1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid mechanics is the sub-discipline of continuum mechanics that deals with the study of
continuous material with no definite shape. It has several sub-disciplines itself, including
aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Fluid can be defined as, “a substance which deform
continuously without limit due to the application of shearing stress, no matter how small it is”.
This continuous deformation under the action of forces compels the fluid to flow and this tendency
of fluid is called ‘fluidity’.

1.2 FREE CONVECTION OR NATURAL CONVECTION

Free convection or natural convection is a phenomenon, which occur when a fluid or gas moves
because of density changes, which occur inside it due to temperature differences. Heavier (more
dense) components will fall while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk fluid
movement. A common example of natural convection is a pot of boiling water in which the hot
and less dense water on the bottom layer moves upward in plumes, and the cool and denser water
near the top of the pot likewise sink.

1.3 FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIUM

A porous medium is a solid with pores in it. ‘Pores’ are void spaces, which must be distributed
more or less frequently throughout the material if it is to be called ‘pores’. When a fluid permeates
through a porous medium, the actual path of an individual fluid particle cannot be found because
of the fluid-rock boundary conditions, which must be considered. Thus in a porous medium one
generally considers the fluid motion in terms of volume or ensemble average of the motion of
individual fluid elements over regions of space. This was usually done by famous Darcy’s [1] Law,
as a result of this the viscous term in the equations of fluid motion will be replaced by the resistance
𝜇
term − 𝑘 𝑞⃗, where 𝜇 is the viscosity of the fluid, 𝑘1 the permeability of the medium and 𝑞⃗ the
1
seepage velocity of the fluid. A macroscopic equation which describes incompressible creeping
flow of a Newtonian fluid of viscosity 𝜇 through a macroscopically homogeneous and isotropic
𝜇
porous medium of permeability 𝑘1 is the well-known Darcy’s equation − 𝑘 𝑞⃗ = ∇𝑝𝑎 ,where 𝑝𝑎 is
1

1
the interstitially average pressure within the porous medium and 𝑞⃗ is the filter velocity (or Darcian
velocity).

1.3.1 Porosity

The ratio of the volume of the voids ( 𝑉𝑉 , the space between the solid particles) to the total volume
𝑉𝑉
is known as the void age or porosity, which is defined as 𝜙 = 𝑉 +𝑉 .
𝑉 𝑆

1.3.2 Permeability

Permeability is that property of a porous material which characterizes the ease with a fluid may be
made to flow through the material by an applied pressure gradient. Permeability is the fluid
𝑞𝜇
conductivity of the porous material which is defined as 𝐾 = ∇𝑝 , where ∇𝑝 is the applied pressure
𝐴( )
𝐿
gradient across the length of the specimen.

1.3.3 Seepage Velocity

Seepage velocity is the velocity of groundwater calculated from Darcy's law. Seepage velocity is
not the actual velocity of the water in the pores, but the apparent velocity through the bulk of the
porous medium.

1.4 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS (MHD)

Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is the science which deals with the motion of electrically
conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic fields. It is the synthesis of two classical sciences,
Fluid Mechanics and Electromagnetic field theory. It is well known result in electromagnetic
theory that when a conductor moves in a magnetic field, electric currents are induced in it. These
current experiences a mechanical force, called ‘Lorentz Force’, due to the presence of magnetic
field. This force tends to modify the initial motion of the conductor. Moreover, induced currents
generate their own magnetic field which is added on to the primitive magnetic field. Lorentz force,
the force exerted on a charged particle 𝑞1 moving with velocity 𝑣⃗ through an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ and
magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗. The entire electromagnetic force 𝐹⃗ on the charged particle is called the Lorentz
force (after the Dutch Physicist A. Hendrik Lorentz) and is given by

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 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞1 𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑞1 (𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ )

The first term is contributed by the electric field. The second term is the magnetic force and has a
direction perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field.

