solving I,
I

recurrences.
6.1 '5
1 I
 t Recurrences 9.4.3 Method of Iteration

Iterati011 nleaas 'to repeat'. In a sense, this is what we do in this method.

More precisely, we successively express the nth term un in terms of some or
all of the previous (n - 1) terms u!, ul, - ,. , u ~ - using
~ , the recurrence
equation again and again. While doing so, we try and find an emerging
pattern which can help us find un explicitly as a function of n.
To see how this-method works, let us look at an example.
Exainple 18: Solve the recurrence relation given by
u , = 2unal + 2" - I, where n 2 1 and uo = 0.
Solution: Replacing n by n - 1,n - 1 by n - 2, and so on in the
recurrence equation, we get
+
u, = 2 ~ , - ~ 2" - 1
= 2(2~,-~ -t. 2"-l - 1) + 2n - 1
+
= 22~,-2 2.2n - (1 2) +
+ +
= 22(2~,-3 2n-2 - 1) 2.Zn - (1 2) +
+
=i 823~,-3 3.2" (1 + 2 22)+

***
In the example abpve, we began with the recurrence relation and reached a n
i expresiion for thg nth term in terms of n. In principle this mefhod always
I1 wcirks. But, it is not always easy to apply because the computation can
sometimes get out of hand.
Why don't you try the following exercise now? You shouldn't hive any
difficulty & th'e computation. In fact, you may find it easier to solve by this
method than by the .method you used earlier.

1
E17) Solve the recurrence y = -u,-~ + -,n!1 n.> 1, with uo = 1.11~'tlle
"
methbd of iteration.

I
Let us now consider an example which.can be solved by iteration as well as
' \
by first solving the recurrence for ak jnd then summing thc series, Let us
1, : "solve it by using the former. method.
! >

Example 19: Sum the first p terms of the series whose kth term, a],,
I
+
satisfies the recurrence ak = 3&k-1 1, and whose initial l;crm, is a, = 2.
Solution: From the recurrence, wet fihd that

k=1
a = c 4 + (3a-,+
n-1

k=l
1)
n-2
= + (1+ 3 ) ( 3 ~ ~ ,+- ~1) + 1
k=l
n-3
= a k + ( l +a+32)(3an-, + I ) + { I + (1 + 3 ) )
k=l
n-4
= C a, + (1+ 3 + 3' + 33)(3an-4 + 1) + {f + (I + 3)
k=l + ( I + '3 + 3"))
62
 Solving H.ecurrcnces

. 3k-1
and l + 3 + . . . + 3 k - 1 = - .
3-1
5.3" - 3 - 2n

You may lilce to try and solve a similar problem now.

-

E18) Use thc, method of iteration to find the sum of the first n + 2 terms of
+
the series whose kt11 term, u,,, satisfies the recurrence uk = u ~ - k,~
and whose initial term is u1 = 1.

Now let us discuss the fourth inethod of this section.

So far we have seen scveral teckiliques for solving a variety of recurrences,

linear and non-linear. But there are some that defeat our eiitire arsenal. For
instance, we are ill cquippecl to handle even some of the simplest non-linear
recurrences and linear recurrences with non-,constant coefficients. It is in
some of these cases that we can call hpon a substitution to extricate
ourselves from this position.
The method of substitution is used to change the given recui-rence to a form
that can then be readily solved by one of the previously discussed
techniques. As you might expect, the hard part is io figure out what the
substitution should be. Let us see h w this method works through examples
related to 'the divide-and-'conquer relations.
,
Example 20: Solve i h e recurrence relatioil of Ptoblem 8 of Unit 7, namely,
\
=
a
.-, --a,,/2 + 1 for n = 2",k 2 l , a l = 0.
Solution: 'bet ._US put a2k= u , ~ .Then the given recurrence becomes
U k = Ul,-l + 1, Uo = 0:
Now, we. can apply the method of telescoping sums, to get the solution
11,~= u0+ >
n = n, i.c., a,, = n. i.e., a, = log,m for m 1.
***
Example 21: Solve the recurrence obtained by 'merge sort' in Sec. 7.4,
+ >
namely, a , = 2a,,12 n - 1, u = 2k,k 1, al = 0. .'
Solution : As in tlie pre+ious example, we put a,,, = uk. Then the
recurrence becomes
+
'uk= 2ukW1 2k - 1,Uo = 0.
Now, as in Exarnple 18, we get
+
U,, = ( k - 1 ) 2 ~ 1,
+
i.e., a 2 k = (lc - 1)2'< 1,
i.e., a, = (log, n - l ) n + 1.
***
Here are sorne recurre~icesfor you to solve now.

