Metal

 Forming  and  Shaping  

Processes  
¡  The  permanent  change  in  shape  of  a  metallic  body  as  the  
result  of  forces  acting  on  its  surface    
¡  The  strength  of  metal  depend  on  level/degree  of  plastic  
deformation  and  grain  sizes  and  distribution  
¡  The  deformed  metal  had  higher  strength  because  the  
entanglement  of  dislocation  with  grain  boundaries  and  
each  other  
¡  The  higher  the  deformation,  the  higher  the  strength.    
¡  Metal  with  smaller  grain  size  had  higher  strength.  
¡  Effect  of  plastic  deformation  
Ø  Grain  be  come  deformed  and  elongated  
Ø  Grain  become  intact  but  mass  continuity  is  maintained.    

 
¡ Hot  working    
Ø Plastic  deformation  that  occurs  above  recrystallization  
temperature  
Ø Process  involved  :Extrusion  ,  welding,  Forging,  Drawing,  and  
Rotary  piercing  
 
¡ Cold  working    
Ø Plastic  deformation  that  is  carried  out  at  room  temperature  
Ø Process  involved  :  Bending  ,  rolling,  extrusion,  forging,  
Shearing,  Drawing,  etc  
 
¡ Warm  working  
Ø Plastic  deformation  that  is  carried  out  at  intermediate  
temperature,  compromise  of  cold  and  hot  working    
  
¡  Eliminate  the  effect  of  strain  hardening  -­‐  new  grain  of  
metal  grow  from  the  just  deformed  grains  
¡  High  strength  material-­‐  small  grain  is  obtained  after  hot  
working  which  provide  better  strength    
¡  Reduced  defect-­‐  Blow  hole  sand  pores  disappear  by  
welding  action  under  high  pressure  and  temperature  or  
when  they  are  reduced  in  size.  
¡  There  is  increase  in  ductility-­‐  hence  larger  deformation  
can  be  carried  out  at  single  stage  
¡  During  hot  working,  metal  strength  is  low,  hence,  less  
force  is  adequate  for  causing  deformation  -­‐  Large  
component  can  be  deformed  using  machines  for  
reasonable  size.  
¡  Undesirable  reactions  between  the  metal  and  the  
surrounding  atmosphere  -­‐  scaling  or  rapid  oxidation  
of  the  work  piece    
¡  Less  precise  tolerances-­‐  due  to  thermal  contraction  
and  warping  from  uneven  cooling    
¡  Uneven  grain  structure-­‐  Grain  structure  may  vary  
throughout  the  metal  for  various  reasons    
¡  Expensive  process-­‐  Requires  a  heating  unit  of  some  
kind  such  as  a  gas  or  diesel  furnace  or  an  induction  
heater  
¡  More  economical  process-­‐  no  additional  
features  (heater)  required  
¡  Good  surface  finish  and  dimensional  control  –  
no  oxidation  or  scaling  occur  
¡  Reduces  waste  as  compared  to  machining-­‐  
eliminates  with  near  net  shape  methods  
¡  Low  production  time-­‐  economical  for  large  
production  
¡  Greater  force  is  required  –  metal  is  formed  at  room  
temperature  and  solid  state  
¡  Expensive  tooling-­‐  Heavier  and  more  powerful  equipment  
and  stronger  tooling  are  required    
¡  Complex  process  -­‐  Metal  surfaces  must  be  clean  and  scale-­‐
free    
¡  Only  suitable  for  large  volume  productions-­‐  Due  to  the  
large  capital  costs  required  to  set  up  a  cold  working  
process    
¡  Metal  is  less  ductile  -­‐  Intermediate  anneals  may  be  
required  to  compensate  for  loss  of  ductility  that  
accompanies  strain  hardening    
¡  What  type  of  process???  
¡  Forging    
ž  Forging  is  a  method  of  shaping  metals  and  alloys  into  
parts  of  useful  shape.  
ž  Using  compressive  force  applied  through  various  die  
and  tooling.  
ž  May  be  carried  out  at  room  temperature  or  elevated  
temperature  
ž  Forged  parts  had  good  strength  and  toughness  as  the  
metal  flow  in  a  die  and  material’s  grain  structure  can  be  
controlled.    
ž  Forged  parts  are  suitable  for  highly  stressed  and  
critical  applications    
ž  May  be  carried  out  at  room  temperature,  warm  or  
elevated  temperature  
ž  Subjected  to  additional  finishing  operation  such  as  
machining  and  heat  treatment    
ž  Forged  parts  had  good  
strength  and  toughness    
 as  the  metal  flow  in  a  die  and  
material’s  grain  structure  can  
be  controlled.    

