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A review of the characterization and
revegetation of bauxite residues (Red mud)

Shengguo Xue, Feng Zhu, Xiangfeng

Kong, Chuan Wu, Ling Huang, Nan
Huang & William Hartley

Environmental Science and Pollution

Research

ISSN 0944-1344
Volume 23
Number 2

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016)

23:1120-1132
DOI 10.1007/s11356-015-4558-8

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
DOI 10.1007/s11356-015-4558-8
SELECTED PAPERS FROM THE 2ND CONTAMINATED LAND, ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION (CLEAR 2014) CONFERENCE: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND REMEDIATION
A review of the characterization and revegetation of bauxite
residues (Red mud)
Shengguo Xue 1 & Feng Zhu 1 & Xiangfeng Kong 1 & Chuan Wu 1 & Ling Huang 1 &
Nan Huang 1 & William Hartley 2
Received: 4 December 2014 / Accepted: 16 April 2015 / Published online: 26 April 2015
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract Bauxite residue (Red mud) is produced in alumina
plants by the Bayer process in which Al-containing minerals
are dissolved in hot NaOH. The global residue inventory
reached an estimated 3.5 billion tons in 2014, increasing by
approximately 120 million tons per annum. The appropriate
management of bauxite residue is becoming a global environ-
mental concern following increased awareness of the need for
environmental protection. Establishment of a vegetation cover
is the most promising way forward for the management of
bauxite residue, although its physical and chemical properties
can limit plant growth due to high alkalinity and salinity, low
hydraulic conductivity, trace element toxicity (Al and Fe), and
deficiencies in organic matter and nutrition concentrations.
This paper discusses the various revegetation and rehabilita-
tion strategies. Studies of the rehabilitation of bauxite residues
have mainly focused on two approaches, amelioration of the
surface layer and screening of tolerant plants and soil micro-
organisms. Amendment with gypsum can reduce the high
alkalinity and salinity, promote soil aggregation, and increase
the hydraulic conductivity of bauxite residues. Organic matter
can provide a source of plant nutrients, form stable complexes
with metal cations, promote hydraulic conductivity, stabilize
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
* Shengguo Xue
sgxue70@hotmail.com; sgxue@csu.edu.cn
* Chuan Wu
wuchuan@csu.edu.cn
1
School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University,
Changsha 410083, People’s Republic of China
2
Crop and Environment Sciences Department, Harper Adams
University, Newport, Shropshire TF10 8NB, UK
soil structure, and provide an energy source for soil organisms.
Tolerant plants and microorganisms such as halophytes and
alkaliphilic microbes show the greatest potential to ameliorate
bauxite residues. However, during restoration or as a result of
natural vegetation establishment, soil formation becomes a
critical issue and an improved understanding of the various
pedogenic processes are required, and future direction should
focus on this area.
Keywords Alkalinity . Bauxite residues . Revegetation .
Salinity . Soil formation
Introduction
Aluminum, the third most abundant element after oxygen and
silicon in the lithosphere, is widely used in packaging, trans-
portation, and construction, and is usually found in its oxide
form known as bauxite. Bauxite residue is an alkaline waste
byproduct generated by the extraction of alumina from baux-
ite. The production of 1 t of alumina generates about 1.5 t of
bauxite residues (Hamada 1986). Globally, about 120 million
tons of bauxite residue is produced annually and the global
inventory reached more than 3.5 billion tons in 2014 (modi-
fied from Power et al. 2011). Disposal and storage of the vast
amounts of bauxite residue still remains an increasing prob-
lem. Although the residues can be recycled to extract metals
and produce construction and environmental materials, the
volume recycled is incredibly small due to the inherent risk
of high alkalinity and salinity (Klauber et al. 2011).
Environmental risks including wind erosion and groundwater
pollution are problematic at storage sites and several remedi-
ation measures including seawater, carbon dioxide, and acid
treatments have been employed to reduce residue alkalinity
(Khaitan et al. 2009; Kirwan et al. 2013; Sushil and Batra
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132 1121

2012; Yu et al. 2012), but to date the most effective and sus-
tainable remediation treatment is to establish a vegetation
cover.
The ultimate aim of the rehabilitation process is to-
wards ecosystem reconstruction focusing on a holistic ap-
proach rather than just vegetation establishment per se
(Gräfe and Klauber 2011). Both the structure and
physico-chemical properties of bauxite residues, which
can limit plant growth, require further improvement, al-
though little attention has focused on natural processes of
soil formation and development (Courtney et al. 2009a,
b). Recently, Santini and Fey (2013) highlighted that more
attention should be given to pedogenic processes within
bauxite residue, thereby enhancing substrate amelioration.
Numerous measures have been taken to improve the phys-
ical, chemical, and microbial properties of bauxite resi-
dues, and this paper will review the characterization and
revegetation strategies currently available for its manage-
ment in the environment. Nevertheless, the focus should
be to promote soil formation, improve long-term sustain-
able management, and establish vegetation, all of which
still require further research.
Bauxite production and global reserves
Bauxite is a naturally occurring heterogeneous material,
composed of one or several aluminum hydroxide min-
erals, including primarily gibbsite [Al(OH)3], boehmite
[γ-AlO(OH)], and diaspore [α-AlO(OH)]. It is a residual
mineral rich in hydrated aluminum oxides (40–60 %) and
Si oxide, with oxides of Fe and Ti, and elements such as
Table 1 Bauxite mineralogical types and their proportion of world
production
Type Proportion of world
production (%)
Gibbsitic (<3 % boehmite) 65
Gibbsitic (>3 % boehmite) 26
Boehmitic 3
Diasporic 6
Data from Jones and Haynes (2011)
Principle and process flow of the Bayer
Approximately 85 % of bauxite is converted to alumina
(Al2O3) for aluminum metal production (Liu et al. 2009),
and the majority of bauxite ores are used for the production
of alumina via the Bayer process. The Bayer process is the
principal industrial means of refining gibbsite bauxite.
Globally, more than 90 % of alumina is produced by the
Bayer process (Hausberg et al. 2000). Compared with either
the sintering or combined process, the Bayer process is less
complex, giving rise to a higher quality product (Liu et al.
2009). Typically, to produce 1 ton of alumina, between 1.9
and 3.6 tons of bauxite (depending on its quality) and 60–
150 kg of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are required (Hind
et al. 1999). The Bayer process can be considered in three
stages. Firstly, alumina dissolves under pressure in the caustic
soda solution according to chemical equation (1). Small crys-
tals of aluminum hydroxide are formed in the sodium alumi-
nate solution following dilution and cooling according to
chemical equation (2). Hydrate is calcined to form alumina
for the aluminum smelting process (Yang et al. 1989).

