This learning area is designed to provide a general background for the understanding of

Earth Science and Biology. It presents the history of the Earth through geologic time. It discusses

the Earth’s structure, composition, and processes. Issues, concerns, and problems pertaining to

natural hazards are also included. It also deals with the basic principles and processes in the study

of Biology. It covers life processes and interactions at the cellular, organism, population, and

ecosystem levels.

Chapter 1. Origin and Structure of the Earth

This chapter puts emphasis on the following lessons:

 Lesson A. Universe and Solar System

 Lesson B. Earth and Earth Systems

Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the Formation of the Universe and the Solar System

 the Subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere) that make

up the Earth

 the Earth’s Internal Structure

Performance Standards:
The learners shall be able to :

1. Conduct a survey to assess the possible geologic hazards that your community may

experience. (Note: Select this performance standard if your school is in an area near fault

lines, volcanoes, and steep slopes)

2. Conduct a survey or design a study to assess the possible hydro meteorological hazards

that your community may experience)

Learning Competencies:
The learners:
a. state the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the universe.
b. describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system.

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 c. recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life.
d. explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and
energy flow
e. explain the current advancements/information on the solar system
f. show the contributions of personalities/people on the understanding of the Earth
Systems
g. identify the layers of the Earth(crust, mantle, core)
h. differentiate the layers of the Earth

BIG IDEA 1.1

The universe and the Solar System have origins. These are explained by different theories.

1.1a Origin of the Universe

How did the universe form?

There are plenty of versions of different
stories from different walks of life.
Different cultures have their creation
myths.
A creation myth is a symbolic
narrative of the beginning of the world
as understood by a culture. These are
handed down from generation to
generation through stories, songs, and
work of art, among others. The story of
the origin of the universe is never an
exemption. According to GENESIS, in Figure 1.1 a. The Creation Story
the Old testament, the creation of the entire cosmos (universe) is done in six days, although there
are several accounts to this Genesis Myth.
The most popular theory of our universe' origin centers on a cosmic cataclysm unmatched
in all of history—the big bang. This theory was born of the observation that other galaxies are
moving away from our own at great speed, in all directions, as if they had all been propelled by
an ancient explosive force.

Before the big bang, scientists believe, the entire vastness of the observable universe,
including all of its matter and radiation, was compressed into a hot, dense mass just a few
millimeters across.

BIG BANG and other Theories

There are several theories explaining the origin of the universe. These include the Big
Bang theory, Steady State theory, Inflation theory, String Theory and M theory, and many more.

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Big Bang Theory. The proponents of the theory are Aleksander Friedman and George Lamaitre
in 1920.

According to the theory, around 13.7 billions years ago, there was nothing and nowhere.
Then suddenly, due to random
fluctuation in an empty void, there
is a great explosion or expansion.
The explosion sent space, time,
matter, and energy in all
directions. The event is called BIG
BANG.

The occurrence of the Big

Bang resulted into several events
that led to the creation of forces and
celestial bodies we know today.
Figure 1.b shows the timeline of the
Fig. 1.1b Big Bang Timeline of Events
events.

Big Bang Timeline of Events:

1. Inflationary epoch (10-43 sec). The cosmos goes through a superfast “inflation,” expanding
from the size of an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny fraction of a second.
2. Post Inflation(10-32 sec). The universe is a seething hot soup of electrons, quarks and other
particles.
3. Rapid Cooling(10-6 sec). A rapid cooling cosmos permits quarks to clump into protons and
neutrons.
4. Post-Cooling Period( 3million years). Still too hot to form into atoms, charged electrons and
protons prevent light from shining; the universe is a superhot fog.
5. Formation of basic elements. ( 300,000 years) Electrons combine with protons and neutrons
to form atoms, mostly Hydrogen and Helium. Light can finally shine.
6. Coalition Period. ( I billion years) Gravity makes Hydrogen and Helium gas coalesce to
form the giant clouds that will become galaxies; smaller clumps of gas collapse to form
the first stars.
7. Birth of stars and galaxies (15 billion years). As galaxies cluster together under gravity, the
first stars die and spew heavy elements into space; those will eventually turn into new
stars and planets.

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 Among all other theories, it is said to be the most credible one due to the supporting
evidences:

(a) Galaxies moving away- In 1924, Edwin Hubble found that stars are not uniformly
distributed in space. They gather together forming clusters called galaxies. He found out
that nearly all galaxies were moving away. The distance between distant galaxies was
increasing with time. If it was expanding, they must have been closer together in the past
and maybe a single point in the beginning.
(b) Presence of cosmic microwaves background (CMB)-In 1920, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
discovered a background radio emission coming from every direction in the sky. This
radiation was speculated to be the remnant energy left over from the formation of the
universe. The discovery of CMB placed to an end of the Steady State theory of the
universe.
(c) Abundance of light elements. These are Helium, Hydrogen, Deuterium, and Lithium, found
in observable universe agrees with the hypotheses of the Big Bang theory. Their
abundance is checked from the spectra of the oldest stars and gas clouds. The ratios of
these light elements match with what is expected from the Big Bang nucleosynthesis.

Steady State Theory. The proponents of the theory are Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Sir
Fred Hoyle in 1948.

According to the theory, the expansion of the universe is balanced by the spontaneous
production of bubbles of matter-anti-matter, so that the Perfect Cosmological Principle is
preserved. It proposes that universe is unchanging in time and uniform in space. Nucleo
synthesis in stars can account for the abundances of all the elements except the very lightest one.
The discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) contradicted the basic assumptions of
the Steady State theory that everything is constant. Figure 1.1c shows the comparison between
the Big Bang and the Steady State theories. Steady State Theory claims the universe to be
expanding yet it remains the same
by way of keeping its density
maintained and not decreasing.

The following accounts for

the unresolved conflicts between
Big Bang and the Steady State
theories:

a. Flatness. The Wilkinson

Microwave Anistrophy
Probe (WMAP) revealed
that the geometry of the
universe was nearly flat.
Figure 1.1c Comparison between the Big Bang and the Steady
State

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 As with Big Bang, there has to be curvature as time grows.
b. Monopole. The Big Bang theory predicts the production of heavy stable magnetic
monopoles in the early universe, yet, there has been none observed.
c. Horizon. Distant regions of space in opposite directions of the sky are so far apart that
they could never have been in causal contact with each other, but, the evidences show
the uniformity of cosmic microwave background temperature revealed that these
regions have been in contact with each other in the past.

Inflation Theory. The proponents are Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart, and Andy
Albrecht, who offered solutions to the existing conflict.

The theory proposed a period of exponential expansion of the universe prior to the more
gradual big bang expansion. The energy density of the universe is dominated by a cosmological
constant-type of vacuum energy, which later decayed to produce the matter and radiation that
filled up the universe. Inflation Theory is said to be the extension of the Big Bang theory. To
resolve the conflict, the following notions were offered:

a. Flatness. The vastness of the universe would appear flat to an individual even though
it is still a sphere. This is the same with our Earth experience. Inflation stretches any
initial curvature of the
universe to near flatness.
b. Monopole. Monopoles are
produced prior to
inflation. During the rapid
expansion, the density of
the monopoles dropped
exponentially to an
undetectable level.
c. Horizon. The exponential
expansion in the early
universe presupposes that
the distant regions were
much closer with each
other prior to inflation.
Fig. 1.1 d Timeline of the universe based on Big Bang Theory and inflation models.

The idea of inflation had explained several phenomena, yet there are still other accounts
to consider such were the presence of dark matter and dark energy. The nature of dark matter
and dark energy were unknown. However, it is said that dark energy is the energy of the empty
space and is causing expansion of the universes to accelerate. Dark matter, likewise, is a
hypothetical matter, which accounts for most of the matter in the universe that cannot be seen by
telescopes, but they exist!

5
 Gravitational waves (ripples in the fabric of space-time) were detected by the team of
astronomers led by John Kovac of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics on March
17, 2014. Examining the CMB also gives astronomers clues as to the composition of the universe.
Researchers think most of the cosmos is made up of matter and energy that cannot be "sensed"
with conventional instruments, leading to the names dark matter and dark energy. Only 5 percent
of the universe is made up of matter such as planets, stars and galaxies, and even life.

String theory. Remained perplexed of the origin of the universe, physicists resorted to a new
theory that came out combining the principles of Einstein’s theory of relativity with quantum
mechanics. String theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle
physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. It describes how
these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than
the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge and other
properties determined by the
vibrational state of the string. In
string theory, one of the many
vibrational states of the string
corresponds to the graviton,
a quantum mechanical particle that
carries gravitational force. Thus
string theory is a theory of quantum
gravity.

String theory originated in

1970 when particle theorists realized
that the theories developed in 1968
to describe the particle spectrum Fig. 1.1 e Open and closed forms of strings

also describe the quantum

mechanics of oscillating strings.
Supersymmetry was introduced in 1971.

In string theory, the assembly of the particle type is replaced by a string with dimensions
confined to Planck length. It comes in an open and closed forms, of which they are free to vibrate
at different modes. The different vibrational modes may represent different particle types like
electron, photon or even a graviton, which carries the force of gravity. It is at this point that there
is a great hope that the String Theory will be able to unite all known forces and particles into a
single “theory of everything”.

M Theory The origin of the universe occurs as a result of the contact of two hyperdimensional
branes . Strings can actually attach at one or both ends of the string. The collision of the branes
lead to the formation of the universe. M-theory is a theory in physics that unifies all consistent
versions of superstring theory. The existence of such a theory was first conjectured by Edward

6
Witten at a String Theory conference at the University of Southern California in the spring of
1995. Witten's announcement initiated a flurry of research activity known as the Second
Superstring Revolution.

In 1994, Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study suggested that the five
different versions of string theory might be describing the same thing seen from different
perspectives. He proposed a unifying theory called "M-theory", in which the "M" is not
specifically defined but is generally understood to stand for "membrane". The words "matrix",
"master", "mother", "monster", "mystery" and "magic" have also been claimed. M-theory brought
all of the string theories together. It did this by asserting that strings are really one-dimensional
slices of a two-dimensional membrane vibrating in 11-dimensional space-time.

Undeniably true, these several theories and more remain under question and far beyond
what imagination could fathom. The origin of the universe still remains daunting and probably
beyond comprehensible as of the present. But what do you thinks sounds convincing?

1.1b Origin of the Solar System

The birth of the stars and the galaxies about 300 million years ago marked simultaneously
the formation of the solar bodies.

Galaxy is defined as gravitationally-bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar

gas and dark matter. Milky Way is one of the billion galaxies. In the Milky Way galaxy, our solar
system is found. So, how did the solar system form?

There are also several theories that attempt to explain the origin of our solar system:
Descartes’ Vortex Theory, Buffon’s
Collision Theory , Kant-Laplace
Nebular Hypothesis, Jeans-
Jeffreys’ Tidal Hypothesis, and
Solar Nebular Theory, among
others.

Descartes’ Vortex Theory Rene

Descartes , a French mathematician
and physicist, explained that the
orbits of the planets are in terms of
whirlpool-like motion and the
satellites around the planets as
Fig. 1.1f. Orbits of the planets in a whirlpool-like motion
secondary whirlpool-like motion.

7
 Solar System formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like
motion in pre-solar materials.

Buffon’s Collision Theory George

Leclerc and Comte de Buffon,
French naturalists, proposed that
the planets were formed by the
collision of the Sun with a giant
comet. The resulting debris formed
into planets that rotate in the same
direction as they revolve around
the sun.
Fig. 1.1g Planets are formed from debris after the collision

Kant-Laplace Nebular Hypothesis

Immanuel Kant & Pierre Simon
Laplace proposed a nebular theory
which states that nebula (great cloud
of gas and dust) begins to collapse
because of gravitational pull. As the
cloud contracted they spun more
rapidly. As nebular collapses further,
local regions contract on their own
due to gravity and become the sun
and the planets.
Fig. 1.1h Gravitational force collapses the cloud and spins rapidly

8
 Jeans-Jeffreys’ Tidal Hypothesis Sir
James Hopwood Jeans & Harold
Jeffreys suggested a dualistic
theory in which the planets and the
sun were produced by different
mechanisms.

Tidal Theory proposed that

the planets were formed from the
substance that was torn out of the
sun. As the speeding massive star
Fig. 1.1i Planets are formed from condensed materials from the sun
passed near the Sun, it pulled off
material due to gravitational attraction. Torn off materials condensed to form planets.

Solar Nebular Theory. The solar system

was formed from the condensation of
Hydrogen gas (interstellar gas) and
dust cloud. Explosion of supernova
caused the gas and dust to collapse and
form the sun and the planets. Gas and
dust cloud collapsed due to the force of
gravity, the center compressed and
became protostar. Continuous
shrinking speeds up the rotation.
Contraction converted gravitational
energy into heat energy and caused the
center to glow, nuclear reaction began
Fig.1. 1j The mechanisms that gave birth to the Solar System
and sun was formed. The remaining gas
dust cloud formed disk-shaped bodies (due
to rotation) called solar nebulae. The solar nebulae came together to form planets.

Regardless of what theory is closer to the speculated mechanics of how the solar system was
formed, any theory to describe the formation of our Solar System must adhere to these facts:

1. Each planet is isolated in space.

2. The orbits are nearly circular.

9
 3. The orbits of the planets all lie in roughly the same plane.
4. The direction they orbit around the Sun is the same as the Sun’s rotation on its axis.
5. The direction most planets rotate on their axes is the same as that of the Sun.
6. The direction of a planet’s moon’ orbits is the same as that of planet’s direction of rotation.
7. The Terrestrial planets are very different from the Jovian planets.
8. Asteroids are different from both types of planets.
9. Comets are icy fragments that don’t orbit in the ecliptic plane.

Properties and Current Information of the Solar System

The solar system showed remarkable regularities . Most of these regularities are observed
in the motion and location of the planets and their satellites. These are the following:
 The orbits of all the planets are almost in the same plane. This means that the solar system
is flat.
 The planetary orbits are nearly circular. The elliptical orbits depart only slightly from
being a perfect circle.
 The orbits of the planets are nearly in the same plane as the rotation of the sun.
 All planets revolve around the sun in a counterclockwise fashion.
 The calculated distances and the observed distance of the planets from the sun are almost
the same with the exception of Neptune and Pluto.
 The satellite systems of Jupiter and Saturn are nearly identical in their arrangements with
the solar system.
 The satellites and planets contain almost all the rotational motion of the solar system.
 The solar system also contains asteroids and comets.

Early astronomers knew Moon, stars, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, comets,
and meteors. But now, we know that the solar system has 166 moons, one star, eight planets,
asteroids, comets, meteoroids, dwarf planets, and Kuiper Belt objects, and still counting on for
more celestial bodies to be discovered.
The other members of the solar system includes the asteroids, comets and the
meteors.Asteroids are made up of rocks, referred to as minor planets. They never got formed into
planets because of Jupiter’s high gravitational force. Comets are composed of mainly ice (frozen
water and gas) and non-volatile dust. Sun’s heat causes the frozen gases to sublimate forming
vaporous jet of streams. Meteors are known as shooting stars, they’re the ones seen burning up
in the sky. Meteorites are those that had survived the impact and reaches the Earth. Meteoroids
remain in the outer space.
The planets are grouped into two categories based on composition: Terrestrial planets

10
include Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
which are made of dense, rocky,
metallic materials and Jovian planets
are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.,
which are mainly made of hydrogen
and helium.
Why do planets have different
composition if they come from the
same cloud of gas? This is explained by
where these planets are formed in
relation to the distance from the sun
defined by the frost line. The frost line
is the distance of the solar nebular from
Fig.1.1k The frost line dividing the inner and warm
the protostar. As the radius from the regions
protostar increases, the temperature
decreases. At cooler temperature, more materials condense.
There are also other bases of
Comparison Between the Terrestrial & Jovian Planets
classifying the planets:
Terrestrial Jovian
- composition
Close to the sun Far from the sun
Closely-spaced orbits widely-spaced orbits - size
Small masses Large masses - proximity to the sun
Small radii Big radii - position relative to Earth
Predominantly rocky Predominantly gaseous - history
Has solid surface Has no solid surface
High density Low density Why is Pluto reclassified as a
Slower rotation Faster rotation dwarf planet in Aug. 24, 2006 by
Weak magnetic fields Strong magnetic fields International Astronomers Union
No rings Many rings (IAU)? Pluto does not dominate its
few moons Many moons neighborhood. Pluto was not able
to “sweep up” asteroids, comets
and other debris to clear a path
along the orbits.
A planet must have the following characteristics:
-Is in orbit around the sun.
-Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes
nearly-round shape.
-Has cleared the neighborhood around it.
-Is not a satellite.

There are four celestial bodies that have been categorized as dwarf planet by the International
Astronomers Union (IAU). These are Eris, Pluto, Ceres and Make.

11
 Recently, ESA's historic Rosetta
mission concluded as planned, on
30 September 2016, with a
controlled impact onto the comet it
had been investigating for more
than two years. The mission was
launched on 2 March 2004, on a 10-
year journey towards comet
67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. En
route, it passed by two asteroids,
2867 Steins (in 2008) and 21 Lutetia
(in 2010), before entering deep-
Fig.1.1l Comet Watch from Kepler
space hibernation mode in June
2011. On 20 January 2014, it 'woke
up' and prepared for arrival at the
comet in August that year. On 12 November, the mission deployed its Philae probe to the comet,
the first time in history that such an extraordinary feat was achieved. During the next phase of
the mission, Rosetta accompanied the comet through perihelion (13 August 2015) until the end of
the mission.

During the last month of Rosetta's

operations at Comet 67P/
Churyumov-Gerasimenko, it was
no longer possible to observe the
comet with telescopes on Earth
because it was too close to the Sun's
position in the sky and therefore
not visible in the night-time.
Fortunately, NASA's Kepler space
observatory stepped in, taking
images of the comet every 30
minutes from 7 to 20 September,
providing important context to
Fig. 1.1m Impact of Rosetta Rosetta's in situ measurements.

12
 Three teams of astronomers have
made use of SPHERE, an advanced
exoplanet-hunting instrument on the Very
Large Telescope at European Southern
Observatory (ESO)'s Paranal Observatory,
in order to shed light on the enigmatic
evolution of fledgling planetary systems.
The explosion in the number of known
exoplanets in recent years has made the
study of them one of the most dynamic
fields in modern astronomy.

Fig.1.1n Three planetary discs observed with the Sphere instrument, mounted on
ESO’s very large telescope

The Supermoon Phenomenon

The average distance

between Earth and the moon is
384,500 km. To be called a
supermoon, the moon has to be
both at its closest distance from
Earth as well as full. On top of the
moon’s bigger than usual size, this
supermoon had an additional
“low-hanging moon” effect. This is
an optical illusion caused by the
moon being close to the horizon,
where it can be measured against
familiar objects such as trees and
Figure 1.1o Supermoon has an additional 'low-hanging moon' effect. This is an
optical illusion caused by the moon being close to the horizon.
houses

Last November 14, 2016, the full moon was 356,508 km from Earth, the closest since
Read more
January at: when it was nearly 47 km closer. While they’re a treat to watch, supermoons are
1948,
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/55453403.cms?u
not all that rare. One in about every 14 full moons is a supermoon, University of Wisconsin
tm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=
astronomer
cppst Jim Lattis told Reuters. In fact, is said that by the time 2016 ends, it will have seen
three supermoons — on October 16, November 14, December 14.

And there are more counting discoveries that would shed light to our understanding of
the universe and the world we live in.

CHALLENGE 1.1
Make a Concept Map, Formation of the Universe or the Solar System, to logically trace
the early beginnings of our existence.
13
Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Concept map visually represents the

relationships between ideas. Concepts are most often Example:
depicted as circles or boxes joined by lines or arrows
containing linking words to show how ideas are
connected.
Concept mapping is a tool for organizing
and structuring knowledge, integrating new and old
information to allow for better retention and
comprehension.
Here’s a “quick-how” of doing the Concept
Map.
 Determine the Main Concept, from which all
other concepts will be linked.
 Identify Key Concepts. These are important
terms/concepts of the lesson.
 Organize Shapes and Lines. This ensures
proper structuring of knowledge.
 Fine Tune the Map by rechecking if the
linking words used are really appropriate. Read through as if you are reading sentences.
Concept Map#______

The Formation of the Universe/ the Solar System

TITLE

14
BIG IDEA 1.2
Earth is a dynamic body with many separate, but highly interacting parts or spheres.
The Earth is a system consisting of four major interacting subsystems: geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and the biosphere.

