La industria petrolera se encuentra dividida en tres grandes sectores: upstream, midstream y downstream.

Al upstream también se lo conoce como sector de exploración y producción (E&P).1 2 3

Este sector incluye las tareas de búsqueda de potenciales yacimientos de petróleo crudo y de gas natural, tanto
subterráneos como submarinos, la perforación de pozos exploratorios, y posteriormente la perforación y
explotación de los pozos que llevan el petróleo crudo o el gas natural hasta la superficie.

Con el desarrollo de métodos para extraer gas metano de vetas de carbón,4 se ha producido un cambio
significativo hacia la inclusión del gas no convencional como parte del sector upstream, así como también los
desarrollos correspondientes al procesamiento y transporte de gas natural líquido.

La industria petrolera se encuentra dividida en tres grandes sectores: upstream, midstream y downstream. El
sector midstream incluye el transporte, ya sea por tuberías, ferrocarril, barcaza, o camión, el almacenamiento y la
comercialización al por mayor de productos crudos o refinados derivados del petróleo. Ductos y otros sistemas de
transporte pueden ser utilizados para trasladar petróleo crudo desde los sitios de producción a las refinerías y
entregar los diversos productos refinados a los distribuidores del downstream.1 2 3 Las redes de gasoductos de gas
natural recolectan gas de las plantas de procesamiento de gas natural y lo transportan hasta los consumidores
downstream, como son las empresas de servicios públicos locales.

Las operaciones midstream generalmente incluyen algunos elementos de los sectores upstream y downstream.
Por ejemplo, el sector midstream puede incluir plantas de procesamiento de gas natural que purifican el gas natural
crudo, y remueven y producen azufre elemental y gas natural líquido como productos terminados.

El sector downstream se refiere comunmente a las tareas de refinamiento del petróleo crudo y al procesamiento y
purificación del gas natural,1 2 3 así como también la comercialización y distribución de productos derivados del
petróleo crudo y gas natural. El sector downstream llega hasta los consumidores con productos tales
como gasolina, querosén, combustibles aeronáuticos,diésel, fueloil, lubricantes, ceras, asfalto, gas natural, y gas
licuado del petróleo así como también cientos de petroquímicos.

Las operaciones midstream son consideradas generalmente como parte del sector downstream.
 Sector Midstream de gas: procesamiento, transporte y balance de
carga

Descripción:
Este módulo trata sobre el sector "Midstream" de la cadena de valor del gas; particularmente, sobre el transporte de gas a través de
gasoductos y buques de gas natural licuado (GNL), y la búsqueda de un equilibrio ante las oscilaciones del mercado mediante la
utilización de instalaciones de almacenamiento de gas. La sección sobre gasoductos se centra en su diseño, las operaciones y los
aranceles. La sección sobre GNL se concentra en el diseño y el aspecto económico de la cadena de valor del GNL, desde la
licuefacción hasta la recepción en las terminales. Finalmente, la sección de balance de carga resume las diferentes opciones
disponibles para el control de los cambios entre la oferta de gas y la demanda del mercado que experimentan los gasoductos, así
como los costos habituales.

