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Introduction
Through past centuries, psychologists have studied child development and have underpinned theories
which have been incorporated into today’s society. These theories develop knowledge on the way
children grow and develop, and the ways in which they learn. Educators need to have a clear
understanding of their students and effective ways in which to support their development and
learning. This essay concentrates on three major child development theories. These include Piaget’s
Theory of Cognitive Development, which highlights the significance of a constructivist classroom,
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory, which emphasises the importance of collaborative learning and
Erikson’s Social Cognitive Theory, which outlines the eight stages in a person’s life which inform a
developmental crisis. The three theories have underpinned children and young people’s learning and
development and have been incorporated in practice in school classrooms today. The theories
strengths and weaknesses will be discussed, along with the implications for teaching at a primary
school level.
KEY ASPECTS
During the 1920s, Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, was working in the Binet IQ test lab where he
became interested in how children think, when he found that children were answering questions
wrong on the IQ tests (McLeod, S 2009). Through further research on how children develop
knowledge (Oakley 2004, p.13), he created a model of cognitive development. Previously, adults
were under the impression that children were less competent thinkers than them, but through Piaget’s
work, he found that children think vastly differently than adults (McLeod, S 2009). According to
Piaget, children were born with an extremely basic mental structure and through their development,
learning and knowledge is built upon this (McLeod, S 2009). The main components of Piaget’s
Theory are the stages of cognitive development and thinking processes.
Stages of Development
Piaget believed a child’s cognitive development progresses through four stages; Sensorimotor, Pre-
Operational, Concrete Operational and Formal Operational. They are a fixed sequence and are
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attached to an age range, which is only a guideline and should not label all children (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, p.83). For the purpose of this essay, the Concrete Operational Stage will be explained
further, as it is connected with students in the Primary school age group.
The Concrete Operational Stage of Piaget’s Theory is where a child increases their ability in ‘hands-
on thinking’. This stage applies to children around the ages of seven to twelve years (Oakley 2004,
p.16) when children’s operations become concrete and apply to actual objects that are present.
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.86). Through this stage the principles of compensation and
reversibility are developed. Compensation is where a child knows that one obvious change that is
made can be compensated by another thing being changed in another direction (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013, p. 86). In addition, the child also understands reversibility where thinking occurs in two ways.
This means that students understand that children can mentally work through a series of steps in
order to return to the point where they had started (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.86). Egocentrism is
where students have the view that everyone believes the same things that they do (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, p. 86). During the Concrete Operational Stage, egocentrism diminishes (Oakley 2004,
p. 22), and children now are able to see that everyone has different beliefs and values.
Thinking Processes
Through Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, children acquire thinking processes including
schemes, assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium. Piaget believed children make sense of their
experiences in an organised way termed ‘schemes’ (Berk 2013). Children organise new thinking and
actions into categories and place them in either an existing schema or a new schema. Therefore, as
they grow and develop, the number of schemas increase in quantity and complexity. In order to make
sense of new information and events, people use their existing schema which is known as
assimilation (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 83). Accommodation is where a person reacts to new
information and changes their existing schema to accommodate for the new information (Woolfolk
and Margetts 2013). Equilibrium is when a person is at a state of cognitive balance, where their
schemas can recognise and distinguish what is around them (McLeod 2009).
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory was a major contribution to the field of psychology and
child development. Not only did his theory assist psychologists, but it also changed views and
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increased the understanding on children’s cognitive development in society (McLeod 2009). Piaget’s
Theory triggered the responses of other theorists, who then went on to research to development of
children further (Weiten 2013, p.448).
A limitation of Piaget’s Theory is that many people do not agree with the four separate stages of
thinking (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.93). Some children develop skills out of order and sometimes
simultaneously acquiring multiple stages at once. Many children also are simultaneously in multiple
stages at once. This shows contradictions with Piaget’s Theory as he believes that the four stages
occur in a fixed sequence.
The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) provides insight into the standards that
teachers must uphold in their classes. A major aspect of Piaget’s Theory is the constructivist view of
learning. Piaget stated “humans cannot be given information, which they immediately understand
and use; instead, humans must construct their own knowledge (Piaget, 1953). The standard 3.1 of the
APST ‘establish challenging learning goals’ (AITSL 2015), closely links to the work of Piaget and
his thinking process of equilibrium. This standard sets to ensure that teachers set challenging while
achievable learning goals for students .As a teacher, you need to interrupt the student’s equilibrium,
thus putting them in a state of disequilibrium, by giving them work that is slightly above their present
capability. This allows students to expand their knowledge and rise to a higher standard of work.
