Chapter -1

INTRODUCTION

Light metal alloys having high strength to weight ratio and corrosion resistance find
applications in automobile, aircraft and marine industries. In order to meet the various
requirements and vast range of applications, attempts are still continuing to strengthen these light
metal alloys.

1.1ALUMINIUM-SILICON ALLOY

In light metal group AL-Si alloys have excellent casting properties and very good
resistance to corrosion. These alloys constitute 85 to 90% of the total aluminum cast parts
produced. As per British standards specification it is designated with LM6, which is the best
among this alloy group due to its superior casting properties. LM6 is the eutectic alloy of AL-Si,
which contain 10-13% by weight of silicon. Aluminum has a density of only 2.7 grams/cc,
approximately one-third of as much as steel. As the density of the silicon is 2.3 grams/cc, it is
one of the few elements that may be added to aluminum without loss of weight advantage. AL-Si
alloys can be sand-cast, die-cast both gravity and pressure and are suitable for low pressure
casting. Because of their high silicon content, they have a tendency to drag during machining
and cause rapid tool wear. So carbide tipped tools with large rake angles, low cutting speeds and
coolants such as kerosene are recommended.

The microstructure of LM6 alloys depends strongly on the composition and solidification
rate. The rapid cooling in pressure die-casting causes a fine structure and reduced grain size, but
slower cooling rates are encountered in permanent mould and sand castings compared to die-
casting. Al-Si eutectic alloys contain silicon phase in the form of large plates with sharp sides an
edges. These circular silicon plates acts as internal stress risers in the microstructure and provide
easy paths for fracture.

The strength and ductility of these alloys can be improved through modification, which is
generally accomplished by the addition of sodium or strontium. In this project work attempt has
been made to study the morphology of modified and modified vibrated LM6 alloy and the

1
assessment of the same using electrical resistivity. Solidification study on LM6 also has been
attempted, using the cooling curve analyses.

To analyze the microstructure of LM6 alloys, microstructure study involving

conventional polishing and etching is used. Cooling curves are plotted using thermocouples and
the same is compared by the cooling curve data obtained from the heat transfer analysis using
computational methods.

1.2 SAND CASTING OF LM6 ALLOYS

Since LM-6 alloys have good cast ability and suitable for any type of mould, green sand
mould and natural molding sands are generally used. Natural sand moulds are having high
permeability and fairly low green strength, which is best suited for these alloys.

Along with modifying agents, we can use other foundry chemicals to get sound castings.
These are

1. Coveral flux (containing various salts like alkali chlorides and alkali fluorides) is used to
prevent oxidation of molten metal.

2. Grain refiners are used to produce a fine equi-axed grain structure. Grain refinement
improves resistance to hot tearing, decreases the porosity and increasing mass feeding. In
the work, „Nucleant-2‟ grain refiner is used.

3. Degassing agents are added to the alloy to remove the dissolved gases. In this work the
„Degasser-190‟ tablets are used.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF LM6 ALLOY

Sand and permanent mould cast LM6 parts are materials of choice for many marine,
automotive, domestic foods and pump castings. LM6 alloys are suitable for large intricate and
thin walled castings in all types of moulds. They are also used where corrosion resistance (or)
ductility is required. LM6 is best suitable for motor car and lorry fittings.

2
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 MODIFICATION

Mechanical properties of LM6 alloys can be improved by modification. The process of

adding sodium fluorides or other alkali fluorides to the molten metal to improve mechanical
properties was termed “modification”. Alkali metals and alkali earth metals can be used for
obtaining modification.

Unmodified LM6 alloy contains silicon phase in the form of large plates with sharp sides
and ends. Modification does break up the needle like silicon flakes within the grains and changes
it to the fine dispersed form, even though it does not actually refine the grain size of the metal.
The globules of modified structure are seen to be the ends of silicon fibers, which form an
interconnected network. This is the transformation, which is responsible for the enhanced
properties associated with modified LM6 casting.

Figure 2.1 shows the schematic freezing of LM6 alloy in unmodified and modified
condition.

2.1.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF MODIFICATION

The scientific papers written about modification since 1920‟s; majority have been
concerned with explaining how it is possible to change eutectic silicon from coarse plates to fine
fibers. Any workable explanation must deal with the following facts.

a) Several elements cause modification; those include IA, IIA and rare earth elements. Of
all those, sodium, strontium are the most effective in producing a fine uniform fibrous
structure.

b) Modifiers are effective at lower percents.

c) A modified structure can be produced without the use of very rapid solidification.

3
Figure 2.1 Schematic freezing of LM6 alloy

4
2.1.2 SODIUM AS A MODIFIER

Quenching experiments have been carried out on cast LM6 alloy to show that addition of
sodium affect both the nucleation and growth of the silicon phase. The sodium not only changes
the growth morphology of the silicon from the plate like to the fibrous form but also prevents
silicon nucleating ahead of the eutectic growth front. It is the latter effect, resulting in a change
in the average growth velocity, which is responsible for the much finer spacing and longer
cooling found in modified cast structure. Figure 2.2 shows the micrograph of sodium modified
LM6 alloy.

2.1.3 STRONTIUM AS A MODIFIER

Experiment conducted on cast LM6 alloys with strontium as a modifier, shows that the
action of strontium is to restrict the growth of the silicon phase, making the silicon phase grow
more isotropically and the interface more planar. It also changes the character of the eutectic
from the irregular flake morphology to a pseudo regular fibrous morphology.

Pure strontium has sometimes been used as a modifier. But it is reactive with air and
water Vapour. Master alloy which contain less than about 45% Sr. are not reactive in air and
hence no special precautions are necessary for their packaging and storage. Sodium and
strontium exert similar effects on modification of LM6 alloy system. But sodium is a temporary
modifier whereas strontium is a permanent modifier. It means that effect of modification with
strontium goes off on remelting, whereas effect of modification with strontium retains evens
after repeated remelting processes. Figure 2.3 shows the micrograph of LM-6 alloy when it is
modified with strontium.

