1

EC6802
WIRELESS NETWORKS
By
BABU M
Asst Professor
RMKCET
 2

UNIT III
MOBILE TRANSPORT LAYER
Contents 3
 Traditional TCP
 Congestion control
 Slow start
 fast retransmit/fast recovery
 Implications on mobility
 Classical TCP improvements
 Indirect TCP
 Snooping TCP
 Mobile TCP
 Time out freezing
 Selective retransmission
Transport Layer
E.g.HTTP (used by web services)
typically uses TCP
Client Server
 Reliable transport between TCP SYN
client and server required
TCP SYN/ACK Connection
TCP
setup
 Steam oriented, not TCP ACK
transaction oriented
HTTP request
 Network friendly: time-out Data
 congestion HTTP response
 slow down transmission
transmission

Well known – TCP guesses quite >15 s

often wrong in wireless and mobile no data
networks GPRS: 500ms! Connection
 Packet loss due to release
transmission errors
 Packet loss due to change of
network
Result

 Severe performance
Congestion Control 5
 Transport protocols typically designed for
 Fixed end-systems
 Fixed, wired networks
 TCP congestion control
 packet loss in fixed networks typically due
to (temporary) overload situations
 routerhave to discard packets as soon as
the buffers are full
 TCP recognizes congestion only indirect
via missing acknowledgements,
retransmissions unwise, they would only
Slow-start Algorithm 6

 sender calculates a congestion window for

a receiver and start with a congestion
window size equal to one segment

 exponential increase of the congestion

window up to the congestion threshold,
then linear increase

 missing acknowledgement causes the

reduction of the congestion threshold to
 7
Fast Retransmit/Fast Recovery
 TCP sends an acknowledgement only after receiving
a packet

 if a sender receives several acknowledgements for

the same packet, this is due to a gap in received
packets at the receiver

 however, the receiver got all packets up to the gap

and is actually receiving packets

 therefore, packet loss is not due to congestion,

continue with current congestion window (do not use
slow-start)
Implications on mobility 8
 TCP assumes congestion if packets are dropped
 typically wrong in wireless networks, here we often
have packet loss due to transmission errors
 furthermore, mobility itself can cause packet loss, if
e.g. a mobile node roams from one access point
(e.g. foreign agent in Mobile IP) to another while
there are still packets in transit to the wrong access
point and forwarding is not possible
 The performance of an unchanged TCP degrades severely
 however, TCP cannot be changed fundamentally
due to the large base of installation in the fixed
network, TCP for mobility has to remain compatible
 the basic TCP mechanisms keep the whole Internet
together
Indirect TCP 9
 Indirect TCP or I-TCP segments the connection
 no changes to the TCP protocol for hosts connected to the
wired Internet, millions of computers use (variants of) this
protocol
 optimized TCP protocol for mobile hosts
 splitting of the TCP connection at, e.g., the foreign agent
into 2 TCP connections, no real end-to-end connection
any longer
mobile host
 hosts in the fixed part of the
access net do not notice the
point
characteristics of the wireless
(foreign part „wired“ Internet
agent)

„wireless“ TCP standard TCP

I-TCP Socket and State Migration 10

access point1

socket migration
and state transfer Internet

access point2
mobile host
Indirect TCP
11
 Advantages
 no changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes
for the hosts (TCP protocol) necessary, all current
optimizations to TCP still work
 transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate
into the fixed network
 simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop
between, e.g., a foreign agent and mobile host
 therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible,
the short delay on the mobile hop is known
 Disadvantages
 loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a
sender does now not any longer mean that a receiver
really got a packet, foreign agents might crash
 higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the
foreign agent and forwarding to a new foreign agent
Snooping TCP 12
 Transparent extension of TCP within the foreign agent
 buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
 lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be
retransmitted immediately by the mobile host or foreign
agent, respectively (so called “local” retransmission)
 the foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and
recognizes acknowledgements in both directions, it also
filters local
ACKs retransmission correspondent
foreign host
 changes of TCP only within
agent
the foreign agent
„wired“ Internet

snooping of ACKs buffering of data

mobile
host end-to-end TCP connection
Snooping TCP 13
 Data transfer to the mobile host

 FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet

loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out
 fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network
 Data transfer from the mobile host

 FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers,

FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH
 MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay
 Integration of the MAC layer

 MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP

 thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due
to retransmissions and discard them
 Problems

 snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP
 snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes
Mobile TCP 14
 Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections
 M-TCP splits as I-TCP does

 unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host (SH)

 optimized TCP SH to MH
 Supervisory host

 no caching, no retransmission
 monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
 set sender window size to 0
 sender automatically goes into persistent mode

 old or new SH reopen the window

 Advantages

 maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer

forwarding
 Disadvantages

 loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network

 adapted TCP on wireless link
Fast retransmit/fast recovery 15
 Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss
 TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion
 Forced fast retransmit
 as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new
foreign agent, the MH sends duplicated
acknowledgements on purpose
 this forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication
partners
 additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue
sending with the actual window size and not to go into
slow-start after registration
 Advantage
 simple changes result in significant higher performance
 Disadvantage
 further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach
Transmission/time-out freezing 16
 Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time

 no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection

due to overloaded cells or mux. with higher priority traffic
 TCP disconnects after time-out completely
 TCP freezing

 MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance

 MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
 TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link
 MAC layer signals again if reconnected
 Advantage

 scheme is independent of data

 Disadvantage

 TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on

MAC layer
Selective retransmission 17
 TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative
 ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of
packets up to n
 if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet
sequence beginning at the gap has to be retransmitted
(go-back-n), thus wasting bandwidth
 Selective retransmission as one solution
 RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets,
not only acknowledgements of in-sequence packet
streams without gaps
 sender can now retransmit only the missing packets
 Advantage
 much higher efficiency
 Disadvantage
 more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed
at the receiver
Transaction oriented TCP 18
 TCP phases

 connection setup, data transmission, connection release

 using 3-way-handshake needs 3 packets for setup and release,
respectively
 thus, even short messages need a minimum of 7 packets!
 Transaction oriented TCP

 RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this overhead

 connection setup, data transfer and connection release can be
combined
 thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed
 Advantage

 efficiency
 Disadvantage

 requires changed TCP

 mobility not longer transparent
Comparison Of Different
Approaches
Approach
Indirect TCP
Mechanism
splits TCP connection
Advantages
isolation of wireless
Disadvantages
loss of TCP semantics,
into two connections link, simple higher latency at
handover
Snooping TCP “snoops” data and transparent for end-to- problematic with
acknowledgements, local end connection, MAC encryption, bad isolation
retransmission integration possible of wireless link
M-TCP splits TCP connection, Maintains end-to-end Bad isolation of wireless
chokes sender via semantics, handles link, processing
window size long term and frequent overhead due to
disconnections bandwidth management
Fast retransmit/ avoids slow-start after simple and efficient mixed layers, not
fast recovery roaming transparent
Transmission/ freezes TCP state at independent of content changes in TCP
time-out freezing disconnect, resumes or encryption, works for required, MAC
after reconnection longer interrupts dependant
Selective retransmit only lost data very efficient slightly more complex
retransmission receiver software, more
buffer needed
Transaction combine connection Efficient for certain changes in TCP
oriented TCP setup/release and data applications required, not transparent
transmission
TCP Improvements I 20
0.93 * MSS
 Initial research work BW 
RTT * p
 Indirect
TCP, Snoop TCP, M-TCP, T/TCP,
• max. TCP BandWidth
SACK, Transmission/time-out freezing, … • Max. Segment Size
• Round Trip Time
 TCP over 2.5/3G wireless networks • loss probability
 Finetuning today’s TCP
 Learn to live with
 Data rates: 64 kbit/s up, 115-384 kbit/s down; asymmetry: 3-6, but also up to 1000
(broadcast systems), periodic allocation/release of channels
 High latency, high jitter, packet loss

 Suggestions
 Large (initial) sending windows, large maximum transfer unit, selective
acknowledgement, explicit congestion notification, time stamp, no header
compression

 Already in use
 i-mode running over FOMA
 WAP 2.0 (“TCP with wireless profile”)
TCP Improvements II 21
Mobile system
 Performance enhancing proxies (PEP, RFC 3135)
 Transport layer wireless
 Local retransmissions and acknowledgements

 Additionally on the application layer PEP

 Content filtering, compression, picture downscaling
 E.g., Internet/WAP gateways
 Web service gateways?