Zn, Ni, and V also present (MII 2009; Meyer 2004).
Bauxite is divided into four types based on mineralogy Al 2 O3 H 2 O þ NaOH þ H 2 O→2NaAlðOH Þ4 ð1Þ
(Table 1), with gibbsite being the predominant mineral NaAlðOH Þ4 →Al ðOH Þ3 ðsÞ þ NaOH ð2Þ
produced globally. The dominant factor in bauxite forma-
tion is climate, with topography, groundwater movement,
relative rates of chemical and mechanical erosion, vegeta-
tion, and bedrock matrix all being important factors that 7
control the quality of bauxite ores (Schellmann 1994).
6
The world’s bauxite resources are widely distributed
throughout more than 50 countries and estimated to be 5
Billion tons

55 to 75 billion tons in Africa (32 %), Oceania (23 %),

4
South America and the Caribbean (21 %), Asia (18 %),
and elsewhere (6 %) (Liu et al. 2009). Major bauxite 3
deposits can be found in countries such as Australia,
2
Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil, India, Venezuela, China, and
Suriname (Wehr et al. 2006). The major reserves of baux- 1
ite for 2012 are presented in Fig. 1, while the main baux-
0
ite producers in 2013 include Australia, China, Brazil, Guinea Australia Brazil Vietnam Jamaica indonesia India Guyana China
Indonesia, India, Guinea, and Jamaica, and the largest Countries
producer is Australia with almost one third of the world’s Fig. 1 Reserves of major bauxite producing countries in 2012 (data from
share (USGS 2014). USGS 2014)
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The process consists of grinding and digestion, clarifica-
tion, precipitation, and calcination (Fig. 2) (Kahane et al.
2002): after washing and crushing, the bauxite ore is wet
ground with hot caustic liquor to form a slurry. The bauxite
slurry is then pumped to digestion units with additional caustic
soda solution. This digestion process dissolves hydrated alu-
mina to generate sodium aluminate. The solids are then sepa-
rated by clarification process from the supersaturated sodium
aluminate solution and pumped to the residue storage. The hot
liquor is filtered, cooled, and then pumped to the precipitator
phase. The alumina hydrate is seeded in the cooled solution
with additional aluminum trihydrate to induce precipitation.
After washing and drying, alumina hydrate is finally calcined
in fluid bed calciners (Hind et al. 1999).
Storage of bauxite residue
The first Bayer plant was established in England during 1892,
and from then on the aluminum industry grew rapidly (Gräfe
and Klauber 2011). Due to the large volumes and inherent
environmental risk, disposal of bauxite residue has become a
major concern for the sustainable development of the alumi-
num industry (Kumar et al. 2006).
Conventional disposal
At present, there are four major disposal routes, including
marine and slurry disposal, dry stacking, and dry cake stack-
ing. Since 1980, there has been a move away from lagoon-
type disposal towards dry stacking, as this method can reduce
the potential for leakage, while also reducing space required
for storage and improving the recoveries of soda and alumina
(Banerjee 2003). Marine disposal requires no land storage, but
Fig. 2 The flow sheet of Bayer
process (modified from Kahane
et al. 2002)
Residue disposal
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
may result in the release of hazardous metals into the marine
environment (Power et al. 2011). This can also increase sea-
water turbidity due to residue dispersion and formation of
colloidal compounds (Kirkpatrick 1996).
Slurry disposal is a conventional method that is low cost
with no additional thickening or filtration of the slurry. The
residue has a liquid–solid ratio of 3.0–4.0 and is pumped to
impoundments (Nguyen and Boger 1998). The highly alka-
line impoundments, however, cause environmental risks due
to the large amounts of caustic liquor and low penetration
resistance of the stored residues (Cooling 2007).
To date, dry stacking is the most popular choice of residue
disposal. The slurry is thickened to a paste with a liquid–solid
ratio of approximately 1.0 and then pumped to the stacking
areas (Nguyen and Boger 1998). Dry stacking minimizes both
land use and the potential for leakage to groundwater.
However, it is difficult to achieve in areas of high rainfall
and low evaporation, and the significant compaction density
limits vegetation establishment (Power et al. 2011).
Alternatively, dry cake stacking is an emerging method
which attempts to produce a dry cake with a solid content of
>65 wt.% prior to disposal (Nikraz et al. 2007). Water from the
residues has been removed as much as possible to produce the
dry cake. This method should be promoted in small- to
medium-sized alumina plants because of the high recovery
rate of caustic liquor, the requirement of small areas for stor-
age, and low operation costs. However, air pollution should be
monitored in surrounding locations as fine particulates from
the cakes surface could be re-entrained to the atmosphere
(Power et al. 2011).
Residue neutralization
Untreated residues often have high alkalinity and salinity,
which leads to greater environmental risks in storage areas.
Bauxite
Grinding
Digestion
Clarification Filtration
Liquor cooling Thickening washing
Precipitation Fine fraction
Calcination
Alumina
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
A number of refineries have taken several measures such as
seawater neutralization and carbon dioxide treatment to ame-
liorate the residues before they are pumped or transported to
storage areas.
Seawater neutralization can decrease the pH of bauxite res-
idue to 8.0–9.5 by precipitation of Mg, Ca, and Al hydroxides
and carbonate minerals. The decrease in sodium is probably
due to ion exchange with Ca, Mg, and K (Hanahan et al.
2004). The increased Ca and Mg content may cause floccula-
tion of mineral particles to form tightly bound agglomerates
and improve the structure of bauxite residue (Jones and
Haynes 2011). Carbon dioxide treatment may also reduce
pH and render the residue less hazardous (Cooling 2007).
Other methods such as mineral acid addition have been trialed
to neutralize the residues (Cooling 2007). Residue neutralized
by mineral acids such as HCl, H2SO4, or HNO3 contains no
solid alkalinity and would not be useful as a starting material
for the range of applications envisaged. Mineral acid is nega-
tively effective in removing aluminate from solution as it re-
lies on the precipitation of aluminum hydroxide. In addition, it
does not improve the physical properties (Power et al. 2011).
Despite many treatments having been used to neutralize
bauxite residues, cost remains an important consideration.
For example, seawater neutralization appears to be a feasible
option but only for alumina refineries located near marine
environments, while the cost of using waste mineral acid is
relatively high due to large volumes of reagent required for
neutralization to be successful. Indeed, to accomplish
recycling of the alkaline liquor from impoundments back to
the refinery, the problem of removing impurities from the
waste acid exacerbates the process. Even if bauxite residue
has been treated, its subsequent physical and chemical prop-
erties require further amelioration because of high alkalinity
and salinity which will adversely affect plant growth. Without
addition of ameliorations, a gap still exists in achieving baux-
ite residue rehabilitation to support plant growth.
Uses of bauxite residue
The Bayer process was a breakthrough in mineral processing
and promoted alumina extraction on a large scale (Klauber
et al. 2011), but an inevitable consequence of the process
was the production of significant quantities of bauxite resi-
dues. There are currently areas in which residues could poten-
tially be used, but there still remain substantial problems in
dealing with the waste product. For example, they can be used
as raw material in the production of cement (Sglavo et al.