 
Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes
showing grain flow. (a) Casting by the processes described in Chapter
11. (b) Machining form a blank, described in Part IV of this book, and
(c) forging. Each process has its own advantages and limitations
regarding external and internal characteristics, material properties,
dimensional accuracy, surface finish, and the economics of production.
¡  Open  die  forging  
¡  Close  die  forging  
¡  Precision  forging  
¡  Upset  die  forging  
¡  Coining      
ž  Also  called  Upsetting  or  flat  die  forging  
ž  The  simplest  forging  operation  
ž  Very  versatile-­‐  from  small  to  very  large  sizes  parts  (275  
metric  tons)    
ž  The  process  start  by  placing  a  solid  work  piece  in  
between  two  flat  dies  and  reduced  the  height  by  
compressing  it    
 ¡     

(a)  Schematic  illustration  of  a  cogging  operation  on  a  rectangular  bar.    

Blacksmiths  use  this  process  to  reduce  the  thickness  of  bars  by  hammering  
the  part  on  an  anvil.      
(b)   Reducing  the  diameter  of  a  bar  by  open-­‐die  forging  
(c)  The  thickness  of  a  ring  being  reduced  by  open-­‐die  forging.  
ž  Also  called  as  Impression-­‐die  and  drop  forging  
ž  The  process  start  as  a  work  piece  is  placed  in  between  two  
shaped  dies.  
ž  The  work  piece  will  takes  the  shape  of  die  cavity  while  
being  forged  between  two  separate  dies.  
ž  Process  usually  done  at  elevated  temperature  to  lower  the  
force  and  accomplish  ductility    

Flash    
¡  Used  to  distribute  the  material  properly  into  various  region  of  
blank  using  simple  shape  dies  with  various  contour    
¡  Fullering  –  material  is  distribute  away  from  an  area  
¡  Edging-­‐  material  is  gathered  into  localized  area  
¡  Blocking  –  parts  is  formed  into  rough  shape  using  blocker  die    
¡  Finishing  –  give  the  forged  parts  the  final  shape  
¡  Trimming  –  removal  of  flash    
ž  Also  known  as  flashless  forging  
ž  Use  to  reduced  the  number  of  finishing  process  
required  and  to  diminish  flash  occurrences  
ž  Typical  products-­‐  gear,  connecting  rods,  turbine  
blades  
ž  This  type  of  forging  produce  net  shape  product  but  
require  high  capacity  equipment    
¡  Material  is  placed  on  top  of  lower  punch  and  in  
between  two  horizontal  flat  dies.    
¡  The  upper  die  will  compress  the  material  to  take  the  
required  shapes  and  the  dies  will  prevent  any  flash  
from  forming  
¡  Requirement  of  precision  forging  :  
Ø  Special  and  complex  die  
Ø  Precise  control  of  blank  volume  and  shape  
Ø  Accurate  positioning  of  blank  in  die  cavity  
 Reduce scrap Versatile

Reduce process Increase

productivity
Simple
process
Advantages    
Save money

Stronger and Near net

tougher shape parts
Save material
ž Disadvantages  ????  
 