9) Usihg an appropriate substitution, solve the recurrence

Recurrences 11 -1 1
+ -, n > 1, where yo = 5.
Y.' -y-Yn-1

E20) Solve the recurrence t, = 3t,/:, +

1i2, t, = 2, by substitut,ion, and
specify for which values of n the conversion is valid.

Let us look at anbther example, one which makes it a riatursl candidate for
the substitution technique.
Example 22: Solve the second order, non-linear recurrence
x, = ( 2 G + 3 ~ )n 2 ~2: wit11 , tile initial co~lditionsxo = 1, = q.
Solution: Looltirig at the recurrence, you probably feel Ihal wc have not
developed the tools to solve an equation of this type. Le1;'s acc'if we c a n ,
transform this into a linear recurrence. Let,us malcc! tlle ~ubutit~ution
yn = 6 , n > 0. (Note that this substitution is valid because cad1 X, is
non-negative.)
The substitution does not quite make the recurrence liiica,r, but, at least it
gets rid of the square root symbol-Lhe problein now bcc,onlcs
~ 3 ~ , , , ~ )n~_>, 2, wit11 yo = l , y l = 2.
y: = ( 2 ~ , - f
Extracting square roots of e i ~ ~side, l l we now get,
Yn = 2~~1-1 f 3~n-21n L 2.
This is a second order linear recurrence with consbant c*c~c:fIicients,
illid (;all
bc solved by standard rnetliods discussed eilrlicr. Wc let~voit lo yo11l,o v(;rify
that the solution is
y,l' = A.3" $ B(-l)", n 2 0, for some confitants A , B.
Using tlle irlitial conditions, we further gel
A 4- B = 1 and 3A - B = 2, so that A = 3/4 and U = 1/4.

* $ *

As a final example, we look a,t n.not1ier ~loli-linearrur:ur.ronc:c wil,ll ~ L I I

.
expoile~itial-t,yperelation between the t c ~ ~ n s .
Example 23: Solve the recurrence givcri by x,, = >c; -, /x,1,C2, t,ogo!f,l~crwit11
the initial conditions xo = 1 and x,= 2.
Solution: Taking the logaritllrn to ariy convcnioilt, bas0 (wo i~rc:only going
to be dealing wit11 positive numbers in t l ~ i ssecllictnco afLcr all!) rc!ducc?s the
right side of this to a form wc c i ~ quile
r ~ casily llnntll(::
log:, x, = 7 logzx " _ -
~ 12 log2 x,,-2.
Now, let y,, = logax,,. The scquencc {y,,) snt,isiius t110 i.oc-llr.rc:Ilc:c?
Yn - 7 y n 4 + 12yr1-2= 0.
So its characteristic roots are 3 arid 4.
+
Therefore, y, = a.3" 1).4", n 2 0,a, b E C.
Now, the initial coriditions xO = 1 and xl = 2 yic!l(l yo == 0 il11(1 y , = 1.
Putting n = 0 and 1 in y, = a.3" -k b.4" gives s = -1,l) = 1.
Therefore, y,, = 4" - 3".
T ~ U S , x, = 2yll = 24n 0.
* * d:
Observe that Ilie choice of base in tho oxil,rnplo ;J)ovc! tloc!s l l o l , allor l l ~ efind
answer, as indeed it must nol,! Wc c2iose 2 1~c:causc:xu and x , arc, both
powers of two.
Now, for 'some exercises.
 Solving RecUmmres
E21) Find the solution of 6- 5 G + 6- = 0, n 2 2, where xo = 4.
and xl = 25.
5
+
E22) Solve the recurrence x, = 4n(n -- l)xnd2 -n!(an) for n
9
> 2, if x o = I
and xl = -1.
E23) Let {u,) satisfy the non-homogeneous recurrence
U, = +
~ ~ 1 1 c'u,-~
~ - ~ + c ~ u , - +~ c ~ u , -+~ g(n),
such that the associated homogeneous recurrence has
(z - 2)(z - 3) (2 - 412 as its cl~asactesisticpolynomial, and {g(n))
satisfies a fifth order linear homogeneous recurrence with constant
cocfficients whose characteristic polynomiil : - 2)2(2 - 3)(z - 5)'.
Determine u,.
E24) Let {v,) satisfy the second order recurrence

with bl , b2 and r as constants. Prove that the sequence also satisfies the *

third order homogeneous linear recurrence with constant coefficients '

