Chapter 2 - Automatic Seismic Loads

n = Number of story levels in the structure.

2.20 2004 Eurocode 8 (EN 1998-1) Seismic Loads

2.20.1 Options for EN 1998-1:2004 Building Period

Three options are provided for the building period used in calculating the EN
1998-1:2004 automatic seismic loads. They are as follows:

 Approximate Period: Calculate the fundamental period based on (EN

1998-1 Eqn. 4.6). The value used for H is determined by the programs
from the input story level heights.

T1 = Ct H 3 / 4 (EN 1998-1 Eqn. 4.6)

where C t is defined as follows (EN 1998-1 section 4.3.3.2.2(3)):

Ct = 0.085 for moment-resisting steel frames

= 0.075 for moment-resisting concrete frames

= 0.075 for eccentrically braced steel frames

= 0.05 for all other structures

The height H is measured from the elevation of the specified bottom sto-
ry/minimum level to the (top of the) specified top story/maximum level
and is input in meters.

 Program Calculated: The programs start with the period of the mode
calculated to have the largest participation factor in the direction that
loads are being calculated (X or Y). Call this period T mode .

 User Defined: In this case, input a building period, which the programs
use in the calculations. They do not compare it against T A or T mode . It is
assumed that this comparison is performed before the period is specified.

2004 Eurocode 8 (EN 1998-1) Seismic Loads 2 - 85

Automatic Seismic Loads

2.20.2 Other Input Factors and Coefficients

The spectral design spectrum, S d (T 1 ), is based on Section 3.2.2.5(4) of the
EN 1998-1:2004 and Table 3.2 or Table 3.3.

The recommended choice of spectra is defined in EN 1998-1:2004 Section

3.2.2.2(2)P Table 3.2 and Table 3.3.

The behavior factor, q, is based on Section 3.2.2.5 of the EN 1998-1:2004

which is an approximation of the ratio of the seismic forces that the structure
would experience if its response was completely elastic with 5% viscous
damping, to the seismic forces that may be used in design, with a conven-
tional elastic analysis model. A value for q is generally greater than 1.5.

The lower bound factor for horizontal design spectrum, β, is given in the Na-
tional annex. The default value of β is 0.2.

The ground type can be A, B, C, D or E. See EN 1998-1:2004 Section 3.1.2

for site subsoil class definitions. The ground type in combination with the pe-
riod, T 1 , are used to look up the spectral design spectrum, S d (T 1 ), as de-
scribed in Subsection 3.2.2.5 of the EN 1998-1:2004.

λ is the correction factor, the value of as λ is equal to 0.85 if T 1 ≤ 2T c and the

building has more than two stories, or λ = 1.0, otherwise.

2.20.3 Algorithm for EN 1998-1:2004 Seismic Loads

The algorithm for determining EN 1998-1:2004 seismic load is based on Sec-
tion 4.3.3.2 of the EN 1998-1:2004 entitled “Lateral Force Method of Analy-
sis.” A period is calculated as described in a preceding section entitled "Op-
tions for EN 1998-1:2004 Building Period."

The programs begin by calculating the spectral design spectrum, S d (T 1 ) for

horizontal loading based on Section 3.2.2.5(4) of the EN 1998-1:2004 and
Table 3.2 or Table 3.3.

The horizontal base shear, F b , is calculated using (EN 1998-1 Eqn. 4.5):

Fb = S d (T 1 ) W λ (EN 1998-1 Eqn. 4.5)

W = Weight of the building (based on specified mass)

2 - 86 2004 Eurocode 8 (EN 1998-1) Seismic Loads

 Chapter 2 - Automatic Seismic Loads

λ = Correction factor.

The base shear, F b , is distributed over the height of the building in accord-
ance with (EN 1998-1 Eqn. 4.11).

wstory hstory
Fstory = n
Fb (EN 1998-1 Eqn. 4.11)
∑
story =1
wstory hstory

where,

F story = Portion of base shear applied to a story level.

V = Building base shear.

w story = Weight of story level (based on specified mass).

h story = Story height, distance from base of structure to story level.

n = Number of story levels in the structure.

2.21 2002 Indian IS:1893

2.21.1 Options for 2002 Indian IS:1893 Building Period

Three options are provided for the building period used in calculating the
IS:1893 automatic seismic loads. These are:

• Approximate: Calculate the approximate period, T a , based on the for-

mula discussed in Section 7.6.1 of IS:1893 Code. The period is calculat-
ed using following equations given in the IS:1893 code.