1.2a. Earth, as a Unique Planet

Earth is the only planet in our

solar system capable of hosting life.
It is a complex system of interacting
physical, chemical and biological
processes, and provides a natural
laboratory whose experiments have
been running since the beginning of
time. The following are the
characteristics that make, Earth, a
unique planet:
 the existence of water at the
Earth’s surface—neither too
much nor too little—that is in Fig. 1.2a Earth as a closed system
liquid form
 proximity to the sun—
neither too much heat nor
too little
 system of plate tectonics that enables the carbon-silicate cycle regulating temperature
 the right size—large enough to hang on to its atmosphere, but not so large to hold on to
too much atmosphere and consequently too much heat
 its protection by “big brother Jupiter,” whose gravity helps divert and vacuum up
incoming debris and keep Earth safe
 the moon’s stabilizing effect on our planetary rotation, which prevents the poles from
shifting unexpectedly
 as a closed system, where there is an exchange of energy but negligible exchange of mass
with surroundings

Could Earth’s structure be one of the features to make it a unique planet too? Remember, all
planets are products of accretion, but the Earth had undergone the final step which is
differentiation; dense materials sank to the center while the less dense ones comprise the surface
of the Earth. The succeeding lessons will also help shed light of our understanding of the Earth’s
uniqueness.

15
1.2b Earth and its Subsystems

Earth has a unique structure

and consists of different layers and
interacting subsystems. Earth is a
dynamic body with many separate,
but highly interacting parts or
spheres. Earth system science studies
Fig. 1.2 b The Four Spheres of Earth
Earth as a system, is composed of
numerous parts, or subsystems. There
are four subsystems of the Earth:
geosphere, comprises the solid Earth
and includes both Earth’s surface and
the various layers of the Earth's Fig . 1. 2b The Four Spheres of Earth

interior; atmosphere, gaseous

envelope that surrounds the Earth
and constitutes the transition between
its surface and the vacuum of space;
hydrosphere, includes all water on
Earth (including surface water and
groundwater) and biosphere, which is
the life zone of the Earth and includes
all living organisms, and all organic
matter that has not yet decomposed.
These are interconnected and
continuously interact with one
another. In fact, there is an
overlapping cycle in the Earth System.
The Earth system is powered by Fig . 1. 2c The Overlapping Cycles of the Earth System

energy from two major sources: the

Sun and the planet's internal heat. People are part of the Earth system and they impact and are
impacted by its materials and processes.

Geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the continental and ocean crust as well the various
layers of Earth’s interior.
• 94% of the Earth is composed of the elements oxygen, silicon, and magnesium.
• The geosphere is not static, but its surface (crust) is in a constant state of motion.
• Mineral resources are mined from the geosphere.

16
Atmosphere is a blanket of air
surrounding the Earth. The
atmosphere consists of four unique
layers (the troposphere, the
stratosphere, the mesosphere, and the
thermosphere). The atmosphere
reaches over 560 kilometers (348
miles) up from the surface of the
Earth. The atmosphere is primarily
composed of nitrogen (about 78%) and
oxygen (about 21%), and water
vapour. Other components exist in
small quantities.
 The mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere
Fig. 1. 2d The Layers of the Atmosphere
are zones of diffuse
atmospheric components in the
far reaches of the atmosphere.
 The troposphere (0-10 km) constitutes the climate system that maintains the conditions
suitable for life on the planet's surface.
 The troposphere (0-10 km) constitutes the climate system that maintains the conditions
suitable for life on the planet's surface.

Hydrosphere contains all the water found on our planet.

 Water found on the surface of our planet includes the ocean as well as water from
lakes and rivers, streams, and creeks.
 Water found under the
surface of our planet includes water
trapped in the soil and groundwater.
 Water found in our
atmosphere includes water vapor.
 Frozen water on our planet
includes ice caps and glaciers.
The subcomponents of the
hydrosphere are connected via the
hydrologic cycle.

Fig. 1. 2e The Water found on our planet that takes part in a Hydrologic
Cycle

17
 Only about 3% of the water
on Earth is “fresh” water, and
about 70% of the fresh water is
frozen in the form of glacial ice.
Ocean water comprising a
large portion of the water reserves Fig.1. 2f The Distribution of Water
has a salinity of 35%. Salinity refers
to the proportion of the dissolved
salts to pure water expressed in
parts for thousand. These salts
come from weathered rocks that
had been carried by streams to the
oceans. Volcanic outgassing also
contribute to the large amount of Fig. 1.2f The Distribution of Water on Earth

Chlorine, Bromine, Sulfur and

Boron.
Oceans are divided into layers called
zones: horizontal and vertical
zonation.

HORIZONTAL OCEAN ZONES

The seabed is divided into the
zones described above, but ocean itself
is also divided horizontally
by distance from the shore.
 Nearest to the shore lies
the intertidal zone (also called the
littoral zone), the region between the
Fig. 1.2g Principal Substances Dissolved in Sea Water

high and low tidal marks. The

hallmark of the intertidal is
change: water is in constant
motion in the form of
waves, tides, and currents. The
land is sometimes under water
and sometimes exposed.
 The neritic zone is from low tide
mark and slopes gradually
downward to the edge of the
seaward side of the continental
shelf. Some sunlight penetrates Fig. 1.2h Horizontal Zones of the Ocean
to the seabed here.

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  The oceanic zone is the entire rest of the ocean from the bottom edge of the neritic zone,
where sunlight does not reach the bottom. The sea bed and water column are subdivided
further.
VERTICAL OCEAN ZONES
To better understand the regions of the ocean, scientists define the water column by depth.
They divided the entire ocean into
two zones vertically, based on light
level. Large lakes are divided into
similar regions.
Sunlight only penetrates
the sea surface to a depth of about
200 m, creating the photic
zone ("photic" means light).
Organisms that photosynthesize
depend on sunlight for food and so
are restricted to the photic zone.
Since tiny photosynthetic
organisms, known as
phytoplankton, supply nearly all
Fig. 1.2i The Aphotic Zones of the Ocean
of the energy and nutrients to the
rest of the marine food web, most
other marine organisms live in or at
least visit the photic zone.
In the aphotic zone there is not enough light for photosynthesis. The aphotic zone makes
up the majority of the ocean, but has a relatively small amount of its life, both in diversity of type
and in numbers. The aphotic zone is subdivided based on depth. These are:epipelagic zone
(sunlight zone), mesopelagic zone(twilight zone), and bathypelagic ,abyssopelagic and
hadopelagic zones (midnight zones).

Biosphere is the “life zone” of the Earth, and includes all living organisms (including humans),
and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
• The biosphere is structured into a hierarchy known as the food chain (all life is dependent
on the first tier – mainly the primary producers that are capable of photosynthesis).
• Energy and mass is transferred from one level of the food chain to the next.

Biosphere is divided into biomes. Biomes are regions in the world that share similar plant
structures, plant spacing, animals, climate and weather. These are the world’s major
communities. They are classified according to the predominant vegetation characterized by
adaptations of organisms to that particular climate.
There are 4 major biomes:
1.Aquatic- includes freshwater(ponds, lakes, rivers, etc.) and marine (ocean, estuaries, etc.)
2. Forest- includes tropical, temperate, coniferous and taiga.
3. Desert- is characterized by low rainfall (less than 50 cm/year).

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4.Tundra is the coolest of all biomes, has low biotic diversity and simple vegetation structure.

Tropical Rainforest
The tropical rainforest is a hot,
moist biome found near Earth's
equator. The world's largest
tropical rainforests are in South
America, Africa, and Southeast
Asia. Tropical rainforests receive
from 60 to 160 inches of
precipitation that is fairly evenly
distributed throughout the year.
The combination of constant
warmth and abundant moisture Fig. 1.2j Tropical Rainforest Biome
makes the tropical rainforest a
suitable environment for many
plants and animals. Tropical rainforests contain the greatest biodiversity in the world. Over 15
million species of plants and animals live within this biome.
The hot and humid conditions make tropical rainforests an ideal environment for bacteria
and other microorganisms. Because these organisms remain active throughout the year, they
quickly decompose matter on the forest floor. In other biomes, such as the deciduous forest, the
decomposition of leaf litter adds nutrients to the soil. But in the tropical rainforest, plants grow
so fast that they rapidly consume the nutrients from the decomposed leaf litter. As a result, most
of the nutrients are contained in the trees and other plants rather than in the soil.

Taiga The taiga is the biome of the

needle-leaf forest. Living in the
taiga is cold and lonely. Coldness
and food shortages make things
very difficult, mostly in the winter.
Some of the animals in the taiga
hibernate in the winter, some fly
south if they can, while some just
cooperate with the environment,
which is very difficult. The winters
in the taiga are very cold with only
snowfall. The summers are warm,
Fig. 1.2k1 Taiga Biome
rainy, and humid. A lot of
coniferous trees grow in the taiga. The taiga is also known as the boreal forest. The taiga doesn't
have as many plant and animal species as the tropical or the deciduous forest biomes. It does

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have millions of insects in the
summertime. Birds migrate there every
year to nest and feed. There are not a lot
of species of plants in the taiga because
of the harsh conditions. Not many
plants can survive the extreme cold of
the taiga winter. Coniferous trees are
also known as evergreens. They have
long, thin waxy needles. The wax gives
them some protection from freezing
temperatures and from drying out.
Evergreens don't loose their leaves in
Fig. 1.2k2 Taiga Biome a.k.a Coniferous Forest/Boreal
the winter like deciduous trees. They
keep their needles all year long. This is
so they can start photosynthesis as soon as the weather gets warm. The dark color of evergreen
needles allows them to absorb heat from the sun and also helps them start photosynthesis early.
Animals of the taiga tend to be predators like the lynx and members of the weasel family
like wolverines, bobcat, minks and ermine. They hunt herbivores like snowshoe rabbits, red
squirrels and voles. Red deer, elk, and moose. Many insect eating birds come to the taiga to breed.
They leave when the breeding season is over. Seed eaters like finches and sparrows, and
omnivorous birds like crows stay all year long.

Desert The desert biome is an

ecosystem that forms due to the low
level of rainfall it receives each year.
Deserts cover about 20% of the Earth.
There are four major types of desert in
this biome - hot and dry, semiarid,
coastal, and cold. They are all able to
inhabit plant and animal life that are
able to survive there. Although the
daytime temperatures of the desert
biome are very hot, they can get very
cold at night. The vegetation does not
grow very tall so the desert biome can
only accommodate small animals, Fig. 1.2l Desert Biome
rodents, and reptiles. These animals
can escape the harsh Sun by hiding under small scrubs or hiding in burrows. Many desert animals
tend to be nocturnal, sleeping during the day and coming out at night when the temperatures are
more tolerable. Because there is hardly any standing water in the desert biome, animals either

21
store water in their bodies or get their water needs met by the foods they eat. The plants that are
able to grow in the desert biome store water in their stem. They normally grow spaced out so that
their roots can extend and find water. Some deserts are so hot that when it rains, the water
evaporates in the air before ever hitting the ground. There are some deserts in Antarctica that are
known as cold deserts. They are considered deserts because of the small amount of vegetation
that grows there. The driest desert on Earth receives on average 1 centimeter of rainfall every 5
to 20 years. Because body fat retains heat, most desert animals have an adaptation that allows
them to store all their body fat in one area of their body. The camel stores all its body fat in its
hump. Cacti have many adaptions to survive in the desert. Their spines protect them from being
eaten by animals and their waxy
outer covering keeps moisture
from escaping.
Tundra The tundra biome is the
coldest of all biomes. It is also quite
big. The tundra covers about one
fifth of the land on earth. The
tundra is the coldest and the driest
of all the biomes on Earth. There is
very little rainfall in the tundra; it
rains less than ten inches a year.
Winters here are long, and
summers short, sometimes they
Fig. 1.2m Tundra Biome
last for only 6 - 10 weeks. In the
winter the temperature can reach -
50°F (-45.5°C). Because the tundra is so close to the north pole, summer days are 24 hours long!
Summer temperatures rarely get above 50°F (10°C), just enough to thaw the surface of the ground.
What a place for a summer vacation! In the summer the soil becomes very soggy from melted
snow and rain. The moisture sinks into the ground, which is called permafrost. The permafrost
lies six inches below the ground, and is frozen for most of the year. The top layer of the permafrost
thaws, but the bottom layer of gravel and finer material stays frozen all year which keeps
moisture from rain on the surface of the ground. There is low diversity in organisms that live
here, but many still flourish. Many lichens, mosses, and small shrubs flourish in the arctic tundra.
The plants that live in the harsh permafrost soil usually adapt to the weather by being short and
grouped together to resist winds and to be protected. Animals who live in the tundra have special
adaptations to survive. Some animals in the tundra are adapted to the climate by breeding and
raising their young in the summer. Many animals hibernate, or sleep during the worst part of
winter to minimize energy loss. Because animals of the tundra are generally migratory, this
biome's population is constantly changing. Resident animals have to change what they are
hunting and eating as the seasons change. The food chain in the Arctic Tundra consists of

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predators such as owls, foxes, wolves, and polar bears at the top of the chain. Predators hunt
herbivores, plant eating animals, such as caribou, lemmings, and hares. Mosquitoes, flies, moths,
grasshoppers, arctic bumblebees, and other insects are at the bottom of the arctic food chain.
Many birds feed on these insects.

Freshwater Biome The freshwater

biome is made up of any of body of
water that is made of freshwater
such as lakes, ponds, streams, and
rivers. They cover roughly 20% of
the Earth and are in various
locations spread out all over the
world. Most freshwater biomes
consist of moving water and
contain many types of fish. Many
animals besides fish live in
freshwater biomes. This includes
crocodiles, hippopotamus, turtles,
and frogs. Freshwater biomes are
subdivided into three groups: lakes
Fig. 1.2n Freshwater Biome
and ponds, streams and rivers, and
wetlands. There are four key features that determine the ecology of streams and rivers - the flow
of the water, amount of light, the temperature or climate, and the chemistry of the river. The water
in a freshwater biome contains less than 1% of salt water. Any body of water that contains little
to no salt is considered freshwater. There are many insects living in the freshwater biome that
some might consider being pests including mosquitos and flies. These insects are very important
in that they are a food source to many mammals, birds, and amphibians. Because of the variety
of animals living in the freshwater biome, there are a lot of predator-prey relationships.

Saltwater Ecosystem There are five

ocean biomes - Atlantic Ocean,
Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean,
Southern Ocean, and the Arctic
Ocean. Almost seventy-one percent
of the Earth is covered by ocean.
Some believe that the ocean biome
is in fact the oldest of all biomes.
Majority of the animals and plants
that reside in the ocean biome exist
in areas of the ocean that are rarely
visited by people. There is about
Fig. 1.2 o Ocean Water Biome one cup of salt for every gallon of
water in the ocean. At 36, 200 feet

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deep, the Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the ocean biome, while the largest ocean of the
ocean biomes is the Pacific Ocean. Although the temperatures of the oceans can vary, the average
temperature of any ocean is 39° F. Ocean water is constantly moving. Cold water is moving in
from the poles while warm water is moving in from the tropics. The ocean biome is home to the
largest known mammal of the world - the blue whale. The ocean is more salty in tropical areas
because the Sun evaporates more of the water there leaving more salt in the ocean.

Grassland Ecosystem Grassland biomes

are large, rolling terrains of grasses,
flowers and herbs. Latitude, soil and local
climates for the most part determine
what kinds of plants grow in a particular
grassland. A grassland is a region where
the average annual precipitation is great
enough to support grasses, and in some
areas a few trees. The precipitation is so
eratic that drought and fire prevent large
forests from growing. Grasses can
survive fires because they grow from the
bottom instead of the top. Their stems can
grow again after being burned off. The
Fig. 1.2p Grassland Biome
soil of most grasslands is also too thin and
dry for trees to survive. In the winter, grassland temperatures can be as low as -40° F, and in the
summer it can be as high 70° F. There are two real seasons: a growing season and a dormant
season. The growing season is when there is no frost and plants can grow (which lasts from 100
to 175 days). During the dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow because it is too cold.

There are two types of grasslands: the tropical grasslands (savannah) and the temperate
grasslands (chaparral). In tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of the growing season is
determined by how long the rainy season lasts. But in the temperate grasslands the length of the
growing season is determined by temperature. Plants usually start growing when the daily
temperature reached about 50° F. In temperate grasslands the average rainfall per year ranges
from 10-30 inches. In tropical and sub-tropical grasslands the average rainfall per year ranges
from 25-60 inches per year The amount of rainfall is very important in determining which areas
are grasslands because it's hard for trees to compete with grasses in places where the uppers
layers of soil are moist during part of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always dry.

24
 How do the four subsystems interact with one another? There are several ways. To cite a
few on atmosphere’s interaction with the other systems: The gases of the atmosphere readily
exchange with those dissolved in water bodies (e.g. oceans, lakes, etc.).The atmosphere supplies
oxygen and carbon dioxide that form the basis of life processes (photosynthesis and respiration).
While the gases in the atmosphere react with water to produce weak acids that aid in the
breakdown of rock. A very concrete scenario for this, for instance, hurricanes (atmosphere) sweep
across the ocean (hydrosphere) and onto the land (geosphere), damaging the dwellings of people
(biosphere) who live along the coast.Volcanoes (geosphere) may erupt, sending ash and gases
into the air (atmosphere) and sending lava and ash down onto surrounding forests (biosphere)
and human habitations (biosphere).

Interaction among the four subsystems is also manifested on how matter and energy flow
across boundaries of the four subsystems of the Earth. How does it happen? Energy flows in a
one-way traffic while nutrients is cycled in the process. These help sustain life on Earth.

Global cycles recycle nutrients through the Erath’s air, land, water, and living organisms.
Nutrients are the elements and compounds that organisms need to live, grow, and reproduce.
Biogeochemical cycles move these substances through air, water, soil, rock and living organisms.
The following are the different Biogeochemical cycles that help sustain life the Earth.

Carbon is found in
carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
bones, cartilage and shells Carbon
cycle describes the route of carbon
atoms through the environment.
 Photosynthesis by plants,
algae and cyanobacteria, which
removes carbon dioxide from air
and water, in turn, produces
oxygen and carbohydrates. Plants
are a major reservoir of carbon
 Respiration returns carbon to
Fig. 1.2q Carbon-Oxygen Cycle
the air and oceans.

Nitrogen comprises 78% of our atmosphere. It is contained in proteins, DNA and RNA

25
 Nitrogen cycle describes
the routes that nitrogen atoms take
through the environment. Nitrogen
gas cannot be used by organisms ,
nitrogen fixation is done, where
lightning or nitrogen-fixing
bacteria combine (fix) nitrogen
with hydrogen to form ammonium,
which can be used by plants.
Nitrification is done when
a bacteria converts ammonium ions
first into nitrite ions then into
nitrate ions. Plants can now avail
Fig. 1.2r Nitrogen Cycle
these ions. Animals obtain nitrogen
by eating plants or other animals.
Decomposers get it from dead and decaying plants or other animals, releasing ammonium ions
to nitrifying bacteria.
Denitrifying bacteria, on the other hand, convert nitrates in soil or water to gaseous
nitrogen, which now releases back
nitrogen into the atmosphere.

Phosphorus (P) is a key component

of cell membranes, DNA, RNA, ATP
and ADP. Phosphorus cycle
describes the routes that phosphorus
atoms take through the
environment. Most phosphorus is
within rocks. It is released by
weathering. Phosphorus has no
significant atmospheric component,
Fig. 1.2s Phosphorus Cycle and with naturally low
environmental concentrations.
These are cycled when they are
absorbed by the roots of plants, which then are eaten by the next orders of consumers. It is
returned to the soil as decomposers act on dead bodies.

CHALLENGE 1.2
Develop an essay on , How Unique Earth Is.

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Name:________________________Strand & Block:_____________Date:___________Score:_______

Develop an essay on, How Unique Earth Is, in not more than 250 words. Be sure to subsume
important terminologies/ concepts discussed in the class. Please see rubric of essay, for your
reference.
Essay No. 1
How Unique Earth Is____
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Word Count: ___

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 BIG IDEA 1.3
The Earth is made up of three main layers: crust, mantle and core. Each layer has its
own individual composition and physical properties.

1.3 The Earth’s Internal Structures

Although planets surround stars in the galaxy, how they form remains a subject of debate.
Despite the wealth of worlds in our own solar system, scientists still aren't certain how planets
are built. Currently, one highly accepted theory that talks about how the Earth was formed is the
- Core Accretion Model.
Approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a cloud of dust and gas known
as a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to spin, forming the sun
in the center of the nebula. With the rise of the sun, the remaining material began to clump up.
Small particles drew together, bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles. The solar wind
swept away lighter elements, such as hydrogen and helium, from the closer regions, leaving only
heavy, rocky materials to create smaller terrestrial worlds like Earth. Earth's rocky core formed
first, with heavy elements colliding and binding together. Dense material sank to the center, while
the lighter material created the crust. The planet's magnetic field probably formed around this
time. Gravity captured some of the gases that made up the planet's early atmosphere. Fig. 1.3a
shows the steps of Earth’s formation through Accretion.