 Big problem: breaks end-to-end semantics

 Disables use of IP security
Internet
 Choose between PEP and security!

 More open issues

 RFC 3150 (slow links)
 Recommends header compression, no timestamp
Comm. partner
 RFC 3155 (links with errors)
 States that explicit congestion notification cannot be used

 In contrast to 2.5G/3G recommendations!

 UNIT-V
4G NETWORKS
 SYLABUS
Introduction To 4G Networks
4G Vision
4G Features And Challenges
Benefits
Applications Of 4G

4G Technologies
Multicarrier Modulation
Smart Antenna Techniques
OFDM - MIMO Systems
Adaptive Modulation And Coding With Time Slot
Scheduler
Cognitive Radio
Evolution of 4G
Introduction to 4G Networks
 Future technology – Mobile and Wireless communications.
 It is a heterogeneous network
 Expectation of 4G:
 Top quality audio /video over finish to finish net protocol
 Technology moving towards
26
4G
Mobility
1995 2000 2005 2010+

High speed
4G
3G LTE

3G
(IMT2000)
Mobile
Medium
CDMA/GSM/TDMA WiMAX
speed (WiBRO)
2G
(Digital)
CDMA/GSM/TDMA
High Speed
1G WPAN
WLAN
(Analog)
5 GHz
Low speed WLAN
2.4 GHz
WLAN
Bluetooth Data Rates

~14.4 kbps 144 kbps 384 kbps <50 Mbps <100 Mbps
 Mobility 27

High speed

Medium
speed
3thGeneration 4th Generation
(IMT-2000)
2G
2.5G
(2001) (2007-2010)
Walking/ 2G
Local area

Standing/
Indoor Data Rates
0.1 1 10 100
Generation Timeline
Why 3G to 4G?

 3G - concentrate in standards & hardware implementation.

 4G
-encompass all networks
- interoperable with 2G,3G and other service.
- provides seamless integration of various technologies.

- IP based heterogeneous network.(IPv6

Core)
- OFDM used instead of CDMA
4G Fourth generation Mobile
Communications
Wireless World Research Forum defines 4G as:

-A network that operates on Internet technology, combines it with

other applications and technologies such as Wi-Fi, and runs at
speeds ranging from 100 Mbps (in cell-phone networks-Outdoor)
to 1 Gbps(in local Wi-Fi networks-Indoor).
4G -Objective
 4G is being developed to accommodate the Quality
of Service (QOS) and rate requirements set by forth
coming applications like
1. MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service).
2. Wireless Broadband Service.
3. Video Chat.
4. Mobile TV.
5. Digital Video Broadcasting.
6. High Network Capacity.
7. Data Rate of 100 Mbps for mobile and 1 Gbps while
stationary .
8. Smooth handoff across heterogeneous network..
9. Seamless Connectivity and Global Roaming across
multiple networks.
4G Vision
 Providing new service with high quality voice,high
definition video with high data rate
 4G is defined as MAGIC
 MAGIC – Mobile multimedia, Anytime anywhere, Global
mobility support, Integrated wireless solution and Customized
Personal services
Seamless Connection