T a =0.075h0.75 For RC framed buildings

T a =0.085h0.75 For Steel framed buildings

The height h is measured from the elevation of the specified bottom

story/minimum elevation level to the (top of the) specified top story/
maximum elevation level. The user should give the multiplier value as

2002 Indian IS:1893 2 - 87

 Chapter 3 - Automatic Wind Loads

3.20 2005 Eurocode 1(EN 1991-1-4) Wind Loads

3.20.1 Input Wind Coefficients
Seven wind coefficients are input for EN 1991-1-4:2005 wind loads. They are
the basic wind speed, vb , in meter per second (m/sec), the terrain category, the
terrain orography, co ( z ) , turbulence factor, k1 , and the structural factor, cs cd .

The basic wind velocity, vb , is described in EN 1991-1-4:2005 Section 4.2

(2)P.

The terrain roughness, Cr ( z ) , is described in EN 1991-1-4:2005 Section 4.3.2.

The terrain categories can be 0, I, II, III and IV. The roughness factor, Cr ( z ) ,
accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the site of the structure
due to:

 the height of ground level

 the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind di-
rection considered

The terrain orography, co ( z ) , is described in EN 1991-1-4:2005 Section 4.3.3.

The orography factor is taken as 1.0 unless otherwise specified in EN 1991-1-
4:2005 Section 4.3.3.

The wind turbulence factor k1 is discussed in EN 1991-1-4:2005 Section 4.4.

The roughness length parameter, z0, is discussed in EN 1991-1-4:2005 Section

4.3.2, Table 4.1. A typical range of values for z0 is 0.003 to 1.0.

3.20.2 Algorithm for EN 1991-1-4:2005 Wind Loads

3.20.2.1 Exposure from Extents of Diaphragms
Automatic wind loads for the EN 1991-1-4:2005 are based on Section 5.3 of
EN 1991-1-4:2005.

Windward and leeward horizontal wind loads are applied on the vertical pro-
jected area of the building as determined from the story heights and the input

Exposure from Extents of Diaphragms 3 - 81

Lateral Loads

diaphragm exposure widths. The programs do not apply vertical wind loads au-
tomatically over the projected horizontal area of roof surfaces. To include those
vertical wind loads in the same load pattern, the user must include them manu-
ally.

The following equation is used to determine the peak velocity pressure, qp(z),
at any height z on the surface of the vertical projected area, in Newton per
square meter (N/m2).

q p ( z ) = 12 ρ 1 + 7 I v ( z )  cr ( z ) co ( z ) vb  2 (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.8)

where,

vb = Basic wind speed in m/sec as input by the user

ρ = The air density. The values for ρ may be given in the National
Annex. The programs use 1.25 kg/m3 for this item.

I v (z) = The turbulent intensity at height z

c r (z) = The roughness factor

c o (z) = The orography factor as input by the user

The terrain roughness factor, cr(z), is obtained using (Eqns. 4.4 and 4.5 in EN
1991-1-4:2005 Section 4.3.2).

 z 
cr ( z ) = kr ln  for z min ≤ z ≤ z max
 zo 

where,
0.07
 z 
kr = 0.19  0 
z
 0, II 

cr (z ) = cr (z )min ≤ z min (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.4 and 4.5)

where,

3 - 82 Exposure from Extents of Diaphragms

 Chapter 3 - Automatic Wind Loads

z = Distance (height) from input bottom story/minimum height to point

considered

z 0 = Roughness length as given in EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1

z 0,II = 0.05 m (terrain category II, EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1)

z min = Minimum height as defined in EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1

z max = is to be taken as 200 m

The turbulence intensity factor, Iv(z), is obtained using (Eqns. 4.7 in EN 1991-
1-4:2005 Section 4.4).

I v (z ) =
kI
for z min ≤ z ≤ z max
co ( z )ln (z zo )

I v (z ) = I v (zmin ) for z ≤ z min (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.7)

where,

z = Distance (height) from input bottom story/minimum height to point

considered.

k I = Turbulence factor. The value of k I may be given in the National

Annex. The default value of k I is 1.0

EN 1991-1-4:2005 Eqn. 5.1 and 5.5 are used to determine the wind pressure, w,
at any point on the surface of the vertical projected area.

w = cs cd q p ( z )c p -windward + cs cd q p ( z )c p -leeward (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 5.1 and 5.5)

where,

q p ( z) = Velocity pressure, q p , at any height z on the surface of the ver-

tical projected area calculated using (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.8).

cs cd = Structural factor as input by the user.

c p-windward = Windward external pressure coefficient as input by the user.

c p-leeward = Leeward external pressure coefficient as input by the user.