Fig. 1.3a Steps in the formation of Earth through Accretion

To have a better grasp of understanding as to how the Earth was formed through
accretion, the following are the simplistic view of the steps on how Accretion happened:
a. Accretion of dust particles
b. Physical Collision
c. Gravitational accretion
d. Molten protoplanet formation from planetisimals due to heat of accretion

28
 The final step is the differentiation of the Earth. Heavy or dense materials like Nickel
(Ni) and Iron (Fe) sank to the center of the Earth. Light or dense materials rose to the surface.
Earth has many layers because it was shaped by the geologic processes that started at the Earth’s
origin. Each layer is different from each other based on its composition.

The Earth’s Layers

Studying Earth’s interior is very difficult due to its inaccessibility. So, how did we get
these bountiful information? Seismic information and computer models gave us these
information. Inge Lehmann, a seismologist, discovered in 1936 that the earth has a solid inner
core. All other information were derived from several studies then.
If we could take a chunk out of the Earth, we would see that it is made up of different
layers.
The Earth is made up of 3 main layers,
which are:
– Crust
– Mantle
– Core
Each layer has its own individual
composition and physical properties.

CRUST
The crust is the outermost layer of the
Earth, however it is said to be the thinnest layer
(approx.. 5-70km thick) It has a surface
temperature. This comprises 1% of Earth’s mass.
This is where we live, and the one that touches the
atmosphere . It consists of loose rocks & soil.
There are two types of crust: continental crust and Fig. 1.3b Layers of the Earth

oceanic crust. Continental crust is made up of dry land, and granite materials. It is said to be
less dense than the oceanic crust. The oceanic crust refers to the ocean floor. This is said to be
made up of basalt material and is thinner than the continental crust , but this is more dense.

Fig. 1.3c Types of Crust: oceanic and continental crust

29
 What about the tectonic
plates? Earth’s crust is broken into
about 19 pieces. These plates move
on top of the asthenosphere, a
middle mantle which is composed
of solid flowing rock. A plate could
have a portion of it being oceanic
and a continent.

MANTLE
The mantle is said to be the
thickest layer of the Earth (approx.
2900km thick). It has a temperature
Fig. 1.3d Some major plates in the world
of 1600-4000 °F. The mantle
comprises 66% of Earth’s mass. This is said to be flowing because of its main composition which
is the molten rock called, magma.

CORE
The core, being the innermost
layer of the Earth is very hot with a
temperature reaching 4000-8000 °F . It is
said to be very dense. This layer of the
Earth is noted to be of high pressure.
The core is approximately 4000 miles
from surface.
This comprises 33% of Earth’s
mass, and is said to be very dense due
to iron and Nickel.
The core is about the same size as
Mars.

Fig. 1.3e Crust, mantle and core of the Earth

As once gets deeper inside the Earth, the temperature increases ,the pressure as well
increases .
The 3 main layers of the Earth can be divided further by the way they “act” within
the Earth and by their different physical properties.

30
 The other layers of the Earth are:
Lithosphere
This consists the crust and upper
mantle. This is the outermost layer. It is
considered a rigid layer. It is divided
into pieces or tectonic plates. The
lithosphere is mainly made up of rocks
and soil.

Asthenosphere
Fig. 1.3g The Lithosphere
This consists of middle mantle.
It is s composed of solid flowing rock
called magma. The layer on which
pieces of lithosphere move on top of
the solid rock that flows. Fig. 1.3f The Lithosphere

Mesosphere This is the bottom

mantle- the lower part of the
mantle. It is said to be strong layer
found between asthenosphere and
core.

Core The outer core is divided

into two parts: the outer and the
inner core.
The outer core is made up of
liquid iron and Nickel that is
spinning.
The inner core is made up of
solid Iron and Nickel. The metals
Fig. 1.3g The Asthenosphere are solidified because of the

pressure of the rest of the Earth’s layers surrounding it.

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 Fig. 1.3g The Core: inner and outer

How did the geologist know these? Were there anyone who had journeyed towards the center
of the Earth?
The answer is no one- not even the most high-tech gadget had ever drilled and reached the
centremost part of the Earth. However, through seismic waves, the scientist were able to gain
understanding and formed assumptions as to the following information we now believe to be.

• Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded
on seismographs.
• There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways.
The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves.

BODY WAVES

P Waves (compression wave)

• The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of
seismic wave. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid
layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves
push and pull the air.
S wave (transverse wave)
 The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave
you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through
solid rock. This wave moves rock up and down, or side-to-side.

32
SURFACE WAVES
Love Waves
• The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's
the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side.
Rayleigh Waves
• The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A
Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction
that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

Fig. 1.3h Types of Waves

Seismic waves produced by earthquakes travel at different speeds through solid rock and
liquids. This helps scientist identify the components of the different layers making up the Earth.

33
 Fig. 1.3i How seismic waves travel

Between surface and body waves, which one do you think is more devastating? It is
believed that surface waves are said to be the one causing much devastation. Infrastructures are
built on top of the Earth’s crust, therefore as these waves bringing up and down, side to side
movement destroys building on top of it.
Point of clarification: Earthquakes do not kill people. It is the infrastructures that topple
down are responsible for the fatalities after an earthquake had occurred.

So, what makes Earth a unique planet? Not only because of the popular notion ”the only
planet capable of hosting life”, but all these help define Earth as a unique planet.

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Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Chapter Review No.1: Origin & Structure of the Earth

I. Give what is asked in the following:

1.Three Theories explaining the Origin of the Universe
a.______________________________b._________________________c._________________________
2. Three Theories explaining the Origin of the Solar System
a.______________________________b._________________________c._________________________
3. Three Terrestrial planets
a.______________________________b._________________________c._________________________
4. Three characteristics that make Earth, a unique planet
a.___________________________________________________
b.___________________________________________________
c.___________________________________________________
5. Four Subsystems of Earth
a._____________________b._____________________c.___________________d._________________
II. Illustrate the layers of the Earth. Be sure to label them appropriately. (10 points)

III. Easy Essay. Read through the given questions, and answer them in a three sentences only.
A.Choose only 1 item to develop. Expound the chosen concept by describing it in details.
1. The Formation of the Universe or the Solar System
2. The Four Subsystems that make up the Earth
3. The Earth’s Internal Structure
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

B. Why do we need to have an understanding of the Origin and Structure of the Earth? Of what
importance are they?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Module 01 How did the Earth and the Solar System form?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

In this module, you will spend __3__ hours to :

a. describe Solar Nebular Theory from among the different hypotheses explaining the origin of
the solar system
b. simulate Accretion process
c. discuss how Accretion formed Earth and all other planets

What is this module all about?

According to Solar Nebular Theory, approximately 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was a
cloud of dust and gas known as a solar nebula. Gravity collapsed the material in on itself as it began to
spin, forming the sun in the center of the nebula.

The existence of the sun initiated the clumping-up of the remaining materials. Small particles drew
together, bound by the force of electrostatic gravity, into larger particles. The solar wind swept away
lighter elements, such as the two lightest elements Hydrogen and Helium, from the closer regions, leaving
only heavy, rocky materials to create terrestrial planets including the Earth. But farther away, the solar
winds had less impact on lighter elements, allowing them to coalesce into gas giants. In this manner, all
other members of the solar system were formed such as: asteroids, comets, planets, and moons.

The most widely accepted theory to explain the process of planetary formation is the Accretion
Model. How do this happen?

What is

What is expected of you?

You are to perform a group activity, entitled, How did the Earth and the Solar System Form: A
Group Simulation Activity.

What is expected of you?

Here is your work!

Here is your work!

36
 You are going to simulate how Accretion process had occurred. Please refer to the given
instructions as follows:

1. You are going to work as a class. The Class Representative is the facilitator of the game, at the
same time, the sun.
2. You need a large open area where you can freely move with your classmates.
3. The following are the materials that you need to prepare:
Materials: Student Role Cards (see examples below): You may reproduce them based on the number
specified.

 Interstellar Dust:  Planetesimal (~6 cards)  Protoplanet (~4 cards)

o Metallic grains (~8 cards)
o Rocky grains (~8 cards)
o Icy Grains (~14 cards

STUDENT ROLE CARDS

Planetisimals are objects in the early
Solar System that are of the same size of
a small moon amd have gravitational
fields strong enough to influence their
neighbors.
Protoplanetss are objects that preceeded
the formation of planets in the Solar
System.
Interstellar dust: Silicates and rocky grains including
heavy elements such as Silicon, iron, Magnesium and
Aluminum combined with Oxygen to form rocky materials
at a temperature of about 1000 K.(Chaisson, 2008).
Interstellar dust: Metallic grains including spherical balls
of Minerals and metal grew by condensation from a gas
between and about 1100 °C and 1000 °C formed around
the orbit of Mercury.

Interstellar dust: Icy grains including the condensation

of water, ammonia, and because of the large amounts of
the elements that make up these compounds they
greatly outnumber the rocky and metallic grains. Icy
grains formed around 5AU (Chaisson, 2008)

4. Kindly follow the instructions:

 Prepare the Student Role Cards, using either magic markers on poster paper or making computer-
generated labels or a photocopy of these. The color codes of the paper are important so that
students can see the color of other students’ labels at a distance. Make sure to have with you the
role cards. Take them with you during the simulation game.
 Directions: This game is similar to “tag.” When you tag a person they have to stay near you as you
form an asteroid! The goal is to tag as many students as you can as the game progresses.
 The class representative is the Sun. S/He stands in the middle of a circle of students, and gives
further instructions to let the game going.
 Distribute one Interstellar Dust Card to each student so that there are roughly equal numbers of
types of grains (metallic, rocky, icy) represented in the class, making sure that all students have role
cards.

 Move to the setting (pentagon, etc.) for the simulation. Students should stand close for directions.

37
To the Class Rep:

 When you have their attention, tell them. “This game is similar to ‘tag.’ When you tag a person
they have to stay near you as you form ‘clumps’. The goal is to tag as many students as you
can as the game following the specific directions given as the game progresses.”
 Tell the students that they are modeling interstellar dust particles, the dust grains around which
matter began to accumulate in the early Solar System. Have them note that there are three kinds of
dust grains. Those wearing/having red colored tags are silicates and rocky dust grains; those with blue
colored tags are metallic dust grains; and the white colored tags indicate icy grains. Have them read
the description of their types of dust grains on their role cards.

 Give them directions for the game. They will jog (not run) in a counter clockwise circular path
around the “Sun” which is in the center of the large open area. As students jog they should keep their
arms to their sides until the other student come close to another student. Explain that for the first
part of the activity, they are modeling “sticky attraction.” That is, they can tag and stick only to like
grains. For example, if one icy grain tags another icy grain, they form a pair and can now extend their
arms in order to tag another icy grain. An icy grain, however, cannot tag a metallic or a rocky grain.

 Have the students move out so the ring is large enough for safe orbiting and give them the
“start orbiting” signal.
 Allow the orbiting to continue for several minutes and then call time.
 Explain that the students who are paired up are called clumps. Explain that the force at work
in the activity where like grains can attract and stick to like grains is electrostatic attraction.
 Give students the following directions for the next orbiting period. “When the clumps tag
other like grains (one or more) the group will stay together and can try to tag others.”
 After a few more minutes, call time again.

 At this point, have the students observe that there are groups of various sizes. Tell them that
groups that have four or more students represent planetesimals.

 Hand a “planetesimal” sign to each of the student groups of four or more as you say: “You have
just modeled the first phase of Condensation Theory of Solar System formation— from interstellar
dust particles to planetesimals. Planetesimals are larger than “clumps” but each planetesimal is
made of the same type of constituents. Some of you planetesimals are made of rocky materials,
some are made of metallic materials, and others are made of icy materials.”

 Continue: “You were also traveling at relatively low velocities so that when you collided with
the same type of dust particles you ‘stuck’ and didn’t just bounce off them. If you were real
planetesimal, you would have accumulated enough dust particles to be the size of a small
moon.”
Give students these directions for the next phase of the simulation.
a. Those groups who formed planetesimals can now tag and stick to any other type of grain. You
have formed large enough groups that you can use your gravitational force (extended reach)
to attract other dust particles or other planetesimals.
b. Call time when they have tagged other planetesimals or icy, rocky, or metallic grains to form
much larger clumps.

38
 c. Designate the two planetesimals that form the largest clump after the allotted time as
protoplanets by handing them cards labeled “Protoplanet.” Explain that they have just
modeled the second phase of Condensation Theory of Solar System formation—where
planetesimals grew in size to form protoplanets using gravitational accretion.
 Repeat the game and see if the results change.

Points to Ponder:

“Simulations indicate that, in perhaps as little as 100,000 years accretion resulted in objects a few
hundred kilometers across” (Chaison, 2008). It is thought that the formation of protoplanets from
nebular dust grains required a few million years. How can a dust become a rock? One way to
think about this is for students to think about the amount of time involved in Solar System
formation and that over a lot of time and with many dust particles, they will eventually form
grains (like sand) and then like a little pebble then eventually the size of a baseball, then the
size of a basketball and so forth. Similar interstellar dust particles stick through electrostatic
attraction; after clumps grow to a certain mass they gather materials to form planetesimals
through the force of gravity.

“ Accretion and fragmentation are competing processes. The planetesimals grew from
dust grains by gradually sticking together, but small bodies were also broken apart by collisions
with larger ones.”

SELF-ASSESSMENT

Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.

Post-Activity Discussion Questions:

1. What happened to the student dust particles at the beginning of the game?
______________________________________________________________________________
L Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.
2. How did the clumps interact with students representing similar interstellar dust
particles?______________________________________________ Was the movement of the two
students the same or different?__________________ What force was in effect?_______________
3. Did unlike dust particles interact? Why or why not?
_______________________________________________________________________________
4. What happened when there were more than four clumps?_______________________________ Was
the movement of the two students after the interaction the same or different?
___________________Was the movement of student dust particles the same as that of the student
clumps?__________________ What force was in effect?___________________________
5. What did you notice about the dust particles at the end of the activity?
_______________________________________________________________________________
6. Think back to your response about how you thought asteroids formed. Based on this activity:
a. In what ways was it similar? ___________________________________________________
b. In what ways was it different?_____________________________________________________
7. How would the difference in the makeup of the solar nebula in the different regions of the asteroid

39
 nebula affect the “sticky” accretion that they were modeling?

_______________________________________________________________________________
8. Would you find the same kind of problem when you model gravitational accretion?
_______________________________________________________________________________

9. What do you think would happen if another large group of (maybe 100) students, which might
represent a large planet like Jupiter, entered the circular path where you have been running?
_______________________________________________________________________________
10. Suppose that two fairly large planetesimals that are traveling at a high velocity were attracted to each
other. Do you think that a collision between them would always result in accretion? What else might
happen?_______________________________________________________________

What have you learned from the activity? How is the model different from the real
thing?____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Source: https://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/DawnClassrooms/pdfs/ActiveAccretion_Dawn.pdf

40
 Chapter 2. Earth’s Materials and Processes
This chapter puts emphasis on the following lessons:

 Lesson A. Minerals and Rocks

 Lesson B. Exogenic Processes

 Lesson C. Endogenic Processes

 Lesson D. Deformation of the Crust

 Lesson E. History of the Earth

Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the three main categories of rocks

 the origin and environment of formation of common minerals and rocks
 geologic processes that occur on the surface of the Earth such as weathering,
erosion, mass wasting, and sedimentation (include the role of ocean basins in the
formation of sedimentary rocks)
 geologic processes that occur within the Earth
 the folding and faulting of rocks
 plate tectonics
 how the planet Earth evolved in the last 4.6 billion years (including the age of the
Earth, major geologic time subdivisions, and marker fossils).

Performance Standards:
The learners shall be able to :

1. Conduct a survey to assess the possible geologic hazards that your community may

experience. (Note: Select this performance standard if your school is in an area near

faultlines, volcanoes, and steep slopes.)

2. Conduct a survey or design a study to assess the possible hydrometeorological hazards

that your community may experience.

Learning Competencies:
The learners:
a. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties.

41
 b. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
c. describe how rocks undergo weathering
d. explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited
elsewhere.
e. make a report on how rocks and soil move downslope due to the direct action of
gravity.
f. describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from
g. describe how magma is formed (magmatism)
h. describe what happens after the magma is formed (plutonism and volcanism)
i. describe the changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in
pressure and temperature (metamorphism)
j. compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks
k. describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as compression,
pulling apart and shearing.
l. explain how the continents drift.
m. cite evidence that support continental drift.
n. explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults
o. explain how the seafloor spreads.
p. describe the structure and evolution of ocean basins
q. describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed
r. describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating ) to determine the age of
stratified rocks
s. explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions of
geologic time
t. describe how marker fossils ( also known as guide fossils) are used to define and
identify subdivisions of the geologic time scale.
u. describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time scale

BIG IDEA 2.1

Earth’s materials include rocks and minerals. A rock is a naturally occurring solid
mixture of one or more minerals, or organic matter while minerals are naturally-formed solid
substance with a crystal structure.

2.1 Minerals and Rocks

Earth has naturally occurring materials which are necessary for every creature’s
existence. Earth’s materials include the rocks and minerals. They exhibit characteristic features
and have economic value.

42
What are rocks?
A rock is a naturally occurring
solid mixture of one or more
minerals, or organic matter. Rocks
are classified by how they are
formed, their composition, and
texture. They change over time
through the rock cycle.

What are the different types of

rocks?
• Igneous rock is formed
from molten rock that has
cooled and hardened.
Fig. 2.1a Rock Formation

• Sedimentary rock is formed from material that has settled into layers and hardened.

• Metamorphic rock is a rock that has changed by heat and pressure.

Igneous rock comes from the

Latin word “ignis” which means
fire. True enough because it begins
as magma. Magma can form when
rock is heated, when pressure is
released, and when rock changed
composition. In fact, magma
“freezes” between 700 and 1,250
°C. Igneous rocks are formed by the
cooling of molten rock (magma).
Magma cools and solidifies
forming igneous rocks. Magma is a
mixture of many minerals.

Fig. 2.1b Magma

Igneous rocks are characterized by their texture and composition:

Felsic: light colored rocks that are rich in elements such as aluminum, potassium, silicon, and
sodium
Mafic: dark colored rocks that are rich in calcium, iron, and magnesium, poor in silicon
Coarse-grained: takes longer to cool, giving mineral crystals more time to grow.
Fine-grained: cools quickly with little to no crystals .

43
 Igneous rocks can also be classified as:
Intrusive Igneous Rocks Magma
pushes into surrounding rock
below the Earth’s surface, cools
slowly with larger crystal
formation, loses mobility before
reaching the Earth’s surface thus,
crystallizes at depth.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks form
when magma erupts onto the
Earth’s surface (lava), cools quickly
with very small or no crystals
Fig. 2.1c Classifications of Igneous Rocks
formed.

Fig. 2.1d Extrusive Igneous Rock Formation
Obsidian is a dark-colored
volcanic glass that forms from the
very rapid cooling of molten rock
material. It cools so rapidly that
crystals do not form. Granite (used
as table top) is also a well-known
igneous rock.

Fig. 2.1d Intrusive Igneous Rock Formation

Fig. 2.1e Obsidian rock and granite

44
 Sedimentary rock is formed by erosion. These are moved from one place to another and
are deposited in layers, with the older ones on the bottom. The layers become compacted and
cemented together.
Sedimentary Rocks are formed
at or near the Earth’s surface. No
heat and pressure involved, where
the strata – layers of rock, are
formed. Stratification, is the
process in which sedimentary
rocks are arranged in layers. Clastic
sedimentary are rocks made of
fragments of rock cemented
together with calcite or quartz.
Breccia is a term most often used
for clastic sedimentary rocks that
are composed of large angular
fragments (over two millimeters in
Fig. 2.1f Stratification

diameter). The spaces between the large

angular fragments can be filled with a
matrix of smaller particles or a mineral
cements that binds the rock together.

Fig. 2.1g Breccia

Fig. 2.1h Sedimentary rock formation

The types of sedimentary rocks are (based on how they are formed):
Chemical sedimentary – minerals crystallize out of solution to become rock. Limestone is
a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium
carbonate ( CaCO3) in the form of a mineral calcite. It most
commonly forms in clear, warm, shallow marine waters. It
is usually an organic sedimentary rock that forms from the
accumulation of shell, coral, algal and fecal debris.