+ +
having (z2 blz b2)(z- r ) as its characteristic polynomial.
E25) Let {x,),~, and (y~),>o be two soliltions of the recurrence
+
u,, alun-l -I- a2un-2 = 0, where al and a2 are constants.
a) Show that { ~ , y , ) ~ ,satisfies
~ a third order linear hornogeneous *
recurrence with co?istant coefficients.
b) Show that { x ~ , , ) satisfies
~ , ~ a second 'order linear hornogeneous
recurrence with constant coefficients.
E26) Assume that for positive real numbers a, b and r, there exists m E N
' such thkt (a -1bn)r
n < n! for n 2 m,

Using this, prove that there d o e s not exist any second order
homogeneous linear recurrence with constant coefficients satisfied by
the sequence {n!).

With this we have come to the end of this unit and block on recurrences. Let
us talre a quiclr look a t what we have covered in this unit.
I

9.5 SUMMARY

In this unit we have discussed the following points. I

I. The solution of the linear homogeneous recurrence with constant
coefficients,
+ + +
U, = c l u n - ~ C Z U , - ~a- C~U,_I(, n 2 k, ,
11
I
,!

-
where al,. . , a, are the distinct characteristic roots of this recurrence
11

with multiplicity t l , . . . , t,, respectively. I

2. The solution of a linear non-homogeneous recurrence

____ is the sum of bhe I
I

general solution of its homogeneous part,and a particud& ~olutionof the I

I
whole recurrence.
3. A particular solution of , I

U, = CIUn-l +
CZU,-~ - . . -I-Cku,-k f an d l n >k 65
1
I,
I
Recurrences is of the form
+
n m(A, k,n + + Adnd)
a

where rn 2 0 is the multiplicity of 1 as a characteristic root of the

equation, and the Ais are constants.
4. A particular solution of
+ + + +
un = c1u ~ -c ~~ u ~ . -. ~ c k ~ n - k axn
is of the form
Anmrn,
where m 2 0 is 'the multiplicity, of r as a characteristic root of the
equation and A is a constant.
5. A particular solution of
U, = C ~ U , -+ -+
~ .. +
c ~ u , , - ~ andrn
is of the form
nml+mzrn (A, + Aln + . . . + Adnd)
where ml 2 0 and m2 2 0 are the multiplicities of r and 1, respectively,
as characteristic roots of the equation, and the Ais are constants.
6. The methods of inspection and telescoping sums for solving linear
recurrences with constant coefficients.
7. The methods of iteration and substitution for solving linear rccurrerlces
with constant and non-constant coefficients.
.
9.8 SOLUTIONS/ANS WERS

E l ) The characteristic equation is z = 3. So the charactcrisiic root is 3,

with multiplicity 1. Therefore, the solution is
a, = bC(O$n,0).3",b E C,
i.e.,a, = b3=.
E2) The recursion u, clu,-, + +
c2u,-, = 0 has the characteristic: equation
+ +
z2 C I Z c2 = 0.
We also know that the roots of this equation are 1 i and 1 - i.+
Therefdre, from MTE-04 you know that cl cquals tho negativo or t h e
sum of its characteristic roots, i.e., -2, and cz is the product ol' these
roots, i.e., 2.
E3) The characteristic equation of the givkn recurrence is
~3 -z2 - Z + I = ( z - i)2(z+ I ) = 0.
. +
So, Pz = (an + b) c(-l)?, n 2 0, for some constants a, b, c.
- --
The initial conditions are a + b -'c = 0, 2a + b + c = 1 ancl
+
3a b - c = 1; Therefore,