2000; Singh et al. 1997), bricks, and blocks (Yal and Sevin
2000), but despite the feasibility of the technologies to pro-
duce these materials, significant uncertainties about environ-
mental and health impacts remain unanswered. Metals can
also be extracted and recovered from bauxite residues
1123
including the recovery of rare metals (Ochsenkuhn-
Petropoulou et al. 2002). However, economic and environ-
mental processes need to be refined before industrialization
of this potential use can be considered successful (Klauber
et al. 2011). Finally, bauxite residue could be applied to areas
contaminated by metals due to two important characteristics,
namely its high alkalinity and large specific surface area.
Numerous publications have demonstrated that the residues
can be used in the treatment of waste water (Zhang et al.
2008; Zhu et al. 2007), waste gas (Alvarez et al. 1999; Fois
et al. 2007), and contaminated soil (Lee et al. 2009).
Nevertheless, when bauxite residues are used to manage en-
vironmental pollution, the risks imposed by the residues them-
selves cannot be ignored.
In spite of several decades of work on the potential uses of
bauxite residues, a lot of difficulties have arisen with regard to
using them as raw materials. To successfully transform baux-
ite residue from a waste to a new product and at the same time
create overall value means the rapid development of techno-
logical solutions which focus on the volume, performance,
cost, and risks (Klauber et al. 2011). Although several at-
tempts have been presented on the application of bauxite res-
idue which may appear plausible, a lot of deficiencies exist in
the current research. For example, the residue has a very var-
iable composition resulting from the different types of bauxite
and producing processes that can influence its composition.
The potential application of the residues as environmental
materials requires a more detailed understanding of their phys-
ical and chemical behavior in terms of metal ion lability and
subsequent complexes that may form as a result of production
processes. During the process of extracting valuable trace el-
ements from the residue matrix, both the extraction cost and
production of new contaminants during the extraction process
require further consideration (Akinci and Artir 2008). All the
problems stated above have led to the limited use of bauxite
residues in the environment and as a result application of the
residues as novel soil-forming matrices, while restoring veg-
etation, remains at best an assumption. Further consideration
is required in terms of environmental and ecological limita-
tions (Courtney et al. 2013).
Properties of bauxite residue
Numerous jurisdictions (Canada, USA, and the EU) clearly
state bauxite residue to be a non-hazardous product with no
transport or regulatory controls (Klauber et al. 2011). In
China, however, bauxite residue is considered as category II,
general industrial solid waste (Liu et al. 2009). Untreated
bauxite residue may be classified as a hazardous material for
transport off site, primarily due to its high alkalinity. Finding a
comprehensive long-term solution depends on an understand-
ing of the properties of bauxite residue, including physical,
 Author's personal copy
1124
chemical, and biological properties. Although the chemical
and mineralogical make-up of bauxite differs, the general
properties of bauxite residues are similar throughout the
world. The physical and chemical properties which would
limit plant growth will be discussed in the following sections.
In addition, biological properties should also be assessed if
vegetation establishment is to be successful.
Physical properties
The particle size of bauxite residue ranges between 2 and
2000 μm; 80–90 % exists as mud and the remainder is sand.
The particle diameter of the sand fraction is almost 20–
2000 μm and the particle diameter of the mud fraction is
almost less than 20 μm (Table 2) (Nguyen and Boger 1998).
Great variation exists in particle size distribution largely due to
the differences in processing technologies, operational param-
eters, and the nature of the bauxite ore deposits. The average
bulk density of bauxite residues is 2.5±0.7 g cm−3 (Nguyen
and Boger 1998). Bulk density varies with soil physical
conditions and is influenced by soil texture, the amount
of organic matter, and total porosity. The high bulk
density exceeding 1.5 g cm−3 hinders root penetration
and plant establishment. The average SSA (specific sur-
face area) of bauxite residues is reported as 32.7 ±
12.2 m2 g−1 and ranges between 15 and 58 m 2 g−1
(Gräfe and Klauber 2011). The fine particles of bauxite
residue can consolidate to form a solid mass which
contains very few large pores and results in low hydrau-
lic conductivity. The low hydraulic conductivity would
inhibit drainage and favor waterlogging (Jones and
Haynes 2011). Bell and Meecham (1978) reported that
the hydraulic conductivity of bauxite residue was only
about 0.002 cm min−1. Very few plants can survive on
bauxite residue due to their low infiltration rate, low
hydraulic conductivity, and high water holding capacity.
Furthermore, the surface of bauxite residue disposal
areas (BRDAs) is prone to waterlogging during wet pe-
riods, and this demonstrates the need for drainage to be
installed below the surface layers to ensure that plant
establishment is not impeded.
Table 2 Textural analysis of various bauxite residues
Origin of residue Sand (%) 2–0.02 mm
Australia—Gove 13
Australia—Kwinana 30
Canada 0 47
Jamaica 4–9
Spain 12
USA—Texas 8 66
Data from Wehr et al. (2006)
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
Chemical properties
The chemical composition of bauxite residue depends on the
process of alumina production and the chemical composition
of the additives used during the production process. The main
elemental composition of the residue includes Al2O3, Fe2O3,
SiO2, TiO2, CaO, and Na2O (Wang et al. 2008); the compo-
sition of bauxite residue from the major producing countries is
presented in Table 3. Typically, bauxite residue has high alka-
linity (pH=9.7–12.8), elevated salinity, high Na+ concentra-
tions (exchangeable sodium percentage values range from 53
to 91 %), high electrical conductivity (1.4–28.4 mS cm−1)
(Table 4), elevated concentrations of Al and Fe, and low or-
ganic C and plant-available elements such as N, P, K, Ca, Mn,
Cu, and Zn. Among them, ESP (exchangeable sodium per-
centage) is defined as the equation (3):
ð100  Exchangeable N aÞ
ESPð%Þ ¼ X ð3Þ
ðExchangeable Ca þ Mg þ K þ NaÞ
Electrical conductivity (EC) is related to total cation and
anion concentrations in solution. In bauxite residues, high
sodium ion concentrations are the major reason for the high
EC values. At the same time, the concentrations of naturally
occurring radioactive materials such as thorium, uranium, and
heavy metals may also be elevated in these residues. All these
properties present limitations to plant growth and make reveg-
etation particularly challenging. Therefore in order to establish
plant cover on bauxite residues, several principal characteris-
tics require improvement.
The high pH is due to the formation of multiple alkaline
solids such as sodalite and hydrate garnet by the addition of
NaOH and lime in the Bayer process. The main alkaline an-
ions buffering the solution are HCO3−, CO32−, Al(OH)4−, and
OH−. pH can only be reduced when the alkaline solids have
dissolved and the reaction products are removed (Thornber
and Binet 1999). The high soil solution pH may have adverse
effects including inhibition to root growth, root respiration,
and root-pressure-driven solute export to xylem (Jones et al.
2011). At high pH, insoluble Al would become soluble, as the
negatively charged aluminate ion forms, together with
Silt (%) 0.02–0.002 mm Clay (%) <0.002 mm
40 47
30 40
36
9–19 71–80
50 38
26
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132 1125