2.1.4 MECHANISMS OF MODIFICATION

This part is concerned with the mechanism of modification of faceted phase during
solidification, especially that of silicon in the LM6 alloy system. In this system as in the other
faceted or non-faceted combinations, there are microstructural changes with growth conditions
are of particular interest with minor additions of a third component. Probably, sodium and
strontium at lower weight percentages are the most effective modifying additions to the system,
although other alkali and alkaline earth metals may also have various effects upon the structure.

5
 In the case of sodium, the structural change under the grain growth conditions, from the
interconnected silicon flakes in the metal matrix to an apparently finer distribution of irregular
fibers was observed with reasonable improvement in mechanical properties [8].

Figure 2.2 SEM micrograph of modified alloy (1.5% Na modified)

Figure 2.3 SEM micrograph of modified alloy (1.5% Sr modified)

6
 One (or) a combination of some of the following mechanisms might cause the structural
change.

1) The addition of sodium might produce some change in equilibrium phase diagram. But it
has not seen that this influence is very important at concentrations as lower as 0.01
weight percentage of sodium. A recent report based on thermal analysis of normal and
modified alloy claimed that the effect of sodium was to elevate the aluminum liquidus
temperature by 1 to 2K and so displace the binary Al-Si eutectic to higher silicon
concentrations. This effect is shown in equilibrium diagram (figure 2.4 and figure 2.5).

2) The addition of sodium might influence the nucleation kinetics and hence alter the
relative rates of precipitation of the eutectic phases. The influence is either to promote
more nucleation events or by interaction with some other, eliminates some of the
heterogeneous sites in the liquid. For a given rate of heat removal from the casting,
change in the distance between the nucleation sites can alter the growth rate.

3) At lower under cooling, silicon phase grow anisotropically from the liquid by more rapid
molecular attachment at certain preferred sites with high growth along certain
crystallographic planes, usually closed packing. There then arises the possibility that
selective absorption of a minor impurity may poison preferred sites and lead to growth
rate, which is kinetically limited in many directions, and therefore appears to grow more
isotropically. Thus silicon crystal growth from the liquid is very clearly inhibited by
sodium.

4) Strontium modifier also gives the same effect as sodium and it can be used as the
permanent modifier, which will be effective after remelting also.

7
 Figure 2.4 Phase diagram of Al-Si alloy

Figure 2.5 Liquidus and eutectic temperature based on cooling curve

data for Normal and modified LM-6 alloy

8
2.2 PROPER MELT TREATMENT FOR LM6 ALLOYS

Proper melt treatment is essential for getting sound casting of LM6 alloy. When the
temperature in the furnace is sufficient, measured quantity of change in the form of scrap and
ingot metal is put into it. When the change is in pasty condition, coveral flux is sprinkled over its
surface at a rate of 5 gm/kg. Molten metal tapped at 760°C (not about that) into a preheated
crucible. The crucible should have sufficient temperature to keep the temperature of the melt
from falling. Again coverall flux is added to the melt surface at a rate of 5 gm/kg. After attaining
the maximum temperature, melt is degassed and grain refined on a falling temperature each at a
rate of 2.5 gm/kg. Both of them are plunged into the molten metal using a perforated plunger and
kept under the melt till the bubbling action ceases. On completion of the bubbling action, the
surface flux cover of the melt is rubbed and skimmed cleanly. A modifier at the rate of 1.5% by
weight is added to the clean melt surface at a temperature about 780°C. Too low temperature
results in poor pick up and too high temperature may cause loss of modifier.

As soon as this modification compound is liquefied, it is well worked with a plunger in

stirring action and left undisturbed till temperature fell to 730°C. It is then poured into the
moulds without any delay.

2.2.1 FLUXING

Coverall fluxes are mixtures of various salts, which form a molten layer on the surface of
the liquid bath, protecting it from oxidation and reaction with moisture in the air. They isolate the
liquid from the atmosphere and in no way are they intended to add any new element to the melt.
A large number of compositions are available from several suppliers, but all coveral fluxes
contain alkali chlorides in the various properties and some also contain various fluorides.

2.2.2 DEGASSING

In conventional melting practice, it is extremely difficult to eliminate gas absorption. But,

using dry tool and preheating change as well as fluxing compounds the absorbed gas, mainly
hydrogen, which is generated through the decomposition of moisture, can reduce it.

9
 Degassing is carried out using Degasser-190 (C₂Cl₆), since degassing not only removes
the harmful gases, but also removes sodium as well and hence degassing precedes modification.
In tablet degassing, the gas is introduced into the melt in solid pill form. The pills added by a
perforated bell, are composed of chemical which thermally decompose to release gas bubbles.
This is the least controllable method of degassing since decomposition is rapid. Tablet degassing
is often quite suitable to the treatment of small melts and finds applications, where precise
control of degassing is not required.

2.2.3 GRAIN REFINEMENT

Grain refinement is intended to improve the fluidity as well as feeding characteristics.

This helps to reduce the shrinkage unsoundness in the casting. Strength and density of heavy
section sand casting can be increased considerably with grain refinement. In the present work
grain refining has been done with master alloy consists of Aluminum, Titanium, and Boron. As
soon as released into the melt, Titanium Diboride and Titanium Aluminide act as nuclei and start
the formation of the aluminum grains. The aluminum envelops the TiB₂ and TiAl₃ particles and
acts as site for further growth of the aluminum grain. In the present work grain refiner is added at
the rate of 2.5 gm/kg of master alloy just after adding coverall flux.

Figure 2.6 Foundry chemicals used in the casting

10
2.3 MICROSTRUCTURE STUDIES

Micro structural control was found to be influenced by melt treatment consists of grain
refinement of the aluminum phase and modifications of the silicon phase in the aluminum-silicon
eutectic.

To reveal the internal structure of the casting suitable samples must be prepared. It is
most practical to polish the metal sample on successively finer grits of sandpaper, until a smooth
flat surface is obtained the eutectic structure is observed with a microscope on a small sample,
which has been polished to a mirror-like finish with a metallographic polishing compound. It is
not necessary to etch the samples to see the silicon eutectic, which appears dark gray or black on
the polished specimen, but sometimes an etch can be used to increase contrast or to differentiate
phases present. Best results are obtained if the etch is prepared freshly. The magnification
required to see the micrograph will depend on the solidification rate of the casting.