¡  Use  to  make  coin,  jewelry  and  medallion  
¡  The  process  starts  as  the  blank  or  slug  is  coined  
(compress  in  high  pressure)  in  a  completely  close  die  
cavity.  
¡  The  pressure  required  is  5-­‐6  times  the  strength  of  
metal  to  produce  fine  details  
¡  Marking-­‐  engraving  the  coining  parts  with  letter  and  
number    
¡  Sizing-­‐  impart  the  desired  dimensional  accuracy  
with  little  or  no  change  in  part  size    
(a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins
were made by open-die forging and lacked precision and sharp details.
(b) An example of a modern coining operation, showing the workpiece
and tooling. Note the detail and superior finish that can be achieve in
this process.
¡  An  upset  forging  operation  to  form  a  head  on  a  bolt  or  similar  hardware  
item    The  cycle  consists  of:  (1)    wire  stock  is  fed  to  the  stop,  (2)    gripping  
dies  close  on  the  stock  and  the  stop  is  retracted,  (3)    punch  moves  
forward,  (4)    bottoms  to  form  the  head.  
¡  A  process  of  pushing  a  material  through  a  die  for  the  
purpose  of  reducing  or  changing  it’s  cross  section  area  
¡  type  of  extrude  material-­‐  plastic,  metal,  alloy.    
¡  Typical  product  –  railing  for  sliding  doors,  window  frames,  
tubing  with  various  cross  section,  aluminum  ladder  frame,  
structural  and  architectural  shape  parts,  gear,  bracket,  coat  
hanger.  
¡  Advantages  –  economical  for  large  production,  low  tooling  
cost,  can  be  done  both  cold  and  hot  extrusion  
¡  There  are  three  type  of  extrusion  –  (i)  direct  extrusion  (ii)  
indirect  extrusion  and  (iii)  hydrostatic  extrusion    
¡  Also  call  forward  extrusion  
¡  A  billet  is  place  in  a  chamber  and  force  through  a  die  opening  
by  hydraulically  driven  stem  
¡  The  dummy  block  protect  the  tips  of  pressing  stem.  
¡  This  process  usually  done  in  hot  working    
¡  Also  called  reverse  ,  inverted  or  backward  extrusion  
¡  The  dies  move  forward  to  unextruded  billet  
¡  Had  no  billet-­‐container  friction,  thus  normally  used  for  
high  friction  material  (e.g  :  high  strength  steel)    
¡  The  billet  is  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  chamber  filled  
with  fluid  
¡  The  pressure  is  transmitted  to  the  fluid  by  the  ram  
¡  The  fluid  pressure  help  improved  formability  and  thus  
extruded  the  parts  with  less  friction  
¡  Impact  extrusion  process  involve  inserting  a  metal  
blank  inside  a  vertical/  horizontal  dies  and  the  
punch  quickly  impacted  the  metal  blank  .  
¡  The  reasons  are  :  
Ø  Impact  extrusion  is  perform  at  higher  speed  and  
shorter  strokes  compared  to  conventional  extrusion  
making  it  a  much  faster  process  
Ø  Very  thin  parts  are  possible  to  be  produced  on  impact  
extruded  parts  as  the  punches  impart  the  work  part  
rather  than  simply  applying  pressure  to  it.  
Ø  High  speed  characteristic  of  impacting,  permit  larger  
reduction  and  high  production  rate,  making  it  an  
important  commercial  process.  
¡  A  process  of  reducing  the  cross  section  of  a  
long  rod  or  wire  by  pulling  it  through  a  die  
(draw  die)  
¡  Typical  parts-­‐  wire,  rod  ,  shaft  for  power  
transmission  machine,  blank  for  bolt  and  
rivet,  electrical  wiring  cables,welding  
electrodes    
¡  Tube  sinking-­‐    Process  of  reducing  the  diameter  or  
wall  thickness  of  seamless  tube  or  pipe  after  the  
internal  tube  had  been  produced  by  some  other  
process  such  as  extrusion.  No  mandrel  is  use  in  this  
operation.  The  limitation  is  lack  of  control  over  inside  
diameter  and  wall  thickness  of  tube.  
¡  Using  fixed  mandrel  –  Using  a  fixed  long  support  bar  
to  establish  inside  diameter  and  wall  thickness  of  
tube/pipe.  The  limitation  of  this  process  is  it  restrict  
the  length  of  tube  that  can  be  drawn  
¡  Using  floating  plug-­‐  using  a  removable  plug  in  which  
shape  is  design  so  that  it  finds  a  natural  position  in  the  
reduction  zone  of  die.    
 Extrusion Drawing