Table 3 Major compositions of bauxite residue samples around major Biological properties
countries

Country Major compositions (wt.%) High alkalinity and low water retention and nutrient supplying
capacities may weaken soil microbial activity and limit plant
Fe2O3 Al2O3 SiO2 TiO2 Na2O growth in the residues (Jones et al. 2010). Untreated bauxite
Australia 23.0–36.2 17.1–30.0 13.0–54.0 1.0–8.3 0.4–11
residue is a sterile substrate for plant and microbial growth and
nutrient availability (Krishna et al. 2005). All the physical and
China 5.0–9.0 6.4–9.2 20.5–25.9 2.9–7.3 2.4–3.2
chemical properties which limit vegetation establishment on
Greece 39.3–48.0 15.6–16.9 6.9–9.2 4.8–7.1 2.4–3.3
bauxite residue can also limit the growth and colonization of
India 24.5–54.8 14.8–24.3 6.2–7.3 13.5–18.0 3.3–5.3
microorganisms. Under high alkalinity and salinity, nutrient
Jamaica 53.5–64.2 2.1–8.2 0.6–1.3 10.9–13.3 0.3–0.8
deficiencies, and Al toxicity, few microorganisms survive. For
Brazil 60.4–71.9 6.8–13.5 0.6–3.4 7.8–10.9 0.4–1.5
heterotrophic microbes, a lack of energy sources including
Turkey 37.6–39.8 17.3–20.2 15.2–17.1 4.1–4.9 7.1–12.1
carbon and nitrogen are the most limiting factors (Gräfe and
Data from Atasoy (2005); Li et al. (2006); López et al. (1998); Newson Klauber 2011).
et al. (2006); Paramguru et al. (2005); Xenidis et al. (2005) Microorganisms play crucial roles in soil formation, nutri-
ent cycling, vegetation establishment, and long-term ecosys-
tem stability (Schmalenberger et al. 2013). The main goal of
elevated levels of soluble Fe (Courtney and Timpson vegetation establishment is to create sustainable plant and mi-
2005). Soluble Al and Fe are negatively correlated with crobial communities (Tsuji 1993); microbial action is essential
nutritive elements such as K, Mg, P, N, and Ca, whereas to sustain vegetative cover on bauxite residues. More attention
the concentration of soluble Al is positively correlated should be given to enhancing soil development and natural
with soluble Fe (Fuller and Richardson 1986). Cell elon- vegetation establishment (Kopittke and Menzies 2005).
gation would also be affected due to the lack of acidity Enzyme activity in bauxite residues should be regulated and
(Fuller and Richardson 1986). High Fe concentrations are controlled, and suitable bacteria and plant species selected
also directly related to impaired plant growth and reduced from native regions. High salt content in bauxite residue tends
Ca, Mg, and P uptake (Fuller and Richardson 1986). High to reduce the solubility and denatures enzyme proteins
Na content in bauxite residues may also cause toxicity to through disruption of the tertiary protein structure which is
plants. Excessive uptake of Na+ can result in inhibition of essential for enzymatic activity (Jones et al. 2011). The in-
enzyme reactions in the cytoplasm and decreased uptake creased activities of enzymes involved in C, N, S, and P min-
of other elements such as K, Mg, and Ca (Bucher et al. eralization would be the result of the greater microbial activity
1985). The lack of organic matter is also a limitation to and may be indicative of a larger rate of recycling of N, S, and
plant growth on bauxite residue (Santini and Fey 2013). P through the organic carbon pool (Jones et al. 2010). Some
Organic carbon, as one of the major bonding agents, microbial communities can establish on unrestored bauxite
could stabilize soil aggregates against slaking and disag- residue, such as Acidobacteriaceae, Nitrosomonadaceae,
gregation and improve the structure of bauxite residue to and Caulobacteraceae. Meanwhile, the diverse soil-like bac-
support plant growth. In addition, organic carbon provides terial communities including Acidobacteriaceae and
the energy to soil microorganisms and sustain a long-term Nitrosomonadaceae which were established on the restored
ecosystem. residues could be used as the indicators for revegetation suc-
cess on bauxite residue (Banning et al. 2011; Schmalenberger
et al. 2013).
Table 4 Selected chemical properties of bauxite residues which are
significant to the establishment of vegetation