The full unmodified casting has silicon present primarily as large plates, although some
smaller acicular silicon crystals are also found. As the concentration of modifier increases, the
lamellar plates start to break up, until they are gone completely. Large acicular plates are still
present at this level. Fully fibrous structure is found with increasing mixing or stirring.

2.4 SOLIDIFICATION STUDIES

To analyze the solidification behavior of Al-Si eutectic alloy cooling curve analysis is a

useful tool. The details of the cooling curve analysis are discussed in the next section.

2.4.1 COOLING CURVE ANALYSIS

Since for many years, thermal analysis has been used to assess the extents of grain
refinement and modification of LM6 alloy. Shu and Hellawell have studied the thermal cooling
curve analysis for eutectic LM6 alloy using Na as modifier.

When an LM6 melt is modified the eutectic temperature, is depressed and the extent of
depression of the eutectic temperature can be a measure of modification. As a consequence of
modification the eutectic composition also shift towards the higher Si content. Thus, thermal

11
analysis can be potential tool for the assessment of not only the grain refining efficiency of the
grain refiner but also the degree of modification.

Some authors made computer cooling curve analysis to assess grain refinement,
modification. They plotted cooling curve for each melt with and without grain refine/modifier,

and the liquids temperature (Tɩ), the under cooling temperature (Tᵤ) and the eutectic temperature
(Tᴇ) were recorded in keithly data acquisition unit. Figure 2.9a clearly reveals that under the
conditions studied the solidification of Al-12Si alloy proceeds with an undercooling (∆T) of
2.43°C at 588°C followed by a eutectic at 577.89°C. it is apparent that α-Al dendrites nucleate at
588°C and grow followed by eutectic solidification. The nucleation of α-Al need an
undercooling of 2.43°C. figure 2.8a further shows that the subsequent eutectic solidification
proceeds with an undercooling followed by a eutectic arrest at 577.89°C. it was reported that the
eutectic arrest for Al-Si alloy was 571.4°C. in other words the eutectic temperature was
depressed. No such depression of eutectic temperature was observed in Al-12Si or LM-6 alloys.
An addition of 1.0% of M13 master alloy has resulted in the drastic reduction of undercooling to
0°C (figure 2.8b) suggesting that it is highly efficient in heterogeneously nucleating α-AL even
in presence of 12% silicon.

LM-6 has shown similar trends as that of Al-12Si alloy in the computer aided
cooling curve analysis. Fig 2.9a and b show the cooling curves of LM-6 without and with 1.0%
of M13 master alloy addition for grain refinement. The alloy has shown similar extent of
undercooling to that of Al-12Si alloy in the absence (2.43°C) and in the presence (0°C) of grain
refiner. The results point to the fact that despite the presence of other alloying elements, the
response of LM-6 alloy is similar to the Al-12Si alloy. In other words the silicon content of the
alloy plays the dominant role in deciding the response of these alloys towards refinement.

Al-12Si alloy and LM-6 alloy were used for assessment of modification with Sr. the
depression of eutectic temperature during thermal analysis was noted. Figure 2.10a and b shows
the detail of cooling curve after the addition of 0.03% Sr. the alloys shows a decrease in the ∆T
α-Al in the presence of modifier (1.20°Cand 1.18°C for Al-12Si and LM-6 alloys respectively).
However, the alloys show significant decrease in the eutectic temperature arrest by about 6°C.

12
 The cooling curve for the combined addition of grain refiner and modifier to Al-12Si and
LM-6 alloys are shown in figure 2.11a and b respectively. It is clear from the figure that ∆Tα-Al
approaches to zero (0°C for Al-12Si and 0.24°C for LM-6 alloy) and the eutectic temperature
decreasing significantly when the grain refiner and modifier are added together. It is important to
note the extent of depression of the eutectic temperature is similar for the combined addition of
grain refiner and modifier and grain refiner addition alone.

Fig 2.7 Thermal analysis cooling Fig 2.8 Thermal analysis cooling
Curves of Al-12 is alloy (a) without curve of LM-6 alloy (a) without
Grain refiner (0 min) and (b) with grain refiner (0 min) and 1.0% M13
master alloy (5 min) (b) with 1.0% M13 master alloy (5 min)

13
Fig 2.9Thermal analysis cooling curve Fig 2.10 Thermal analysis

(a) Al-12Si alloy and (b) LM-6 cooling of (a) Al-12Si alloy

Alloy with 0.03% Sr addition level and (b) LM-6 alloy with

(5 min holding time) combined addition of grain

refiner (1.0% M13) and

Modifier (0.03% Sr)

(5 min. holding time)

14
2.5 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT WORK

1. To prepare the casting test bars from unmodified and using sodium and strontium
modifiers

2. To plot the cooling curves with the temperature values read at regular intervals of
time during progress of solidification.

3. To study the mechanical properties of LM6 alloys made of different modifiers

4. To predict the cooling curve for Aluminium-Silicon eutectic alloy by heat transfer
analysis and comparing this with the experimental cooling curves.

The flow chart for this work is given in figure 2.11

AL – SI EUTECTIC
ALLOY (LM6)

1. UNMODIFIED
2. SODIUM MODIFIED
3. STRONTIUM
MODIFIED

COOLING CURVE THEORETICAL

MECHANICAL
ANALYSIS COOLING CURVE
PROPERTIES

RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION

15
 Chapter-3

SOLIDIFICATION STUDIES

3.1 SOLIDIFICATION PROBLEM

Transient heat transfer problems involve melting or solidification are generally referred
to as “phase-change” or “moving boundary” problems. In theoretical as well as numerical
analysis of phase change or of moving boundary problems concerned physical model is replaced
by an equivalent mathematical model, which is generally obtained by the application of thermo-
physical laws, and by imposing the appropriate supplementary conditions. The physical model
for solidification problem, being cooled convectively is described. Incorporating suitable
assumptions, governing partial differential equations along with boundary conditions are
presented. The strategy of the numerical solution of the enthalpy equation is also described in the
next sections.