Organic sedimentary – remains of plants and

animals. Coal is an organic sedimentary rock that forms the
accumulation and preservation of plant materials, usually in Fig. 2.1i Limestone and Coal

45
a swamp environment. Coal is a combustible rock along with oil and natural gas. It is one of the
three most important fossil fuels.

Metamorphic rocks came from

pre-existing rocks called parent rock.
The rocks undergo changes such as in
shape, texture, mineralogy and
chemical composition by heat and
pressure but remains solid. It usually
takes place deep in the Earth.
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the
effect of heat and pressure on existing
rocks, which greatly affect the
hardness, texture or layer patterns of Fig. 2.1j Metamorphic Rock Formation
the rocks.

There are two types of metamorphic

rock formation:
Contact Metamorphism– heated
by nearby magma. Increased
temperature changes the composition of
the rock, minerals are changed into new
minerals.

Hornfels is a fine grained non-

foliated metamorphic rock produced by
contact metamorphism.

Fig. 2.1k Contact Metamorphism; Regional Metamorphism

Regional Metamorphism – pressure builds up in rocks

that is deep within the Earth. Large pieces of the Earth’s crust
collide and the rock is deformed and chemically changed by heat
and pressure

Fig. 2.1l Hornfels

46
 Metamorphic rocks are classified into:
Foliated- contain aligned grains of flat minerals.
Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock that has a banded
appearance and is made up of granular mineral grains. It
typically contains abundant quartz or feldspar minerals.
Non-Foliated – mineral grains are not arranged in
plains or bands. Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock
that is produced from the metamorphism of limestone. It is
composed primarily of calcium carbonate. Fig. 2.1m Gneiss and Marble

How do rocks form?

How much time does it take to form a rock?
If you squeeze and heat a rock for a few million years, it can turn into a new kind of rock.
Where does the heat come from?
When rocks are close enough to the magma to be heated but not close enough to be melted,
the rocks can be changed.
Where does the pressure come from?
Rocks below the surface are squeezed by the layers of rock above them. The thicker the
layers, the more pressure there is.

Suppose we start with a metamorphic

rock, a magma cools and solidifies through the
process of crystallization which may happen
either beneath the surface of the Earth or at the
surface through volcanic eruption—which
results to an igneous rock.
Igneous rock undergoes weathering.
The eroded materials are deposited as
sediments, which is later converted into rocks
through lithification. Lithification is the
process in which sediments compact under
pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually
become solid rock.
If sedimentary rocks are buried deep
within the Earth. They will be subjected to heat
and pressure changing them into metamorphic
rock. If it is subjected to a higher temperature,
they will melt and turn into magma, which
could be solidified into an igneous rock and the
cycle starts all over again.

Fig. 2.1o The Rock Cycle

47
What are minerals?
Minerals are naturally-formed solid
substance with a crystal structure.

Characteristics shared by all minerals:

 Are formed by natural processes.
 Are NOT alive and NEVER were alive
 Have a definite volume and shape
 Are elements or compounds with a
unique chemical makeup
 Are made up of particles that are
arranged in a pattern(crystal) that is
Fig. 2.1o Pyromorphite Mineral
repeated over and over

How do rocks differ from minerals?

A mineral is a non-living solid found in nature. But, aren’t rocks non-living and found in
nature too? Then what is the difference between a rock and a mineral?

• Rocks are made up of one or more minerals!

• The reason why some rocks have more than one color, is because they contain more than
one mineral.
• Also, some rocks are made up of other things, such as sand and pebbles, in addition to
minerals.

Minerals are grouped by the elements they are made of. The table below shows:

Mineral Characteristics Examples

Group
Silicates -contain oxygen and silica Quartz , mica
-the most abundant group of
minerals

Non-silicates -made up of 5% of the Earth’s Iron, copper, Gold, Silver, diamonds, rubies
crust
-include some of the most
important minerals

48
Carbonates -made up of Carbon & Oxygen Calcite ( CaCO3)
and a positive ion such as
calcium

Oxides -made up of metallic ion and Hematite (Fe2)O3

Oxygen

Sulfides -made up of Sulfur and metallic Galena ( PbS)

ion

Sulfates -made up of metallic ion, Barite ( BaSO4)

Sulfur& Oxygen

Native -made up of single elements Gold, Diamond, Silver

Elements

How do minerals form?

 Minerals are formed from elements that are dissolved in liquids usually in water.

 Minerals are also formed from the cooling of magma (hot, liquid rock and minerals inside
the Earth (from the mantle). Fast cooling produces no crystals (mineraloids) while
medium cooling produces small crystals and slow cooling makes large crystals.

Minerals are noted for the crystal patterns observed in them. They also possess
characteristics or properties that make them distinct from other Earth’s resources. In fact,
these properties can be used to identify a specific mineral.

49
Some Physical Properties of Minerals
 Color Although it can be misleading
because it can vary with the type of
impurities, but it can be used to
identify a mineral.
 Luster This refers to the surface
reflection. Minerals based on its
luster can be identified as:
 metallic – which is shiny like
metal
 non-metallic – which is dull,
& has
non-shiny surface
Fig. 2.1p Minerals with respect to luster: metallic & non.metallic

 Streak The color of the powdered form of

the mineral. The color of the streak can be
different than the mineral. Minerals must be
softer than the streak plate. Streak can help
identify a quartz through the white streak it
leaves, even if they are differently colored.
 Hardness This refers to how easily a mineral
scratches materials.

Fig. 2.1q White streak produced by quartz of different colors

How do we know the strength of rocks

and minerals?

The Mohs Hardness Scale was

designed for us to use as a scale to determine
the strength of rocks and minerals. It uses a
scale from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest).

Fig. 2.1r Mohs Hardness Scale

50

Fig. 2.1s Hardness based on Scratches
The table, on the other hand, on the left side, can serve
as a guide to estimate the hardness of a rock or a mineral. This
reference is made by seeing if the mineral can be scratched by
different objects (like human fingernail, copper, penny, glass,
steel file). For example, talc has a hardness of 1 which can be
scratched by a fingernail with a hardness of 2.2 or a by a glass
with a hardness of 5.5.
Philippines have large reserves of various kinds of
minerals. It is one of the top-ranking mineral reserves for gold,
nickel, copper, and chromite. This is because of its location in
the Circum-Pacific Rim, where geologic processes caused
deposition of both metallic and metallic minerals.
What about the minerals found in the human body?
These minerals refer to a different thing. Let’s talk about them…

Minerals and Human Nutrition

There are 6 essential
substances a human body cannot
live without:
 Macronutrients, which
includes :
1.protein,
2.fats, and
3.carbohydrates
 Micronutrients, which
includes:
4.vitamins,
5. minerals
6. Water
Fig.2.1u 6 Essential Substances Needed by the Body

The table below shows some important nutrients needed the body.
Minerals Functions Sources
Calcium -formation of bones and teeth, helps in blood circulation Milk and milk products, green veggies
Magnesium - prevents heart disease, supports bone formation and nerve Cereals, nuts, milk and green veggies
and muscle function
Iron - helps in metabolism, and energy balance Liver ,kidney, red meat, egg yolk
Potassium -major intracellular cat-ion, helps in muscle contraction Fruit, veggies and meat
Zinc -co-factor of many enzymes, helps in synthesis of proteins Red meat, dairy products, nuts
Chloride -maintains electrical gradient across cell membrane All salt-containing food
Iodine -helps in the synthesis of thyroid hormones Seafood, iodized salt, milk products
Phosphorus -helps in energy metabolism, bone and teeth formation Milk, cheese, yogurt
Selenium - helps in preventing cellular damage and in the regulation Seafood, meat and grains
and activation of other nutrients

51
 So, the next time you see a mineral, a diamond, for instance, it is hoped that not only you
would be able to appreciate it due to its economic value but you would be able to recall other
minerals as well as they are also very important in one’s body.

CHALLENGE 2.1
Make a Concept Map on the Earth’s Materials: Rocks and Minerals.

52
Name:________________________Strand & Block:_____________Date:___________Score:_______

Earth has naturally-occurring materials which are necessary for every creature’s
existence. Earth’s materials include the rocks and minerals. They exhibit characteristic features
and have economic value.
A rock is a naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals, or organic matter.
Rocks are classified by how they are formed, their composition, and texture. Minerals are
naturally-formed solid substance with a crystal structure. Rocks are made up of one or more
minerals!

Use the following words in your Concept Map below:

carbonate coal contact metamorphism diamond
Galena Mohs Hardness Scale igneous limestone
lithification luster magma oxide
metamorphic sedimentary regional metamorphism sediments
stratification sulfate rocks minerals

Concept Map #_____

Earth’s Materials: Rocks & Minerals
TITLE

53
 BIG IDEA 2.2
Earth, as a dynamic body is constantly changing. Earth’s landscape is being sculptured by
certain geologic processes such as weathering, erosion, faulting and folding. These occur on the
surface of the Earth and on its interior, as reflected in the Figure below:

2.2Exogenic Processes

Exogenic processes are external processes that occur at or near the surface of the Earth. It
plays a part in the rock cycle. In fact, they are the ones responsible for the transformation of rocks
into sediments. This includes the following processes:
• Weathering- physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks
• Erosion- physical removal of the sediments
• Transportation- movement of eroded particles
• Deposition- dropping of, deposit of sediments
• Mass Wasting- is the mass movement of rocks, soil, and regolith, which follows
weathering, a degradation process, which includes :
 creep- slow downhill movement.
 rock and debris fall- happens when a material is dislodged and make free fall along
steep cliffs.
 landslides-are sudden fast movement of cohesive mas of soil or regolith, the layer
of unconsolidated rocky material covering bedrock.
 flows- happens when materials move in group along a concave upward curved
surface.

54
What is weathering?
Weathering is the breakdown of
rock material by physical and chemical
processes. There are two kinds of
weathering are physical (mechanical)
weathering and chemical weathering.
Physical weathering is the process
by which rock is broken down into smaller
pieces by physical changes. The
composition of the material does not change
during physical weathering. The agents of
physical weathering include temperature
changes, pressure changes, plant and
Fig. 2.2a Physical(Mechanical) Weathering
animal actions, water, wind, and gravity.
• Changes in temperature can cause a 2.83
rock to break apart by weakening
the structure of the rock. Heat
causes the rock to expand; cold
causes it to contract. Ice wedging, or
frost wedging, causes cracks in rocks
to widen with repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing.
• Pressure changes can weather
rocks.Rocks that formed under
pressure deep within Earth can be
exposed to the surface. As material
is removed above the rock, the
pressure decreases and the rock Fig. 2.2b Frost Wedging

expands. Exfoliation is the process

by which the outer layers of rock
slowly peel away due to pressure
changes.

Fig. 2.2c Exfoliation

55
 • Animals such as prairie dogs, can cause physical
weathering by digging burrows. New rocks, soils, and
other materials become exposed at the surface as a
result of animal actions. Materials exposed at the
surface are more likely to undergo weathering than
those below.
• Roots of plants start out
as tiny strands that may
Fig. 2.2d Animal that burrows
grow in small cracks in
rocks. As the roots grow,
they put more pressure on the rock, causing the rock to
expand and eventually break apart.

Fig. 2.2e Roots of Plants on Crevices Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by
chemical reactions. It changes both the composition and
appearance of rocks. The agents of
chemical weathering include oxygen
in the air and acids.
 Oxidation is the process by
which chemicals in rock
combine with oxygen in the
air or in water. Rock
surfaces, especially those
containing iron, sometimes
change color, indicating that
a chemical reaction may have
occurred due to rust
production.
 Acids can cause chemical
weathering by breaking
down minerals faster than Fig. 2.2f Chemical Weathering

water alone. Acids in the atmosphere

are created when chemicals (due to
the burning of fossil fuels) combine
with water in the air. Acid
precipitation occurs when strong
acids fall to Earth as rain, sleet, or
snow. Acids in groundwater can
cause rock to dissolve. A small crack
in the rock can result in the formation
of extensive cave systems carved out
over time. Rock material dissolved in
Fig. 2.2g Rust production on rocks

56
 groundwater can be carried and deposited in
new locations over time. Acids produced by
living things such as lichens and mosses, can
cause chemical weathering. Chemical reactions
occur as these acids move through tiny spaces
in rock material. As the acids seep deeper,
cracks form. Eventually, the rock can break
apart.

Fig. 2.2h Acids produced by lichens

What is erosion?
Weathering is sometimes
mistaken with erosion. Weathering
breaks up the Earth's surface into
small pieces called sediment.
Erosion is the process of moving
sediments from one place to
another. Wind, water, gravity, ice
and humans are all causes of
Fig. 2.2i Erosion erosion.

What is deposition?
Deposition is the dropping, or depositing, of sediments by
water, wind, or ice. Deposition builds up new land on Earth's
surface like the delta at the end of a river or the pile up of a
sand dune in the desert. Shells on the beach are deposition
by ocean waves. Deposition is the aggradation or
accumulation of weather and sediments to create landforms.
Fig. 2.2j Water-driven deposits
These landforms are categorized as to what creates
them:
• Water- creates alluvial fans, and deltas.
Alluvial fans are pan-shaped deposits when
streams loses its capacity to carry the
sediment, thus deposit at the junction of a
hill and piedmont. Deltas are formed when
river loses energy as it flows into an area of
slow-moving water such as lake.

Fig. 2.2k Glacier-formed deposits

57
 • Glacier-creates esker, drumlins and
kames. Esker is a winding ridge of sand
and gravel deposited under a glacier by
water melting from the ice. Drumlins
are streamlined asymmetrical hills
while kames are steep sided hill
composed of sand and gravel.
• Wind-creates loess and sand dunes.
Loess is a blanket of silt carried by wind
in suspension and deposited over
broad areas while sand dunes are
Fig. 2.2l Wind-blown deposits
deposits of coarse materials in the
shape of hills or ridges.

The natural processes that change Earth's oceans and land can be categorized in two ways:
 Constructive: Those processes that create landforms.
 Destructive: Those processes that destroy landforms.

Which exogenic processes are constructive and which are destructive?

Weathering, in general, being the breakdown of rocks, is considered to be destructive since it
destroys a certain rock formation, and when the sediments are eroded through erosion, it could
lead to the formation of a new ones after the sediments had been deposited forming a certain
depositional landform. Erosion can either be destructive or constructive.

What is denudation?
Denudation is a general term referring to all processes that cause reduction or rearrangement
of landforms. The principal denudation processes affecting surface materials include weathering,
mass movement, erosion, transportation, and deposition.
Mass wasting is the downslope movement of Earth under the influence of gravity. There are
various factors in mass wasting, including human activities, the rock’s effective strength and pore
spaces.
• Vegetation helps hold soils through the roots of plants.
• Over steepening slopes through quarrying, open pit mining increases mass movement.
• Adding moisture to slopes thru lawn watering, and draining in swimming pool water
reservoir leakage increases mass movement.

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What are the types of mass wasting?

There are four basic classifications

of mass movement used: fall, slide, flow,
and creep. Each involves the pull of
gravity working on a mass until the
critical shearing strength is reduced to the
point that the mass falls, slides, flows, or
creeps downward. A rock fall is simply a
quantity of rock that falls through the air
and hits a surface. During a rock fall,
individual pieces fall independently, and
characteristically form a pile of irregular
broken rocks called a talus cone at the
base of a steep cliff.

Creep. The slow downhill

movement of soil down a steep slope
Fall. Material moves in free fall
Fig. 2.2m The Four Types of Mass Wasting
down a cliff. It could be a rock or a debris
fall.
Slip. Materials moving together along a surface.
• Slump is the movement along a curved surface.
• Slide is the movement along a plane parallel to the surface.
Flow. Mass movement of a liquid.

Earth’s surface is constantly changing. There are processes involved in sculpturing Earth’s
surface, such as weathering, mass wasting, erosion, transportation and deposition. They are
called the EXOGENIC PROCESS.

2.3 Endogenic Processes

The Endogenic Processes, include tectonic processes
and volcanism. The ground we live on is moving all the time.
Endogenic Forces, are forces within the Earth that cause the
ground to move. Rock layers at the surface of the Earth are
broken, twisted and shaken when the ground moves. Land is
destroyed in many places and is created in other places. When
the land is shaped by endogenic forces we call this endogenic
processes. There are 3 main endogenic processes: folding,
faulting and vulcanicity. They take place mainly along the
plate boundaries, which are the zones that are not stable.
Endogenic processes cause many major landform features. Fig. 2.3a The Pangaea

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 Tectonics is the study of the processes that deform the Earth’s crust- how and what causes
these deformation.
One of the most discernable assumptions as to how Earth’s crust was deformed is the
Continental Drift and the Plate Tectonic Theory. In 1915, the German geologist and meteorologist
Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift, which states that parts of the Earth's
crust slowly drift atop a liquid core. The fossil record, as well as, earthquakes, associated with
plate boundaries, often occur along faults support and give credence to the theories of continental
drift and plate tectonics.
All major interactions among individual plates occur along their boundaries. There are
three types of plate boundaries differentiated by their types of movement:
1. Convergent Boundary happens when two plates move toward each other.
 Oceanic-continental convergence creates trenches, destructive earthquakes, rapid
uplift of mountain ranges and volcanic arc.
 Oceanic-oceanic convergence form trenches like the Marianas and volcanic arc.
 Continental-continental convergence forms mountain ranges like the Himalayas
or the Himalayan range.

Fig. 2.3b The Types of Convergence:Oceanic-continental, Oceanic-oceanic, and Continental-continental convergences

2. Divergent Boundary happens when two plates move

away from each other.
Most divergent boundaries occur along the crest of the
oceanic ridges causing upwelling of magma due to seafloor
spreading.

What is Seafloor spreading?

Seafloor spreading happens along the boundaries of
Fig. 2.3c Divergent Boundary
tectonic plates that are moving apart from each other. These areas
are called mid-ocean ridges. New seafloor is created at the bottom,
or rift, of a mid-ocean ridge. Ocean basins that have mid-ocean ridges are expanding. The Atlantic
basin, for instance, is expanding because of seafloor spreading.

What are ocean basins? How do they evolve?

Oceanic basins are the result of tectonic forces and processes. All of the ocean basins were
formed from volcanic rock that was released from fissures located at the mid-oceanic ridges.
Oceanic rock is returned to the Earth's mantle when oceanic crust is subducted. Many of these

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subduction zones occur at the continental margins where oceanic crust meets continental crust.
Subduction also creates the ocean's deep trenches.

Continental shelf is a shallow (average depth 130

meters) gently sloping part of the continental crust that
borders the continents. The continental slope extends from
the continental shelf at an average depth of about 135 meters.
The width of the slope varies from 20 to 100 kilometres. Both
the continental shelf and slope are considered structurally part
of the continents, even though they are below the sea surface.
The boundary between the continental slope and shelf is called
Fig. 2.3d Features of an Ocean Basin
the continental shelf break.

Submarine canyons are V-shaped canyons cut into the continental slope to a depth of up
to 1200 meters. The submarine canyons are cut perpendicular to the running direction of the
continental slope. Many canyons are associated with major rivers such as the Congo, Hudson,
and others. The continental rise is found at the base of the continental slope. The depth of the
rise ranges from 2000 to 5000 meters deep. Its breadth is up 300 kilometers wide. This feature was
created by the merging of accumulated deposits at the mouths of the many submarine canyons.
Each canyon's thick fan-shaped sedimentary deposit is called an abyssal fans. The ocean floor is
found at the base of the continental rise in water 4000 to 6000 meters deep. The ocean floor
accounts for nearly 30% of the Earth's surface. The composition of the ocean floor consists of a
relatively thin layer (on average 5 kilometers thick) of basaltic rock with an average density of
3.0 grams per cubic centimeter (continents - granite rocks - density 2.7 grams per cubic
centimeter).

There are five major ocean basins, coordinating with the major oceans of the world: the
Pacific basin, the Atlantic basin, the Indian basin, the Arctic basin, and the Southern basin. Many
smaller basins are often considered oceanic basins, such as the North Aleutian basin, between the
Pacific and Arctic Oceans.

Numerous volcanoes populate the floor of the ocean basins. Scientists estimate that there
are approximately 10,000 volcanoes on the ocean floor.

3. Transform Plate Boundary happens when two

plates slide past each other.

Tectonic forces come in three types: tensional stress,

compressional stress and shearing stress.
Likewise, tectonic processes come in three types based on
the types of tectonic forces:
 Folding ( rocks are pushed toward each other) Fig. 2.3e Transform Plate Boundary
 Faulting ( rocks are fractured and brittles are displaced)

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  Shearing ( rocks are cleaved off )

What is folding?
Folding is one of the endogenic processes. When two
forces push towards each other from opposite sides, the rock
layers will bend into folds. The process by which folds are
formed are due to compressional forces known as folding. There
are large-scale and small-scale folds. Large-scale folds are found
mainly along destructive plate boundaries.

