Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual

FLUID MECHANICS
LAB MANUAL
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

FAST-NU, LAHORE
Lab Manual of Fluid Mechanics
Created by: Mr. Syed Karar Hussain
Date: August, 2012
Last Updated by: Ms. Sana Iftikhar
Date: July, 2015
Approved by the HoD: Dr. Shahid Ali
Date: July, 2015
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Table of Contents
Sr. No. Description Page No.
1 List of Equipment 4
2 Experiment No. 1, Layout of the Fluid Mechanics Lab. 5
Experiment No. 2, To determine the metacentric height of a floating body

3 12
and to locate center of buoyancy, metacenter and center of gravity.
Experiment No. 3, To determine the hydrostatic force on a submerged plane
4 21
and locate the position of center of pressure.
Experiment No. 4, To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli’s equation
5 27
when applied to a steady flow of water in a tapered duct.
Experiment No. 5, To determine the co-efficient of discharge of the
6 30
horizontal Venturi-meter.
Experiment No. 6, To determine the co-efficient of discharge of triangular
7 33
notches (v-notch).
Experiment No. 7, To determine co-efficient of contraction, co-efficient of
8 37
velocity and co-efficient of an orifice and calibrate it.
9 Experiment No. 8, Visualization of Vortex flow. 40
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List of Equipment
Sr. No. Description
1 Stability of Floating Body Apparatus
2 Center of Pressure Apparatus
3 Venturimeter
4 Volumetric Hydraulic Bench
5 Fluid Friction Apparatus
6 V-Notches
7 Orifice & Jet Apparatus
8 Vortex Flow Apparatus
9 Hydraulic Bench
10 Rectangular Notch
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EXPERIMENT # 1
Layout of the Fluid Mechanics Lab
Objective
This job is planned to introduce the students with the lab equipment of one of the basic
Civil engineering field, Fluid Mechanics. The students will be given a brief introduction about the
purpose, functionality, importance and working of the instruments.
Apparatus
 Equipment’s pertaining to pipes

 Equipment’s pertaining to channels
 Miscellaneous Apparatus
Theory
1. Equipment’s pertaining to channels:

CHANNEL:
Passage for fluid flow in which fluid flows under gravity and has direct contact with air.
 Notch
 Hook Gauge
 Pitot tube
2. Equipment’s pertaining to Pipes:

PIPE:
Passage for fluid flow in which flow takes place under pressure & surface of liquid don’t have direct
contact with air.
 Orifice meter
 Manometer
(a) Simple Manometer
(b) Differential Manometer
 Venturimeter
 Gate Valve
 Piezometer
 Pitot Static Tube
Miscellaneous Apparatus:
1. 5 Meter flow channel (testing flume)
2. Fluid Friction Apparatus
3. Water Hammer Apparatus
4. Orifice free jet flow Apparatus
5. Reynold’s number and transitional flow Apparatus
6. Pelton Turbine
7. Francis Turbine
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8. Impact of Jet apparatus

9. Volumetric Hydraulic bench
10. Center of Pressure Apparatus
11. Pressure measurement Apparatus
12. Stability of a floating body Apparatus
13. Centrifugal pump test Apparatus
14. Positive displacement pump module Apparatus
15. Vortex Apparatus
16. Set of Weirs
Instructions
 The students will make a detailed layout of the lab according to the dimensions. Show
the placement of the instruments on the layout and number them. Layout prepared on
AutoCAD will be highly appreciated.
 The students will be instructed about the purpose and functionality of the lab
Equipment and based upon the instructions, the students will write about the instruments in
given below space according to their understanding. Any extra information about the
instrument mentioned in the job report will be highly appreciated.
 Students are advised to attach the pictures of all the instruments and equipment which
they will see during their visit. Use separate sheets and attach the pictures on the sheets
with proper captions.
Description of the Equipment