3.1.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

Molten metal/alloy is kept in a cylindrical mould. The mould is kept on an insulating base
and is allowed to cool fully. The above problem can be physically modeled as followed. A
thermal conduction model considers only thermal conduction heat transfer and liberation of the
latent heat. It is the simplest, practical, basic model. Most conventional solidification analysis
employs this model. Due to axi-symmetry, the above problem is modeled as a two-dimensional
heat conduction problem. So we are considering heat transfer in „r‟ and „z‟ directions only.

When molten metal is allowed to freeze in a mould, the portion of liquid, which reaches
the freezing temperature, begins to solidify. This occurs first in the region next to the mould wall
where heat extraction is larger resulting in the formation of a thin „skin‟ of solid metal
surrounding the liquid. With extraction of heat through this skin of metal, the liquid begins to
freeze on to it and the skin increases the thickness. At the instant of freezing, the general drop in
temperature accompanying solidification process is interrupted due to the release of the latent
heat of fusion (L). This increases the overall time for liquid in the interior of casting to freeze.
The heat must be transferred to the surroundings of the mould before complete solidification is
16
achieved. Finally the metal transfers heat to the surrounding mould and then to the atmosphere as
it cools to room temperature.

Except for pure metals and for unidirectional solidification under large temperature
gradients, the shape of the solid-liquid interface is not plane. This causes a mushy region to be
formed, where solid and liquid phases co-exist; therefore it is difficult to employ the techniques
for solving the so-called Stefan problem, where the planar solid-liquid interface is usually
assumed.

The real physical model seems to be complex. In order to obtain equivalent mathematical
model amenable to numerical solution aided with least computer storage and computing time
without adversely affecting the results; it is usual practice among the research community to
make certain simplifying assumptions.

3.1.2 ASSUMPTIONS

The difference in density gives rise to liquid motion across interface resulting in
convective heat transfer. The difference in density for solid and liquid phase is neglected for pure
conduction problem.

ρl=ρs=ρ
Heat transfer from liquid phase to the solid-liquid interface is due to conduction, when
convection effects are neglected.

Heat transfer coefficients at the die wall-liquid interface continuously decreases because
of time dependency of the film coefficient. A constant heat transfer coefficient of 1100 W/m2k is
used in the present model. This assumption results in predicting higher cooling rates.

Mass diffusion also affects the solidification process, which is governed by the heat
diffusion. The assumption is justified for alloys that have large thermal diffusivity compared to
specific thermal diffusivity. For simplicity, the properties are assumed to be independent of
temperature.

17
 In general enthalpy is a nonlinear function of temperature. For alloys, a gradual release of
latent heat over the mushy region is assumed.

3.2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL

A long container with a cylindrical cross-section contains phase change material that is
initially in the liquid state of temperature Ti, which is higher than the melting temperature Tm.
For times t>0, convection heat transfer cools the container on its surfaces. The bottom of the
container is placed on an insulating base.

The geometry satisfies symmetry condition with respect to r at r=0based on symmetry

condition only half portion of the cylinder is considered. The symmetry line is adiabatic and is
characterized by the boundary condition heat flux q=0.

The geometry and the coordinate system of a long container of cylindrical cross-section
is shown in figure.

3.2.1 GOVERNING EQUATIONS

The system of equations is parabolic in time and elliptic in space hence, it is mandatory
to specify the boundary conditions on all boundaries of physical domain. The enthalpy form of
energy equation for the problem considered

(K r )+ (K )

With initial condition T=Ti or H=Hi

Boundary conditions

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At r = 0,

At r = r max, -k

At z = 0,

At z = z max, -k

Physical model showing the geometry and the coordinate system of a long
cylindrical container

-k

k 2r -k

19
 -k

-k

z
r

TEMPERATURE-ENTHALPY RELATIONS
 Initial Enthalpy H = Cp. Tp + L
 At eutectic temperature Te , H = Cp. Te + L
 In solid state H = Cp. Ts

3.3 ENTHALPY METHOD FOR SOLUTION OF PHASE-

CHANGE PROBLEMS

In the solution of phase – change problems, energy equation has to be written

separately for the solid and liquid phases and the temperatures have been coupled through the
non – linear interface energy balance condition. Such a formulation gives rise to the tracking of
the moving interface and it is difficult if the problem is to be solved with finite differences.

In Enthalpy method, the transient part of the energy equation is in terms of

enthalpy instead of temperature.

20
 A single energy equation becomes applicable in both phases; hence there is no
need to consider liquid and solid phases separately.

The enthalpy form of energy equation is given by

is equivalent to the usual temperature form in which the heat conduction equation is written
separately for the solid and liquid regions and coupled with the energy balance equation at the
solid-liquid interface.

The interface is eliminated from consideration in the calculations and the

problem is made equivalent to one of non – linear heat conduction without change of phase.

The physical significance of the enthalpy function H (T), J/Kg, for pure
substance is significant. When the substance is in solid form at temperature T, the substance
contains a sensible heat per unit mass Cp (T – Tm) in the liquid form, it contains latent heat L
per unit mass in addition to sensible heat that is Cp (T – Tm) + L.

The advantages of enthalpy approach are:

1. There are no conditions to be satisfied at the phase change boundary.

2. There is no need to accuracy track the phase change boundary.

3. Any numerical scheme such as Finite Difference Method or Finite Element Method can
readily adapted for the solution.

4. Enthalpy method is capable of handling phase change problems in which the phase change
occurs over an extended temperature range rather than at a single phase – change temperature.

21
 Chapter-4

EXPERIMENTATION

4.1 EQUIPMENT

The following are the various parts of equipment used for the experimental word.

4.1.1FURNACE FOR MELTING

The furnace used is a pit type dry hearth with maximum capacity of 10kg.

4.1.2 THERMOCOUPLES

Chromel-Alumel and iron-Constantine are the suitable thermocouples to measure the

temperature of melt during solidification. These are useful to measure temperatures in the range
of 300-800°C effectively.

Figure 4.1 Thermocouple placed in the molten metal

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4.1.3 TEMPERATURE INDICATORS

Thermocouples are connected to the digital type temperature indicators, which will show
the temperature in °C immediately after dipping the thermocouples in the melt.