What is faulting?
Fig. 2.3f Fold in mountain showing the upward arching
Faulting is the fracturing and displacement of more brittle (anticline) downward arching (syncline).
rock strata along a fault plane either caused by tension or
compression. A break in rock along which a vertical or horizontal rock movement has occurred
is called a fault. The process of forming a fault is faulting. The line of fault which appears on land
surface is known as fault line. These lines are often lines of weakness which allow molten rock
to rise up onto the Earth surface when there is active volcanic activity nearby.
There are three types of fault which are caused by different endogenic forces:
- Normal fault, one block slides down the other.
- Reverse fault, one block slides up the other.
- Tear fault, two blocks slide past each other, as if being cleaved off.

Fig. 2.3g Types of faults

Faulting forms two major landforms - block mountains and rift valley.

What is Volcanism (Vulcanicity) ? How does it differ from Plutonism?

Volcanism(also known as volcanic activity or igneous activity) is one of the endogenic

processes. Magma beneath the crust is under very great pressure. When folding and faulting
occur, cracks or fractures which are lines of weakness, are formed. When these lines of weakness
develop downward in the crust and reach the magma, they will release the pressure in the
magma. This allows magma to rise up along the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust.
Some magma may even reach the Earth's surface. There are two types of vulcanicity: intrusive

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vulcanicity and extrusive vulcanicity. Plutonism happens when formation of intrusive igneous
rock by solidification of magma occurs beneath the Earth's surface.

What is the relationship between volcanic activity and tectonics?

Active volcanoes lie along subduction zones, where tectonic processes occur.

The Map of Active Volcanoes and the “Ring of Fire”

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 The map reveals that Philippines, situated in the “Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire”, abounds
with active volcanoes. In fact, all over the world, Asia, the continent where Philippines belong
garnered 37% of volcanoes, and to note, most of which are active ones.
How do volcanoes work?
Heat and pressure cause rocks to melt and
form magma. Magma needs to get out because of
too much pressure. The rise in temperature or drop
in pressure causes magma to form faster. Magma is
forced onto Earth’s surface. It dries and hardens,
this happens many times over thousands of years.
Eventually a mountain called a volcano is formed.
Fig. 2.3h How do volcanoes form

What are the parts of a volcano?

Most volcanoes share a specific
set of features. The magma that feeds
the eruptions pools deep underground
in a structure called a magma chamber.
At Earth’s surface, lava is released
through openings called vents. Flowing
lava in the interior travels through long,
pipe like structures known as lava
tubes.

Fig. 2.3i Parts of a volcano

Where do most volcanoes occur?

Volcanoes occur at both divergent and convergent boundaries and also at hot spots.

Magma does not form everywhere. It forms in subduction zones, hot spots/mantle plumes.
Magma production at the subduction zones occur due to the following conditions:
1. Increased temperature due to friction-Friction heats rocks as one plate moves downward.
The additional heat contributes to melting.

2. Addition of water to the asthenosphere- a subducting plate is covered by oceanic crust

which is soaked in seawater. As the soaked oceanic crust dives into the mantle, the water
boils to generate steam. The addition of hot water melts portions of the asthenosphere,
forming large quantities of magma.

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 3. Pressure-relief melting- Melting due to pressure relief happens when rocks in the
asthenosphere flow upward when a subducting plate descends.

Why do we have different types of volcanoes?

• The process of magma formation is different at each type of plate boundary. Therefore,
the composition of magma differs in each tectonic setting.
• Tectonic settings determine the types of volcanoes that form and the types of eruptions
that take place.

At a divergent boundary, the lithosphere becomes thinner as two plates pull away from each
other. A set of deep cracks form in an area called a rift zone. Hot mantle rock rises to fill these
cracks. As the rock rises, a decrease in pressure causes hot mantle rock to melt and form magma.
The magma that reaches Earth’s surface is called lava. Basaltic magma rises to Earth’s surface
through these fissures and erupts non-explosively

The types of volcanoes are:

• Shield volcano: usually form at hot spots, from non-explosive eruptions

• Cinder cone volcano: form from explosive eruptions, very steep.
• Composite volcano: form from both explosive and non-explosive eruptions.

Fig. 2.3j Types of volcanoes

Shield volcano form from many layers of “runny”

lava. They are very wide, not too steep, and the biggest
type of volcanoes. The tallest mountain in the world is
Mauna Kea (measures from sea floor to top). Mt.
Kanlaon in Negros Oriental, is an example of a shield
type volcano. They produce non explosive eruptions.
Cinder cone volcano is the smallest type of volcano,
and most common. It is made from pyroclastic material
(material shot out of a volcano). It forms a large crater
Fig. 2.3k Mt. Kanlaon in Negros Oriental
and is explosive. Taal Volcano is an example of a cinder
cone volcano.

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 Composite volcanoes do have eruptions
that alternate between explosive and non-
explosive. Sometimes they have runny lava
layers, other times they have pyroclastic
materials that form layers. They have a wide
base and steep sides, and have a crater.
Mt. Mayon & Mount Fuji in Japan are the
examples.

Fig. 2.3lTaal Volcano in Batangas

Fig. 2.3m Mt. Mayon in Albay

So, there are two types of volcanic eruptions:

• Explosive Volcanoes that build enough pressure to blow its top, sending pyroclastic
material into the air.
• Non explosive It builds only enough pressure to allow lava to run down its sides.
Non-explosive eruptions produce mafic rocks, refers to rocks and magma rich in iron and
magnesium. This type of lava is very runny. As magma nears the surface, there is little pressure,
causing gasses to escape easily. Magma low in Silica have quiet eruptions.
Explosive eruptions produce felsic rocks, means magma with high silica and feldspar
content. Felsic magma traps water and gas bubbles, which leads to lots of pressure. Silica acts like
a cork, thus, explosive eruptions are caused by a buildup of high pressure. Convergent zones
contain lots of water, therefore have explosive eruptions.

What are pyroclastic materials?

These are material that is thrown into the air during an explosion, which includes the
following:
• Volcanic bombs: large blobs of magma that harden in the air.
• Lapilli: pebble size rocks
• Volcanic ash: tiny powder like material

What are the different types of lava?

• Aa: lava that is thick and sharp
• Pahoehoe: lava that forms thin crust and wrinkles
• Pillow lava: lava that erupts under water, has a round shape

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 • Blocky lava: cooler, lava that does not travel far from eruption, jagged when it dries.

Fig. 2.3n Types of Lava and their characteristics

The Earth’s crust had undergone lots of changes leading to the formation of Earth’s
breath-taking landscapes. This goes to say that the Earth’s surface, as well as its interior are
constantly changing. There are processes involved in sculpturing Earth’s surface all the way from
its interior , such as folding, faulting and volcanic activity. They are called the Endogenic Process.

CHALLENGE 2.2
Draft an essay on, How do Exogenic and Endogenic Processes contribute in sculpting the
Earth’s landscapes?

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Name:________________________Strand & Block:_____________Date:___________Score:_______

Develop an essay on, How do Endogenic and Exogenic processes contribute in sculpting Earth’s
landscapes?, in not more than 250 words. Be sure to subsume important terminologies/ concepts
discussed in the class. Please see rubric of essay, for your reference.
Essay No. 2
How do Endogenic and Exogenic processes contribute in sculpting Earth’s landscapes?

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 BIG IDEA 2.3
Earth’s history began 4.6 billion years ago (bya) with the formation of the Solar System. Earth
had undergone geologic shaping as well as evolutionary changes which are delineated thru geologic
time.

2.4 History of the Earth

Earth’s history began with the formation of the Solar System. It had undergone
evolutionary processes that can be
described in terms of geologic time. During
the 1600s and 1700s, the doctrine of
catastrophism influence people’s thinking
that the Earth’s varied landscapes had been
fashioned primarily by great catastrophes.
These are earthquakes, landslides, and even
volcanic activities that are almost always
associated with negative adverse effects.
The Earth undergoes revolutionary process.
“The present is the key to the past”.
Modern geologist James Hutton established
uniformitarianism, in which this statement
summarizes one of the basic principles of
geologic history – that the geologic
processes going on today, such as
weathering, erosion, volcanism, and
earthquakes, also went on in the past. This
concept is known as the principle of Fig. 2.4a How Earth’s history started
uniformitarianism.

What made scientists able to describe the history

of the Earth?
Geologists figure out the sequences of
events obtained from the different studies. Some
of which are: Petrology, is a science that deals with
the origin, history, occurrence, structure, chemical
composition and classification of rocks;
Palaeontology, on the other hand, deals with the
life of past geological periods as known from fossil
remains. These knowledge are used to
approximate historic events that happened on
Earth. In so doing, geologists have divided Earth’s
history into time units with respect to the geologic
Fig. 2.4b Paleontologists at work

69
time scale (GTS) based on the fossil records obtained.

What is geologic time scale?

The geological time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that
relates geological strata (stratigraphy) to time, and is used by geologists, paleontologists, and
other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events that have occurred during
Earth's history.
Geologists divided the Earth’s history into different units: eons, eras, periods and epochs.
The table below shows the geologic time units from the recent to the ancient time units of the
Earth’s history.

Fig. 2.4c Geologic Time Scale (GTS) showing the dominant life forms

Geologic Time Scale (GTS) does not only showcase the time units of Earth’s history emphasizing
the chronological emergence of life forms-from the simplest form of organisms to the most complex forms,
but it also emphasizes the geologic activities the Earth had undertaken through time. This includes
documentation of the exogenic and endogenic processes such as volcanicity, earthquake, erosion,
weathering and many more.

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 Table 2.4 a Geologic Time Scale (GTS) showing the characteristic features of the different geologic time.
MYA
Eon Era Period Epoch Plate Tectonics Dominant Life forms
(age)
-Mastadons become extinct
0.01 Holocene -Beaches and barrier islands form -Human culture flourishes
Quaternary -Accelerating extinction of many species

-Modern humans develop

1.8 Pleistocene -Ice sheets form
-Asians arrive and settle the Americas
-Volcanic activity in North America
5.3 Pliocene and Africa -Hominids develop
Cenozoic -Grand Canyon forms
“Age of -Horses, mastadons, mammoths, tigers,
23.0 mammals” Miocene -Sandhills form in S.C.
and camels live in South Carolina
-Appalachians uplift; erosion
33.9 Oligocene -Cats, dogs, and apes appear
Tertiary increases
-Sea levels rise; deposits of marine -Grass spreads widely
55.8 Eocene sediments – limestone in S.C.; land -Diverse array of animals develop,
bridges form including whales, rhinos, and elephants.
-Earthquakes common; Georgia
-First horses appear (size of a cat)
65.5 Embayment, Cape Fear Arch forms
-Tropical plants dominate
in Southeast
-Mass extinction occurs at the end of -T-Rex develops but number of dinosaur
the period caused by a meteorite species decline
145 Cretaceous
impact (Dinosaurs, ammonites and -Snakes appear and first primates appear
25% of marine life become extinct) -Angiosperms appear
Mesozoic
-Western US: orogeny of Rockies;
“Age of -First birds appear
200 Jurassic North America continues to rotate
Dinosaurs” -Golden age of dinosaurs
away from Africa
Phanerozoiic -Pangaea begins to break apart
-First dinosaurs, mammals, crinoids, and
251 Triassic -Rocky Mountains and Sierra
modern echinoids appear
Nevada form
-90% of Earth’s species become extinct,
-Pangea forms including trilobites, blastoids, fish and
299 Permian
-Appalachians rise amphibians because of heavy volcanism
in Siberia
-Great swamps develop (future coal -Reptiles develop from amphibians
318 Pennsylvanian
deposits -Flying insects appear
-First seed plants appear
-Much of North America is under
359 Mississipian -Sea life flourishes including coral,
water
brachiopods, blastoids, and bryozoa
-Dominant animals: fish
-Acadian Orogeny – SC
416 Devonian -Amphibians, evergreens and ferns
metamorphism
Paleocene appear
-First land plants appear and land animals
444 Silurian -Extensive erosion
follow
-Beginning of the construction of
-First animals with bones appear
South Carolina
488 Ordovician -Dominant animals: marine invertebrates
-Great extinction due to growth of ice
Paleozoic including corals and trilobites
caps including in what is
“Ancient
-Explosion of life
Life”
-All existing phyla came into being here
-SC. near the equator; island arc
-Life forms in warm seas as oxygen levels
542 Cambrian continues to move toward North
rose enough to support life
America
-Dominant animals: trilobites and
brachiopods
-Earth takes 10 million years to cool: -No life possible as the Earth initially
initial atmosphere escapes into forms 4.6 billion years ago.
space (H&He) and the core forms -Simple, single-celled forms of life appear
(Fe&Ni) 3.8 billion years ago. They will become
Proterozoic
2500 -Volcanic outgassing of water and more complex and successful over the
“Early life”
carbon dioxide occurred for millions next 3 billion years: Prokaryotes then
Precambrian
of years, helping to build atmosphere Eukaryotes
and then oceans -Cyanobacteria begins producing free
-At 3 billion years ago, banded iron oxygen (photosynthesis)
formation rocks appear due to rising Oldest fossils (apex chart and
3800 Archaean
oxygen levels in the atmosphere and stromatolites)
4600 Hadean sea Beginning of the Earth.

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What are the significant events that happened in the Earth’s history?

Proterozoic Eon. There was no life possible as the Earth initially

forms 4.6 billion years ago. Simple, single-celled forms of life
appear 3.8 billion years ago, becoming more complex and
successful over the next 3 billion years: Prokaryotes then
Eukaryotes. Cyanobacteria begins producing free oxygen
(photosynthesis). Land masses gather to make up a continent
called “Rodinia”.
Fig. 2.4d1 The Earth during the Proterozoic Eon

Cambrian Era. Explosion of life happens. All existing phyla

come into being at this time. Life forms in warm seas as oxygen
levels rise enough to support life. Dominant animals were the
marine invertebrates (trilobites and brachiopods).
Supercontinent Gondwana forms near the South Pole (note
position of present-day Florida).

Fig. 2.4d2 The Earth during the Cambrian Era

Ordovician Period. The 1st animals with bones appear, though dominant animals are still
trilobites, brachiopods and corals. The beginning of the construction of South Carolina is
significant. A very cold time in Earth’s history because there was a great extinction due to ice
caps in present-day Africa. Four main continents: Gondwana, Baltica, Siberia and Laurentia were
recognized.

Silurian Period. First land plants appear and land animals follow. Laurentia collides with Baltica
and closes Iapetus Sea. Coral reefs expand and land plants begin to colonize barren land. First
millipede fossils and sea scorpions (Euryptides) were found in this period.

Devonian Period .”Age of the Fish” Pre-Pangaea forms. Dominant animal was fish. Oceans still
freshwater and fish migrate from southern hemisphere to North America. Present-day Arctic
Canada was at the equator and hardwoods began to grow. Amphibians, evergreens and ferns
appear. The Acadian Orogeny, leading to South Carolina metamorphism started.

Mississipian Period. First seed plants appear. Much of North America is covered by shallow
seas and sea life flourishes (bryoza, brachipods, blastoids).

Pennsylvanian Period. Modern North America begins to form. Ice covers the southern
hemisphere and coal swamps formed along equator. Lizards and winged insects first appear.

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Tertiary Period.
 First horses appear and tropical plants dominate
(Paleocene Epoch).
 Grasses spread and whales, rhinos, elephants and other
large mammals develop. Sea level rises and limestone
deposits form in South Carolina. (Eocene Epoch)
 Dogs, cats, and apes appear (Oligocene Epoch)
 Horses, mastadons, camels, and tigers roam free in
South Carolina. (Miocene Epoch)
 Hominids develop and the Grand Canyon forms
(Pliocene Epoch)

Quaternary Period
 Modern humans develop and ice sheets are
predominant- Ice age (Pleistocene) Fig. 2.4e Land animals predominate during the
 Holocene Humans flourish (Holocene). Tertiary period

How are these information dated?

Geologists make use of information derived from fossils to define and identify
subdivisions of geologic time scale. A fossil is a remnant or trace of organisms of a past
geologic age.
Fossils can be divided into two categories, fossilized body parts (bones, claws, teeth, skin,
embryos, etc.) and fossilized traces, called ichnofossils (which are footprints, nests, dung, tooth
marks, etc.), that record the movements and behaviors of the past life including dinosaurs.

The six types of fossils are:

 mold fossils (a fossilized impression

made in the substrate - a negative image
of the organism)
 cast fossils (formed when a mold is filled
in)
 trace fossils = ichnofossils (fossilized
nests, gastroliths, burrows, footprints,
etc.)
 true form fossils (fossils of the actual
animal or animal part).
 Petrified fossils (organic materials of
dead organisms are replaced with
minerals deposits out of water and
turned to stone)
Fig. 2.4f Six types of fossils
 Carbon films (liquids/gasses from
organisms leave a “picture or indentation)

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There are six ways that organisms can turn into fossils, including:

 unaltered preservation (like insects or plant parts trapped in amber, a hardened form of
tree sap)
 permineralization=petrification (in which rock-like minerals seep in slowly and replace
the original organic tissues with silica, calcite or pyrite, forming a rock-like fossil - can
preserve hard and soft parts - most bone and wood fossils are permineralized)
 replacement (An organism's hard parts dissolve and are replaced by other minerals, like
calcite, silica, pyrite, or iron)
 carbonization=coalification (in which only the carbon remains in the specimen - other
elements, like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are removed)
 recrystalization (hard parts either revert to more stable minerals or small crystals turn
into larger crystals)
 authigenic preservation (molds and casts of organisms that have been destroyed or
dissolved).
The most common body fossils found are from the hard parts of the body, including bones,
claws and teeth. More rarely, fossils have been found of softer body tissues. Body fossils include:
bones, teeth and claws, egg, embryos, and nests, thick and bumpy skins.

What are marker fossils?

Index fossils (also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or zone fossils) are fossils used
to define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages). They work on the premise that,
although different sediments may look
different depending on the conditions
under which they were laid down, they
may include the remains of the
same species of fossil. If the species
concerned were short-lived (in geological
terms, lasting a few hundred thousand
years), then it is certain that the
sediments in question were deposited
within that narrow time period. The
shorter the lifespan of a species, the more
precisely different sediments can be
correlated, and so rapidly evolving types
of fossils are particularly valuable. The
best index fossils are common, easy-to-
identify at species level, and have a broad
distribution—otherwise the likelihood of
finding and recognizing one in the two
sediments is minor
Fig. 2.4g Index fossils

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How are marker fossils used to identify subdivisions of the geologic time?
• Index fossils are used to define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages).
• Different sediments may look different depending on the conditions under which they
were laid down .
If the species concerned were short-lived (in geological terms, lasting a few hundred thousand
years), then it is certain that the sediments in question were deposited within that narrow time
period. The shorter the lifespan of a species, the more precisely different sediments can be
correlated.

How do geologists determine the geologic time based on fossil records obtained?
Geologists measure geologic time in two ways:
• Absolute
-helps determines how many years old something is
• Relative
-is used to determine if one thing is younger or older than another

Using either absolute dating or relative dating, geologist could already form conjectures
in describing and sequencing geologic past information. To better do this, they make use of
certain principles to back up the timing and relationships of events.

The Chronology of Geologic Events can be established by applying the basic principles:
• Principle of original horizontality;
• Principle of superposition.
• Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships
• Principle of Inclusion

The principle of original horizontality

states that sediments are deposited in
horizontal layers that are parallel to the
surface on which they were deposited. This
implies that tilted or folded layers indicate
that the crust has been deformed.
Geologists would interpret that the rock
layers are said to be much older than the
existing folds and tilts on the rock layers.

Fig. 2.4 h Folds and tilts on the rock layers

75
The principle of superposition states that, in a series of undisturbed layers, the oldest layer is on
the bottom and each overlying layer is progressively younger with the youngest layer on the top.

Fig. 2.4i Applying Superposition from the

retrieved fossils in rock layers

Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships states that geologic features like faults or igneous
intrusion are younger than the rocks they cut across.
Principle of Inclusion
Fragments with larger rock masses are older than
the rock masses in which they are enclosed.

Fig. 2.4j Rock layer showing intrusions

Several things provide geologists with evidence of events:

1. Igneous intrusions and extrusions;
2. Faults, joints and folds;
3. Internal characteristics:
• cracks, veins, and mineral cement

76
 When magma forces its way into cracks
or crevices in crustal rock and solidifies, it
forms a mass of igneous rock called an
intrusion.When lava solidifies at the surface it
forms a mass of igneous rock called an
extrusion.Since the rock that the magma moved
through, or over, existed prior to the intrusion,
(or extrusion), it must be older.