o 5 Meter flow channel (testing flume)
o Fluid Friction Apparatus
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o Water Hammer Apparatus
o Orifice free jet flow Apparatus
o Reynold’s Number and Transitional flow Apparatus
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o Pelton Turbine
o Francis Turbine
o Impact of Jet apparatus
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o Volumetric Hydraulic bench
o Center of Pressure Apparatus
o Stability of a floating body Apparatus
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o Venturi-meter Apparatus
o Centrifugal pump test Apparatus
o Positive displacement pump module Apparatus
o Vortex Apparatus
o Hook Gauge
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o Pitot tube
o Set of Weirs
o Set of Notches
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EXPERIMENT # 2
To Determine the Metacentric Height of a floating body and to locate Center of Buoyancy,
Metacenter and Center of Gravity
Objective
The question of the stability of a body, such as a ship, which floats in the surface of a liquid, is one of
obvious importance. Whether the equilibrium is stable, neutral or unstable is determined by
the height of its gravity, and in this experiment the stability of a pontoon may be determined
with its center of gravity at various heights. A comparison with calculated stability may also
be made.
Apparatus
Metacentric Height Apparatus
 Ship Model
 Water Tank
 Plumb Bob
 Adjustable weight, consisting of two machined cylinders
 Two Magnetic Weights
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Theory
Buoyancy
It is the tendency of a fluid to lift up the submerged body
 Force of Buoyancy
It is the resultant upward force or thrust exerted by any fluid on a submerged body
 Archimedes Principle
Archimedes' principle (or Archimedes’ principle) is a law of physics stating that the upward
buoyant force exerted on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid the body displaces.
In other words, an immersed object is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it actually
displaces. Archimedes' principle is an important and underlying concept in the field of fluid mechanics.
This principle is named after its discoverer, Archimedes of Syracuse. Mathematically the principle can be
written as
FB = Weight of the volume of the liquid displaced by the immersed body
 Center of Buoyancy
Center of buoyancy can be defined as the point where the force of buoyancy FB acts.it is basically
the center of area of the immersed section. For easy understanding, it can also be called as the center of
gravity of the volume of liquid displaced by the body.
 Metacenter
Metacenter is the center of rotation of a floating body. It is point of intersection of the floating
body. The position of the metacenter determines the stability of a floating body. For the stability of a
floating body, the metacenter should always be above the center of gravity.
 Inter Relationship of Weight, buoyancy and stability of a floating body
(a) (b) (c)

When designing a vessel, such as ship, which is to float on water, it is clearly necessary to be able to
establish beforehand that it will float upright in stable equilibrium.
When designing a vessel, such as ship, which is to float on water, it is clearly necessary to be able to
establish beforehand that it will float upright in stable equilibrium.
the above figure shows such a floating body which is in equilibrium under the action of two equal and
opposite forces, Namely its Weight acting vertically downward through its center of gravity and buoyancy
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force of equal magnitude W acting vertically upward at the Center of Buoyancy. This center of buoyancy
is located at the center of fluid displaced by the vessel (ship).when in equilibrium, the points G and B lie
in the same vertical line at first sight, it may appear that condition for stable equilibrium would be
that G should lie below B. However, it is not the correct concept.
To establish the true condition for stability consider a small angular displacement from the equilibrium
position As shown in fog (b) and (c).As the vessel tilts ,the center of buoyancy moves sideways ,remaining
always at the center of gravity of the displaced liquid .If the weight and buoyancy forces together produce
a couple which acts to restore the vessel to its initial position as shown in (b),The equilibrium is stable
.In this case the meta center of the floating vessel is above the center of gravity.
If however, the vessel couple acts to move the vessel even further away from its initial
position
As shown in figure(c), the equilibrium is unstable. The position of metacenter in this case is below the
center of gravity of the floating body.
 Metacentric Height
It is the measure of stability of a floating body. It is basically the distance between the center of
gravity and the metacenter. Some of the important facts about metacentric height
are as follows,
 If the meta centric height is large (Metacenter is located far above the Center of
Gravity), the restoring torque will be more.
 Metacentric Height is inversely proportional to the time period of rotation
 It the capacity of the restoring torque is very much more than the capacity of the disturbing
torque, then a jerk will be created when the body tries to restore its initial position. This
jerk is not comfortable for the passengers because the jerk will disturb the smooth journey
of the passengers. To avoid the jerk, the metacentric height should not be very large.it
should be sufficient enough to stabilize the body.
 Calculation of Metacentric Height