 4G is IP based - Various network using IP as a Common Protocol

 "Seamless" and "wireless," when put together, represent a
technology of wireless Internet that hands you off to another
network without interruption so you may continue your activities
online without even noticing that you connected into another
network. Another name for it is "seamless roaming."
4G Systems
High data rate
Broad BW
Smoother
handoff
Features of 4G
 Autonomous Networks
 Software Independence
 Fully coated service(Entirely packet – switched
network).
 Scalability
 Interoperability and simple roaming
 Support for multimedia services like
teleconferencing and wireless internet
 Wider band width and higher bitrates
 Global mobility and service portability
 High internet speed
 Tight network security
Benefits

ofof4G
a) Convergence cellular mobile networks and WLANs
Benefits for Operators:
 Higher bandwidths.
 Lower cost of networks and equipment.
 The use of license-exempt spectrum.
 Higher capacity and QoS enhancement.
Benefits for Users:
 Access to broadband multimedia
services with lower cost and where
mostly needed.
 Inter-network roaming.
 b) Convergence of mobile communications and broadcasting
From broadcaster point of view
From the cellular mobile operator point of view:

 c) Convergence benefits
Challenges

of 4G
Various categories of Challenges
Based on Mobile Station
Based on System
Based on Service
 Mobile Station Challenges
Multimedia User terminals
Discovery of Wireless System
Selection of Wireless System
Incompatible roaming Frequencies
 System Challenges
Terminal Mobility
QOS support and Network Infrastructure
Privacy and Security issues
Fault Tolerance and Survivability
 Service Challenges
Service and Charge
Personal Mobility
Meeting Consumer Expectation
Applications of 4G
The applications of 4G are called “KILLER APPLICATIONs” as it is going to bring
to revolution in the internet world.

Virtual Presence – User service at all times

Virtual Navigation -User can access a database of the streets and

buildings

Tele-Geoprocessing Applications – GIS + GPS

(Geographical Information System) + (Global Positioning System)

Tele-Medicine and Education –Support remote health Monitoring of

patients and Education in online

Gaming – High Speed Multi user gaming

Cloud Computing – Safe and Secure

Crisis Management – restore crisis issues in a few hours

Telecom Companies Developing 4G

 NTT DoCoMo (JAPAN)

 DIGIWEB (IRELAND)

 SPRINT (CHICAGO)

 VERIZON WIRELESS

 VODAFONE GROUP

 AMERICAN WIRELESS PROVIDER CLEARWIRE ETC..

KEY 4G TECHNOLOGIES
 Multi carrier Modulation (MCM)
 Smart Antenna techniques
 OFDM-MIMO Systems
 Adaptive modulation and Coding
with Time slot Scheduler
 Cognitive Radio
 UWB(Ultra Wide Band)
 Software defined radio
Multicarrier Modulation(MCM)
 It is a derivative of FDM

 MCM derivative:

Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting (DAB/DVB)

Digital Subscriber Loop Modems (DSL)

 Principle
A transmitted bit stream is divided into many different sub
streams, which are sent in parallel over many sub channels.

Sub channels are typically orthogonal

MCM efficiently implemented digitally using the FFT(OFDM)

MCM transmitter
MCM Receiver

An example
Consider a MC system with a total passband bandwidth of 1 MHz.
Suppose the channel delay-spread is Tm = 20µs. How many
subchannels are needed to obtain approximately flat fading in each
subchannel?
The channel coherence bandwidth is
Bc = 1/Tm = 1/0.00002 = 50 KHz
To ensure flat fading on each subchannel, we take
BN = B/N = 0.1 x Bc
Hence,
N = B/(0.1 x Bc) = 1000000/5000 = 200 subcarriers.
 MC Modulated Signal

 2 types of MCM for 4G

MC-CDMA – QPSK
modulation
OFDM with TDMA – QAM
modulation
Fading Mitigation Techniques in MCM
MCM
Advantages
 The data rate on each of the subcarriers is much lower than the
total data rate
 Subchannels experience flat fading.
 Small ISI in each subchannel
 Avoidance of single frequency interference

MCM Drawbacks
 Increase PAPR.
 To overcome ISI, a cyclic extension (Guard
bit) is to be added
 DAB/DVB (Europe)
 WLAN –IEEE 802.11a,g,n,ac,ad etc…
 Fixed wireless broadband services
 Mobile wireless broadband communications
 UWB Communication
 Smart Antenna Techniques

 A smart antenna is a multi-element antenna where the signals received

at each antenna element are intelligently combined to improve the
performance of the wireless system.
 Technologies Combined to design smart antenna systems

 Antenna design
 Signal processing
 Hardware implementation
• Smart Antenna
51

Beam radio signals directly at a users to follow the

users as they move.