Features such as faults, joints, and folds

must be
younger Fig. 2.4k Igneous intrusions

than the rocks in which they are found.

– A joint is a crack in a rock formation, similar to
a fault but without any displacement.

Cracks, veins, and mineral cement are younger than

the rocks in which they appear.
Fig. 2.4l Joints and folds on rock layers

A vein is a
mineral deposit that has filled a crack, or permeable
zone, in existing rock.

How do scientists match those fossil records and other

evidences to geologic events?

• Correlation is the process of matching rocks and

Fig. 2.4m Veins, and mineral cement on rock layers
geologic events in one location to the rocks and
events in another location.
• Methods used for correlation include:
– Continuity of rocks
– Fossil evidence in rocks
– Volcanic time markers in rocks

What are bedrocks and outcrops?

• Bedrock is the solid, unbroken rock of the crust. Fig. 2.4m Correlating using continuity of rocks

• An outcrop is bedrock that is exposed at the Earth’s surface.

77
 – Outcrops provide opportunity for geologists to directly study the layers of the
bedrock, tracing them from one location to another – called “walking an outcrop”.

Severe volcanic eruptions can deposit a thin layer of volcanic ash over the surface of the
entire Earth. These layers within a rock sequence may remain distinguishable and provide a time
marker. (Similar to index fossils).
However, there are differences from what is expected when scientists match those fossil
records and other evidences to geologic events
Anomalies are discrepancies from what is observed.

What causes anomalies?

Buried erosional surfaces, called unconformities, indicate gaps or breaks in the geologic
time record.
4 steps combine in sequence to form unconformities:
 Uplift
 Erosion
 submergence
 deposition
An unconformity is the contact between sedimentary rocks that are significantly different in
age or between sedimentary rocks and older, eroded igneous or metamorphic rocks.
Unconformities represent gaps in the geologic record, periods of time that are not represented by
any rocks.

Unconformities happen for two reasons: sediment deposition stopped for a considerable time
and/or existing rocks were eroded prior to being covered by younger sediment. There is no single
time span represented by an unconformity. It depends on how long erosion occurred or for how
long deposition ceased.

Some unconformities are easier to identify than others. For example, the contact between a
very old granite and a younger sandstone is pretty obvious. On the other hand, figuring out
whether two limestone beds are significantly different in age might require more investigation.

3 most common types of unconformities are:

 angular unconformities
 parallel unconformities
 nonconformities
An angular unconformity is an erosional surface separating steeply dipping rock layers below
from gently dipping layers above. Nonconformity is an erosional surface separating igneous or
metamorphic rocks below from sedimentary strata above. Parallel unconformity is an erosional
surface separating horizontal strata below from horizontal strata above and where there is a gap
in time. This causes much headache on the geologist since this would mean a missing page on
Earth’s history. While these discrepancy- causing unconformities are unavoidable, geologists
resort to other ways in tracing and timing geologic time events through radioactive dating.

78
What is radioactive decay? How does it help trace geologic events?
Radioactive decay occurs when the nuclei of unstable atoms break down, changing the
original atoms into atoms of another element. The rate of radioactive decay is measured in terms
of half-life.

 Half-life is the amount of time it takes for half the atoms of a substance to decay into
another element.
 Different substances have different half-life’s
• Examples are Uranium 238 and Carbon 14.
• The half life of Uranium-238 (the most stable isotope) is about 4.5 billion
years, Uranuium-235 is about 700 million years, and Uranium-234 is about
25 thousands. Uranium atoms decay into other atoms, or radionuclides,
that are also radioactive and commonly called “decay products”. When
Uranium-238 decays, it turns into Thorium-234 through alpha decay or
decays through spontaneous fission. Uranium-238 once it will undergo 14
radioactive decays will eventually become lead-206, which is stable and no
longer radioactive.

In summary,
 Earth is about 4.6 billion years old.
 It had undergone geologic and evolutionary changes.
 Fossils are evidences of past life.
 Fossils, the remains or traces of prehistoric life, are important inclusions in sediments and
rocks. They are basic and important tools for interpreting geologic past.
 The fossil record, like the rock record, is an important record for understanding life on
Earth before the dawn of man.
 Without the rock record there would be no geologic
history.
 The older the rock the more difficult to determine absolute
age.
 The geologic history of an area is determined primarily by
fossil evidence, the age of the rocks, and the erosional
record in the rocks.
 Extinctions and new life forms are also found within the
fossil record.
 Fossils can also show structural similarities and
differences in organisms over time revealing the diversity
of life forms on Earth. Nearly 90 percent of organisms that
have lived on the Earth are now extinct.
We are living in the Phanerozoic Eon, Cenozoic Era, Quaternary
Period, Holocene Epoch……..BUT
A new concept has been gaining momentum since its introduction by Paul Crutzen in
2000. He proposed that the Holocene Epoch is over and a new geological epoch called the
Anthropocene has begun.

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 The Anthropocene epoch is a proposed epoch dating from the commencement of
significant human impact on the Earth's geology and ecosystems, including, but not limited to,
anthropogenic climate change.
The name Anthropocene is a combination of anthropo- from anthropos meaning "human"
and -cene from kainos meaning "new" or "recent." Many geologists acknowledged the increasing
power and effect of humanity on the Earth's systems and referred to an 'anthropozoic era'.
Mans’ impact on the Earth’s climate and ecosystems since the Industrial Revolution is
quite evident. Support for this theory comes from data derived from glacial ice cores showing
the growth in greenhouse gases starting from the 1800’s.
Does this justify a new epoch on the Geological Time Scale? Some scientists question this,
however, there is no doubt that there has been a shift in Earth’s atmosphere and biosphere as we
emerge from the most recent ice age which ended approximately 10,000 years ago.
This is strong indication that geologic time is not a thing of the past!

80
Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Chapter Review No.2: Earth’s Materials and Processes

I. Give what is asked in the following:
1.Three types of rocks
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
2. Six Mineral Groups
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
d.________________________________e._________________________________f.________________________________
3. Two examples of Sedimentary Rocks
a.________________________________b.__________________________________
4. Three physical properties of Minerals
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
5. Five Exogenic Processes
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
d.________________________________e._________________________________
6. Two Kinds of Mass Wasting
a.________________________________b.__________________________________
7. Two Types of Weathering
a.________________________________b.__________________________________
8. Three Agents of Weathering
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
9. Three Main Endogenic Processes
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
10. Three types of Faults
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
11. Three types of Plate Boundaries
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
12. Three conditions for magma production at the subduction zones:
a.___________________________________________________
b.___________________________________________________
c.___________________________________________________
13. Three Time Units of the Earth’s History
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
14. Three types of Fosslis:
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
15. Three Basic Principles in the chronology of geologic events:
a.________________________________b._________________________________c.________________________________
II. Easy Essay. Read through the given questions, and answer them in a three sentences only.
Choose only 2 items to answer:
a. How are rocks formed?
b. How do endogenic and exogenic processes contribute in sculpting Earth’s landscape?
c. How is Earth’s history interpreted from the Geologic Time Scale ( GTS)?
________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

81
Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Module 02 A Sweet Earth’s Deformation: The Folding & Faulting of Rocks

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

In this module, you will spend __2__ hours to :

a. describe how rocks behave under compressional stress
b. simulate folding and faulting processes
c. explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults

What is this module all about?

Deformation of rock involves changes in the shape and/or volume of these substances. Changes
in shape and volume occur when stress and strain causes rock to buckle and fracture or crumple into folds.
A fold can be defined as a bend in rock that is the response to compressional forces. Folds are most visible
in rocks that contain layering.

What is

What is expected of you?

You are to perform an activity, entitled, A Sweet Earth’s Deformation: The Folding and Faulting
What isActivity.
of Rocks: A Simulation expected of you?

Here is your work!

Here is your work!

You are going to simulate how folded and faulted rocks can provide evidence of the size and
direction of the forces which produced the deformation.

It is in this premise that when forces are applied to solid materials they may bend or break. When
sands or sandstones bend, folds are produced; when they break, faults are formed.

You are going to work with your own time at home.

1. You need to do it in a hygienic place so as not to waste the resources used in the set-up.
2. The following are the materials that you need to prepare:

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 Materials:
Here’s how it looks like:
 Empty clear plastic box (e.g. Ferrero Rocher chocolate box or
anything available at home)
 About 500g of crushed Grahams
 About 25g of powdered milk
 Spatula or dessert spoon or similar flat object (for tamping
down the Grahams /milk)
 Piece of board or plastic to snugly fit into the box
 Tray for tipping out ingredients

3. Please sanitize by washing the hands with soap and water. The ingredients can still be
used ( i.e. making munchkins, pastillas, etc.). Then, follow the directions as follows:
 Place the board vertically inside one end of the box.
 Build up several thin layers of milk and crushed Graham. Do not fill it more than half-
full. (Only thin layers of milk are needed, sprinkled along the front of the box alone,
in order to save milk and to allow the materials to be reused several times.
 Very carefully, push the vertical board across the box, so that it begins to compress
the layers.
 When you notice the layers beginning to bend, stop pushing the board.
 Hold the board upright and draw a scaled diagram of the result.
 Continue pushing the layers with the board until the crushed Graham is about to
overflow the box.
 Hold the board upright and draw a scaled diagram of the result.
 Then add arrows to your diagram to show the directions of the forces which were
acting whilst you compressed the layers with the board.

Draw your illustrations here. Please do not forget to label.

Points to Ponder:

Rocks experience enormous pushing and pulling forces because continents move around, jostling
each other. These forces can bend (fold) rocks or snap them along a fault, or both.

Rocks frequently become fractured during their history. Faulted rocks at the Earth's surface
contain clues about the ancient pressures which deformed them. The near-horizontal faults produced by
compressional pressures are called thrust faults (more steeply inclined faults are produced by tensional

83
stresses. Large scale pressures acting within the lithosphere are caused by plate tectonic movements.
Where plates are converging, the compressional stresses produce near horizontal thrust faulting. Where
plates diverge, the tensional stresses produce steeper faults, called normal faults.

SELF-ASSESSMENT
Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.
Post-Activity Discussion Questions:
1.When you continued pushing the layers with the board until the crushed Grahams is about to overflow
the box, are the layers still horizontal, or are they folded?
L Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
2.Did one set of layers slide over the rest?_____________________________________________________
(If you have been careful, you will have produced a fault in which layers of rock are pushed up and over
other layers. These types of faults are often nearly horizontal.)
3.How can rocks be folded?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
4.What happens when rocks don’t fold?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
5.What’s the difference between deformed rocks and metamorphic rocks?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
6. How do you differentiate folding from faulting?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
7.How are they the same? (What kind of process they are categorized?)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
What have you learned from the activity? How is the model different from the real folded rocks?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Source: http://www.earthscienceeducation.com/taster/Deformation.pdf

84
Chapter 3. Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation
This chapter puts emphasis on the following lessons:

 Lesson A. Geologic Processes and Hazards

 Lesson B. Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards
 Lesson C. Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects

Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the different hazards caused by geological processes (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,

and landslides ).
 the different hazards caused by hydrometeorological phenomena ( tropical cyclones,
monsoons, floods, and tornadoes or ipoipo)
 the different hazards caused by coastal processes (waves, tides, sea-level changes,
crustal movement, and storm surges)
Performance Standards:
The learners shall be able to :

1. Conduct a survey to assess the possible geologic hazards that your community may

experience. (Note: Select this performance standard if your school is in an area near fault

lines, volcanoes, and steep slopes.)

2. Conduct a survey or design a study to assess the possible hydrometeorological hazards

that your community may experience.

Learning Competencies:
The learners:
a. describe various natural hazards (caused by geologic, hydrometeorological, marine
and coastal processes) that may happen in the event of these processes and hazards
b. using hazard maps, identify areas prone to these
c. give practical ways of coping with these hazards
d. cite ways to mitigate the impact of the disaster
e. suggest ways to help lessen the occurrence of these hazards in your community
f. identify areas in your community prone to these hazards
g. cite ways to prevent or mitigate the impact of land development, waste disposal, and
construction of structures on control coastal processes

BIG IDEA 3
Natural hazards are events that occur as part of the natural cycles of Earth and may cause potential
Avalanch
damage to a community. An event that causes widespread losses (human, economic, and environmental) and
disrupts the normal functioning of a community called a disaster.
85
What is a hazard?
A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that can potentially trigger a disaster. This
includes earthquakes, mud-slides, floods, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, drought. These physical
events need not necessarily result in disaster

What is a disaster?
A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving
widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, exceeding the
ability of the community to cope using own resources.

What does risk mean?

Risks are the product of hazards over which we have no control. It combines the
likelihood or probability of a disaster happening and the negative effects that result if the disaster
is happening.
Risk can be increased by vulnerabilities (characteristics/circumstances that make one susceptible
to damaging effects of a hazard),and can be decreased by capacities (combination of strengths, attitudes
and resources).
3.1 Geologic Hazards
A geologic hazard is one of several types of adverse geologic conditions capable of
causing damage or loss of property and life. These hazards consist of sudden phenomena and
slow phenomena:
Sudden phenomena include:

 avalanches (snow, rock, or air & snow) and its run out
 earthquakes and earthquake-triggered phenomena such as tsunamis
 forest fires (especially in Mediterranean areas) leading to deforestation
 geomagnetic storms
 ice jams on rivers or glacial lake outburst floods below a glacier
 landslide (lateral displacement of earth materials on a slope or hillside)
 mudflows (avalanche-like muddy flow of soft/wet soil and sediment materials, narrow
landslides)
 pyroclastic flows
 rock falls, rock slides, (rock avalanche) and debris flows
 torrents (flash floods, rapid floods or heavy current creeks with irregular course)
 volcanic eruptions, lahars and ash falls.
Gradual or slow phenomena include:

 alluvial fans (e.g. at the exit of canyons or side valleys)

 caldera development (volcanoes)
 geyser deposits

86
  ground settlement due to consolidation of compressible soils or due to collapsible soils
ground subsidence, sags and sinkholes
 liquefaction (settlement of the ground in areas underlain by loose saturated sand/silt during
an earthquake event)
 sand dune migration
 shoreline and stream erosion
 thermal springs
Sometimes, the hazard is instigated by man through the careless location of developments or
construction in which the conditions were not taken into account.

Avalanche
An avalanche occurs when a large
snow (or rock) mass slides down a
mountainside. An avalanche is an example
of a gravity current consisting of granular
material. In an avalanche, lots of material or
mixtures of different types of material fall or
slide rapidly under the force of gravity.
Avalanches are often classified by the size or
severity of consequences resulting from the
event.
Fig. 3.1a Avalanche

Lahar

A lahar is a type of natural event closely related to a volcanic eruption, and involves a large
amount of material originating from an eruption of a glaciated volcano, including mud from the
melted ice, rock, and ash sliding down the
side of the volcano at a rapid pace. These
flows can destroy entire towns in seconds
and kill thousands of people, and
form flood basalt. This is based on natural
events.

Landslide
A landslide is a mass displacement of
sediment, usually down a slope.

Fig. 3.1b Lahar during the Mt. Pinatubo Eruption

87
 Sinkholes
A sinkhole is a localized
depression in the surface
topography, usually caused by the
collapse of a subterranean
structure such as a cave. Although
rare, large sinkholes that develop
suddenly in populated areas can
lead to the collapse of buildings
and other structures.

Fig. 3.1c Sinkhole in Negros Oriental

Volcanic eruption
A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is
active and releases its power, and the eruptions come in
many forms. They range from daily small eruptions which
occur in places like Kilauea in Hawaii, to megacolossal
eruptions (where the volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic
kilometers of material). Some eruptions form pyroclastic
flows, which are high-temperature clouds of ash and steam
that can travel down mountainsides at speed exceeding an
airliner like the ones that happened in Mt. Mayon in 2018.
Fig. 3.1d Mt. Mayon in 1984

Earthquake
An earthquake is
a phenomenon that results from a
sudden release of stored energy
that radiates seismic waves. At
the Earth's surface, earthquakes
may manifest with a shaking or
displacement of the ground; when
the earthquake occurs on the
Fig. 3.1e Earthquake in Bohol seafloor, the resulting
displacement of water can
sometimes result in a tsunami.
Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000-km-long,

88
horseshoe-shaped zone called the Circum-Pacific seismic belt, also known as the Pacific Ring of
Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Many earthquakes happen each day, few
of which are large enough to cause significant damage.

Earthquakes and volcanoes occur most commonly at the collision zone between tectonic
plates. Earthquakes represent a particularly severe threat due to the irregular time intervals
between events, lack of adequate forecasting, and the hazards associated with these:

- Ground shaking is a direct hazard to any structure located near the earthquake's center.
Structural failure takes many human lives in densely populated areas.

- Faulting, or breaches of the surface material, occurs as the separation of bedrock along lines of
weakness.

- Landslides occur because of ground shaking in areas having relatively steep topography and
poor slope stability.

- Liquefaction of gently sloping unconsolidated material can be triggered by ground shaking.

Flows and lateral spreads (liquefaction phenomena) are among the most destructive geologic
hazards.

- Subsidence or surface depressions result from the settling of loose or unconsolidated sediment.
Subsidence occurs in waterlogged soils, fill, alluvium, and other materials that are prone to settle.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis or seismic sea waves,

usually generated by seismic activity
under the ocean floor, can cause flooding
in coastal areas and can affect areas
thousands of kilometers from the
earthquake center. This could be totally
devastating.

Cebu is noted as a tsunami-proof

place, according to PHIVOLCS based on
the Tsunami Hazard Maps. There was no Fig. 3.1f Tsunamis in Japan
historical tsunamis, therefore the potential
to have one is very low. This could be
accounted to its geographical location. It is located to the east of Negros, to the west
of Leyte and Bohol islands. The province consists of Cebu Island, as well as 167 smaller islands, which
include Mactan, Bantayan, Malapascua, Olango and the Camotes Islands main island and 167

89
surrounding islands and islets. Please refer to the site below:
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=312&Itemid=500027

3.2 Hydrometeorological Hazards

It is a hydrometeorological process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or

oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage,
loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage that
may eventually incapacitate the locals of their normal functioning.

Hydrometeorological hazards include tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons and

hurricanes), thunderstorms, hailstorms, tornados, blizzards, heavy snowfall, coastal storm
surges, floods including flash floods, drought, heatwaves and cold spells. Hydrometeorological
conditions also can be a factor in other hazards such as landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues,
epidemics, and in the transport and dispersal of toxic substances and volcanic eruption material.

Blizzard
A blizzard is a severe winter storm, icy and windy conditions characterized by low
temperature, strong wind and heavy snow.

Drought
Scientists warn that global warming and climate change may result in more
extensive droughts in coming years. These extensive droughts are likely to occur within the
African continent due to its very low precipitation levels and high climate.

Hailstorm
A hailstorm is a natural hazard where a thunderstorm produces
numerous hailstones which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially
devastating to farm fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment.

90
Heat wave
A heat wave is a hazard characterized by heat which is considered extreme and unusual
in the area in which it occurs. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations
of weather events to take place, and may include temperature inversions, katabatic winds, or
other phenomena. There is a potential for longer-term events causing global warming,
including stadial events (the opposite to
glacial "ice age" events), or through
human-induced climatic warming.
Tropical Cyclone
Hurricane, tropical cyclone,
and typhoon are different names for the
same phenomenon: a
cyclonic storm system that forms over
the oceans. It is caused by
evaporated water that comes off of
the ocean and becomes a storm.
The Coriolis effect causes the storms to
spin at 74 mph (119 km/h). Hurricane is
used for these phenomena in
the Atlantic and eastern Pacific
Oceans, tropical cyclone in the Indian, Fig. 3.1g Fig. 3.1f Aftermath of Typhoon Yolanda

and typhoon in the western Pacific. Aftermath of Typhoon Yolanda

Tornado
A tornado is a natural disaster
resulting from a thunderstorm.
Tornadoes are violent, rotating
columns of air which can blow at
speeds between 50 mph (80 km/h)
and 300 mph (480 km/h), and
possibly higher. Tornadoes can occur
one at a time, or can occur in
large tornado outbreaks associated
with supercells or in other large areas
of thunderstorm
development. Waterspouts are
Fig. 3.1h A tornado in Legazpi City tornadoes occurring over tropical
waters in light rain conditions.

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What is a monsoon?
A monsoon is a seasonal shift in the prevailing wind direction, that usually brings with it a
different kind of weather. It almost always refers to the Asian monsoon, a large region extending from

India to Southeast Asia where monsoon conditions prevail.

During the winter monsoon, a persistent and large high pressure zone over Asia drives cool,
dry air southward toward the tropics. This provides the monsoon region with its dry season.