1.4.1 Hall Current Effect

Hall, a graduate student at John Hopkins University discovered the Hall effect in 1879. The
tendency of electric current to flow across an electric field in the presence of a magnetic field is
called the Hall effect. Taking Hall current into account the generalized Ohm’s Law in the absence
of electric field is of the form
𝜔 𝜏
𝐽⃗ + 𝐵𝑒 𝑒 (𝐽⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 1 𝛻𝑝𝑒 + 𝐸⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗ ) = 𝜎(𝐽⃗ × 𝐵
0 𝑒𝑛 𝑒

where 𝑒, 𝜔𝑒 , 𝜏𝑒 , 𝑝𝑒 , 𝑛𝑒 and 𝜎 are respectively electronic charge, electron frequency, electron

collision time, electron pressure, electron number density and electric conductivity are
respectively.

1.5 RADIATION EFFECT

Transmission of heat takes place via conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer by
radiation is explained on the basis of radiant energy that is emitted by the bodies. Thermal radiation
is an electromagnetic phenomenon. The radiation between wavelengths of 0.1 to 100 microns is
treated as thermal radiation. Electromagnetic radiations, when absorbed by a system, produce
thermal energy, that is, a heating effect.

1.6 SORET EFFECT

If two regions in a mixture are maintained at different temperatures so that there is a flux of heat,
it has been found that a concentration gradient is set up. In binary mixtures, one kind of molecules
tends to travel towards the hot region and other kind toward the cold region. This is called the
Soret effect. In liquid it was first observed and reported by Carl Ludwig in 1865 and further
understood by Soret [2]. The equation of mass transfer when Soret effects are included is of the
form:

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 𝐷𝐶
= 𝐷𝛻 2 𝐶 + 𝐷1 𝛻 2 𝑇,
𝐷𝑡
where 𝐷 is molecular diffusivity and 𝐷1 is thermal diffusivity.

1.7 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The governing equations for the velocity and pressure fields are partial differential equations that
are applicable at every point in a fluid that is being modeled as a continuum. When they are
integrated in any given situation, we can expect to see arbitrary functions or constants appear in
the solution. To evaluate these, we need additional statements about the velocity field and possibly
its gradient at the natural boundaries of the flow domain. Such statements are known as boundary
conditions.

2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

A great deal of research activity in fluid has recently been focused on transport in porous media
because the theory of porous media includes many unsolved problems in engineering and applied
sciences ranging from contaminant transport, storage and preservation of grains and cereals,
computer chips via use of porous metal foams, freezing of foods, geophysics, and petroleum
engineering. In most of the above situations, flow is induced by buoyancy force i.e. due to density
difference of the fluid, which in turn, causes natural convection. Boundary layer control theory in
the field of mechanics requires a better understanding of Magneto-hydrodynamic flow of an
electrically-conducting fluid coupled with heat transfer. Vasseur et al. [4] studied the effect of a
transverse magnetic field on buoyancy-driven convection in an inclined two-dimensional cavity.
The effect of the magnetic drag on the critical Rayleigh number for the onset of motion in a
horizontal layer heated from below has been predicted. The actual results followed the trend
obtained in the past for a porous layer modeled according to the Brinkman-extended Darcy
equations. Bian et al. [5] investigated the effect of an electromagnetic field on free convection of
in inclined rectangular porous cavity saturated with an electrically conducting fluid. Results
showed that the critical Rayleigh number for the onset of convection has been predicted using a
linear stability theory. The transition angle from single cell- to multiple-convection pattern has
been considerably affected by the imposition of a magnetic field. Kanafer et al. [6] studied
numerically the natural convection flow in the presence of a magnetic field in the inclined square
enclosure filled with a viscous and incompressible fluid. It was found that the heat transfer
mechanisms and the flow characteristics inside the tilted enclosure depended strongly on the