Raw Material Billet Rod, wire or tube

Process •  The process can be •  Drawing can only done cold
done both hot work work.
and cold work •  The raw material passes
•  There is a container through the die only.
(chamber) to place the •  In drawing, rod, wire or tube is
raw material pulled through the die or set of
•  Process of forcing billet dies in tandem
through a die
Product Solid and hollow products solid cross-sectional is produced in
can be produced drawing
Section, channel, curtain If tube – reduce diameter or
rail, architecture parts thickness using internal
mandrels
Wire, tube
¡  Process  of  reducing  the  thickness  or  changing  
the  cross  section  of  long  workpiece  by  
compressive  force  applied  through  a  set  of  
rolls.  
¡  Suitable  for  almost  90%  of  metal  in  the  form  
of  slab,  billet  and  bloom.    
¡  Also  suitable  in  rolling  plastic,  metal  powder,  
ceramic  slurry  and  also  hot  glass.    
Hot  rolling  
¡  Carried  out  at  elevated  (high)  temperature.    
¡  The  coarse  grain,  brittle  and  porous  structure  of  ingot  is  transform  
into  wrought  structure  having  finer  grain  which  resulted  in  higher  
strength  and  toughness    
Cold  rolling  
¡  Carried  out  at  room  temperature  
¡  Compressed  grain  be  come  deformed  and  elongated,  resulted  in  
higher  strength  and  hardness  
¡  Better  surface  finish  as  no  scaling  and  oxidation  occur  
Rolling  plates  
¡  Thickness  >  6mm,  used  for  structural  applications  
such  as  structural  support  (300mm),  boiler  and  
nuclear  vessel  (150mm),  bridges  and    machinery  
frames  (100-­‐125mm).  
Rolling  sheet  
¡  Thickness  <  6mm,  used  for  coil,  automobile  and  
aircraft  bodies,  appliances,  food  and  beverage  
container.    

 
¡  In  flat  rolling,  a  bulk  material  with  thickness  H1  is  reduced  
to  a  thinner  thickness  of  Ho  through  the  force  of  the  rolls  
mills.    
¡  To  produce  straight  and  
long  structural  shapes  
(chanel,  I  beam,  solid  bar)  
¡  Formed  at  high  
temperature  
¡  Stock  of  material  is  fed  
into  a  specially  designed  
rolls.  
¡  Might  undergo  different  
series  of  rolls  to  obtain  
desired  shapes.  
 
¡  Also  known  as  cross  rolling  
¡  To  produce  tapered  shaft,  table  knife  and  hand  tools.  
¡  The  cross  section  of  a  round  bar  is  shape  by  passing  it  
through  a  pair  of  rolls  with  profiles  groove.  
¡  Use  to  produce  steel  ball  and   •  A shear pieces from round
ball  bearing   bar (blank) is upset in the
¡  Round  wire  of  rod  is  fed  into   headers between 2 dies with
the  roll  gap  and  roughly   hemisphere cavities.
spherical  blank  are  formed   •  The balls is then ground and
continuously  by  the  action  of   polished in special machinery
rotating  rolls.  
 
¡  Use  to  produce  large  rings  for  rocket  turbine,  jet  engine  cases,  gear  wheel  
rims  and  flanges.  
¡  A  thick  ring  is  expanded  into  a  large  diameter  thinner  ring  
¡  The  ring  is  place  in  between  two  rolls,  one  is  idle  (stationery)  and  one  is  
driven  (moving).  
¡  The  thickness  is  reduced  by  bringing  the  rolls  closer  together  as  they  rotate.  
¡  Since  the  material  volume  is  constant  during  the  plastic  deformation  
process,  the  ring  reduction  resulted  in  increase  in  it’s  diameter.  
¡  The  advantages  of  ring  rolling  process-­‐  short  production  time,  material  
saving,  close  dimensional  tolerance,  enhance  strength  part  
¡  Thread  rolling  is  used  to  form  external  thread  on  
cylindrical  parts.  
¡  The  parts  is  rolled  in  between  two  dies  which  is  
one  fixed  die  and  another  one  is  moving  die  until  
threading  surface  are  formed  all  around  the  
rolled  parts.  
¡  It  is  usually  done  in  cold  working  condition  and  
the  machine  is  equipped  with  special  dies  that  
determine  the  size  and  form  of  the  thread.  
¡     
Higher  rolls  force  is  undesirable  as  it  can  cause  
deflection  and  flattening  of  the  roll  mill,  thus  damaging  
it  and  effect  rolling  operation.  
 
Roll  force  can  be  reduce  by  :  
¡ Reducing  the  friction  on  roll  workpiece  interface  
¡ Using  smaller  diameter  roll  to  reduce  contact  area  
¡ Taking  smaller  diameter  reduction  per  pass  to  reduce  
contact  area  
¡ Rolling  at  elevated  temperature  to  lower  the  strength  
of  material