E4) Statements: 1) If {an) and {b,) are two solution sequences of the
non-homogeneous recurrence
un = f1(n)un-l + fi(n>un-z +. . . + fic(n)q,-k g(n),+ (8)
,
then {c,) is a solution sequence of its associated homogeneous
recurrence, where c, = a, - b,.
+
2) Every solution of (8) is of the form a, b,,, where a, is a particular
solution of (8) and b, is any solution of its associated horriogerleous
recurrence
Un = fl(n)un-l + " ' +fk(n)un-k
(9)
The proofs are exactly on the lines of the proofs far thc 'consta.nt L
.I

coefficients'case'. . ' I .
E5) The characteristic root of the recurrence T, = 2T,-1 is z = 2. Solving Recurrences
heref fore, the general solution of the homogeneous part is
T, = a.2", n 2 1.
The particular solution to the non-homogeneous part is T, = b, by
Theorem 5. Plugging in this value of T, into the recurrence gives
b = -1.
Add'ing the solutions of the homogeneous and non-homogeneous parts,
and using the initial condition T1 = I, we get T, = 2" - 1, n 2 1.
E6) Here an+2- = 3(a,+, - a,) - 200, n 2 0,
+
i.e., an+2- 4an+, 3an = -200.
The solution corresponding to the homogeneous part is
+ +
a.3" b(l)", i.e., a.3" b, where a, b E C.
Now, -200 = (-200) (I)", and 1 is a characteristic root.
So, by Theorem 5, a particular solution is An, A a constant.
Putting a, = An in the recurrence, we get
+ +
A(n 2) - 4A(n 1) + 3An = -200 A = 100.
+
.: a, = a.3, b + 100n.
With a. = 1000 and al = 1500 - 200 = 1300, we have
+ +
a, = 100(3)" 900 loon, n 0. >
E7) The recurrence u, + C,U,-~ + c,u,-~ = 0 has the characteqktic
equation a 2 + cla + c2 = 0. From the given solution we see that its
roots are 2 and 5.
Therefore, cl = -(2 + 5) = -7 and c2 = 2 x 5 = 10.
Now, setting the given particular solution u, = 3n - 5 in the given
equation, we get ,4

+
(3n - 5) - 7(3n - 8) lO(3n - 11) = an b. +
heref fore, a = 12 and b = -59.
E8) The recurrence v, - 7vn-l +
l 6 ~ , --~ l2v,-, = 0 has the characteristic
+
equation z 3 - 7z2 162 - 12 = 0, i.e., (z - 2)2(z- 3) = 0.
SO, V, = ( a n + b)2" +c.3", n 2 0, for some a,b,c.
The paticular solution is of the form v, = An22" Bn3n. +
Therefore, the recurrence reduces to

Solving this, wE.get A = -1, B = 9.

+ + +
Therefore, v, = (-n2 a n b)2" (9n c)3", n 0. + >
The initial conditions lead to the equations .
+
b + c = 1,2(a b - I) + 3 ( c + 9) = 0 and 4 ( 2 a + b - 4) 9(c + + 18) = 1.
Solving these equations we get a = 7, b = 42 and c = -41.
+ + +
Therefore, v, = (-n2 7n 42)211 (9n - 41)3", n 0. >
E9) We know that 3 and -2 are the only characteristic roots with
multiplicity 1 and 2, respectively. Therefore, the solution corresponding
to the homogeneous part is ..
A.3n + (Bn + C)(-2)". j

The non-homogeneous part of the recurrence is

a.2" + bn(-l)n + (cn2 + d n + e), a, . , e are constants.
Therefore, the solution corresponding to this part is
D(2,) + (-l)"(Eo + E,n) + ~n~ + Gn + E.
The complete solution is the sum of the two solutions.
 1 Recurrences E10) Since the first few terms of the sequence are Q, 1,16,81,. . ., ii; is
reasonable to guess that b, = n4 for n 2 0.
Let's check this guess by induction.
Now, this gucss is correct for n = 0 and n = 1.
Let's assume that it is true for n - 1. Now
+
n 4 = (n- 1)4 (4n3 - 6n2 +4n - 1) for n 2 1.
So, the principle of mathematical induction proves our guess.
E l l ) Summing both sides of the identity