4
strength of the magnetic field, inclination angle, and Darcy number. Mahmud and Fraser[7]
investigated the magnetohydrodynamic free convection and entropy generation in a square porous
cavity. Results showed that in the absence of magnetic force, entropy generation rate is relatively
higher in magnitude near two vertical walls. Entropy generation rate has been decreased in
magnitude as the magnetic force was introduced and strengthened. M.S. Krakov et al. [8]
investigated the influence of porous media and uniform magnetic field on thermal convection. It
was shown that increasing of magnetic field could both enhance and depress heat transfer. They
concluded that the uniform magnetic field is an effective instrument to control heat flux through a
porous enclosure filled with magnetic fluid. Wang et al. [9] reported results of a numerical study
on magnetohydrodynamic natural convection in a porous media filled square cavity. They used
the Brinkman–Forchheimer extended Darcy model to solve the momentum equations, and the local
thermal non-equilibrium (LTNE) models to solve energy equations for fluid and solid. They found
that both the magnetic force and the inclination angle have significant effect on the flow field and
heat transfer in porous medium. T. Grosan et al. [10] studied a numerical investigation of the
magneto-hydrodynamics free convection in a rectangular cavity filled with a fluid-saturated porous
medium. It has been found that the effect of the magnetic field has reduce the convective heat
transfer inside the cavity. The convection modes within the cavity were found to depend upon both
the strength and the inclination of the magnetic field. The applied magnetic field in the horizontal
direction was found to be most effective in suppressing the convection flow for a stronger magnetic
field. The conduction becomes dominant when the magnetic field has applied in the horizontal
direction. Mansour et al. [11] studied the effects of an inclined magnetic field on the unsteady
natural convection in an inclined cavity filled with a fluid saturated porous medium with a heat
source in the solid phase. A faster motion is considered when Rayleigh number increases whereas
it causing in the decreasing of the temperature. When the vertical walls were considered adiabatic,
the activity of the fluid and heat transfer characteristics increases by increasing the dimensionless
time parameter. AL-Badawi and Duwairi [12] studied numerically the magneto-hydrodynamics
natural convection heat transfer with Joule and viscous heating effects inside an iso-flux inclined
rectangular enclosure filled with porous medium. An iso-heat flux was applied for heating and
cooling the two opposing walls of the enclosure while the other walls were considered adiabatic.
The results showed that viscous and Joule heating effects decreased the heat transfer rates. Revnic
et al. [13] studied the effects of an inclined magnetic field and heat generation on unsteady free
convection within a square cavity filled with a fluid-saturated porous medium. The result shows
that with increasing Ha, the diffusive heat transfer become prominent even though the Rayleigh
number increases. Kefayati [14] examined the effects of a magnetic field on natural convection
flow in 2D long enclosure filled with Cu/water nanofluid. Results showed that the heat transfer
decreases by the increment of Hartmann number for various Rayleigh numbers and the aspect
5
ratios. Heat transfer decreases with the growth of the aspect ratio but this growth causes the effect
of the nanoparticles to increase. The magnetic field augments the effect of the nanoparticles at high
Rayleigh numbers. The effect of the nanoparticles rises for high Hartmann numbers when the
aspect ratio increases. Hasan Nemati et al. [15] introduced magnetic field effects on natural
convection flow of nanofluid in a rectangular cavity using the Lattice Boltzmann model. The
results indicated that the averaged Nusselt number increases for nanofluids when increasing the
solid volume fraction while in the presence of a high magnetic field, this effect decreases. Saleh
and Hashim [16] investigated the hydromagnetic natural convection flow in a fluid-saturated
porous medium with non-uniform heat generation. The obtained results indicated that strong
internal heating can generate significant maximum fluid temperatures above the heated wall
temperature and location of the maximum fluid temperature moves towards the center of the top
wall by strengthening the magnetic field. Local heating exponent does not have a major effect on
the flow and temperature distributions as well as the heat transfer performance within the porous
medium. The large magnetic fields, regardless of direction, were effective to suppress the
convective flows and reduce the rate of heat transfer. Ashorynejad et al. [17] presented a numerical
study of the magnetohydrodynamic flow in a square cavity filled with porous medium by using
Lattice Boltzmann Method. They concluded that the average Nusselt number decreased with
increasing values of the Hartmann number while it increased with increasing values of the Darcy
number. Sheikholeslami [18] investigated the magnetic field effects on natural convection around
a horizontal circular cylinder inside a square enclosure filled with nanofluid. The results indicated
that the average Nusselt number was an increasing function of nanoparticle volume fraction as
well as the Rayleigh number, while it was a decreasing function of the Hartmann number.
Altawallbeh et al. [19] investigated the effect of magnetic field on double-diffusive natural
convection in a square cavity filled with a porous medium. The results concluded that for any fix
values of the governing parameters, as Hartman number increases the values of stream function,
average Nusselt number and average Sherwood number decrease. For High values of Hartman
number, the isotherms and iso-concentration become almost parallel and close to pure diffusion
case. The smallest values of average Nusselt number and average Sherwood number occurs when
the buoyancy ratio is equal to zero for any value of Hartman number. Mahmoudi and Abu-Nada
[20] investigated, numerically, enhancement of heat transfer in natural convection using CuO–
water nanofluid in the presence of a magnetic field. In the case of an absence of the magnetic and
for the case of a low Rayleigh number, the heat transfer is almost insensitive to the presence of
nanoparticles. Kafayati [21,22] analyzed the effect of a magnetic field on natural convection flow
in a cavity filled with water and nanoparticles of Cu with sinusoidal temperature distribution on
one side wall. Results showed that the heat transfer decreases by the increment of Hartmann
number for various Rayleigh numbers. The growth of nanoparticles volume fraction improves heat
6