 Descripción general

 Procesamiento de gas

 Terminología del procesamiento de gas

 Propiedades del gas natural y de los líquidos de gas natural

 Instalaciones de superficie

 Productos básicos del procesamiento del gas natural

 Etano, propano, isobutano y butano normal

 Gasolina natural

 Opciones de procesamiento de gas

 Sistemas de procesamiento de gas

 Mercados para los líquidos de gas

 Oferta y demanda globales

 Gasoductos para el traslado de gas natural

 Historia e hitos de los gasoductos

 Infraestructura global de gasoductos

 Diseño de ductos

 Diseño de sistemas de transmisión

 Proceso de desarrollo de economía de ductos

 marítimos y terrestres

 Estructura tarifaria de los ductos

 Mercados regulados y desregulados

 Revisión histórica

 Gas natural licuado

 Cadena de valor del GNL

 Historia e hitos del GNL

 Procesamiento de GNL
  Licuefacción

 Trenes para el transporte de GNL

 Transporte

 Regasificación

 Economía de GNL

 Mercados y comercialización del GNL

 Balance de carga y almacenamiento subterráneo de gas

 Aplicaciones del balance de carga

 Curva de duración de la carga

 Patrón de flujo invernal

 Opciones de almacenamiento subterráneo

 Capacidad y tendencias del almacenamiento subterráneo

 Estudio de caso de almacenamiento de gas: Thomas Corners

 Opciones de almacenamiento superficial

 Atención de la demanda pico de GNL

 Clientes interrumpibles

 Retiro de almacenamiento en poros

The drilling industry

GET TO KNOW THE INDUSTRY

Using a drill to reach reservoirs of fossil fuels is a simple concept that has been known
since the 19th century. The practical challenges are enormous, however, and they have
never been greater, as energy companies increasingly look offshore and towards deeper
waters to help fuel modern society.
Exploration and Production Companies (like BP, Chevron or Statoil) usually contract specialised drilling companies
like Maersk Drilling to make wells. Drilling beneath up to several kilometres of pitch-dark ocean is a formidable task
– but a task that Maersk Drilling is known for handling with world class safety and effectiveness.

THE PHASES OF DRILLING

The drilling process begins when researchers from an energy company identify a potential undersea oil deposit.
Drilling rights are then obtained to the site to prepare it for exploratory drilling.
PHASE 1: EXPLORATION
Maersk Drilling sends a mobile drilling platform to the site to obtain a core sample, which geologists analyse for
signs of petroleum. The exploratory drilling rig will typically drill several temporary wells, each taking a few
months to complete. A positive find (called "a show") is followed by more exploratory wells to verify the quality
before taking next step: Drilling the much more elaborate production well.

PHASE 2: DRILLING BEGINS

A drill bit is attached to a "drill string" made of segments of drill pipe, each about nine meters long. The drill bit is
lowered into the sea – sometimes to a depth of several kilometres – until it meets the seabed. The drill is rotated
by a turntable at the platform floor, and as the drill grinds its way downwards (sometimes horizontally as well)
extra lengths of drill pipe are attached.
 For cooling, cleaning and stabilising pressure, a "drilling fluid" is pumped through the drill pipe and out through
nozzles in the drill bit at high velocity. The fluid is usually a mixture of water, clay, barite and chemicals. Back at
the platform, the fluid is recycled through a circulation system that disperses the crushed rock and reuses the
fluid.

PHASE 3: FINALISING THE WELL

When the drill reaches target depth, production casing is lowered into the well and cemented into place. At the
bottom, small explosive charges make small holes that allow the oil or gas to flow into the well while controlling
pressure.
Once a well is "live", the drilling rig is typically replaced by a production platform, assembled at the site using a
barge equipped with heavy lift cranes. An average well can last decades, so offshore production platforms are built
with a long stay in mind.
Maersk Drilling operates in the upstream section of the oil industry and our expertise lies in the following dark
clue areas:

REGARDING SAFETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Maersk Drilling aims for the highest possible well control standards. If the drilling releases pressurised oil or gas,
the ‘Blowout Prevention System’ kicks in: Hydraulically operated valves and other closure devices seal the well
and directs the pressurised fluids from the well and into specialised pressure controlling equipment.
Water is a common companion of oil in reservoirs. As oil is drawn from a deposit, it is often necessary to separate
the two substances. The water is cleaned and pumped back into the ocean after processing. Great emphasis is
placed on ensuring that the water returned to the ocean is as free from oil and chemicals as possible and strict
regulations apply.

MAERSK DRILLING RIG TYPES

The most important type of rigs all has different characteristics:
Jack-ups
Are the most common type of offshore drilling rig, and tend to be the most volatile in terms of rates and demand.
Jackups have a barge section that floats on the water (and holds the drilling equipment) and multiple legs (typically
three, but sometimes more) that extend down to the sea floor. Jackups are typically towed to the targeted drilling
site and, upon arrival, the legs are jacked down to the sea floor.
Once in place, these platforms are typically steady and sturdy, with a drilling platform well above the waves. Because
they do physically touch the bottom of the sea floor, they are generally only usable in relatively shallow water – up to
around 400 feet of water. Most jackups drill down through holes in the platform, but some (called "cantilevered")
drill over the side of the barge.