Max Min Average Std Revegetation of bauxite residue

pH 12.8 9.7 11.3 1.0
Ideally, bauxite residue should be used as an industrial by-
EC (mS cm−1) 28.4 1.4 7.4 6.0 product for other applications which may achieve a low waste
[Na+] (mmol L−1) 225.8 8.9 101.4 81.6 footprint (Gräfe and Klauber 2011). However, little evidence
SAR 673 31.5 307.2 233.1 exists of any successful applications considering several de-
ESP 91 32.1 68.9 19.6 cades of research on this subject. Large volumes of bauxite
Data from Gräfe and Klauber (2011)
residue, which are currently stored in BRDAs, could eventu-
[Na+ ] concentration of Na+ in solution expressed as micromoles of
ally cause environmental risks, including land occupation, air
charge per liter, SAR sodium adsorption ratio, ESP exchangeable sodium pollution, and groundwater pollution. The most promising
percentage, Std standard deviation of the population (n) solution would be in situ revegetation of BRDAs which would
 Author's personal copy
1126
help stabilize their surfaces (Mendez and Maier 2008). A veg-
etation cover can limit wind and water erosion, minimize en-
vironmental pollution, encourage organic matter buildup, and
provide an aesthetically pleasing landscape (Wehr et al. 2006).
Due to the inherent risks described above, only a lim-
ited number of plant species are capable of surviving on
unamended bauxite residues (Courtney and Kirwan 2012).
Consequently, a thorough understanding of the ecological
factors that can limit vegetative growth is required in or-
der to successfully establish a functioning ecosystem on
such hostile media. Prior to plant establishment, several
physical and chemical properties require attention; bulk
density should be reduced to less than 1.6 g cm−3, ex-
changeable sodium percentage should be less than
9.5 %, pH below 9.0 but above 5.5 (Mendez and Maier
2007), electrical conductivity decreased to less than
4 mS cm−1 (Li et al. 2006), and the concentrations of
labile Na, Al, and Fe reduced in order that plants and
microbes can establish. Many researchers have demon-
strated that a number of strategies may be used for reveg-
etation including soil capping, field neutralization, and
incorporation of amendments (Table 5). Halophytes, most
commonly, the grass species (Courtney and Kirwan
2012), are the most promising plants to survive on
amended bauxite residues.
Amelioration of bauxite residues
The physical and chemical properties of the residues described
above make revegetation challenging without amendments
(Wong and Ho 1993, 1994a, b). Studies on the amelioration
of bauxite residues using amendment additions have mainly
focused on improvement of the surface layers and mulching
with various soil materials (Wehr et al. 2006).
Table 5 Revegetation strategies using various amendments and plant species on bauxite residue disposal areas
Revegetation strategies
Amendments addition Plant species
Gypsum, compost Holcus lanatus, Festuca rubra,
Trifolium pretense
Gypsum Holcus lanatus, Trifolium pratense
Gypsum, vermicompost Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbeck
Gypsum, inorganic Cynodon dactylon, Atriplex nummalari
fertilizer , Atriplex canescens
Topsoil Acacia leptocarpa, Chloris gayana
Inorganic fertilizer, Secale cereal, Lolium rigidum
poultry manure
Organic amendments, Agropyron smithii, Sporobolus airoides
sewage sludge
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
Surface layer amelioration
Amelioration of the surface layer of bauxite residue has also
been widely attempted using gypsum, compost, biosolids, and
combinations of these treatments. Many studies have demon-
strated that amendments are important and necessary as they
improve both the physical and chemical properties of the res-
idues to promote sustainable growth (Courtney et al. 2009a, b;
Courtney and Kirwan 2012). Several researchers have also
focused on amelioration of residue sand and discovered that
gypsum and organic materials may decrease the alkalinity and
salinity of residue sand while also improving soil structure to
support plant establishment (Banning et al. 2011; Jones and
Haynes 2011). The co-disposal of residue mud and sand was
also tried to improve the physical condition of the residues
(Jones et al. 2011).
Courtney and Kirwan (2012) found that application of
gypsum and mushroom compost could provide additional
calcium and magnesium ions and minimize the solubility of
solid phase alkalinity; available aluminum was also reduced
during this procedure. Wong and Ho (1993) investigated the
effects of waste gypsum (phosphogypsum) on bauxite resi-
dues and the growth of grass species. Results demonstrated
that waste gypsum reduced pH (by providing an excess of
calcium ions to precipitate solution alkalinity and suppress
the solubility of solid phase alkalinity), electrical
conductivity, and Na and Al concentrations. What is more,
the availability of nutrient elements could also be increased
in the matrix. Meecham and Bell (1977) found that ferrous
sulfate was an effective ameliorant when added to bauxite
residue while Wong and Ho (1994a, b) evaluated the effec-
tiveness of two acidic industrial wastes (waste gypsum and
copperas) as ameliorants. They found that copperas was more
effective in reducing soil Na content and EC while gypsum
maintained a lower pH and a higher Ca content. Both gypsum
Suggestions Example of use
Reduce ESP prior to organic additions Courtney et al. (2013)
to promote aggregation
Gypsum is a slightly soluble salt and source Courtney and Kirwan (2012)
of calcium
Drip irrigation provided better growth results Chauhan and Ganguly (2011)
in all the tree species
Appropriate drainage lowers the alkalinity and Woodard et al. (2008)
accelerates plant growth
A deep soil capping (1.4±0.4 m) has a stable Wehr et al. (2006)
vegetation cover
Inorganic fertilizer could provide a suitable, Eastham et al. (2006)
cost-effective alternative for plant growth