transfer for various Hartmann numbers and declines heat transfer in the presence of magnetic field..
Saeid [23] investigated the magnetic field effects on entropy generation in heat and mass transfer
in two-dimensional porous cavity. The numerical results showed that increasing the magnetic field
parameter (Hartmann number) leads to deterioration of the flow circulation strength in the cavity
and this leads to a decrease in the rates of the heat and mass transfer as well as the rate of entropy
generation. It was found that a stagnate fluid everywhere in the cavity when the buoyancy forces
generated due to temperature and concentration differences were in the same order and opposite
directions. It has been observed that the strength of the fluid circulation in the cavity is reduced by
increasing the Lewis number. This leads to the decrease in the average Nusselt number and the
entropy generation by increasing Lewis number. Sarita Pippal et al. [24] investigated the 2D
natural convection in enclosure fluid saturated porous medium. Results indicated that the flow
pattern as well as heat transfer mechanism are affected significantly on introducing local thermal
non-equilibrium state into the system. Furthermore, in contrast to square cavity where a sharp
decrease of local heat transfer rate for fluid takes place up to a certain small value of non-
dimensional interphase heat transfer coefficient, in slender enclosure a smooth decrease of the
same was observed in the entire considered-range of H. It has also been pointed out that for large
value of heat transfer coefficient, the difference between heat transfer rate of fluid and solid was
negligible up to a certain value of Rayleigh Darcy number. Mahmoudi [25] investigated the natural
convection in a square enclosure filled with water–Al2O3 nanofluid in the presence of magnetic
field. The results showed that the heat transfer rate increases with an increase of the Rayleigh
number but it decreases with an increase of the Hartmann number. Also, for high Rayleigh number
the heat transfer and fluid flow depend strongly upon the direction of magnetic field for the
different range of Hartmann number. Changwei et al. [26] investigated the effects of a magnetic
quadrupole field on thermo magnetic convection of air in a porous square enclosure. The results
showed that the magnetic field intensity, Darcy number and Rayleigh number have a significant
effect on the flow field and heat transfer in a porous square enclosure. Mejri et al. [27] examined
the laminar natural convection and entropy generation in a square enclosure filled with a water–
Al2O3 nanofluid subjected to a magnetic field. The results demonstrated that for Hartmann number
= 20 and the high Rayleigh number the heat transfer rate and entropy generation respectively
increase and decrease with the increases of volume fraction. In addition, it was mentioned that the
proper choice of Rayleigh and Hartmann numbers could be able to maximize heat transfer rate
simultaneously minimizing entropy generation. M. Sheikholeslami [28] investigated the effect of
magnetic field on free convection heat transfer in an enclosure filled with nanofluid. The results
indicate that Nusselt number increases with augment of nanoparticles volume fraction, Rayleigh
number and aspect ratio while it decreases with increase of Hartmann number. Sameh E. Ahmeda
et al. [29] investigated the effects of viscous dissipation and radiation on the laminar magneto-
7
hydrodynamic natural convection in a square enclosure filled with a porous medium. The results
of the present work explained that the local and average Nusselt numbers at the hot and cold side
walls increase with increasing the radiation parameter. Heidary et al. [30] numerically studied the
natural convection heat transfer fluid flow and entropy generation in a porous inclined cavity in
the presence of uniform magnetic field. The obtained results indicated that the partition, magnetic
field and rotation of enclosure can be used as control elements for heat transfer, fluid flow and
entropy generation in porous medium. Rashad [31] observed that, as the Hartman number
increases, leads to slightly decrease in the average Nusselt number and as the inclination angle of
the magnetic field parameter increases perform to slight increase in the average Nusselt number.
Also the local Nusselt number increases as the solid volume fraction increases and it has higher
values near to the top wall. Balla et al. [32] have considered the problem of MHD boundary layer
flow and heat transfer in an inclined porous square cavity filled with nanofluids. They found the
strength of the flow decreases with the increase in the magnetic parameter. The local Nusselt
number along the hot wall increases with the increase in the Rayleigh number. The Nusselt number
decreases with the increase in nanoparticle volume fraction, magnetic field parameter and angle of
inclination. The flow intensity and heat transfer are maximum at the inclination angle 450 and
minimum at angle 00. Malik et al. [33] presented a numerical study of heat transfer and entropy
generation of MHD nanofluid flow inside an enclosure filled with a fluid saturated porous medium
and higher heat transfer and entropy generation is found for higher Grashof number. The average
heat transfer rate increases with increase in Darcy number and the fractional increment of Cu
nanoparticles in water increases the heat transfer rate very effectively. M. Sheikholeslami [34]
investigated the MHD non-Darcy nanofluid free convection. Results indicated Nusselt number
enhances with increase of buoyancy forces and permeability of porous media. Recent investigation
of P. Bera et al. [35] on natural convection due to the lateral flux of heat and solute on enclosure
walls indicates that same as LTE (local thermal equilibrium) state particular oscillations and
multiple solutions have also been observed on considering local thermal non-equilibrium (LTNE)
state between fluid and solid phase, for a certain range of interphase heat transfer coefficient (H)
and conductivity ratio of fluid and solid (𝛾), when both buoyancy forces are opposite in nature
(buoyancy ratio, N < 0). The range of the interval for buoyancy ratio, INM, (in which multiple
solutions exists) increases on increasing the value of H as well as 𝛾, while the range of the interval
for buoyancy ratio, INO, (in which oscillation exits) vary in a subtle way. M. Sheikholeslami [36]
investigated the nanofluid flow due to magnetic field inside a porous media. Results illustrated
that the shapes of CuO nanoparticles can change the thermal behavior of nanofluid and greatest
Nusselt number has obtained when Platelet shaped nanoparticles has been utilized. Convective
heat transfer improves with augment of Darcy and Reynolds number but it reduces with rise of
Hartmann number.
8
3 WORK PLAN OF THE PRESENT STUDY