Semisubmersibles
Are quite a bit different than jackups. Semisubmersibles float on submerged pontoons and have an operating deck
that is well above the surface. Below the surface are anchors and umbilicals that essentially tie the rig in place,
though some do have powered systems that can help keep the rig on target.
With succeeding generations, the capacity of these rigs has increased, and the most modern generation of semi-
submersibles can operate in up to 10,000 feet of water. While jackups can earn high day rates in specific
circumstances, semisubmersible rates tend to be three- to five-times higher.
Drillships
Like semi-submersibles, drillships can operate in a wide variety of circumstances, and are often used in locations
with very deep water. Like semi-submersibles, drillships typically have an operating limit of 10,000 feet – a
limitation that has more to do with extending a drilling operation through that much water as opposed to any
limitations of the ship itself.
Drillships basically look (and operate) like very large boats, with drilling taking place through a hole in the hull
(called a moon pool). These ships are completely independent and self-powered. While not as stable as
semisubmersibles, drillships are mobile and can carry a lot of equipment – making them a good option for drilling
exploratory wells. Like semisubmersibles, day rates for drilling ships are often quite a bit higher than those for
jackups.

Drilling barges
Mostly used for shallow drilling in non-ocean waters, this platform is exactly what it sounds like: a floating barge
with drilling equipment. Tugboats tow the platform out to the site, where anchors hold it in place. However, given
that drilling barges basically just float on the surface, they're only suitable for calm waters.
THE ENERGY SUPPLY CHAIN
MLPs are broadly categorized in three segments: Upstream, Midstream and Downstream. The Fund focuses
primarily on Midstream MLPs.

TOLL ROAD BUSINESS Midstream MLPs typically do not own the energy commodity they transport and store, but
MODEL collect revenue to act as a “toll road” or storage facility

FREE CASH FLOW History of stable and predictable cash flows paid to investors

Potential to grow cash flow through the build out of U.S. energy infrastructure
GROWTH OPPORTUNITY
development of unconventional/shale gas and oil & Canadian oil sands

OIL AND GAS TECHNOLOGIES

Our expertise covers various types of oil & gas and petrochemical processing in Upstream, Midstream and Downstream
Gas Processing along with pipeline transmission. Apart from our global experience of open art technologies, we offer and
license through partnerships advanced proprietary process technology in all of the following areas:
 The value chain in Oil and Gas goes like this :

1. Upstream (Exploration and Production)

2. Midstream
3. Downstream (Refining and Marketing)

Now, The Companies involve in Upstream processes, i.e., exploration and drilling for Oil(and natural
gas) are the most prosperous and influential. All the companies that come to your mind, when I
mention Big Oil are in this group, i.e., British petroleum, ExxonMobil, Shell, Chevron etc...
This also includes states owned companies like Saudi Amarco, Qatar Petroleum , ONGC (India), Cairn
India, National Iranian Oil company etc...

All the other companies working in Midstream and Downstream are actually employed by the Upstream
Companies and thereby have a smaller share of profits.
A typical hierarchical model (From the prespective of an EPC) would be :
 Client (Upstream)
 PMC (Project management Consultant)
 EPC (engineering, Procurement and Construction)
 Vendor
 Sub-Vendor
 1.)The higher you are in this model, the better jobs you would get i.e., comparatively higher salaries, more
authority, more power to delegate work.This obviously comes with added responsibility....say a
person working(an engineer) in Downstream processes causes a delay of sorts(or commits
an grievous error).....it could cost the company at most 1-2 million $ (The cost of a
centrifugal pump) however if a mistake of similar magnitude would happen in an
Upstream process, it could jeopardize a project worth billions of dollars.

2.)The PMC and EPC jobs generally involve design of the various parts of the refineries, selection and
procurement of the equipment needed. They have department dealing with different equipment. More
notably;
 Static ( Dealing with stationary equipment....great for people with interest in Design)
 Rotary (Rotating equipment, such as pumps, compressors and other packages.Most suitable for
mechanical engineers)
 Piping ( Involves connection between Static and Rotary...suitable of mechanical engineers)
 Process (Generally for Chemical engineers)
 Instrumentation (For electrical engineers)
 Electrical (For electrical engineers)
 HVAC (Air Conditioning)

3.)Vendors here include manufacturers of different components i.e., Pumps, compressors, heat
exchangers, HVAC's.

4.) After an EPC has selected the equipment specification, it selects a vendor.....reviewing different vendor
offers.