Oakley (2004, p.31) stated that Piaget believed that children learn better when they are being actively
involved in their learning. As a result, teachers should involve and encourage participation of all
students in stimulating, and engaging hands-on activities. Hands-on class activities should be used to
support this aspect of learning. An example of a mathematics lesson where students are learning
about factions would be to bring food, such as a chocolate bar into class which can be cut into
factions. Students will be much more engaged and have a clear understanding of the task, as they are
using a fun, hands-on activities where they see the changes in chocolate bar.
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Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
KEY ASPECTS
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), was a Russian student of literature, law and cultural studies (Oakley
2004, p.37). Vygotsky developed a Socio-Cultural Theory, which defined how children’s thinking
was obtained by their social interactions. The main concepts highlighted in Vygotsky’s Socio-
Cultural Theory are Social Influences, Zone of Proximal Development, Scaffolding and Private
Speech.
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed children develop by constructing their own knowledge but placed a
major emphasise on social interactions and influences. (Oakley 2004, p. 37). He believed children’s
more knowledgeable others (MKO) have an enormous effect on their development. A MKO is a
person who has greater knowledge on a topic, task or process than the learner does (McLeod 2007).
While many people believe a MKO is a parent or teacher, it is often the case that a child’s peer
assists them in tasks they are incapable of doing without help (McLeod 2007).
While children are learning and developing, there will be a countless number of times when there are
tasks they cannot complete on their own. The Zone of Proximal Development is the area in between
what the child currently can do and what they can achieve with the help of others (McLeod 2007).
The MKO assisting the learner can use scaffolding to develop their understanding. Scaffolding can
include giving them information, prompts, encouragement and reminders which will allow the child
to develop their understanding and progress through the ZPD (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.99).
While the child is receiving scaffolding from the MKO, it is often the case that they are also using
private speech.
Vygotsky believes language is a vital aspect of a child’s cognitive development. Private speech is
self-talk, which is used to direct their thinking and action (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.97). While a
child is young and performing activities, they often talk to themselves out loud. As children grow
older this speech will become internalised (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p. 95). Private Speech is used
to help solve problems, plan strategies and to acknowledge the actions they need to take to complete
their goals.
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STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
Although Vygotsky died at the age of 38, his Socio-Cultural Theory has made a vast impact in the
field of child development. A strength of Vygotsky’s Theory is the aspect of learning from a more
knowledgeable other. In 2001, a test was conducted to find whether support really does enhance the
learning of a child. Children were asked to complete a test on a computer where they had to answer
questions without any help (Oakley 2004, p.44). However, if they cannot answer a question
themselves, they are able to load a tutorial which will guide them through the questions (Oakley
2004, p.44). The results of the testing showed that the help from the tutorial improved their
individual learning significantly (Oakley 2004, p.44). This is a major aspect of Vygotsky’s Theory
which is incorporating into teaching today.
A limitation to Vygotsky’s Social-Cultural Theory, is the lack of elaborated ideas in his theory.
Having died at the age of 38, he did not have the opportunity to expand on the main ideas of his
theory (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). Therefore, other psychologists have used his original ideas and
developed their own interpretations on the theory. These expanded ideas, such as the teaching
implications of Vygotsky’s Theory, may not have been exactly what Vygotsky believed in, nor
wanted attached to his theory (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013).
Vygotsky’s Social-Cultural Theory links to the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers.
Standard 1.2 “understand how children learn” is very important for teachers (AITSL 2015). Teachers
need to know both how their students learn and effective ways in teaching the content. Planning
lessons using the learning strategies below will allow students to achieve the learning outcomes
required.
As Vygotsky’s Theory explains how children learn from social interactions and the help from a More
Knowledgeable Other, educators can use these key aspects and incorporate them into their classroom.
The role of the teacher is to be an effective More Knowledgeable Other. It is also crucial for teachers
to scaffold a child’s learning so they are able to complete tasks they were incapable of doing
themselves (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). As previously stated, this can be done by giving students
prompts and encouragement at the right time (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). This allows students to
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think to themselves about the situation and mentally work through the steps in figuring out what was
troubling them.