The above researches and the applications provided a base for the motivation of the present
investigations. The aim of the present work is to analyze the natural convective flows of fluids in
channels in the presence of the magnetic field. We study the effects of hall current, rotation,
magnetic field, soret, heat source, suction, chemical reaction, radiative heat transfer and slip &
jump boundary conditions, on the plane and rotating flows of fluids (Newtonian and non-
Newtonian).

The study of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is an important area of research in fluid

dynamics. It is the study of the flow and heat transfer of electrically conducting fluid past a porous
channel under the influence of a magnetic field has attracted the interest of many investigators in
view of plasma studies, nuclear reactors, geothermal energy extractions and the boundary layer
control in the field of aerodynamics. Recently, considerable attention has also been focused on
new applications of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and heat transfer such as metallurgical
processing, cooling of nuclear reactors by liquid sodium and induction flow water which depends
on the potential difference in the fluid direction perpendicular to the motion and goes to the
magnetic field. Since the magnetite nanoparticles can be controlled by magnetic field, the magnetic
nanofluid is regarded as a controllable nanofluid, and thus, we expect the advantages of magnetic
nanofluid: (1) the nanofluid concentration can be localized by applying the magnetic field for the
region of interest and (2) the magnetite nanoparticles can be removed from the magnetic nanofluid
easily. In recent years, we find several applications in the polymer industry, stretching of plastic
sheets, and metallurgy by hydromagnetic. To be more specific, it may be pointed out that many
metallurgical processes involve the cooling of continuous strips or filaments by drawing them
through a nanofluid.