Sewage sludge decreases pH and provides Fuller et al. (1982)
macro- and micronutrients
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
and copperas are effective ameliorants for bauxite residue, and
gypsum may be the better choice as it may provide a more
persistent pH buffering capacity and lower exchangeable so-
dium percentage.
Residue sand has a low water holding capacity due to its
texture which limits plant growth. The coarse fraction, how-
ever, has great efficiency in leaching excess salts and alkalin-
ity. Addition of fines-material to residue sand may, however,
increase the water holding capacity, but may detrimentally
impact upon other physical properties. Jones et al. (2011) in-
vestigated the addition of organic wastes combined with res-
idue mud would improve the basic properties of residue sand
and support plant establishment thereby producing a positive
effect on the revegetation on BRDAs. Buchanan et al. (2010)
found that addition of substantial quantities of fines-material
could increase water holding characteristics and decrease the
penetration resistance in bauxite sand. Jones et al. (2010)
found that compost addition was likely to improve the prop-
erties of residue sand as a growth medium. Nevertheless, re-
moval of soluble salts which originated from the organic
amendments required careful consideration. Residue mud
has the opposite physical properties including low hydraulic
conductivity and high water holding characteristics. The
mixtures of residue mud and residue sand showed good
properties to support plant cover on the residues. Courtney
and Timpson (2005) also found that co-disposal of the coarse
fraction sand at 25 % w/w with fine fraction residue may
promote low levels of soluble Al and Fe and exchangeable
sodium and improve plant uptake and growth.
Gypsum and organic matter are ideal amendments to opti-
mize soil functioning as they have a number of beneficial
effects on the physical and chemical properties of bauxite
residue. Courtney et al. (2013) recorded the variations of the
related physical and chemical properties of restored bauxite
residue (Table 6). Gypsum may provide a supply of Ca
(calcium) and other important elements such as P, K, and
Mg while also reducing pH due to its acidity and the presence
of excess divalent cations. These may form
tricalciumaluminate-type compounds (Courtney and Kirwan
2012), decrease the percentage of exchangeable sodium, as
they could be replaced by Ca2+ during the process of cation
exchange, and enhance micro-aggregate stability; the disper-
sive effects of Na+ may be replaced by the flocculating effect
of Ca2+. Gypsum addition may also increase the hydraulic
conductivity of bauxite residue so that the residue can become
more suitable for plant growth. Organic matter, on the other
hand, may supply plant nutrients through mineralization, form
stable complexes with metal cations, decrease water retention
by reducing compaction, stimulate soil aggregation, stabilize
soil structure, and supply an energy source for soil microor-
ganisms. Organic matter addition stimulates microbial activi-
ty, leading to the production of soil-aggregate binding agents
(Wu et al. 2013), and subsequently promoting aggregation and
1127
formation of granular soil structure (Jones et al. 2011), al-
though the aggregate is unstable in highly sodic soils. Harris
(2009) suggested that the addition of gypsum could improve
solidification and lithification processes and organic manure
could decrease particle dispersion. Therefore, the combined
actions of gypsum and organic matter may effectively increase
the porosity of bauxite residue. Mixing residue sand and mud
may also produce positive effects by improving the physical
and chemical properties of the substrate. Although addition of
various amendments and/or mixing residue sand and mud
appear to be beneficial to plant growth on bauxite residue,
the establishment of sustainable vegetative processes is diffi-
cult to maintain without large inputs of investment (Courtney
et al. 2009a, b).
Mulching with soil materials
As plants cannot survive directly on bauxite residue, some
experts considered that mulching with soil materials such as
subsoil, topsoil, or sewage sludge may be necessary to support
plant growth, and some workers have demonstrated that this
method is a viable option (Courtney and Timpson 2004).
Mulching the residues with soil materials can protect the sur-
face from wind and water erosion, decrease the migration of
toxic chemicals, and provide a suitable substrate for plant
establishment.
Wehr et al. (2006) demonstrated that revegetation of baux-
ite residue using a soil cap was beneficial; the analyses of plant
root propagation showed that the residues were hostile to root
growth but the plants would take up most nutrients from the
soil cap. Mohan et al. (1997) demonstrated that clayey
dredged material obtained from maintenance dredging at a
bay in Texas was beneficial for salt-tolerant plant growth.
Surface water infiltration and chemical migration may be re-
stricted by capping the dredged material. In addition, Fuller
et al. (1982) indicated that sewage sludge may decrease pH,
increase nutrient availability, and decrease exchangeable Fe
and Al toxicity.
Although many studies had indicated that capping with
soil materials could improve the physical and chemical
properties of bauxite residue, these studies still lack evi-
dence of long-term success; the plants could only grow on
the imported soil materials and did not penetrate the res-
idue below (Jones and Haynes 2011). Significant funding
is necessary to provide large quantities of capping mate-
rials for revegetation, and furthermore, sufficient water
and nutrients are still required for the cap material. Even
though clayey dredged material has proved to be cost
effective as an amendment, its use is restricted by the
