CHAPTER 2 Semiconductor Materials and Diodes - Complete

Chapter 2
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND DIODES
ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 1

Intrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
DEFINITION:: A pure form of semiconductor crystal is called intrinsic semiconductor.
• The atoms have the four valance electrons are in grouped IV in the periodic table is called
elemental semiconductors.
• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the most used elemental semiconductors in electronics.
2
ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS
• The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor at 0° K temperature is zero.
Two-dimensional representations of silicon crystal lattice at 0° K
• All valence electrons are bound to silicon atoms by covalent bond
• At T= 0° K ,each electron is in its lowest possible energy state thus silicon is an

insulator ( no charge flows through it)
4
Breaking of a covalent bond for temperature T> 0° K creating a free electron
and an empty space or a hole.
5
Band Theory and Energy Band Diagram of an Intrinsic Semiconductor
At temperature T= 0° K At temperature T> 0° K
• 𝐸𝑣 is the max energy of the valence energy band

• The band gap energy 𝐸𝑔 is the difference between 𝐸𝑐 and 𝐸𝑣
The energy difference between the minimum conduction band energy and the maximum
valance band energy is called bandgap energy.
6
The notation ni is used as intrinsic carrier concentration for the concentration of the free
electrons and as well as the holes
The intrinsic semiconductor carrier concentration (𝜂𝑖 ) i at T ° K can be represented as
B = a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material

Eg = the bandgap energy (eV)
T = the temperature (Kelvin) remember that K = °C + 273.15
k = Boltzmann’s constant (86 x 10-6 eV/K)

Exercise 1
Table 2.1 Semiconductor Constants
Material Bandgap Energy (eV) B (cm-3 K-3/2)
Silicon (Si) 1.1 5.23 × 1015
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 1.4 2.10 × 1014
Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration (𝜂𝑖 ) in Si at room temperature (27° C), given k as
86x10−6 eV/K

Exercise 2
Material valence Energy conduction Energy B

(eV) (eV) (cm-3 K-3/2)
Germanium (Ge) 1 0.34 1.66 × 1015
Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration (𝜂𝑖 ) in Germamium at T=300K, given k as

86x10−6 eV/K
9
EXERCISE 3
The intrinsic semiconductor carrier concentration (𝜂𝑖 ) i at T ° K can be represented as
The intrinsic carrier concentration of germanium at 300 ° K is 1.8x106 𝑐𝑚−3 . Calculate

−3
the band gap energy of the germanium. Assume the constant B=2.1x1014 𝑐𝑚−3 𝐾 2
and k= 86x106 𝑒𝑉 𝐾
10
Extrinsic Semiconductors
DEFINITION:: Extrinsic semiconductor is an impure semiconductor

obtained by a controlled way adding a selective impurity in the intrinsic
semiconductors.
• Since intrinsic concentration, ni is very small, so,

very small current is possible
• So, to increase the number of carriers, impurities

are added to the Silicon/Germanium.
• The impurities will be from Group V and Group III
11
• Group V – 5 electrons in the outer shell; Example, Phosphorus, Arsenic
• The 5th electron are loosely bound to the Phosphorus atom
• Hence, even at room temperature, the electron has enough energy to

break away and becomes free electron.
• Atoms from Group V are known as donor impurity (because it donates

electrons)
Group V + Si = n-type semiconductor

• Group III – 3 electrons in the outer shell; Example, Boron
• The valence electron from outer shells are attracted to fill the holes
added by the insertion of Boron
• Hence, we have movement of holes
• Atoms from Group III are known as acceptor impurity (because it

accept electrons)
Group III + Si = p-type semiconductor
14
• The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic
semiconductors, or doped semiconductors.
• Effects of doping process

o controls the concentrations of free electrons and holes
o determines the conductivity and currents in the materials.
• The electron and hole concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor in

thermal equilibrium condition is
no = the thermal equilibrium concentration of free

electrons
po = the thermal equilibrium concentration of holes
ni = the intrinsic carrier concentration
15
For N-type – electrons are the majority carriers
At room temperature (T = 300 K), each donor atom donates a free
electron to the semiconductor.
•If the donor concentration Nd is much larger than
the intrinsic concentration,we can approximate:
•Then, the hole concentration:
16
For P-type – holes are the majority carriers
Similarly, at room temperature, each acceptor atom accepts
a valence electron, creating a hole.
•If the acceptor concentration Na is much larger than the

intrinsic concentration, we can approximate:
•Then, the electron concentration:

EXERCISE 4
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.
a) Consider silicon at T = 300 K doped with phosphorous at a

concentration of Nd = 1016 cm-3 and ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.
b) Consider Silicon at T = 300° K doped with boron at a concentration of

𝑁𝑎 =5𝑥1016 𝑐𝑚−3 and ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3

EXERCISE 5
k = Boltzmann’s constant (86 x 10-6 eV/K)
a) Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration of Silicon at T = 250K
b) A silicon is doped with 5 x 1016 arsenic atoms , taking ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.
i. Is the material n-type or p-type?
ii. Calculate the electrons and holes concentration of the doped silicon
at T=300K , for ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.

Drift and Diffusion Currents
●Current
Generated by the movement of charged particles (negatively
charged electrons and positively charged holes).
●Carriers
The charged electrons and holes are referred to as carriers
●The two basic processes which cause electrons and holes move
in a semiconductor:
Drift - the movement caused by electric field.

Diffusion - the flow caused by variations in the concentration
20
Drift Currents
●Drift Current Density (n-type semiconductor)

Consider an n-type semiconductor with a large number of free
electrons. An electric field E is applied in one direction
• Produces a force on the electrons in the opposite
direction, because of the electrons’ negative
charge.
• The electrons acquire a drift velocity, Vdn (in cm/s):
N-type
Vdn e
I
21
Drift Currents
●Drift Current Density (p-type semiconductor)
Consider a p-type semiconductor with a large number of free
holes. An electric field E is applied in one direction.
•Produces a force on the holes in the same direction,
because of the positive charge on the holes.
•The holes acquire a drift velocity, Vdp(in cm/s):
P-type
p Vdp
I

Diffusion Current
●The basic diffusion process

i. Flow of particles from a region of high-concentration to
a region of low-concentration.
ii. The movement of the particles will then generate the
diffusion current

The pn Junction

n-type versus p-type
In n-type - the electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers.
In p-type - the holes are called the majority carriers and electrons
are the minority carriers.
25
The Equilibrium pn Junction
 Join n-type and p-type doped Silicon (or Germanium) to form a p-n
junction
Creates a charge
Electron diffusion separation that
sets up electric
field, E
Hole diffusion
-- ++
- - E ++
-- ++
 The Electric field will create a force that will stop the diffusion of
carriers  reaches thermal equilibrium condition

W
-- ++
- - E ++
-- ++
Known as space charge

region/depletion region.
Potential difference across the depletion region is called the built-in potential barrier,
or built-in voltage:
VT = kT/e
k = Boltzmann’s constant
T = absolute temperature
e = the magnitude of the electronic charge = 1 eV
Na = the net acceptor concentration in the p-region
Nd = the net donor concentration in the n-region
VT = thermal voltage, [VT = kT / e] it is approximately 0.026 V at temp, T =
300 K
27
The Equilibrium pn Junction
Exercise 6
Calculate the built-in potential barrier of a pn junction.
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K, doped
Na = 1016 cm-3 in the p-region, Nd = 1017 cm-3 in the
n-region and ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.
HINT::
28
Exercise 7
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 400K, doped with
concentrations of Nd = 1018 cm-3 in n-region and Na = 1019 cm-3
in p-region.
Calculate the built-in voltage Vbi of the pn junction, given B and

Eg for silicon are 5.23 x 1015 cm-3 K-3/2 and 1.1 eV respectively.
HINT::1. Calculate VT = kT/e

2. Calculate ni = BT3/2 exp ( -Eg / 2kT )
3. Calculate Vbi = VT ln ( NaNd / ni 2 )
29
Reverse-Biased pn Junction
+ve terminal is applied to the n-region of the pn junction and vice versa.
Applied voltage VR will induce an applied electric field EA.
Direction of the EA is the same as that of the E-field in the space-charge
region.
Magnitude of the electric field in the space-charge region increases above
the thermal equilibrium value. Total ET = E + EA
Increased electric field holds back the holes in the p-region and the electrons
in the n-region. So no current across the pn junction.