In the proposed research work, the main objectives of the study are:

(i) To study the flows in the presence of magnetic field.

(ii) To study the flows in porous media.
(iii) To modify the results of already discussed problems.
(iv) To learn the software tools used in the study of flows.
(v) To solve the Industry / Engineering problems.
(vi) Try to establish some results.

9
The work embodied in the proposed thesis entitled, “Study of MHD Convection in Porous Media”
is divided into various categories and represents our attempt to analyze the effects of Hall current,
chemical reaction, thermal radiation, heat generation or absorption and thermal diffusion on
steady/unsteady MHD non-Newtonian flows under varying initial and boundary conditions. The
governing equations of the flow field are coupled and non-linear. I have already gone through the
relevant literature and the equations governing the fluid flow of an incompressible, viscous and
electrically conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic field through porous medium.

4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
We shall follow the approach of writing the governing equation of the problem in dimensional
form and then non‐dimensionlized them by using the known non‐dimensional parameters ( e.g.
Reynolds number, Prandtl number, Schmidt number, Grashoff number, chemical reaction
parameter, Peclet number, Hartmann number). The solutions will be numerically evaluated with
the help of scientific workplace / MATLAB software and results will be expressed graphically.

4.1 NUMERICAL METHODS FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS

The following methods shall be used in the present work to study the MHD convection in the
porous media.

3.1.1 Finite Difference Method (FDM)

This is the oldest method for numerical solution of PDEs, introduced by Euler in the 18th century.
It's also the easiest method to use for simple geometries. The solution domain is covered by grid.
At each grid point, the differential equation is approximated by replacing the partial derivatives by
approximations in terms of the nodal values of the functions. The FD method can be applied to
any grid type. However, in all applications of the FD method known, it has been applied to
structured grids. Taylor series expansion or polynomial fitting is used to obtain approximations to
the first and second derivatives of the variables with respect to the coordinates. On structured grids,
the FD method is very simple and effective. It is especially easy to obtain higher-order schemes
on regular grids.

10
3.1.2 Finite Volume Method (FVM)

The FV method uses the integral form of the conservation equations as its starting point. The
solution domain is subdivided into a finite number of contiguous control volumes (CVs), and the
conservation equations are applied to each CV. At the centroid of each CV lies a computational
node at which the variable values are to be calculated. Interpolation is used to express variable
values at the CV surface in terms of the nodal values. As a result, one obtains an algebraic equation
for each CV, in which a number of neighbor nodal values appear. The FVM method can
accommodate any type of grid when compared to FDM, which is applied to only structured grids.
The disadvantage of FV methods compared to FD schemes is that methods of order higher than
second are more difficult to develop in 3D. This is due to the fact that the FV approach requires
two levels of approximation: interpolation and integration.

3.1.3 Finite Element Method (FEM)

The FE method is similar to the FV method in many ways. The domain is broken into a set of
discrete volumes or finite elements that are generally unstructured; in 2D, they are usually triangles
or quadrilaterals, while in 3D tetrahedra or hexahedra are most often used. The distinguishing
feature of FE methods is that the equations are multiplied by a weight function before they are
integrated over the entire domain. In the simplest FE methods, the solution is approximated by a
linear shape function within each element in a way that guarantees continuity of the solution across
element boundaries. This approximation is then substituted into the weighted integral of the
conservation law and the equations to be solved are derived by requiring the derivative of the
integral with respect to each nodal value to be zero. An important advantage of finite element
methods is the ability to deal with arbitrary geometries. Finite element methods are relatively easy
to analyze mathematically and can be shown to have optimality properties for certain types of
equations.

5 REFERENCES

11
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