location of bauxite residue disposal areas. Effective drain-
age of bauxite residue is also necessary if it will form part
of the growing medium.
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1128
Table 6 Changes in physical and
chemical properties of residue
mud following application of
compost (C) and gypsum (G)
Bulk density (g cm−3)
Porosity (%)
pH
EC (mS cm−1)
Ca (cmol kg−1)
Mg (cmol kg−1)
K (cmol kg−1)
Na (cmol kg−1)
ESP (%)
Data from Courtney et al. (2013)
a
Medium consisted of residue mud amended with 25 % residue sand. Gypsum applied at 90 t ha−1 and compost
at 100 t ha−1
Screening of tolerant plant species and microorganisms
Plant species
The selected plant species should be able to survive high con-
centrations of salinity and alkalinity so that vegetation could
be established on the residues (Wu et al. 2013). However, very
few plant species are adapted to survive on materials of such
high pH, EC, and Na concentrations. Poor physical condition
also hinders plant growth. As bauxite residue is relatively
similar to saline-sodic soils, halophytes show the greatest po-
tential to achieve rehabilitation (Gräfe and Klauber 2011).
Some studies have demonstrated that halophytes including
Terminalia arjuna, Pongamia pinnata, and Pennisetum
pedicellatum can be used to establish in the rehabilitated res-
idues (Chauhan and Ganguly 2011; Alshaal et al. 2013).
These halophytes have high tolerance to salinity and alkalinity
and have the ability to remove Na+ and decrease the ex-
changeable sodium percentage. Chloris virgata, for example,
can absorb 17 % Na+ from the rhizosphere soil which is sub-
sequently accumulated in its leaf and stem tissues (Yang et al.
2009). What is more, halophytes can exude organic acids
which stimulate microbial populations and increase the partial
pressure of CO2 in the rooting zone (Gräfe and Klauber 2011).
Chauhan and Ganguly (2011) found that native species stim-
ulated positive changes in both the physical and chemical
properties of residues. Alshaal et al. (2013) used giant reed
to decrease salinity and pH of mud-polluted soil, while also
improving microbial counts and soil enzyme activities.
Nevertheless, the addition of drip irrigation provided im-
proved growth in all plant species.
Grasses and herbaceous plants can usually survive more
easily in harsh environments compared with shrubs and
woody plants and have preferentially been used for residue
rehabilitation (Pradhan et al. 1999). Plants that have naturally
Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
Residue treatmentsa
Unamended residue Residue+C Residue+C+G
1.34 1.02 1.10
59 65.9 64.3
10.1 7.5 7.4
3.1 0.304 0.365
2.6 14.6 13.6
0.03 0.76 1.03
0.24 0.54 0.38
26.8 0.86 0.85
90.2 5.1 5.41
colonized residues should be selected as they are more likely
to have adapted to the challenging environmental conditions.
The selection of plant species should also focus on other fa-
vorable attributes such as relatively fast growth rates, soil-
root-binding properties, and the ability to supply biomass in
the form of fuel wood and fodder (Chauhan and Ganguly
2011). Caustic properties of bauxite residue need to be
lowered to support vegetation, and appropriate drainage is
necessary. Therefore, a combination of rainfall and supple-
mental irrigation, together with soil amelioration and adequate
fertilizer supplies, would enhance plant establishment and re-
habilitation of BRDAs (Zhang and Mu 2009).
Microorganisms
As microbes are effective pH suppressants and have positive
effects to the reduction of Na+, the activation of alkaliphilic
microbes may be one way to initiate the remediation process
of converting sodic-alkaline residues to sodic-saline residues
(Courtney et al. 2009a, b). As microbial activity is limited in
bauxite residues due to the lack of nutritional elements
(Williams and Hamdy 1982), the concentrations of essential
elements such as Ca and Mg should therefore be maintained at
high concentrations to support microbial metabolism.
Microbial activity in bauxite residues has been discussed in
several laboratory-based reports (Banning et al. 2011; Garau
et al. 2007; Hamdy and Williams 2001; Woodard et al. 2008).
Schmalenberger et al. (2013) reported the establishment of
bacterial communities in bauxite residue with amendments
and the significant separation of the microbial communities
in the untreated and amended sites. Some bacterial groups
such as Acidobacteriaceae, Nitrosomonadaceae, and
Caulobacteraceae may be served as indicators for future
restoration in BRDAs. Williams and Hamdy (1982) demon-
strated that bacterial populations in unamended bauxite
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2016) 23:1120–1132
residues were damaged, but repaired and recovered when
nutrients were provided. Further research has shown that
sustained nutrients are necessary to support the activation of
alkaliphilic microbes. Krishna et al. (2005) also found that
Aspergillus tubingensis played an important role in reducing
bauxite residue pH and helped to promote plant growth.
Microbes have beneficial effects to improve the chemical
properties of bauxite residue. However, the most limiting fac-
tor for microbial activity is likely to be a lack of energy
sources and trace elements. The amelioration of the surface
layers is necessary to increase activation of these microbes.
The active microbial community may decrease pH, reduce
Na+ concentrations, and promote the growth of flora and fau-
na. Stress and tolerance levels of different microbial groups to
salinity and alkalinity and the fundamental interaction of mi-
crobes with other soil organisms to help establish a growing
medium still require further research.
Soil formation in bauxite residue
Although a large number of researchers have focused on
bauxite revegetation and plant communities have been
established successfully in several disposal areas in the short