(j + I ) ~ " - jk+' = x
r=O
k
C(k + 1,r)j1 from j = 1 t o j = n, we get the
recurrence equation

r=O
111particular, k = 4 gives

r=O
Therefore,

E12) Method 1: Since C(2n, n) z - (2n)! = 2(2n - 1) (2n - it follows

'a!
(n!)2 n [(n - 1)!]2'
that C(2n, n) is a solution of the given recurrence.
n n
I1
I Method 2: x, = xo fl xk/xk-, = xo 2(2k - l ) / k
:I
I' k=l k=1
t

t
%
= xo2"[1.3.5...(2n - l)]/n! = xo (2n)!/(n!)2, n > 0.
I '
E13) Let us apply the technique of Example 16. We can do;so, since
I
I
I ,I n3#0Vn21. '
From Example 15 we know that the solution to the homogeneous part is
I
I
+ un = uo (n!)3.
j' I Suppose the solution of the given recurrence is
f, I

/ I ,
a, = SV,, where %vo = 1.
i 1 Then unvn = n3'un-lVn-l (n!)2 +
1; - +
1 1 1 i

* 1 1
* v, = vn-1 + -.-
U*V,-~

I u,, n!
Now applying telescoping sums, we get
1 f
j
,I:f i + ?
:, ,
i
1
,
;
a Yn = v o +'
"Uo
(ei)k=l
I I ?
Then the solution of the recurrence is
j', 68
11
IJ
 Solving Recurrences

E15) Multiplying by n - 1 reduces this recurrence to

~ n - 1, n
n(n - l)xn - (n - l ) ( n - 2 ) ~ , - = 1. >
Substituting dn = n(n.- l)xn, we get
dn - dnWl= n - l , d o = 0.

E16) For convenience, let us define Fo F2- Fl = 0.

r~ n

103 03

d) C
k=2
LFk/ (6c-1 Fk+I 11 =
.
k=2
( ~~~1 -
= lim {(Fcl+F;l)
I1+ W
- (F;' +F;:~)} = 2.
03 00

e) C
k=2
(Fk-1 Fk+l)--l =
k=2
{ (6<-1 ~k 1-I - ( ~ &+I
k )-I 1
= lirn { (F1& ) - I - (.T,Fn+l )-l } = 1.
n+m
E17) Repea1;edly replacing n by n - 1, we get
1 1
Un = - +-n!

E18) By the iteration method, we have

 Recurrences

E19) Rewriting the recurrence in the form ny, - (n - l ) ~ , =

-~1, suggests
, the substitution x, = ny,, n 2 1. The recurrence then reduces to the
I form x, - x,-~ = 1, and telescopes to
i
i
1
!
xn - Xo = 5
k= 1
(xk- x k - ~ =
) n.
Therefore, x, = n and yn = 1 for n L.1.
I
E20) n has to be of the form 2k for the recurrence to be valid.
Now, lek us put t2k = uk in the recurrence. Then it reduces to

The solution of the homogeneous part is u, = A.3".

The sBlution of the non-homogeneous part is u, = 13.2~"= B4".
Putting this in the recurSence, we get B = 4. I

+
:. u, = A.3" 4"$'.
Now, using the initial condition, we get A = -2.
:. u, = (-2)3" +
4nS1. ' I
.: t,, = (-2)3, + 2'("+').
+
E21) Let y, = G.Then, y, - 5 ~ , - ~ 6 ~ , -=~0 has the characteristic
roots 2 and 3.
So y, = a.2" + b.3", for some a, b.
Since yo = 2 and yl = 5, a = 1 = b.
+
Therefore, x, = y: = (2" 3"12 for n 2 0.
E22) The term n! of the non-homogeneous part provides us with the hint
that we should divide both sides by n!. If ye do, we get
5
yn -4yn-, = - x 3", n 2 2, with yo = l , y l = -1, where y, = x,/n!.
9
Since the homogeneous part of this has the characteristic polynomial
z2 - 4 = 0, it follows that
Yn = a.2n+ b(-2), +c.3,, n 2 0 , for some a,b,c.
t ' Inserting this value into the recurrence gives c = 1, while the initid
+ + + +
conditions give rise to a b c = a b 1 = 1 and
+ +
2a - 2b 3c = 2a - 2b 3 = -1, solving which we get a = 1, b = -1.
+
Therefore, x, = 32" - (-2)" 3n)n!1n 2 0.
1 '
1 E23) Write u, as a sum of its homogeneous solution, u , ( ~ ) ,and particular
solution, u,(P). Then,
1 + + +
u,(~)= a1.2"l 3 .3, (a3 a4n)4n,ai E C 'd i.
!!!