Then during May and June of each year, the summer monsoon arrives with persistent southerly

wind flow driven by a warm air mass with low pressure at the surface that forms over southern Asia
as it is warmed by the sun. Air from the relatively higher pressure air mass over the Indian and tropical

western Pacific Ocean flows northward toward the low pressure over land, bring with it torrential
rains. A late arrival of the monsoon can be bad for agriculture, as the monsoon rains are necessary for

summer crops.

Climate change
Climate change is a long-term hazard which can increase or decrease the risk of other
weather hazards, and also directly endangers property due to sea level rise and biological
organisms due to habitat destruction.
Geomagnetic storm
Geomagnetic storms can disrupt or damage technological infrastructure, and disorient
species with magnetoception.

Water spout
A tornado formed over water.

Flooding

Two types of flooding can be

distinguished: (1) land-borne floods, or
river flooding, caused by excessive run-off
brought on by heavy rains, and (2) sea-
Fig. 3.1i Tornado water sprout
borne floods, or coastal flooding, caused
by storm surges, often exacerbated by
storm run-off from the upper watershed.
Tsunamis are a special type of sea-borne
flood.

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a. Coastal flooding

Storm surges are an abnormal

rise in sea water level associated with
hurricanes and other storms at sea.
Surges result from strong on-shore
winds and/or intense low pressure
cells and ocean storms. Water level is
controlled by wind, atmospheric
pressure, existing astronomical tide,
waves and swell, local coastal
topography and bathymetry, and the
storm's proximity to the coast.
Fig. 3.1j Storm surge in Manila Bay
Most often, destruction by
storm surge is attributable to:

- Wave impact and the physical shock on

objects associated with the passing of the wave front.

- Hydrostatic/dynamic forces and the effects of water lifting and carrying objects. The most
significant damage often results from the direct impact of waves on fixed structures. Indirect
impacts include flooding and undermining of major infrastructure such as highways and
railroads.

-Flooding of deltas and other low-lying coastal areas is exacerbated by the influence of tidal
action, storm waves, and frequent channel shifts.

b. River flooding

Land-borne floods occur when the capacity of stream channels to conduct water is
exceeded and water overflows banks. Floods are natural phenomena, and may be expected to
occur at irregular intervals on all stream and rivers. Settlement of floodplain areas is a major cause
of flood damage.

Some Coastal Marine Processes and their Effects

Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves.

Erosion
Erosion refers to the wearing away of the land surface and removal of materials by river
and sea water, ice and wind. There are four main processes of erosion along the coast. These are
hydraulic action, abrasion and corrasion, attrition and solution.

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Hydraulic action
Waves breaking at the foot of a cliff force air in cracks to be compressed. Loose rocks are
dislodged and removed. When the wave retreats the compressed air rushes out of the crack and
can further weaken faults in the cliff face.
Abrasion
Abrasion is the sandpaper effect
of loose rocks being scraped along bare
rock. It often smooths and polishes the
rock.
Corrasion
Corrasion is when rock caught
up in surging waves are hurled at a cliff
face – causing it to be chipped and
gauged.
Attrition
Attrition is when rocks carried
by seawater collide – gradually making
them smaller and smoother.
Fig. 3.1k Breaking of Rocks due to Attrition
Transportation
Transportation is movement of
sediment by the action of waves.
Traction
Traction involves the rolling of large and
heavy rocks along the seabed.
Saltation
Saltation involves smaller material being
bounced along the seabed.
Suspension
Suspension is when lighter sediment is
suspended within the water. This often discolours the
water close to the shore.
Solution
Sediment that has dissolved completely Fig. 3.1l Cl;iff moves inland as it gets eroded

will be transported in solution.

The Philippines has suffered from an inexhaustible number of deadly typhoons,

earthquakes, volcano eruptions and other natural disasters. This is due to its location along the
Ring of Fire, or typhoon belt – a large Pacific Ocean region where many of Earth’s volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes occur.
Annually, approximately 80 typhoons develop above tropical waters, of which 19 enter
the Philippine region and six to nine make landfall, according to the Joint Typhoon Warning
Center(JTWC).

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 The Philippines is in fact the country most exposed to tropical storms in the world. Violent
tropical storms, such as the latest Haiyan typhoon, can generate 10 times as much energy as the
Hiroshima atomic bomb.
Philippines encounter numerous typhoons every year. Over the decades, people have
witnessed series of typhoons with different strength, duration, and impacts. Not all typhoons are
bearable especially with those folks who suffer in misery due to lives and properties lost.
However, because of these storms, Filipinos became stronger and resilient as a nation.
Despite the devastation every Filipinos have experienced due to typhoons, the tragedies,
however, taught them to become a strong nation and a better prepared country- aiming to become
a disaster-resilient Filipino community through time.
Nature has a way of staging its surprises, one thing is for sure, no one would want to be
caught unprepared when it happens.

The Hazard Map tells all the hazards risk, Philippines has to cope with year after year.

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96
How do we mitigate and adapt to these???
Mitigation refers to actions taken to prevent or reduce the risk to life, property, social
and economic activities, and natural resources from natural hazards. Awareness, education,
preparedness, and prediction and warning systems can reduce the disruptive impacts of a natural
disaster on communities. Mitigation measures such as adoption of zoning, land-use practices,
and building codes are needed, however, to prevent or reduce actual damage from hazards.
Avoiding development in landslide- and flood-prone areas through planning and zoning
ordinances, for example, may save money in construction and reduce the loss of life and damage
to property and natural resources. Post-disaster studies continue to confirm the fundamental fact
that community investment in mitigation pays direct dividends when a disaster occurs.

Here are some Important Terminologies to get by:

Prevention refers to the outright avoidance of the adverse affects of hazards / disasters.
Mitigation refers to the process of lessening or limiting the adverse affects of hazards / disasters
Preparedness means the knowledge and capacities to effectively anticipate, respond to and
recover from impacts of likely hazard .
Risk Reduction is the practice of reducing risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage
the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure, lessened
vulnerability, and improved preparedness.
Response means the provision of emergency services to save lives, meet needs.

Philippines, by nature of its geographic location, is vulnerable to many natural hazards,

not only typhoons, and any form of hydro meteorological hazards, but of geologic hazard as well.
With that, the government framed the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act
of 2010, for its purpose.

The Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010, an act for :
1. Strengthening the Philippine Disaster Management System
2. Providing for the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework and
3. Institutionalizing the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan,
Appropriating funds therefore and for Other Purposes

The Republic Act 10121 of 27 May 2010 repealed Presidential Decree (PD) 1566 in 1976.

Why do we need to have a new law?

PD 1566:
• Assumes that disasters cannot be avoided
• Most plans were on the provision of relief goods & infra like dike & flood control systems
(reactive)
• Government response was focused on disaster response

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However, the new law thinks the other way,
RA 10121:

 Transforms & reforms the way we deal with disasters that impact of disasters can be
reduced by addressing the root cause of disaster risks
 from disaster response to risk reduction
 emphasis on strengthening peoples’ capacity to absorb stress
 Proactive and developmental approach in managing disaster

Appropriate disaster prevention,

mitigation, preparedness and response
builds on people’s capacities and tackles
the causes of vulnerability.

How do the concepts of vulnerability

and capacity apply to education?

Within education systems, what kinds

of vulnerabilities typically exist?

What capacities exist that could enable

education to continue with minimum Fig. 3.1m The Bohol 7.2 magnitude Earthquake in 2013
disruption?

How can education be used as a vehicle for increasing capacities to reduce vulnerability
to disaster?

Education in every disaster response (+ preparedness) can do a lot! It saves lives and
properties. Knowledge of a hazard and the likelihood of the disaster to happen is even more
helpful. It lessens vulnerability of the people to danger and adverse effects of a hazard. As they
say, “Prevention is better than cure”.

• Education can be life-saving and life-sustaining during disasters.

• Education is a right, even in an emergency, and key to life with dignity

• Education is what children/parents ask for during disasters

• Quality, relevant education contributes to development, economic growth, peace, stability

and good governance

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PREVENTION, AND MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDS

What Should I Do Before, During, And After An Earthquake?

What to Do Before an Earthquake

-Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a
flashlight, and extra batteries at home.
-Learn first aid.
-Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
- Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
- Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
-Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
-* Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

What to Do During an Earthquake

-*Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
- If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a
doorway, or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows
and outside doors.
- If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall.
Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on
you).
- Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.
- If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.
-Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

What to Do After an Earthquake

-Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.
- Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves.
Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave
immediately, and report it to the authorities (use someone else's phone).
- Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
-Stay out of damaged buildings.
-Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from
cutting your feet.
-Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).
-Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground has
stopped shaking.
-Stay away from damaged areas.
- If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person
in charge.
-*Expect aftershocks.

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What Should I Do Before, During, And After A Flood?
-*Listen to the radio or television for information.
-Be aware that flash flooding can occur. If there is any possibility of a flash flood, move
immediately to higher ground. Do not wait for instructions to move.
-Be aware of streams, drainage channels, canyons, and other areas known to flood suddenly.
Flash floods can occur in these areas with or without such typical warnings as rain clouds
or heavy rain.

If you must prepare to evacuate, you should do the following:

-Secure your home. If you have time, bring in outdoor furniture. Move essential items to an
upper floor.
-Turn off utilities at the main switches or valves if instructed to do so. Disconnect electrical
appliances. Do not touch electrical equipment if you are wet or standing in water.
If you have to leave your home, remember these evacuation tips:
- Do not walk through moving water. Six inches of moving water can make you fall. If you have
to walk in water, walk where the water is not moving. Use a stick to check the firmness of
the ground in front of you.
-Do not drive into flooded areas. If floodwaters rise around your car, abandon the car and
move to higher ground if you can do so safely. You and the vehicle can be quickly swept
away.

The following are important points to remember when driving in flood conditions:
-Six inches of water will reach the bottom of most passenger cars and cause loss of control and
possible stalling.
-A foot of water will float many vehicles.
-Two feet of rushing water can carry away most vehicles including sport utility vehicles
(SUV’s) and pick-ups.

What Should I Do Before, During, And After A Typhoon?

These tips include very practical and timely reminders on how to prepare before, during
and after a typhoon. They may or may not be applicable to your household set-up.

What to do BEFORE a typhoon

-Store an adequate supply of food and clean water. Prepare food that need not to be cooked.
-Keep flashlights, candles and battery-powered radios within easy reach
-*Always keep yourself updated with the latest weather report.
-Examine your house and repair its unstable parts.
If you are a farmer,
-Harvest crops that can be yielded already.
-Secure domesticated animals in a safe area.
If you are a fisher folk,
-Do not attempt to go on a fishing.
- Place boats in a safe area.

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-Should you need to evacuate, tag along with you your 72-hr survival kit prepared before hand.

What to do DURING a typhoon

-Stay inside the house.
-*Always keep yourself updated with the latest weather report.
-If safe drinking water is not available, boil water for at least 20 minutes. Place it in a clean
container with cover.
-Keep an eye on lighted candle or gas lamps.
-Don’t wade through floodwaters to avoid being electrocuted and contracting diseases.

If there is a need to move to an evacuation center, follow these reminders:

-Evacuate calmly.
-Close the windows and turn off the main power switch.
-Put important appliances and belongings in a high ground.
-Avoid the way leading to the river.

What to do AFTER a typhoon

-If your house is destroyed, make sure that it is stable when you enter.
-Beware of dangerous animals such as snakes that may have entered your house.
-Watch out for live wires or outlet immersed in water.
-Report damaged electrical cables and fallen electric posts to the authorities.
-Do not let water accumulate in tires, cans or pots to avoid creating a favorable condition for
mosquito breeding.

There is no perfect execution of disaster management plans because no geologic event can
be accurately predicted. Although there are signal warnings given by NDRRMC, it is always best
to be way more prepared. The impacts of disasters may be reduced or managed through public
awareness and preparedness.

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Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______
Chapter Review No. 3 : Natural Hazards: Mitigation & Adaptation

I. Give what is asked in the following:

1.Two types of natural hazards
a.________________________________b.________________________
2. Three examples of geologic hazards.
a.________________________________b._________________________c.____________________
3. Two examples of hydro meteorological hazard
a.________________________________b.________________________
4. Two examples of Marine/Coastal Processes & Hazards
a.________________________________b.________________________
5. One of the thee aims of the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction Management Act of 2010
a.___________________________________________________________________________________
6. Enumerate 5 To-Do’s Before an Earthquake:
a.______________________________________________b.____________________________________________
c.______________________________________________d.____________________________________________
e.______________________________________________
7. Enumerate 2 To-Do’s During an Earthquake:
a.______________________________________________b.___________________________________________
8. Enumerate 3 To-Do’s After an Earthquake:
a.______________________________________________b.____________________________________________
c.______________________________________________

II. Identification. Identify the terms being referred to in the following:

1.It means an outright avoidance of the adverse effects of hazards/disasters. 1._____________
2.It refers to the process of lessening or limiting the adverse effects of disasters. 2. ____________
3.It means the knowledge and capacities to effectively anticipate, respond to and 3. ____________
recover from impacts of a likely hazard.
4.It refers to a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society 4.____________
involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses.
5.It refers to practice of reducing risks through systematic efforts to analyse 5.____________
and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure,
vulnerability, and improved preparedness.

III. Easy Essay. Read through the given statements. Give your comment in a three sentences only.
Choose only 1 item to answer:
a. Philippines, by nature of its geographic location, is vulnerable to many natural hazards .
b. Appropriate disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response builds on people’s
capacities and tackles the causes of vulnerability.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________

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Name:_______________________Strand & Block:_______________Date:___________Score:______

Module 03 Natural Hazards: Mitigation, Adaptation and Risk Reduction

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

In this module, you will spend __2.5__ hours to :

a. describe various hazards that may happen in the community
b. simulate a hypothetical scenario where unexpected hazards may occur
c. give practical ways of coping with these hazards
d. cite ways to mitigate the impact of a disaster
e. suggest ways to help lessen the occurrence of these hazards in the community

What is this module all about?

The Philippines is one of the most hazard-prone countries in the world. This is due to its location
in the Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire, thus, it is noted to be the “home” of typhoons, volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes and other forms of natural hazards.

A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that may potentially trigger a disaster. They may be
identified as hydrometeorologic, geologic and marine-coastal processes and hazards. This includes
earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruption, tsunami and many more. These happen in the least expected time
of our lives. More often than not, when these happen, we are caught aback and unprepared of the
situation, thus causing more damage to properties and lives.

What is

What is expected of you?

You are to perform an activity, entitled, Natural Hazards: How do you mitigate, adapt and
reduce risk? A What is expected
Simulation Activity.of you?

Here is your work!

Here is your work!

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 You are going to hypothetically simulate where a natural hazard is happening. How do you
respond to these situations? What safety guidelines and protocols do you follow in such emergencies? It
is in this premise that when emergencies like these would happen, our execution towards safety would
vary but our priorities in life geared towards safety remain the same, what matters most would be
everybody’s lives are okay.
The following is the mechanics of the game:
 You are going to work in a group of 5-8 members.
 The goal of the game, is to test how quick you are to discern of the possible danger and to respond
the quickest way possible. The group may decide ”how to identify” the quickest respondent. The
identified quickest respondent will have the privilege to give her/his response (either to mitigate,
adapt, or reduce risk) as identified in the rolled out dices. He automatically then gains the highest
score “5 points”. Should there be a need to deliberate for the score of the response due to its
impracticality, for instance, the group may refer to the Point System of the game.
 The rest of the members will then take turns in giving out possible response to a hazard
hypothetically inputted by the other member of the group, the score would then be automatically
3 points, regardless of its impact/ practicality. Repetition of responses be strictly prohibited.
 The suggested response do have a corresponding rate or value which is assessed to be of most
importance and is labelled in (*) asterisk among the other to-dos in the list. The ones that are not
in asterisk are understood to be 3 points.
 The “quickest respondent” will be the one to roll out the dices for the next round.
 The student with the highest rate will be the winner and thus, the most number of points. This
will be done in four (4) rounds.
The following are the materials needed in the conduct of the game:
-Dices for the game. Refer to the annex documents for the dices.
-Hour glass or timer.
-Disaster Management Guide (List of Possible To-Dos) during hazards. Please refer to the notes.

Points to Ponder:

Each hazard has underlying potential to bring harm to people, property or a community,
thus, appropriate mitigation, adaptation and risk reduction has to be executed. However,
different situations may call for different responses, appropriateness has to be considered.
There is no perfect execution of disaster management plans because these hazards can
never be accurately predicted, but the impacts of disasters may be reduced or managed through
public awareness and preparedness. A way of preparing is to have an emergency or “survival” kit.
Having an emergency kit is a “must-have” to all. This would be of great help to everyone when
disasters eventually occur.
What must your emergency kit contain? List down below 5 things to be included in your 72-hr survival
kit and be able to justify their necessities.

Example: 1. Flashlight- This is very helpful at night time specially if power failure happens.

1.____________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________ 104
5. ____________________________________________________________
 Score Sheet

Round One: _____

Round Two: _____

SELF-ASSESSMENT Round Three: _____

L Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.

Round Four: _____
Post-Activity Discussion Questions:

1. How do hazard mitigation, adaptation, and risk reduction differ from one another?
_______________________________________________________________________________ Total Score: _____
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. When a hazard is hypothetically inputted during the game-simulation, how did you react to
the situation?___________________________________________________________________
(Seemingly, in a real-life situation, even though how prepared we are with all the drills & immersion activities we
have been exposed to, we will still be panicking. That is why one of the most recommended to-dos is to stay calm
when hazards occur.)
3. Using the hazard & place dices, roll them out to identify a hazard hypothetically inputted, and
draft your Route Map of evacuation .
Your Route Map Here!

What have you learned from the activity?

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

Source: http://teachtogether.chedk12.com/teaching_guides/view/390#section2

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 Kindly cut the following and form them into cubes. You may paste them in a sturdy paper
before cutting them.

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107
108
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 Chapter 4. Introduction to Life Science

Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the historical development of the concept of life

 the origin of the first life forms
 unifying themes in the study of life

Performance Standards:
The learners shall be able to :

1. value life by taking good care of all beings, humans, plants, and animals.

Learning Competencies:
The learners:
a. explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence
b. describe classic experiments that model conditions which may have enabled the first
forms to evolve
c. describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure and function, evolution, and
ecosystems) in the study of life show the connections among living things and how
they interact with each other and with their environment

BIG IDEA
Although there is no universal agreement as to the definition of life, its biological
manifestations are generally considered to be organization, metabolism, growth, irritability,
adaptation, and reproduction. Single-celled organisms like Paramecium performs life
functions as those carried on by the complex tissues and organs of humans and other highly
developed organisms. These life attributes are inherent in such minute structures. In seeking
for an understanding of life, myriad of life sciences emerged.

Why do we study Biology?

Biology, which is the study of life, is essential to human society because it gives an
understanding of how life is formed and how it works, changes and responds to environmental
influences. It influences human health, reproduction, quality of life, nutrition and almost every
aspect of human’s everyday life.

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 • Two important reasons for
studying Biology:
– Biology is relevant to our
everyday experience:
• Medical advances
• Addressing needs of
growing human
population
• Challenges of
decreasing rate of
biodiversity
• Biotechnology
advances
– Biology can be controversial Fig. 4.1a Biology in Action
• Examples:
• Dealing with endangered species?
• Use of human fetal tissue in biomedical research? Safety of
irradiated foods.
What is Biology?
 It is the study of life.
 It is a branch of science.
– A way of understanding nature.
 It is a human endeavor.
– An attempt to understand, explain, integrate and describe the world of living
things.

Biology, as a study of life

Everything on Earth that has life are the subject of study in Biology, as such, one emerging
question is: What is life? How do we know one has life?
Generally, living organisms, do have the following characteristics:
– Highly organized and complex.
– Are composed of one or more cells.
– Contain a blueprint of their characteristics.
– Acquire and use energy.
– Carry out and control numerous reactions.

Fortunately, biologists have developed a list of eight characteristics shared by all living
organisms. Characteristics are traits or qualities. Here is the list of characteristics shared by living
things:

1. Cellular organization
2. Reproduction

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 3. Metabolism
4. Homeostasis
5. Heredity
6. Response to stimuli (Irritability)
7. Growth and development
8. Adaptation through evolution

Cellular Organization
This simply means that living
things are made of cells. Cells are the most
basic unit of life. It doesn't matter if those
cells are plants, animals, fungi, or bacteria.
If something is going to be alive, it must be
made of cells.

Reproduction Fig. 4.1b Cellular Organization

If something is alive it must be capable of reproducing. Multicellular life forms such as

humans reproduce sexually, while unicellular life forms like bacteria reproduce asexually. The
important thing to remember is that in either case, living things reproduce.