Although the role of a teacher is extremely important, a child’s peers are also vital for assistance and
collaboration in the classroom (Oakley 2004, p. 49). In class, it is important for a teacher to structure
the tables in a way which will promote student interaction. Vygotsky believed that in collaborative
situations, children develop high levels of thinking. Teachers should cluster small and large table
groups and assign students of a higher and lower ability on the same table. With the support from
peer mentoring and interaction from the higher level students, other students will be able to perform
tasks they were previous incapable of with help of their more competent peers. Students of a higher
level, help others in a collaborative situation with problem solving, which leads to cognitive growth
(Jaramillo 1996, p.139).
KEY ASPECTS
Eric Erikson (1902- 1994) was originally studying art and travelling Europe, before meeting
psychologist, Sigmund Freud. When Erikson met with Freud, Freud gave Erikson a request to study
psychoanalysis with him. Their work together led to the understanding of personality and identity in
children (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.115). Erikson’s research led to the development of his own
Psychosocial Theory, which emphasises “the emergence of the self, the search for identity, the
individual’s relationships with others, and the role of culture throughout life” (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013, p.115). Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory highlights the development of eight stages through a
person’s life, each which go through a developmental crisis. These include:
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Each stage is attached to an approximate age group, and for the purpose of this essay, the ‘Industry
versus Inferiority’ stage will be explained further as it is attached to the primary school year levels.
The ‘Industry versus Inferiority’ stage is targeted at primary school children. During this stage,
children are beginning to start school and are becoming more capable of completing more complex
tasks. Children develop a sense of industry, which is an enthusiasm to engage in productive work
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, p.116). When a child is supported and encouraged for using their
initiative and are confident in their work, they will begin to feel industrious. While children are going
through this stage, their peer groups become increasingly important. Children feel the need to
impress and gain approval from their peers around them (McLeod 2008). Therefore, if there is a
situation where a child’s peers are all excelling at a particular task, a child may feel inferior.
Therefore, it is important to support children during this stage to have a sense of accomplishment in
all they do. If a child masters this stage it will lead to them having the virtue of competence (McLeod
2008).
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory, has been attached with strengths, although some people believe his
theory has many limitations also. A strength of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory is that it accounts for
the transitions and challenges that arise in a person’s life (Weiten 2013, p.445). Therefore, people can
understand why they feel the way they do at times, when they are in a developmental crisis.
Some limitations and weaknesses are connected to Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. A major
disadvantage to his theory is the extreme individual differences of all human beings (Weiten 2013, p.
445). Although Erikson believed all people evolve through the eight transitional stages, many
differences occur in people. Erikson has not explained these differences in depth and this may have
been useful to further explain the individual differences in people who may not be experiencing the
exact stages he identified.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory can be applied into classrooms for educational purposes. During the
‘Industry vs Inferiority’ stage, it is extremely important for teachers to implement certain classroom
dynamics to ensure students have a sense of industry.
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While teaching, teachers often encourage and praise children through an activity. There is a problem
though that many educators give too much praise for children who actually haven’t achieved
anything. After school life, if children believe that they will get admiration for only trying to
complete a task, they may not have the skills to pursue and complete tasks to a high standard
(Ramkumar 2002). As an educator, it is important through this stage of ‘Industry vs Inferiority’, that
you give students enough encouragement so they are motivated to be productive to complete tasks.
While still praising them for actually completing the tasks required. Therefore, they will feel a sense
of industry once they have completed what you have set.
In addition, teachers should be aware of the student’s stage and developmental crisis they are in.
Although many primary schools students would primarily be in the ‘Industry vs Inferiority’ stage,
some children may be in a previous stage, or are progressing to a later stage earlier. This connects to
the Australian Professional Standards for Teaching (APST) standard 1.5 ‘Differentiate teaching to
meet the specific learning needs of students across the full range of abilities’. Therefore, it is
imperative for teachers to create lessons and assign appropriate work to assist them in their stage of
developmental crisis.
Conclusion
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Reference list
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership Limited [AITSL], Australian Professional
Standards for Teachers, AITSL, viewed 3 June 2015,
< http://www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers/standards/list>
Weiten, W 2013, Psychology: Themes and Variations, Cengage Learning, Belmont, USA.
Woolfolk, A & Margetts, K 2013, Educational Psychology, 3rd edn, Australasian ed, Pearson
Education, French Forest, NSW, Australia.
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