term (Woodard et al. 2008), soil formation to support sustain-
able vegetation in the long term has become an apparent prob-
lem. Under human-induced restoration, a series of treatments
have been studied to assess soil formation (Courtney et al.
2009a, b). However, without intervention, soil development
still occurs, but is more elusive due to slower processes.
Santini and Fey (2013) discovered spontaneous colonization
of a bauxite residue deposit in Linden, Guyana, which dem-
onstrated that natural weathering processes can ameliorate
tailings and support vegetation. Under natural weathering pro-
cesses and following primary succession, surface residues
may be converted to a soil-like growth medium. Courtney
et al. (2013) found that following a series of treatments on
bauxite residues, the amended areas exhibited improved
physico-chemical properties and soil-like structure to support
plant growth.
During the natural process of soil development in BRDAs,
a number of difficulties arise due to its poor physico-chemical
properties. Soil development begins with the breakdown of
original rock material and the subsequent formation of hori-
zons through processes such as leaching (Woodard et al.
2008). This is followed by interactions between vegetation
and soil fauna that play an important role during natural suc-
cession (Frouz et al. 2008). However, no matter which pro-
cesses are involved, either natural or human-induced, a self-
sustaining environment must manifest itself in the long term
(Courtney et al. 2009a, b). In the case of some successful
restoration programs, little research has been conducted into
the pedogenic processes taking place at BRDAs (Jones et al.
2011). Physico-chemical indicators such as particle-size
1129
distribution, morphological and micromorphological charac-
teristics, mineralogical features, organic matter, electrochemi-
cal properties, trace element concentrations and composition,
and the oxide chemical characteristics should all be used to
evaluate soil formation at residue disposal areas (Jiang et al.
2011) and need to be assessed in far greater detail than at
present. Physical characteristics including bulk density, void
ratio, water-stable aggregate formation, and water holding
characteristics also need to be assessed to identify and under-
stand the formation of soil-forming media. Research on how
the processes of soil formation occur in BRDAs, organic mat-
ter accumulation and breakdown, stable aggregate formation,
and the interactions between soil development, plant roots,
and soil biota are crucial to advance our understanding and
improve knowledge gaps and are vitally important in order to
make progress at the field and ecosystem level.
Conclusion
Research has mainly focused on the disposal of bauxite resi-
due, but this could cause a series of environmental problems
including land occupation and air and water pollution.
Revegetation is now regarded as the most promising way
forward in an attempt to ameliorate bauxite residues.
However, its unique physical structure and chemical proper-
ties have exposed numerous problems associated with the
development of plant communities.
Research into revegetation of bauxite residues has focused
in two areas, firstly, amelioration of the bauxite residue surface
layer and, secondly, screening of tolerant plants and microbes.
Gypsum amendments show potential to reduce the high alka-
linity and salinity, encourage aggregation of particles, and
increase the hydraulic conductivity of bauxite residue.
Organic matter can provide plants with nutritional elements,
form stable complexes with metal cations, enhance hydraulic
conductivity, stabilize soil structure, and supply an energy
source for soil microorganisms. Tolerant plants and microor-
ganisms such as halophytes and alkaliphilic microbes show
great potential to accomplish several rehabilitation goals re-
quired for the remediation of bauxite residues. Fertilizer addi-
tions, reasonable irrigation, and improved drainage systems
are also essential to support sustainable plant growth and es-
tablishment. Soil development and structure are improved as a
result of anthropogenic restoration or natural plant coloniza-
tion, but these issues will become critical in the future and will
require a greater understanding.
Despite the large volumes of stored residues, there is still
no ideal solution to their disposal or remediation. The estab-
lishment of sustainable plant communities is the most realistic
and hopeful way forward. As we still lack long-term success
in revegetation on bauxite residue, some aspects of this pro-
cess will undoubtedly require further understanding and these
 Author's personal copy
1130
obstacles will need to eventually be addressed. These are sum-
marized as follows:
1. Soil genetic characteristics in natural weathering process
of bauxite residue;
2. Soil-forming factors during the pedogenic process of
bauxite residues;
3. Diagnostic soil characteristic in bauxite residue storage
sites;
4. Indicators and facilitators of the rehabilitation process;
5. Dealkalization and desalinization in restored residues;
6. Colonization of tolerant plants and microbial
populations;
7. Screening of tolerant plants and microbes such as halo-
phytes, alkaline-tolerant plants, aluminum-tolerant
plants, and alkaliphilic microorganisms;
8. Mechanisms of soil aggregate formation and regulation
during pedogensis of bauxite residues;
9. Humification of soil during pedogensis of bauxite
residues;
10. Environmental risk analysis and pollution control during
soil reconstruction of bauxite residues.
Acknowledgments Financial support from the National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (No. 41371475) and Environmental protec-
tion’s special scientific research for Chinese public welfare industry
(No. 201509048) is gratefully acknowledged.
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