Metabolism

It is essentially a collection
of chemical reactions occurring
within the body (or cell). These
reactions vary in form and function
but promote processes such as
protein synthesis, chemical
digestion, cell division, or energy
transformation. Because
metabolism includes reactions that
link to other characteristics, it is

Fig. 4.1c Reproduction in seahorse

sometimes grouped with those
other characteristics.

Homeostasis

It means maintaining a stable internal environment. For instance, regulating

constant body temperature, controlling blood sugar, are ways to attain internal balance,

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otherwise, if homeostasis is disrupted, and we spike a fever, it simply indicates that
something is threatening life.

Heredity

It refers to the genetic information, the

passing of traits from parents to their offspring,
either through asexual reproduction or sexual
reproduction. This is the process by which an
offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes
predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell
or organism. Fig. 4.1d Transmission of traits

Irritability

It describes the ability of any cell or organism to recognize and react to stimuli in its
immediate surroundings, which is responsible for framing a corresponding response.

Growth and Development

Development is the progression from earlier to later stages in maturation, e.g. a fertilized
egg develops into a mature tree. It is the process whereby tissues, organs, and whole plants are
produced. It involves: growth, morphogenesis (the acquisition of form and structure), and
differentiation.

Adaptability

It refers to the ability to

change in response to the changing
environmental conditions.
Through time, organisms tend to
develop features that enable them
to adapt to the environment. There
are ways of adaptation: mimicry
and camouflaging. Mimicry is to
look, act, smell or sound like
Fig. 4.1e Camouflaging in the environment
something else, such as another
organism or other natural object, it
is a form of deception practiced by a variety of animals, to gain some advantage of protections.

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For many animals, including insects and spiders, a key problem is how to eat without being eaten.
By mimicking something else, they gain some protection and increase their chances of survival.
To camouflage is to look, act, smell or sound such that it blends in with their surroundings.

Evolution

Evolution pertains to the sequence of

events depicting the gradual progression of
changes in the genetic composition of a
biological population over successive
generations. Accordingly, all life on Earth
originates from a common ancestor, which is
referred to as the last universal common
ancestor, some 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago.

Fig. 4.1f Evolution in Man

Biology, as a branch of science, and a human
endeavour.

It is both an activity and body of knowledge. In fact, it is a way of understanding the natural

world. Scientists make predictions and test those predictions.

So, how is Biology studied?

In an attempt to understand how life

operates on Earth, scientists employ a logical

or systematic way of dealing with problems

pertaining to life- through scientific method.

Scientific method is a body of

interconnected concepts. It is supported by

much experimental evidence and scientific

reasoning. It helps express ideas of which we

are most certain. Fig. 4.1g The Scientific Method

Biology is indeed a broad Science, a body of knowledge. BIOLOGY as a broad Science is

consist of branches. The following are few of the sub-branches:

m
114
 • Zoology- the study of animals.

• Botany-study of plants.

• Microbiology-study of microorganisms.

• Cytology-study of cells.

• Genetics-study of heredity and variation.

• Ecology-study of ecosystem.

• Entomology- study of insects.

• Taxonomy-study of classification of organisms, etc.

These branches of study are called Natural Sciences. Living things on Earth share common

characteristics or properties typically not found in inanimate object. There are plenty of these.

These might create possible confusions, and

so they are clustered into themes called,

UNIFYING THEMES in the study of life. It is

in this premise that these characteristics are

grouped and regrouped together. For

instance, when an organism reproduce, it

transmits its genetic information to its

offsprings, thus Reproduction and

Fig. 4.1h Cellular Composition
Inheritance go together.

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 1. Cellular Composition According to the Cell theory…(a) All organisms composed of cells. (b)

Cells are life’s basic units and (c) All cells come from preexisting cells.

2.Organizational Hierarchy Living systems show hierarchical organization: (a)cellular level,

which consists of atoms, molecules, organelles; (b) organismal level, which includes issues,

organs, and organ systems; and populational level, which refers to the population and the

community.

3.Structure and Function The proper

function of a molecule is dependent on its

structure. The structure of a molecule can

Fig. 4.1i Organizational heirarchy often tell us about its function. There are

four major classes of biomolecules:(a)

nucleic acids (b) amino acids (c) lipids, and

(d) carbohydrates. Superficially, our hands,

ears, eyes and other body structures do have

a specific function to do in the body.

4. Reproduction and Inheritance All organisms produce new organisms like themselves

through reproduction. Organisms transmit hereditary information to their offspring in a

process called inheritance.

5. Evolution by Natural Selection/Evolutionary conservation. All organisms today

descended from a simple creature 3.5 billion years ago. Some characteristics preserved –

use of DNA. Conservation reflects that they have a fundamental role in the environment.

Those organisms that had evolved through time, are living proofs of the rule of thumb:

“Survival of the fittest”. Those that are unfit are dis selected against.

6. Ecosystem This refers to the interplaying of components in an ecosystem. In fact,

everything is connected with everything else.

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7. Homeostasis This means maintaining balance in and out of the cell condition. Cell

transports materials under different conditions: -hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic

solutions in order to achieve constant and stable conditions such as body temperature,

consistent blood sugar, etc.

8. Diversity of life arises by evolution Underlying unity of biochemistry and genetics

argues for life from the same origin event. Diversity is due to evolutionary change over

time. Through the passing years, may domains of life had been identified to emerge; life

then, in the beginning consists of 3 domains: (1)bacteria – single-celled prokaryote, (2)

archaea – single-celled prokaryote, and (3) eukarya – single-celled or multicellular

eukaryote. From the three domain, emerges four until it recognizes five. What domain

do we belong then? We, humans are the living testimonies that life then begun from a

simple composition, until life begins its complexity as time flies by.

Challenge 4.1

You are going to creatively draft a Collage of the Unifying Themes of Life.

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Name:___________________________ Strand & Block:_______Date:______Score:________

Biology is the study of life. Life’s definition is very immense. It exists in a hierarchical
form, from a single-celled bacteria to a very vast biosphere, with all its ecosystems. In fact, at each
higher level, organisms become more elaborate, and new properties appear.
Earth is a home to an incredible diversity of life. All organisms share certain
characteristics. Biologists study life in all its forms, and because these lifeforms are incredibly
diversed, the Unifying Themes connect concepts from many fields of biology, just so to emphasize
that all levels of life have systems of related parts.
Your challenge is to creatively frame a collage of the Unifying Themes of Life. You may refer
to the rubric as a guide for the rating.

Collage on the Unifying Themes of Life

In three sentences, explain your work.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Life on Earth and Its Beginnings
One belief that governed people’s thinking in the past is the theory of SPONTANEOUS

GENERATION. This states that life arise from nowhere. This is popularized by Aristotle, an

ancient Greek philosopher. People in the past believe that when a person is suffering from an

illness, it a punishment from a god due to a life not lived well. It is a curse. This is regarded as an

anomalous generation, it is an obsolete body of thought on the ordinary formation of living

organisms without descent from similar organisms. Typically, the idea was that, certain forms

such as fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as dust, or that maggots could arise from

dead flesh. People, as well think that dampen clothes undisturbed would generate mouse.

Later, BIOGENESIS, is acknowledged by people, in which it states that life originates

from preexisting life. Biogenesis is the production of new living organisms or organelles. The

law of biogenesis, attributed to Louis Pasteur, is the conclusion that complex living things come

only from other living things, by reproduction (e.g. a spider lays eggs, which develop into

spiders). That is, modern life does not arise from non-living material, which was the position held

by spontaneous generation.

There is a clash between the ideas as to how really life originates.

Since then, a lot of experiments have been done, to answer the following questions:

 When did life form?

The Earth had lived already for 4.6 billion years. In fact, the oldest rocks are dated

approximately 3.8 – 4.0 billion years. Oceans were established to be > 3.8 billion years ago,

although, life could not be possible during the period of heavy bombardment ~ 4.0 billion years

ago. However, the signatures of life which is 12 C/13C suggests that photosynthetic life existed ~

4.0 billion years ago. Therefore, life had emerged already approximately 4.0 billion years ago.

Bacteria is noted as the earliest life on Earth. No scientists contested since the ones retrieved

(stromatolites) do possesses very close resemblance to that of the bacteria we have at present.

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  Where did life form?

Clouds formed as the Earth began to cool, producing enormous volumes of rainwater that

formed the oceans. For the next 1.3 billion years (3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago), the Archaean Period,

first life began to appear and the world's landmasses began to form. Most literatures point out

oceans, lakes, ponds, tide pools, and even deep ocean geothermal vents, as the place of the first

life form origin. Eventually, these life forms moved to the terrestrial place where scorpions were

noted to be the 1st land animal to inhabit. Meanwhile, many scientists disagreed with this.

 How did life form?

As to the question raised, there were plenty of challenges to explain how really did life

originate. In fact, there were plenty of questions were asked associated with the initial query:

• Where did the organic molecules come from, if life comes from organic molecules?

• How does chemistry become biology?

• How did self-replication begin?

• Do we really come from organic molecules? All life is based on organic chemistry. Today,

organic molecules cannot form outside of living cells. So, where did the organic molecules

come from? There are several experiments and theories that attempt to trace the origin of

life forms.

Miller-Urey Experiment

The Miller Urey Experiment. In the 1950's, biochemists

Stanley Miller and Harold Urey, conducted an experiment, which

demonstrated that several organic compounds could be formed

spontaneously by simulating the conditions of Earth's early

atmosphere. With the following components: water vapor +

methane + H2 + (CH4) + ammonia (NH3), a primitive ocean was

simulated. The experiment ran for a week of condensation and

recycling. The condensed mixture contained amino acids and Fig. 4.1 j Miller-Urey Experimental Set-up

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complex organic molecules. However, there was a problem – early atmosphere was mostly CO2,

and has a little methane and ammonia. The experiment was redone with CO2 and UV light

obtaining less quantities but produced all amino acids found in life on Earth. Complex sugars

and lipids formed too, not to mention, all the 5 chemical bases used in DNA and RNA were

formed: uracil, thymine, guanine , cytosine and adenine. These are the chemical bases of life.

However, there were noted external sources of organic molecules –these are the comets,

asteroids, and meteors. About 100’s of tons of debris fall to Earth each year, especially from the

Murchison Meteorite that happened on 1969. Amino acids, the 5 bases, and even the simple

sugars and fatty acids were not only found on Earth but on other planets as well.

As to how life really originate remain a question subject to debate, thus, chemistry made

an attempt to solve the problem. It states that with all the ingredients in life available, the

following could eventually take place.

(1) Creation of polymers (long chains of molecules that have a repetitive pattern)

(2) Ability for life to reproduce

(3) Clays could serve as a template for life initiation. How does this happen? Self-

replication needs to happen. DNA is too complex to be the original self replicating

molecule, RNA is most likely the candidate because it is easier to manufacture – and still

contains the hereditary information. RNA replication requires enzymes, but the

production of enzymes requires DNA/RNA, yet it was found out that RNA can act as its

own catalyst (simulating the role of enzyme).

• To cut it short, atmospheric chemistry, chemistry near deep sea vents, impacting bodies

produced concentrations of organic molecules. Organic molecules dissolved in a

“primordial soup”. Complex molecules grew from organic soup (perhaps helped by

clays) and later produced some RNA molecules were capable of self-replication.

Membranes formed spontaneously in the organic soup creating pre-cells. Natural

selection among RNA molecules in pre-cells leads to complexity and true living

organisms. Natural selection makes DNA the favored hereditary molecule.

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 Summary of steps leading to life

So, how did life originate?

There were alternative theories exploring the origin of life.

The Divine Creation (MYTH)

It is regarded as the oldest

hypothesis. “Life came from a divine

God”, is the most-widely accepted belief.

Life forms and everything in the universe

were created through a supernatural

power rather than that of a naturalistic

means. The belief that arose from nothing

though the power of divine being is called

Fig. 4.1k God created life
CREATIONISM.

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 Spontaneous Generation of Miller-Urey Experiment

In 1920’s, scientists hypothesized that the

chemicals in the early atmosphere, fueled by

sunlight, would spontaneously create

organic molecules. This was tested by Miller-

Urey experiment in 1950’s.

In the Miller-Urey experiment, the first

flask was partially filled with water and

heated to produce water vapor (sea).Water

Fig. 4.1l Miller-Urey Experiment
vapor was moved to a second flask where

methane and ammonia vapor was added (atmosphere). Electric sparks (lightening) in second

flask was the energy source for chemical reactions. Below the second flask, water vapor cooled

(rain) and recycled to first flask (sea). The experiment resulted to a substance that turned brown

with amino acids and other complex organic molecules.

Panspermia , as postulated by Svante Arrhenius

• Life could arose from outside the Earth like (MARS) and life forms were transported from

another planet to seed life on Earth. Panspermia proposed that a meteor or cosmic dust

may have carried to Earth significant amount of organic molecules which started the

evolution of life! Panspermia, was even ridiculed for the idea of “seeds everywhere”,

which further states that life is transported from one planet to another. Complex organic

molecules found in space (ISM, meteors, comets). This promotes the concepts that the (a)

formation of life is very rare; (b) life on Earth formed too quickly; and (c) if formed

elsewhere, then could have had more time to form. Panspermia did not at all explain the

origin of life. But, it suggested that life is transported from outside space through exposure

to bombardments and space environments which would most likely kill life. But, there

has been organisms to live in a hostile environment such as: the halophile, the bacteria

that can withstand super salty environment, acidophile, with extreme acids and even

thermophile for an extreme temperature, and many more. In general, we call them

EXTREMOPHILES.

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 The past explanations as to the origin of life remains daunting, thus, there were

current experiments being done to clarify matters:

Francesco Redi’s Experiment

He observed that maggots arose from eggs laid

by flies on the rotten meat but not on the meat

covered with gauze. He concluded that life arose

from living matter such as maggots from eggs, not

from spontaneous generation in the meat.

John Needham’s Experiment Fig. 4.1m Redi’s set-up

He concluded that life in the broth caused spontaneous generation to occur. In actuality,

he did not heat it long enough to kill all the microbes.

Abbe Lazaro Spallanzani’s Experiment

He concluded that life occurred

from something that entered the

unsealed flask that it was the one

responsible for life to grow. His

experiment disprove the theory of

spontaneous generation.
Fig. 4.1n Needham’s set-up

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 How did Needham’s and

Spallanzani’s experiments differ?

Fig. 4.1 Spallanzani’s set-up

Louis Pasteur’s experiment

His experiment supported the theory of

biogenesis and disproves spontaneous

generation. The evidence suggest that new

bacteria appear only when they are

produced by existing bacteria

As of today, there are several competing

theories as to how life arose on Earth. Some

questions whether life began on Earth at all,

asserting instead that it came from a distant

world or the heart of a fallen comet or

asteroid. Some even say life might have risen

here more than once.

How do you think life originate? You

may form conjectures based on the different assumptions presented or would you rather believe

of the supreme being, who makes life possible on Earth?

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Name:_______________________ Strand & Block:__________Date:_______Score:________

Chapter Review No. 4: Introduction to Life Science

I. Give what is asked in the following:

1. Three definitions of Biology
a.____________________________________________________________
b.____________________________________________________________
c.____________________________________________________________
2. Five general characteristics of life
a._______________________________b._________________________c._______________________
d._______________________________e._________________________
3. Four Unifying Themes of the study of life
a._____________________________________________b.____________________________________
c._____________________________________________d.____________________________________
4. Two basic assumptions on the origin of life, that are in great conflict with each other
a.________________________________b.________________________
5. Just one alternative theory attempting to explain the origin of life
a._________________________________________________
b. What does it say? ________________________________________________________________________
6. One of the current experiments to explain how really life originate, based from the two conflicting
assumptions
a.______________________________________________
b. How is it done?( a short description)_________________________________________________
7. Three branches of Biology, and their subjects of study.
Ex. Ornithology- study of birds
a.______________________________________________
b.______________________________________________
c._____________________________________________
II. A. Identification. Identify the terms being referred to in the following:
1.It refers to the ability to change in response to the changing environmental conditions.______
2.It means maintaining a stable internal environment. ____________
3.It means the capacity to produce its kind. ____________
4.It describes the ability of any cell or organism to recognize and react to stimuli in ___________
its immediate surroundings, which is responsible for framing a corresponding response.
5.This simply means that living things are made up of cells. ___________
B. Identify whether the following experiments do support spontaneous generation or biogenesis. Write
spontaneous generation or biogenesis on the space provided for.
a. Redi’s experiment ________________________
b. Spallanzani’s experiment ________________________
c. Needham’s experiment ________________________
d. Pasteur’s experiment ________________________
III. Brief Essay. Read through the given questions. Answer right away. A phrase or two would be enough.
1. Why is Biology important?_________________________________________________________
2. When did life form? _______________________________________________________________
3. How did life form? ________________________________________________________________
4. Where did life form? ______________________________________________________________
5. How do Needham’s experiment differ from Spallanzani’s experiment?___________________

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Name:______________________________Strand & Block:_____________Date:_______Score:_____

Module 04: Life on Earth and its Beginnings

____________________________________________________________________________________________

In this module, you will spend __2.5__ hours to :

a. explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence
b.describe classic experiments that model conditions which may have enabled the first forms to
evolve

What is this module all about?

Living things (even ancient organisms like bacteria) are enormously complex. However, all
this complexity did not leap fully-formed from the primordial soup. Instead life almost certainly
originated in a series of small steps, each building upon the complexity that evolved previously.

Simple organic molecules, similar to the nucleotide, are the building blocks of life and must
have been involved in its origin. Experiments suggest that organic molecules could have been
synthesized in the atmosphere of early Earth and rained down into the
oceans. RNA and DNA molecules — the genetic material for all life — are just long chains of simple
nucleotides. All living things reproduce, copying their genetic material and passing it on to their
offspring. Thus, the ability to copy the molecules that encode genetic information is a key step in
the origin of life — without it, life could not exist. This ability probably first evolved in the form of
an RNA self-replicator — an RNA molecule that could copy itself.

If this could be true that life originates from organic molecules, then where do organic
molecules come from? How did it happen?

What is expected of you?

You are to perform an individual activity, entitled, How did life originate? A Miller-Urey
Experiment, An Interactive Simulation Activity.

Here is your work!

What is expected of you?
You are going to simulate how organic molecules were derived from the ingredients of the
Here is your work!
primitive atmosphere. Please log in to https://www.ucsd.tv/miller-urey/.

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5. Kindly follow the instructions directed in this interactive simulation.
6. A prompt will be displayed depending on the manipulations you had executed. Keep trying
until a prompt that you succeeded will pop up in the screen.
7. Please provide a proof of your simulated experiment on the space provided for.
NOTE: We may vary results depending on the ingredients you had inputted during the simulation.

This is worth 10 points!

Points to Ponder:

The origin of life might seem like the ultimate cold case: no one was there to
observe it and much of the relevant evidence has been lost in the intervening 3.5 billion
years or so. Nonetheless, many separate lines of evidence do shed light on this event, and
as biologists continue to investigate these data, they are slowly piecing together a picture
of how life originated. Major lines of evidence include DNA, biochemistry, and experiments.

Up until this point, life had probably relied on RNA for most jobs. But everything
changed when some cell or group of cells evolved to use different types of molecules for
different functions: DNA (which is more stable than RNA) became the genetic material,
proteins (which are often more efficient promoters of chemical reactions than RNA) became
responsible for basic metabolic reactions in the cell, and RNA was demoted to the role of
messenger, carrying information from the DNA to protein-building centers in the cell. Cells
incorporating these innovations would have easily out-competed "old-fashioned" cells with
RNA-based metabolisms, hailing the end of the RNA world

SELF-ASSESSMENT
Let’s check how far have we understood the Simulation Task.
Post-Activity Discussion Questions:
1.In your own words, define life.
______________________________________________________________________________

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2.Based on the simulation activity (experiment), give at least three requirements for the sign of life (
organic molecules) to emerge .
______________________________________________________________________________

4. What was "applied" after the gases travelled through the horizontal tube?
______________________________________________________________________________

5. Was O2 a gas applied to this experiment? Why or Why not?

_____________________________________________________________________________

NOTE: Try and find out!

6. Do you think that the Miller-Urey experiment was a good experiment? Do you feel that
the researchers set up the conditions of early Earth properly
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________.

7. Would the Miller-Urey experiment be applicable to Mars? Why or why not?

_______________________________________________________________________________
8. How would you modify the experiment, if at all, to represent what might have occurred on
Mars?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

What have you learned from the activity? How is the simulation experiment different from the real
thing?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________.

Source: https://www.ucsd.tv/miller-urey

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