5.) Sub -Vendors are companies that manufacture parts for the main vendors. For example;
manufacturers of 'seals' for Pumps would be considered sub vendors.

I hope to contribute more to this answer...

Part I

Do you know that nowadays speaking about all the activities connected with oil and gas
business the petroleum experts use three terms: upstream, midstream anddownstream.

To start the story of oil business one should know something about the origin of petroleum.
Most geologists believe that oil is of organic origin, i.e. (that is), itoriginated from decomposition
of mainly marine animals and plants buried under thick layers of mud perhaps as long as 400-
500 million years ago. These deposits rich in orgaic material became the source
rocks (sedimentary rocks) for the generation of crude oil. High temperatures and pressures in
the sedimentary rockscaused chemical processes that, in turn, resulted in the formation of a
waxy substance called kerogen. When heated to a temperature above 100° C kerogen is
separated into a liquid (oil) and gas (natural gas). The chemical composition of petroleum is
principally hydrocarbons, although a few sulphur-, nitrogen-, and oxygen-containing
compounds are usually present.
To look for and to find petroleum is the art of exploration. According to the theories of petroleum
origin sedimentary basins are a prime aim for the oil hunters. In general, to form oil and gas
pools the following conditions must be fulfilled. First, the presence of a "source rock" which
geologic history allowed the formation of oil. Second, migration of the oil from the source
rock to a "reservoir rock" that is thick, permeable and porous enough to hold a sizeable
accumulation of oil. Third,entrapment. Waters and pressure of overlying layers pushed oil
upward until it reached an impermeable layer of rock called a cap rock. A cap rock stops further
migration of oil and oil is thus trapped in a reservoir. It is from these reservoirs that people
began extracting oil and gas millions of years later.

It should be noted that successful exploration is based on an accurate interpretation of the

information to be provided by geological and geophysical surveys.
Seismic prospecting minimizes exploration risk and reduces finding costs. Using
complicated tools geologists identify potential traps for oil and gas.

Drilling can prove the presence of oil after the geologists and geophysicists have found
a favourable location for the accumulation of oil. All wells drilled to discover oil and gas
accumulations are "exploratory wells", commonly referred to as "wildcats". A
successful wildcat is a "discovery well", while an unsuccessful one is a "dry hole".

After oil has been discovered the first wells to be drilled to establish the limits of the field are
"appraisal wells". All subsequent wells are "development wells". To determine the reservoir and
oil properties geophysical investigations (logging) are to be conducted in the wells. If the
first wells "prove" an oilfield, the data from them are used in drawing up plans for the
commercial development of the field.

Part II

Once oil is found it must be extracted. After the drilling site has been prepared the rig is to be
constructed. The rig is known to consist of surface equipment and aderrick which houses
drilling tools. The derrick is used to lift sections of pipe which are lowered into the hole made by
the drill. To get oil and gas out of the ground is not easy.

Sophisticated techniques and equipment must be used to extract the most out of every oil and
gas deposit. Experts consider oil recovery to depend in much on natural pressure. Under
natural pressure oil flows freely and it is called the natural flow. It is the most economic period
of a well life. If oil wells have too little energy to produce oil efficiently, additional energy must
be supplied by pumps or other artificial means.

Crude oil must be transported from the fields where it is produced to the places where it is
consumed. Pipelines are likely to be the main means of oil transportation. But tankers, barges,
tank trucks, and railroad tank cars are thought to be of no less importance. The latest
discoveries of welding methods, construction practices and new materials
have extended pipeline transportation into harsh environments and deep waters. All the means
of transportation carry oil from wells to storage tanks or directly to refineries. Pipelines also
carry petroleum products from refineries to markets. Some of the largest pipelines are to carry
more than a million barrels of oil daily.
 The basic job of a refinery is to convert petroleum into useful products. As mentioned above,
crude oil consists chiefly of hydrocarbons. Refineries are to separate oil into various
hydrocarbon groups, or fractions, distillation being the first step of refining. The fractions are
then chemically changed and treated with other substances. The refining processes may be
classified as separation, conversion and chemical treatment. The latest improvements in
refining may be said to have saved billions of barrels of crude.

Distribution and marketing appear to be the final links in the petroleum industry chain that
begins hundreds of meters below the ground and ends in your home.