Reverse-Biased pn Junction
• Hence, no current across the pn junction.
• This applied voltage polarity is called reverse bias.
• E  charge , since there is an increase of the electric field in

the depletion region, the number of charges increases too
since the width of the depletion region (W) increases.
W
-- ++
p - - E ++ n Equilibrium
-- ++
- - - - ++ ++
ET
p - - - - ++ ++ n
Reverse Biased
- - - - ++ ++
ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS WR 31
• Because of the additional +ve and –ve charges induced in the
depletion region with an increase of reverse-bias voltage, so a
capacitance is associated with the pn junction when a reverse-bias
voltage is applied.
• The junction capacitance or depletion layer capacitance of a pn

junction is
Vbi
𝐶𝑗𝑜 Is the junction capacitance at zero applied voltage
32
EXERCISE 8
EXERCISE 8 Calculate the junction capacitance of a silicon pn junction diode.
Consider that the diode is at room temperature (T = 300°K), with doping
concentrations of cm-3 , cm-3 and let .
Taking ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3 Calculate the junction capacitance at reverse bias 3.5 V.
HINT::
1. Calculate Vbi = VT ln ( NaNd / ni 2 )
Vbi

Forward-Biased pn Junction
+ve terminal is applied to the p-region of the pn junction and vice versa.
Direction of the applied electric field EA is the opposite as that of the E-field in the
space-charge region.
The net result is that the electric field in the space-charge region lower than the
thermal equilibrium value causing diffusion of charges to begin again.
The diffusion process continues as long as VD is applied.
Creating current in the pn junction, iD.

Forward-Biased pn Junction
W
-- ++
p - - E ++ n Equilibrium
-- ++
- - ++
p - - ++ n Forward Biased
- - ++
WF
Depletion region Width reduces, causing

diffusion of carriers current flows
35
Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship
The theoretical relationship between the voltage and the

current in the pn junction is given by the current iD
So, the current iD is
IS = the reverse-bias saturation current (for silicon 10-15 to 10-13 A)

VT = the thermal voltage (0.026 V at room temperature)
n = the emission coefficient (1 ≤ n ≤ 2)
VD = forward bias voltage

Exercise 9
37
PN Junction Diode
 The basic PN junction diode circuit symbol, and
conventional current direction and voltage polarity.
 The graphs shows the ideal I-V

characteristics of a PN junction
diode.
 The diode current is an
exponential function of diode
voltage in the forward-bias
region.
 The current is very nearly zero
in the reverse-bias region.
38
PN Junction Diode
● Temperature Effects
 Both IS and VT are functions of temperature.
 The diode characteristics vary with temperature.
 For silicon diodes, the change

is approximately 2 mV/oC.
•Forward-biased PN junction
characteristics versus temperature.
•The required diode voltage, VD
decreases with an increase in
temperature.
39
Analysis of pn Junction
Diode in a Circuit

CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION OF DIODE
The I -V characteristics of the ideal diode.
𝑖𝐷
Reverse
Conducting
bias
state
vD
Equivalent circuit
Reverse biased Conducting state

open circuit short circuit
CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION OF DIODE –
Piecewise Linear Model
i
Reverse
Conducting
bias
state
vD Reverse biased
V open circuit
VD = V for diode to turn on.