1. i + + +
Since g(n) is of the form (A + ' ~ n ) 2 " C.3" (D En)5", the form
I . that the particular solution takes is
4E
I

70
+ + + +
up)= [A,n (b, b,n)n]2" Con.3" D0.5" (E, E1n)5l1+ +
A
 = (Aln + +
~ ~ n ~ ) Con.3"
2 " + Do.Sn+ (ED+ Eln)5", where the capital ' Solving Recurrences
letters are constants.
Therefore, un = uih) + u p ) .
E24) Let r,, r2 be the roots of the characteristic polynomial
+ +
z2 blz b2 = 0. Then
+ +
airy a2r; crn if rl, r2,r are all distinct,
+ +
(al cn)ry a2r5 if r = r l # r2,
+ +
(a bn)ry crn if rl = r2 # r ,
+
(a bn'+ cn 2 )r n if rl = r2 = r.
In any of these cases, the characteristic polynomial of the linear
homogeneous recurrence with constant coefficients satisfied by {v,) has
roots rl, r2 and r, not necessarily distinct. In other words, this
+ +
polynomial is (z - rl) (z - r,) (z - r)' = (z 2 blz b2)( Z - r).
+
E25) Let z2 alz + a2 = (z - a ) ( z - P).
If a # p, x, = A a n + BPn and yn = Ca n + Dpn for some constants
>
A , B , C , D and all n 0.
+
If a = p, x, = (A Bn)an and y,, = (C + Dn)an for some constants
A,B,C,D and all n 0. >
a) So, if the roots are distinct,
+ + +
xnyn = AC(a2)" (AD BC)(ap)" B D ( ~ ~ )n" , 0. >
So, (xnyn) satisfies a third order linear homogeneous recukrence
with constant coefficients and distinct cl~aracteristicroots a2,a@
and P2.
More explicitly, the characteristic polynomial is
(z- a2)(z'--@)(z - p2) = z3 - (a: - a 2 )z 2 +a2(a: -a2)z - a:,
and the recurrence relation is
Vn - (a: - a2)vn-1 +a2(a: - a2)vn-2 - aivn-3 = 0. ,
If the roots are equal,
+ + +
xnyn = A C ( ~ ~ ) "(AD ~ C ) n ( a ~ ) "~ ~ n ~ ( c rn ~2)0." ,
So {xnyn) again satisfies a third order linear holnogeneous
recurrence with constant coefficients and the characteristic root a2
of multiplicity three.
More explicitly, the characteristic polynomial is
+
(z - a 2 ) 3 = z3 - 3a2z2 3a;z - a$,
and the recurrence relation is
V, - + 3a;vnd2 - = 0.
b) In this case, if the roots are distinct,
+
x2,, = A(a2)" ~ ( p ~ )n" 1 , 0, and {x2,) satisfies a second order
linear homogeneous recurrence with constant coefficients and
distinct ch+racteristic roots a2and P2.
More explicitly, the characteristic polynomial is
+
(Z - cr2)(z - p2) = z2 - (a: - 2a2)z a,; and the recurrence
relation is
W, - (a: - 2a2)wn-l +
2q$wn-2 = 0.
If the roots are equal,
+
xZn= (A 2Bn)(a2)", n 2 0,
and {x2,) again satisfies a second order linear hdmogeneous
recurrence with constant coefficients and the cliaracteristic root a2
of maltiplicity two. ,

More explicitly, the characteristic polynomial is

(z - 'a2)2 = z2 - 2a2z a;,+
and the recurrence relation is
+ 2
W, - 2 8 2 ~ n - 1 a2Wn-2 = 0.
Recurrences E26) If the sequence {n!) is to satisfy a secorid order ho~nogeneouslinear
recurrence with constant coefficients, ils nth term must be of the form
az$ + a,r; for some al, a2 provided rl # r2, or of the form (a + bn)*n
for some a, b.
If r, # rz, lalri' + 5 Ialllrlln + lazllr21n 5 (1% 1 -t lazln)rn, where
r = m=(lrll, Ir21).
+
So, in either case, n! 5 (A Bn)a n , n 2 0 for some posilive A, B alld a ,
and this is a contradiction to our supposition.
 REGIONWISE LIST OF SlTr)Y CENTRES FOR RSc. P R O G R W