Figure 4.2Temperature indicator

4.1.4 MOULD BOXES

The mould box with direct feeding system is used in this experiment. the moulds, when
molten metal is poured into it.

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4.2 TEST BAR PATTERN

Figure 3.3 shows the test bar pattern with full dimensions. The pattern is made according
to the British standard specification and universally adopted to study the properties of as cast
castings. Design of test bas pattern is in such a way that the enlarged portion will work as a
runner during shrinkage during solidification. It will also work as a riser during pouring molten
metal into the cavity.

Figure 4.3 Test bar pattern

24
4.3 CASTING

The experiment has been conducted in three stages by controlling the operating
parameters like LM-6 alloy composition, melting and pouring temperature. The properties of the
moulding sand used are listed in table 3.1 and the composition of LM-6 alloy used in the present
work according to ID 616-1994 standards is shown in table 3.2. the foundry chemicals used in
this present work are listed in table 3.3.

A flow chart for sodium modified casting and strontium modified casting is shown in
figure 3.7.

4.3.1 STAGE I

In the stage after adding enough amount of flux, the molten metal is tapped into a
preheated crucible. Then it is grain refined and degassed. After controlling the required
temperature to 710°C, it is poured into the mould boxes. After the solidification the castings are
taken out.

4.3.2 STAGE II

In this stage modification is carried out by adding sodium modifier. Modifying agent
consists of 66.67% Sodium Fluoride + Sodium Chloride and is added to the molten metal just
before pouring into the moulds. The amount of modifier is 1.5% by weight. Metal is poured at
710°C into the mould cavities made of green sand. In the same way using strontium modifier
casting is made. After solidification the castings are taken out.

25
 Grain fineness AFS NO120

Clay content 10%

Moisture contents 6%

Green compression strength 7-8 lbs/sq.inch

Table 4.1 Moulding sand properties

Cu Mg Si Fe Mn Ni

0.1 0.1 11.3 0.6 0.5 0.1

Zn Pb Sn Ti Al

0.1 0.1 0.05 0.2 Rest

Table 4.2 composition of LM6 alloy used for the study

26
 Sl. No. Type of Name Quantity
chemicals

1 Flux Coverall 5gm/kg

2 Grain refiner Al-5%Ti-1%B 2.5gm/kg

Nucleant

3 Degasser Degasser-190 2.5gm/kg

(C2Cl6)

4 Sodium modifier 2/3 NaF + 1/3 15gm/kg

NaCl

5 Strontium Al-10%Sr-14%Si 15gm/kg

modifier

Table 4.3 Types of Foundry Chemicals used in casting process of LM6 alloy

27
 Figure 4.4 CASTING FLOW CHART for

(a) Sodium modification (b) strontium modification

LM-6
LM-6
ALLOY
ALLOY

MELTING MELTING

FLUXING
FLUXING

GRAIN
GRAIN
REFINING
REFINING

STRONTIUM
DEGASSING
MODIFICATION

SODIUM
MODIFICATION DEGASSING

CASTING
CASTING

28
4.4 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

In all the above three stages immediately after pouring the molten metal into the mould,
thermocouple wires, one at the center of the mould and the other at the end near the mould wall
are died into the mould. The leads of the two-thermocouple wires are connected to the respective
terminals of the Milli-voltmeters. The readings of the two Milli-voltmeters are taken in terms of
milli-volts at regular time intervals till the solidification is complete. The readings of the
temperature during the solidification can be obtained from the calibration graph of thermocouple
used in this work. For castings that are vibrated during solidification, there is a provision for
measuring temperature with the help of in-built thermocouples. The temperature indicators will
indicate the readings of temperature.

4.5 MECHANICAL TESTING

4.5.1 PREPARATION OF TENSILE TEST SPECIMEN:

 Take a bar of size 25mm diameter and 130 mm length

 Perform the plain turning operation on the steel bar to the required dimensions on the lathe
machine.

 Perform the threading operation on both sides of the specimen on lathe machine

 Perform the Step turning operation on the specimen up to 8 mm

 Chamfer the corner radii of 6mm at the required positions to finally get the specimen in
required size and shape according to the ASTM Standards.

 The drawing of the test specimen is shown below.

29
 Fig.4.5 Specimen for tensile test

4.5.2 TENSILE TESTING

A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most fundamental type of
mechanical test one can perform on material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and
fully standardized. By pulling the specimen, we can quickly determine how the material will
react to forces being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, we can find its strength
and elongation.

Tensile strength is indicated by the maxima of a stress-strain curve and, in general,

indicates the stress at the point of necking. As it is an intensive property, its value does not
depend on the size of the test specimen. It is, however, dependent on the preparation of the
specimen and the temperature of the test environment and material.

Tensile strength, along with elastic modulus and corrosion resistance is an important
parameter of engineering materials used in structures and mechanical devices. It is specified for
materials such as alloys, composite, ceramics, plastics and wood.

The following three parameters can be measured from the tensile test

Yield strength

It is the stress at which material strain changes from elastic deformation to plastic
deformation, causing it to deform permanently.

30
Ultimate tensile strength

It is the maximum stress a material can withstand when subjected to tension. It is the
maximum stress on the stress-strain curve.

Breaking strength

It is the stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point of rupture.

The stress-strain diagram for Aluminium alloys shown in fig.4.6

Fig. 4.6 Stress vs. Strain curve of typical Aluminium alloy

1. Ultimate Strength
2. Yield strength
3. Rupture
4. Strain hardening region
5. Necking Region
A: Apparent (engineering) stress (F/A0)

B: Actual (true) stress (F/A)

Metals including steel have a linear stress-strain relationship up to the yield point, as
shown in the figure. In some steels the stress falls after the yield point. This is due to the

31
interaction of carbon atoms and dislocations in the stressed steel. Cold worked and alloy steels
do not show this effect. For most metals yield point is not sharply defined. Below the yield
strength all deformation is recoverable, and the material will return to its initial shape when the
load is removed. This recoverable deformation is known as elastic deformation. For stresses
above the yield point the deformation is not recoverable, and the material will not return to its
initial shape. This unrecoverable deformation is known as plastic deformation. For many
applications plastic deformation is unacceptable, and the yield strength is used as the design
limitation.