And 𝒓𝒇 = 𝟎
Hence during conducting state:
Represented as
a battery of
= voltage = V
V
CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION OF DIODE –
Piecewise Linear Model
i
Reverse
Conducting
bias Reverse biased
state
open circuit
vD
V
VD ≥ V for diode to turn on.
Hence during conducting
state:
+ VD - Represented as a
battery of voltage =
= V and forward
resistance, rf in
V rf series
Diode Circuits: DC Analysis and Models
A simple diode circuit
Example
Consider a circuit with a dc voltage VPS
applied across a resistor and a diode.
Applying KVL, we can write,
or,
The diode voltage VD and current ID are

related by the ideal diode equation:
(IS is assumed to be known for a particular diode)
Equation contains only one unknown, VD:
44
Diode Circuits: Direct Approach
Example
Determine the diode current ( 𝐼𝐷 )and
diode voltage (𝑉𝐷 ) for the circuit.
Consider IS = 10-13 A.
ITERATION
METHOD
and
45
Diode Circuits: Using piecewise linear models
Example
Determine the diode current (𝐼𝐷 ) and diode
voltage (𝑉𝐷 ) for the circuit using a
piecewise linear model.
Assume piecewise linear diode parameters of

Vf = 0.6 V and rf = 10 Ω.
Solution:
The diode current is determined by:

DIODE DC ANALYSIS
Exercise 10
› Find I for the circuit shown below if the diode cut in
voltage is V = 0.7V
I D1
20k 20k
5V 5V
Answer : I = 0.2325mA

Exercise 11
a) Determine ID if V = 0.7V
R = 4k
b) If VPS = 8V, what must be the value of R to get

ID equal to part (a)

DIODE AC EQUIVALENT

●Sinusoidal Analysis
The total input voltage vI = dc VPS + ac vi
iD = IDQ + id
vD = VDQ + vd
IDQ and VDQ are the DC diode

current
and voltage respectively.
50
Diode Circuits: AC Equivalent Circuit
 Current-voltage Relation
The relation between the diode current and
voltage can be written as:
If vd << VT, the equation can be

VDQ = dc quiescent voltage expanded into linear series as:
vd = ac component
The -1 term in the equation is neglected.
The equation can be written as: The DC diode current Is:

𝑣𝑑
𝑖𝐷 =𝐼𝐷𝑄 [1 + ]
𝑉𝑇
𝑣𝑑
𝑖𝐷 =𝐼𝐷𝑄 + 𝐼𝐷𝑄 = 𝐼𝐷𝑄 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑉𝑇
𝑣𝑑
Where 𝑖𝑑 =𝐼𝐷 , note: 𝑉𝑇 =0.026 V
𝑉𝑇
𝑉
using Ohm’s law: I =
𝑅
𝑣𝑑 𝑣𝑑
hence, 𝑖𝑑 = compare with 𝑖𝑑 =𝐼𝐷
𝑟𝑑 𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝑇
which reveals that 𝑟𝑑 =
𝐼𝐷𝑄
CONCLUSION: During AC analysis the diode is

equivalent to a resistor, rd
VDQ = V rd
IDQ id
DC equivalent AC equivalent
53
Exercise 12
Analyze the circuit (by determining VO & vo ).
Assume circuit and diode parameters of VDQ = V
VPS = 5 V, R = 5 kΩ, Vγ = 0.6 V & vi = 0.1 sin ωt
IDQ

Other Types of Diodes
Photodiode
The term ‘photo’ means light. Hence, a photodiode converts optical energy
into electrical energy. The photon energy breaks covalent bond inside the
crystal and generate electron and hole pairs
Solar Cell
Solar cell converts visible light into
electrical energy. The working
principle is the same as photodiode
but it is more towards PROVIDING the
power supply for external uses
Light Emitting Diode
An LED is opposite of photodiode this time, it converts electrical energy into light
energy – Normally GaAs is used as the material for LED. During diffusion of
carriers – some of them recombines and the recombination emits light waves.
Schottky Barrier Diode

A Schottky Barrier diode is a metal
semiconductor junction diode. The
metal side is the anode while the n-
type is the cathode. But the turn on
voltage for Schottky is normally
smaller than normal pn junction
diode