SLVo. Centre CDde Centre A d d m

1. WYDERhBAD REGJON(Andhrn Pmdcnh)

1 0102 V R Cdlegr, NeUore-524 001. ,indhn Prr*r6
2 0103 lCBN College. Kothapn. Vljqawada-520 001. h d h n Rdesh
3 0111 Aorora'a DFgrea College, Hydcrnbd-500 020,
Andbn Prdub
2. C L W W T I R!ZGION(hsam. A r u d d P d a b B S i W )
4 MI Guwahd U n ~ v c n ~ tGuwahau-T81
y, 014, h u m .
5
6
7 Wry P!
z: Bighorn Mnhavidl;alaya B c q p g m - 7 8 3 380. Guwab.cl
Hendique Cnrk Collcgc. Guaaban-781 100. A w m
G m .Scienffi Coll~xe,JorhaI-705 01 0, Auam
8 011 1 Blyali Collcgc. Pahsda. P d h d a P 0 . Barpctn Dmnct-T8 1 325,
h m
9 0116(D) h b m j Roy Colleqe; Gola@ P G. Golagha-785 62 I. h a r m
10 0119 Lakbimpur Gris College, 13lclman P . 0 , Sorth L-.X 931. b s s m
II 2101 Sikk!m Gort CoUe& T d m g G m ~ k - : ; i 102. SlkPin
3. PATNA REGION (Bihar)
13 0501 Vamjye MahJvidyalay. Pama Unwtnir)., Pal3I-SOC X5. B l h r
p m a Science Collegc. Pam4 War).
13 0.2W B IcS. B h r LTni\mity LlBan, Z M m - p i - g i 2 IN! B b r f i C ~ Z o I l r p ~
X l d a r p u r , Dihmr).
I4 050.2 b l m n r i CoUgcCT.bf.Bbngnlplr Cmvcrsltyj, Bhagdpur-8 I2 007. Blhar
1 0508 Purcna Coll~%cPurncb8SJM1. b r
16 05M Rqmdra CoUcge. C.%pr&Ul 301. Blbnr.
17 05 15R Bdika Vidyapsetb L&sw-811 31 1. Dllur.
18 0521 Sin& Collegc. P.O. Sindri-828 13: Dhanbad Blbmr.
19 0512. C ht College, Glaghrt. Darbbangk B h r
30 053 Bihar Nadrnd Collcgc. Patm-SW IXY. B l b r
21 05LT kIphila CoUcgc. Chdbmn, P.O. Cha~ba~a-833 201. Dm Kcst
S&bh=
- 3-