After the yield point, steel and many other ductile metals will undergo a period of strain
hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain up to the ultimate strength.
If the material is unloaded at this point, the stress-strain curve will be parallel to the original
elastic portion of the curve, between the origin and the yield point. If it is then re-loaded it will
follow the unloading curve up again to the previous load, which has become the new yield
strength, and will then continue following the original plastic curve.

After a metal has been loaded to its yield strength it begins to "neck" as the cross-
sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. When necking becomes substantial,
it may cause a reversal of the engineering stress-strain curve, where decreasing stress correlates
to increasing strain because of geometric effects. This is because the engineering stress and
engineering strain are calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. If the
graph is plotted in terms of true stress and true strain the curve will always slope upwards and
never reverse, as true stress is corrected for the decrease in cross-sectional area. Necking is not
observed for materials loaded in compression. The peak stress on the engineering stress-strain
curve is known as the ultimate strength. After a period of necking, the material will rupture and
the stored elastic energy is released as noise and heat. The stress on the material at the time of
rupture is known as the breaking strength.

32
 Brittle materials such as concrete and carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and do not
strain-harden which means that the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. A most
unusual stress-strain curve is shown in the figure below. Typical brittle materials do not show
any plastic deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a
brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the
original component. A typical stress strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. Testing of
several identical specimens will result in different failure stresses; this is due to the Weibull
Modulus of the brittle material. The curve shown below would be typical of a brittle polymer
tested at very slow strain rates at a temperature above its glass transition temperature. Some
engineering ceramics show a small amount of ductile behaviour at stresses just below that
causing failure but the initial part of the curve is a linear.

Fig. 4.7 Stress vs. Strain curve of a typical brittle material

1. Ultimate Strength
2. Tensile strength.

Tensile strength is measured in units of force per unit area. In the SI system, the units are newtons
per square metre (N/m²) or Pascals (Pa). The customary unit is pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in² or
psi); sometimes kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi) are used to shorten the numbers.

33
 The breaking strength of a rope is specified in units of force, such as newtons, without
specifying the cross-sectional area of the rope. This is often loosely called tensile strength, but
this is not a strictly correct use of the term.

In brittle materials such as rock, concrete, cast iron, or soil, tensile strength is negligible
compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications.
Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not. This is
due to the Stress Intensity Factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the
sample gets larger, the size of defects also grows. In general, the tensile strength of a rope is
always less than the tensile strength of its individual fibers.

Tensile strength can be defined for liquids as well as solids. For example, when a tree
draws water from its roots to its upper leaves by transpiration, the column of water is pulled
upwards from the top by capillary action, and this force is transmitted down the column by its
tensile strength. Air pressure from below also plays a small part in a tree's ability to draw up
water, but this alone would only be sufficient to push the column of water to a height of about
ten meters, and trees can grow much higher than that. (See also cavitations‟, which can be
thought of as the consequence of water being "pulled too hard".)

Fig 4.8 Round bar tensile specimen

34
 Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-section area, and
then pulling it with a controlled, gradually increasing force until the sample changes shape or
breaks.

When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength. This
important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries
with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.

Fig. 4.9 UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

35
 S.No. Load in N Deflection in mm

1. 7 0.5

2. 10 1

3. 14 2

4. 22 3

5. 32 4

6. 34 5

Table 4.4 Observations in Tensile test for LM-6 alloy without modifier

S.No. Load in N Deflection in mm

1. 1 1

2. 7.5 2

3. 17 3

4. 22 4

5. 31 5

6. 34 6

7. 37 6.5

8. 34 7

Table 4.5 Observations in Tensile test for LM-6 alloy with Sodium modifier

36
 S.No. Load in N Deflection in mm

1. . 1.5 1

2. 3 2

3. 9 3

4. 13 4

5. 19 5

6. 23 6

7. 29 7

8. 33 8

9. 36 9

10. 39 10

11. 42.5 11

12. 44.5 12

13. 46 12.5

14. 43.5 13

Table 4.6 Observations in Tensile test for LM-6 alloy with Strontium modifier

4.5.3 HARDNESS TEST

Hardness is defined as "Resistance offered by a metal to plastic deformation, usually by

indentation. However, the term may also refer to stiffness or temper or to resistance to
scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability to
resist permanent deformation (bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when a load is
applied. The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater is the resistance to deformation.

37
 Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions in
terms of fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness property value is the result
of a defined measurement procedure.

Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance to

scratching or cutting. An example would be material B scratches material C, but not material
A. Alternatively, material A scratches material B slightly and scratches material C heavily.
Relative hardness of metals can be assessed by reference to the Mohs scale that ranks the
ability of materials to resist scratching by another material. Similar methods of relative
hardness assessment are still commonly used today. An example is the file test where a file
tempered to a desired hardness is rubbed on the test material surface. If the file slides without
biting or marking the surface, the test material would be considered harder than the file. If the
file bites or marks the surface, the test material would be considered softer than the file

4.5.3.1 HARDNESS MEASUREMENT METHODS:

There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry;
they are the Brinell hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Vickers hardness test.
Since the definitions of metallurgic ultimate strength and hardness are rather similar, it can
generally be assumed that a strong metal is also a hard metal. The way the three of these
hardness tests measure a metal's hardness is to determine the metal's resistance to the
penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The tests determine the depth which such a ball
or cone will sink into the metal, under a given load, within a specific period of time. The
followings are the most common hardness test methods used in today‟s technology:

1. Rockwell Hardness Test

2. Brinell hardness Test
3. Vickers Hardness Test
4. Knoop Hardness Test
5. Micro hardness Test
6. Mohs Hardness Test

38
4.5.3.2 Brinell Hardness Test:

Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide sphere of a specified

diameter under a specified load into the surface of a material and measuring the diameter of the
indentation left after the test. The Brinell hardness number, or simply the Brinell number, is
obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the actual surface area of the indentation, in
square millimeters. The result is a pressure measurement, but the units are rarely stated