Exposure from Extents of Diaphragms 3 - 83

Lateral Loads

The pressures, w, are distributed on the surface of the vertical projected area to
each diaphragm on a tributary area basis as shown in Figure 3-1. The applica-
tion of these pressures determines a resultant lateral force in both the x- and y-
directions of the building, Fx and Fy, at each diaphragm level. Note that one or
the other of these forces may be zero if the wind direction is perfectly aligned
with the x- or y-axis.

3.20.2.2 Exposure from Area Objects

Automatic wind loads for the EN 1991-1-4:2005 are based on Section 5.3 of
EN 1991-1-4:2005.

The wind loads applied when using the exposure from area objects method are
applied on the vertical and horizontal surfaces of the user selected area objects
based on Section 5.3 of EN 1991-1-4:2005.

The following equation is used to determine the peak velocity pressure, qp(z),
at any height z on the surface of the vertical projected area, in Newton per
square meter (N/m2).

q p ( z ) = 12 ρ 1 + 7 I v ( z )  cr ( z ) co ( z ) vb  2 (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.8)

where,

vb = Basic wind speed in m/sec as input by the user

ρ = The air density. The values for ρ may be given in the National
Annex. The programs use 1.25 kg/m3 for this item.

I v (z) = The turbulent intensity at height z

c r (z) = The roughness factor

c o (z) = The orography factor as input by the user

The terrain roughness factor, cr(z), is obtained using (Eqns. 4.4 and 4.5 in EN
1991-1-4:2005 Section 4.3.2).

 z 
cr ( z ) = kr ln  for z min ≤ z ≤ z max
 zo 

3 - 84 Exposure from Area Objects

 Chapter 3 - Automatic Wind Loads

where,
0.07
 z 
kr = 0.19  0 
z
 0, II 

cr (z ) = cr (z )min ≤ z min (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.4 and 4.5)

where,

z = Distance (height) from input bottom story/minimum height to point

considered.

z 0 = Roughness length as given in EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1

z 0,II = 0.05 m (terrain category II, EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1)

z min = Minimum height as defined in EN 1991-1-4 Table 4.1

z max = Is to be taken as 200 m.

The turbulence intensity factor, Iv(z), is obtained using (Eqns. 4.7 in EN 1991-
1-4:2005 Section 4.4).

I v (z ) =
kI
for z min ≤ z ≤ z max
co (z )ln (z zo )

I v (z ) = I v (zmin ) for z ≤ z min (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.7)

where,

z = Distance (height) from input bottom story/minimum height to point

considered.

k I = Turbulence factor. The value of k I may be given in the National

Annex. The default value of k I is 1.0.

EN 1991-1-4:2005 Eqn. 5.1 and 5.5 are used to determine the wind pressure, w,
at any point on the surface of the vertical projected area.

w = cs cd q p ( z )c p -windward + cs cd q p ( z )c p -leeward
(EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 5.1 and 5.5)

Exposure from Area Objects 3 - 85

Lateral Loads

where,

q p ( z) = Velocity pressure, q p , at any height z on the surface of the ver-

tical projected area calculated using (EN 1991-1-4 Eqn. 4.8)

cs cd = Structural factor as input by the user

c p-windward = Windward external pressure coefficient as input by the user.

c p-leeward = Leeward external pressure coefficient as input by the user.

The programs distribute the pressures, w, on the surface of each area object,
which in turn creates loads on the joints connected to the area objects.

3.21 2002 AS/NZS 1170.2 Wind Loads

3.21.1 Input Wind Coefficients
Eleven wind coefficients are input for AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 wind loads. They
are the regional wind speed, VR , in meter per second (m/sec), the wind direc-
tion multiplier, M d , the terrain category, M Z ,cat , the shielding multiplier, M s ,
the topographic multiplier, M t , the identification of region (cyclonic/non-
cyclonic), the dynamic response factor, Cdyn and four parameters

(K a, K c , K l , K p ) that are used to compute aerodynamic shape factor, Cfig .

The regional wind speed, VR , is described in AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 Section

3.2. For regions C and D, regional wind speed, VR , includes additional factors
Fc = 1.05 and FD = 1.1 respectively.

The wind direction multiplier, M d , is described in AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 Sec-

tion 3.3. The programs are using M d = 1.0 for all wind directions as default.

The terrain category, M z ,cat ,is described in AS/NZS 1170.2:2002 Section 4.2.
The terrain categories can be 1, 2, 3 and 4. The terrain category, M Z ,cat , ac-
counts for the variability of the wind velocity at the site of the structure due to:

3 - 86 Exposure from Area Objects