Breakdown Voltage
 The breakdown voltage is a function of the doping
concentrations in the n- and p-region of the pn junction.
 Large doping concentrations result in smaller break-down
voltage.
 Reverse biased voltage – ET 
 The electric field may become large enough for the covalent
bond to break, causing electron-hole pairs to be created.
 So, electrons from p-type are swept to n-region by the electric
field and holes from the n-type are swept to the p-region
 The movement will create reverse biased current known as the
Zener Effect.
57
Zener Effect and Zener Diode
 The applied reverse biased voltage cannot increase without limit since at
some point breakdown occurs causing current to increase rapidly.
 The voltage at that point is known as the breakdown voltage, VZ
 Diodes are fabricated with a specifically design breakdown voltage and are
designed to operate in the breakdown region are called Zener diodes. Circuit
symbol of the Zener diode:
NOTE: When a Zener diode is reverse-
biased, it acts at the breakdown region,
when it is forward biased, it acts like a
normal PN junction diode
 Such a diode can be used as a constant-voltage reference in a circuit.

 The large current that may exist at breakdown can cause heating effects and
catastrophic failure of the diode due to the large power dissipated in the device.
 Diodes can be operated in the breakdown region by limiting the current to a
value within the capacities of the device.
58
› Avalanche Effect
– While these carriers crossing the space-charge
region, they also gain enough kinetic energy.
– Hence, during collision with other atoms, covalent
bond is broken and more electron-holes pairs are
created, and they contribute to the collision process
as well. Refer to figure below
Electron with e
high kinetic e atom
h
atom
h
energy
e eh
atom

Exercise 13
10 k
Zener Diode
Calculate the value of the current ID if VZ =

10V
ANSWER: ID = 0.2 mA

CHAPTER 2 Semiconductor Materials and Diodes - Complete

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CHAPTER 2 Semiconductor Materials and Diodes - Complete

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Chapter 2

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND DIODES

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 1

Two-dimensional representations of silicon crystal lattice at 0° K

• All valence electrons are bound to silicon atoms by covalent bond

• At T= 0° K ,each electron is in its lowest possible energy state thus silicon is an

At temperature T= 0° K At temperature T> 0° K

• 𝐸𝑣 is the max energy of the valence energy band

The intrinsic semiconductor carrier concentration (𝜂𝑖 ) i at T ° K can be represented as

B = a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 7

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 1.4 2.10 × 1014

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 8

Material valence Energy conduction Energy B

Germanium (Ge) 1 0.34 1.66 × 1015

Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration (𝜂𝑖 ) in Germamium at T=300K, given k as

The intrinsic carrier concentration of germanium at 300 ° K is 1.8x106 𝑐𝑚−3 . Calculate

DEFINITION:: Extrinsic semiconductor is an impure semiconductor

• Since intrinsic concentration, ni is very small, so,

• So, to increase the number of carriers, impurities

• The impurities will be from Group V and Group III

• The 5th electron are loosely bound to the Phosphorus atom

• Hence, even at room temperature, the electron has enough energy to

• Atoms from Group V are known as donor impurity (because it donates

Group V + Si = n-type semiconductor

• Hence, we have movement of holes

• Atoms from Group III are known as acceptor impurity (because it

Group III + Si = p-type semiconductor

• Effects of doping process

• The electron and hole concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor in

no = the thermal equilibrium concentration of free

•Then, the hole concentration:

•If the acceptor concentration Na is much larger than the

•Then, the electron concentration:

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 17

Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.

a) Consider silicon at T = 300 K doped with phosphorous at a

b) Consider Silicon at T = 300° K doped with boron at a concentration of

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 18

a) Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration of Silicon at T = 250K

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 19

Drift - the movement caused by electric field.

●Drift Current Density (n-type semiconductor)

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 22

●The basic diffusion process

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 23

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 24

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 26

Known as space charge

Calculate the built-in voltage Vbi of the pn junction, given B and

HINT::1. Calculate VT = kT/e

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 30

• This applied voltage polarity is called reverse bias.

• E  charge , since there is an increase of the electric field in

• The junction capacitance or depletion layer capacitance of a pn

𝐶𝑗𝑜 Is the junction capacitance at zero applied voltage

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 33

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 34

Depletion region Width reduces, causing

The theoretical relationship between the voltage and the

IS = the reverse-bias saturation current (for silicon 10-15 to 10-13 A)

ECE 1312 ELECTRONICS 36