The Brinell hardness test uses a desk top machine to press a 10mm diameter, hardened
steel ball into the surface of the test specimen. The machine applies a load of 500 kilograms for
soft metals such as copper, brass and thin stock. A 1500 kilogram load is used for aluminum
castings, and a 3000 kilogram load is used for materials such as iron and steel. The load is
usually applied for 10 to 15 seconds. After the impression is made, a measurement of the
diameter of the resulting round impression is taken. It is measured to plus or minus .05mm using
a low-magnification portable microscope. The hardness is calculated by dividing the load by the
area of the curved surface of the indention, (the area of a hemispherical surface is arrived at by
multiplying the square of the diameter by 3.14159 and then dividing by 2). To make it easier, a
calibrated chart is provided, so with the diameter of the indentation the corresponding hardness
number can be referenced. A well-structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions,
and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained
using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30
seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
Among the three hardness tests discussed, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest
indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more
accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the
alloy.

The Brinell hardness test was one of the most widely used hardness tests during World
War II for measuring armour plate hardness the test is usually conducted by pressing a tungsten
carbide sphere 10mm in diameter into the test surface for 10 seconds with a load of 3,000kg,
then measuring the diameter of the resulting depression. The BHN is calculated according to the
following formula:

39
 Fig. 4.10 Indentation in Brinell hardness test

Where
BHN = The Brinell hardness number
F = The imposed load in kg
D = The diameter of the spherical indenter in mm
Di = Diameter of the resulting indenter impression in mm

Several BHN tests are usually carried out over an area of armour plate. On a typical plate
each test would result in a slightly different number. This is due not only to minor variations in
quality of the armour plate (even homogenous armour is not absolutely uniform) but also
because the test relies on careful measurement of the diameter of the depression. Small errors in
this measurement will lead to small variations in BHN values. As a result, BHN is usually quoted
as a range of values (e.g. 210 to 245 or 210-245) rather than as a single value.

The BHN of face hardened armour uses a back slash to separate the value of the face
hardened surface from the value of the rear face. For example, a BHN of 555\353-382 indicates
the surface has a hardness of 555 and the rear face has a hardness of 353 to 382.

The Brinell Hardness Test described above is called HB 10/3000 WC and was the type of
test used by the Germans in World War II. Other types of hardness tests use different materials
for the sphere and/or different loads. Softer materials deform at high BHN which is why tungsten

40
carbide (a very hard material) is used to measure armour plate. Even so, as the BHN goes above
650 the tungsten carbide ball begins to flatten out and the BHN values indicate a greater
difference in hardness than there actually is, while above 739 the ball flattens out so badly that it
cannot be used.

When there are widely different values for quoted BHN then the cause may be use of a
Poldi Hardness Tester instead of the Brinell Hardness Test. The Poldi Hardness Tester is less
accurate but could be used in the field. The Poldi Hardness Test has the advantage that the
testing unit is portable, so measurements can be carried out in the field, e.g., on captured enemy
vehicles after a battle. The Poldi portable unit relies on a hammer blow impression in a
standardized sample. This test is much less accurate than the Brinell Hardness Test.

ASTM E-10 is a standard test for determining the Brinell hardness of metallic materials.
The load applied in this test is usually 3,000, 1,500, or 500 kgf, so that the diameter of the
indentation is in the range 2.5 to 6.0 mm. The load is applied steadily without a jerk. The full test
load is applied for 10 to 15 seconds. Two diameters of impression at right angles are measured,
and the mean diameter is used as a basis for calculating the Brinell hardness number (BHN),
which is done using the conversion table given in the standard.

Figure 4.11 Brinell hardness Test Specimen

41
Figure 4.12 Brinell hardness Testing Machine

42
 S.No: Dia. of indentation(mm) Average
Horizontal d1 Vertical d2 Indentation(mm) BHN

23 23 23 59.79
1.

23.5 23 23.25 55.50

2.

23.5 22.5 23 56.79

3.

23 23 23 56.79
4.

23 23.5 23.25 55.50

5.

Table 4.7 Observations in Brinell hardness Test for LM-6 alloy without modification

Dia. of indentation
S.No: Average
(mm)
Indentation BHN
Horizontal Vertical
(mm)
d1 d2

1. 22 22.5 22.25 60.93

2. 22.5 21.5 22 62.41

3. 22 22.5 22.25 60.93

4. 22.5 22 22.25 60.93

5. 21.5 22.5 22 62.41

Table 4.8 Observations in Brinell hardness Test for LM-6 alloy with Sodium modification

43
 S.No: Dia. of indentation(mm) Average
Horizontal d1 Vertical d2 Indentation(mm) BHN

22 20 21 68.84
1.

22 21 21.5 65.51
2.

22 21 21.5 65.51
3.

21 20 20.5 72.41
4.

21 22 21.5 65.51
5.

Table 4.9 Observations in Brinell hardness Test for LM-6 alloy with strontium
modification

4.5.4 IMPACT TEST

The test to determine the behavior of material when subjected to high rates of loading,
usually in bending, tension or torsion. It measures the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen
by a single blow or impact.

4.5.4.1 CHARPY IMPACT TEST

A pendulum type single blow impact test, in which the specimen is supported at both
ends, as a simple beam, and broken by a falling pendulum. The energy absorbed, as a determined
by a subsequent rise of pendulum is a measure of impact strength. The impact strength is
expressed as N-m

44
4.5.4.2 PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS

An impact test specimen for Charpy test must be prepared according to IS 1499-1959 and IS:
1598-1960. The notch is produced either by milling or grinding. The plane of symmetry of notch
shell is perpendicular to the horizontal axis of test piece.

Figure 4.13 Charpy Impact Test Specimen

45
4.5.4.3 PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING CHARPY TEST

For conducting charpy test, charpy sticker is to be firmly secured to the bottom of the
hammer with the help of clamping pieces. The latching tube for charpy test is to be firmly
clamped to the bearing housing on the inclined face. Before proceeding to the actual test, the test
for determining the frictional loss in the machine is to be conducted. Adjust the reading pointer
with pointer carrier to 300 j dial reading, when the pendulum is hanging free vertical. For this,
use socket head screw of carrier. Now raise the hammer by hand and latch in. release the
hammer by operating lever. The pointer will then indicate the energy loss due to friction. From
this reading, confirm that the friction loss is not exceeding 0.5 & of the initial potential energy.