23
uj28D
0529
Wr
St. Columhm College, P 0 College M o q H m b a g h - 8 2 5 30 1
Anuwah Narsyan College, B m g Road Pntn~-8lN111:
4. DELI-II RECION(1) (South and W e d R q h , Guqmn. F a d d a b d and Matbun)
2-1 0707 M a c , J w n blilvlill~aIslarma I r m a Nqnr, New Delhi-l 10 025
Y 071 1 CTargi Colleg. Slri Forl Road, New Ikrm-110 019
3 .
;b 0715 . 4 c b q a Nnrcndrn Dev College. Wkajl. New Drlhl-l 10 019.
5. DELHl REGION(?) (Norih and East R q l o n I n c l ~ .Urnrut, g .Madinngar r n l Chrzhbmd DM- of U l b r P n k h )
27 0 72 X Rhhsknrnchnryn CoUcgc of Appl~cdSc~cnrp.Vccr Savarku Cornpleq husa
Ncw Delhl-110 012
?B 0729 K a l ~ n dCollege.
~ East Pard N a g s , Ken 1Zcihl- I10 %lX
29 27-13 Lajpat Rai (P.G.) l:ollcgc, Sdh1bnbad.2Ol OC5. L t ' r PndPsh
6. .UDIKII.-\HAD REGION (Cujnrmt, Oarnun R: Diu, h d m & Nuptr Havcli)
30 090 1 L.D. Arb Collcgs. IrI3vrangpurq h . . e d n b d - 3 8 0 &i9,GujanL
31 0902 General Education Buildin& h1.S. Un~;crsi&, Vad,d,ua-3W 002. GuJarat
32 (r31k; JD Thacker Commerce Collcy~,Dhuj-371) 001 ,Guja:lt (L.alw Collcgu.
l>I~uj, Gujnr~tj.
33 N/IIO Kcw rrog~cssivcI<ducali~ln7'rus1,hlch;1n,1-384lrc12, GuJarnl
1 1 2 ( I j Sl~rceCintl~rViJyslaya,PIt?I No 910, GUJC E s t n t e , r L ~ t l ~ s h r v ~ , G u J n r ~ t
35 CrY2XiRj Naliorl:~l[n.;lit~~lc for kl;magen!cnt dnd InB1rm~ti~\nTcc~oloy)fi'L\11T)
C/o Paras Ad, Jan:i;itt3 Pras, Kajkor-5
36 200 1 Clo\l Arls Collegc. I>.unnn and DIUW.T. j-396 2 I O
7. KAKNrll. REGIIIS (llxrysnx nnd I'ur~J:rl))
7 -l hfutanntlld! Nationd Collega. Yynuna Sq~r.13.501 1 , F l u r y a n ~
1OOI
IrlclS Chhuru R m Collcpc oCEducJlio& Rohuk-124 001, H ~ r y r n r
(All I d i n Jat Hcnxs Mcmorial Collcge, Roh3k H r q a n n j .
39 loox G a l . College ( G u h Wing), Scctor-14, Ruln.ay R o d Kamnl-132 021,
lltlyna
4n 1003 Clo\t PP.G College, Himar-13 001, H.QBN.
4I Ill!? h l d a n d a Sation31 College, S M s b a 4 KuluLshctra I L r ) a n a
42 1013 Government P.G. College, Jind-126 102, )I#r)ma
43 2217l D A]'. College. Jnlaqdhiu. 1 4 W8, Punjab
B. SlIL\fl.A REC20S(TUn~rcl1ulI'radoh and C h a n d i p r h )
4-4 1101 Goven~mcntB q i College, Sanjaul~Sbynld-171 LY)6,
~ l i o u c bPl n d e r h .
45 I 105 Gor-cmmcnl Collegr D h ~ u m h a l a - l 7 6215, H h K h d P n d s b .
46 !Ii3 Gar?. P G Collrgc* BBil=pur-17.1Wl. H l m n c h ~Pl m h h
47 I1 iS G m t . Degree Collcgc, Rccong Pcm, KnmwD u r , H i d d P d n h
9. J . L U I U REGIOS(JLK)
48 1301 Cnivcnity of Jammu, Deputnml of hlanagmzmt %t%
lammu Tawi-180 001. Jk K.
(Gmdhi bltmorial Science Collqe, J m u Taw, J&K).
49 1206 Go\% D e p x College, Wua,Jkli
50 1207 h t . Degree CoUegq Rajouri. J & l i
51 1Zifl Govl. Degroc CoUegc, Pwncb. JkK.
52 15 P ) G d h hLmDnal Collcgc, Crmp R a w , B d a b . J~nmu-181123, J&K
10 E A Y G U R P . R . E C I O . ~ L d . Ca)
53 08 02 Dbcmpc College a f h & Sciencq P.O.Bm S0.22Panlim.
C . m 4 3 001
5-4 ljU3 I S.S. CoUcgc I>hmwd-580DOJ,K a n n h h
55 1320 k t . Seicna College, Rod, B+mSGO MI, K u n r b h
11. C I X l E i RECIO.S(licrrl. d ~ . h h & w p )
-% 1401 of- in Goy V U U Bbrv+n. M a r a ~ l a ~ k 6 - 6 033. 95
K r t l b (L'niWrty CoUcge. W aK d a i
57 1u 1 3 J.D.T. Islam. C W 4 l 3 018. Kmk.
ES IA i l Caiholicate Calkgc, P 1 L t a n a m ~ l d g eM5, Krrda
-.
i ,) 1~:!5 S'hi Xarcyan CoJtgc. ljonu4X OCr7
.-', 11:: St. &'ceca Cdle$c. Emakul?mlSjb:01 S, R c n b .