•Allow the same radio frequency to be used for

other users without worry of interference.

•Seamless handoff between towers/access points.

•One transmit antenna, two receive antennas.

–Allows connection to two access points at once.
 Smart Antenna
Past
Space Division 52
Multiple Access
(SDMA)

Now

Past
Now

Same time
and frequency

Beam
Tracking

Smart Antenna
Technology
Benefits

 Reduction in Co channel Interfernce

 Range improvement
 Increase in Capacity
 Reduction in transmitted power
 Reduction in Handoff
Smart Antenna Technique- MIMO

 MIMO supports multiple independent channel in the same BW,

Provided multipath environment.

 Single-Input, Single Output (SISO)

 Single-Input, Multiple Output (SIMO)
 Multiple –Input, Single Output (MISO)
 Multiple -Input, Multiple Output(MIMO)
Transmission
Smart antenna Strategy
Level of Intelligence
Switched Lobe – Switching function between separate
directive antennas
Dynamically phased array (PA)–DOA algorithm is
included
Adaptive array - DOA is used to determine
interference sources
Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation (OFDM)
59
Basic idea:
Using a large number of parallel narrow-band subcarriers instead of a
single wide-band carrier to transport information.

 Advantages:
-Very easy and efficient in dealing with multi-path.
-Robust again narrow-band interference
MIMO -OFDM
 Enhancement in data rate and spectral efficiency.
 Both schemes are indeed parallel transmission
technologies (Space & Frequency Domain).
 MIMO -OFDM helps to achieve
Diversity
High gain
 Implementation is based on
FFT/IFFT algorithm
MIMO Encoding
MIMO-OFDM

c11  c1T
OFDM OFDM
MOD 1 1 DEMOD


S Coding Decoding S

••••

••••
c1M t  c TM t
OFDM OFDM
MOD DEMOD
Mt Mr

T: Number of OFDM symbols

N: Number of subcarriers
Mt: Number of Tx
Mr: Number of Rx
 Adaptive Modulation and Coding
with Time Slot Scheduler
 Time Slot Scheduler:
 To share the spectrum efficiency between the users by satisfying QoS
requirements

 FCC defined
A radio that is “aware of its
surroundings and adapts
intelligently”
 Cognitive Radio* is Built on SDR*
 Cognitive Radio Means “Smart” and “Alert”

Adaptive Radio
Functions
 Spectrum Sensing Cognitive
 Spectrum Management Radio
 Spectrum Mobility
 Spectrum Sharing D
Intelligent
radio
Cognitive Architecture
Benefits
 Optimal Diversity
 Spectral Efficiency
 Improved QoS
 Benefits to the Service provider
 Benefits to the Regulator

 Emergency Radio System

 Covert Military radio
 Multi technology Phone
 Mobile video services
 Open Air events
 Extending mobile networks
Software defined ratio(SDR)
 A software defined radio is one that can be configured to any
radio or frequency standard through the use of software.

 The phone should automatically switch from operating on a

CDMA frequency to a TDMA frequency whenever it is required.

 Roaming can be an issue with different standards, but with a

software defined radio, users can just download the interface
upon entering new territory, or the software could just
download automatically.
 G4 67
 Earth's population stands at around 6.6 billion.
 The Internet has a population of just 1.3 billion.

22%

 IPv6 uses 128 bits for IPv6 addresses which allows for 340 billion billion
billion billion (3.4x1038) unique addresses.
4G Phones

T3’s 3D GOGGLE
PHONE

SAMSUNG

NOKIA’s WRISTBAND
PHONE
 FUTURE OF 4G:5G
 The idea of WWWW, World Wide Wireless Web, is started
from 4G technologies. The following evolution will based on 4G
and completed its idea to form a Real wireless world.
 Thus, 5G should make an important difference and add more
services and benefit to the world over 4G. 5G should be a
more intelligent technology that interconnects the entire world
without limits.