Now raise the hammer on the specimen support touching end stop. The specimen should
be placed in such a way that the notch is opposite to the direction of impact of the pendulum. For
correct centering of the specimen, the end stop is provided.

Operate the lever so that the pendulum is released and the specimen is hit. Wait till the
pendulum is reversing its direction of motion and begins to swing slow. Thereafter, bring the
pendulum carefully to stand still position by applying the pendulum break.

Note down the impact energy. Before proceeding to the next test, remove the broken
specimen from the machine and bring reading pointer. On 300 j dial marking and then repeat the
procedure.

46
Figure 4.14 Impact Testing Machine

47
4.6 MICROSTRUCTURE STUDY

The procedure to be followed to get the microstructure is given below.

a) Polishing procedure

1. The specimen is polished on the papers having grain size 220, 280, 400 and
600 respectively.

2. The specimen is the polished with Diamond pastes of 1 micron and 0.5 micron
using Hifin fluid as a lubricating agent.

b) Then the surface is cleaned with Acetone.

c) Surface is etched with 40% 1 ml HF+ 200-ml water for 125 sec.

d) Etched surface is then dehydrated with methanol.

e) Surface is dried by a flow of cool water.

f) Microstructure is studied using metallurgical microscope with different magnifications.

48
 Chapter-5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The results obtained from the mechanical tests conducted on unmodified, Sodium
modified and Strontium modified test specimens are tabulated in table 4.1. The Ultimate tensile
strength, hardness and impact energy is found to be increased for sodium modified specimen and
further increase in the above said properties is observed for strontium modified specimen.

The reason for improvement in mechanical properties can be attributed to the refinement
of Silicon phase in the Al. matrix. The dendritic structure of Silicon is found to be refined and
thus improves the load barring capacity, resistance against indentation and resistance against
shock loads.

Type UTS N/mm² Brinell hardness Impact Energy

number (BHN)
N-m

Unmodified 61.67 56.28 3

Modified with 1.5%

73.09 61.52 4
by weight of Na

Modified with 1.5%

91.51 67.48 4.1
by weight of Sr

Table 5.1 Results of Mechanical testing

49
5.2 MICROSTRUCTURE STUDY

From the microstructure analysis, it is found that in unmodified cast pieces silicon
appears as large coarse flakes, although some smaller acicular (angular, irregular shaped) silicon
crystals also are found. Figure 4.5 shows the micrograph of unmodified cast pieces. The
micrographs obtained for cast pieces of modified with 1.5% by weight sodium and strontium are
shown in figure 4.6 and figure 4.7 respectively. It was observed that the action of sodium and
strontium modifiers is same. The action of modifier is to restrict the growth of silicon phase,
making the silicon phase grow more isotropically and the interface more planar, changing the
character of the eutectic from the irregular flake morphology to a pseudo regular fibrous
morphology. The modifiers in the present experiment effectively did the above intented purpose.
It is also found that strontium has a greater refining effect comparable with that of sodium..

Figure 5.1 Microstructure of unmodified LM6 alloy (400X Zoom)

50
 Figure 5.2 Microstructure of LM6 alloy with Na modifier (400 X Zoom)

Figure 5.3 Microstructure of LM6 alloy with Sr modifier (400 X Zoom)

5. 3 COOLING CURVES

51
 One of the most widely used methods for the determination of phase boundaries is
thermal analysis. The temperature of a sample is monitored while allowed to cool naturally from
an elevated temperature (usually in the liquid field), using Chromel-Alumel thermocouple. The
shape of the resulting curves of temperature Vs time is called cooling curves.

For Sodium modified and strontium modified casting cooling curves are plotted with the
experimental results. But under cooling is not observed as shown by S.A.Kori et al [17]. This
may be due to the time lapse that takes in between pouring and noting temperatures. There may
be some other reason also like melt temperature control at the time of pouring, and while taking
the molten metal from the furnace into the crucible. The cooling curves for sodium modified and
strontium modified castings are shown in figure 4.5 and figure 4.6 respectively and it is observed
that, the solidification is taking place at a constant temperature. Comparison of experimental
cooling curves with theoretical cooling curve is made in figure 4.7

Microscopic solidification studies, incorporating nucleation kinetics etc are needed for
theoretically getting the under-cooling and also the cooling curves of modified and modified-
vibrated alloy. However present investigation dealt with only some elementary treatment where
macroscopic heat transfer analysis is carried out to get the theoretical cooling curve of LM-6
alloy.

52
 Time (Sec)

Figure 5.4 Cooling curve of LM6 alloy

53
 Time (sec)

Figure 5.5 Cooling curve of Na modified casting

54
 Time (Sec)

Figure 5.6 Cooling curve of strontium modified casting

55
 Time (Sec)

Figure 5.7 comparisons of cooling curves

56
 Chapter-6

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1CONCLUSIONS

From the experiment conducted to study the effect of electrical resistivity, microstructure
and cooling curve analysis it can be concluded that:

1. The experimental cooling curve to analyze the solidification process is found to be

matching with the numerical solution.

2. The cooling curve obtained with experimental temperatures indicate that addition of
modifier effectively moves the eutectic point to a higher silicon concentration and to a
lower temperature when compared to that of unmodified casting.

3. The Mechanical properties of sodium & strontium modified test specimens are found to
be improved. The ultimate tensile strength, hardness and impact energy of modified
castings is increased when compared to unmodified castings.

6.2 SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK.

The present work deals with the experimental study of solidification behavior. In future
one can correlate the results of experimental work with the theoretical prediction of
Solidification behavior by modeling the heat flow and cooling behavior using finite element
method.

In the present work the mechanical properties and the solidification behavior of the
castings is studied for direct poring cast specimens. In future one can extend this work for
different type of gating systems. Other mechanical properties such as machinability, wear
resistance, fatigue strength, fluidity and porosity can be evaluated.

57