Metacentric Height is calculated by
Metacentric Height =( W°°ͦ/ W) (x/tanӨ)………eq1
Wo= Jockey Weight (Small moveable Weight)

= Angle between the symmetrical axis and the vertical (Angle of Rotation) W =
Weight of Volume of the liquid displaced by the body
X= Displacement of Jockey
 Metacentric Radius
Metacentric Radius BM which is the distance between the metacenter and the center of
buoyancy.
BM= I ⁄V --------------------eq2
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V=Volume of liquid displaced by body
nd
I=2 moment of area = moment of inertia about longitudinal axis =
 Experimental Procedure For the Marking of Center of Gravity:
The total mass of the apparatus (including the two magnetic weights and the adjustable weight
(‘Ѡ’) is stamped on a label affixed to the sail housing. The total mass (m) is the sum of all the mass
values. The weight (W) of the pontoon = m x g
Where g = Acceleration due to gravity
The height of the center of gravity may be found as follows

 Fit the two magnetic weights to the base of the model
 Fit the thick knotted cord, with the plumb weight, through the hole in the sail,
ensuring the plumb weight is free to hang down on the side of the sail which has the scored
center line.
 Clamp the adjustable weight into the V-slot on the center line of the lowest row and suspend
the pontoon from the free end of the thick cord. Mark the point where the plumb line crosses the
sail center line with typists’ correcting fluid or a similar marking fluid.
 Repeat paragraph (iii) for the other four rows.
With the adjustable weight situated in the center of one of the rows, allow the pontoon to float in water
and position the two magnetic weights on the base of the pontoon to trim the vessel. When the vessel
has been trimmed correctly, the adjustable weight may be moved to positions either side of the centre
line for each of the five rows. At each position the displacement can be determined by the angle the
plumb line from the top of the sail makes with the scale on the sail housing.
 Procedure for finding Metacentric Height

 Bring the Jockey Weight at 0 and balance the plumb line
 Give the displacement to the adjustable weight in one direction and note down the
angle of rotation of the plumb bob(Ѳ)
 Repeat the same procedure for different displacement of the movable weight in both
directions.
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 Measure the dimensions of the ship

 Use the observations to calculate the metacentric height, metacentric radius, location
of center of buoyancy, Metacenter and Center of Gravity.
Results and Calculations

Analytical Determination of Metacentric Height and
Metacentric Radius
Standard dimensions for the model
Total weight of floating assembly (W) = kg
Adjustable weight () = kg
Breadth of pontoon (D) = mm
Length of pontoon (L) = mm
Second moment of area I= m4
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Volume of water displaced V= m3
Height of metacenter above center of buoyancy BM = m
Depth of immersion of pontoon = m Depth of
center of buoyancy CB = m
It is suggested that above mentioned Figure is marked up to be referred to each time the
apparatus is used. Note that when measuring the heights y and y1, as it is only convenient to
measure from the inside floor of the pontoon, the thickness of the sheet metal bottom should be
added to y and y1 measurements. The position of G (and hence the value the value of y )
and a corresponding value of y was marked earlier in the experiment when the assembly was
balanced.
The Height of y and G above the base will vary with the height y of the adjustable weight
above the base, according to the equation:
y=y1 ------------ (iii)
where A is a constant which pertains to the center of gravity of the pontoon and the
height of the adjustable weight.
Using one set of results for the center of gravity of the pontoon and the height of the adjustable
weight, then y and y1 can be measured and the constant A calculated. This can then be used in
calculations for subsequent heights of y and y1 which can be checked against the markings
made earlier
Values of angles of list produced by lateral movement of the adjustable weight height y 1
should be recorded in the form of table 1
Note: Decide which side of the sail center line is to be termed negative and then term list
angles on that side negative
With the jockey Weight placed at the uppermost slot of the sail, the following
measurements were made.
Height of jockey weight above O (y1) = 345
mm
Corresponding height of G above O = (OG) = 92mm
The value of OG may now be determined for any other value of y 1. If y1 changes by
Δy1,then this will produce a change in OG of Wj . Δy1/W. The vertical separation of the
slots in the sail is 60 mm.
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so OG will change in steps of (Jockey Weight×60)/ ( Total Weight of the sail)

Now, for finding out height of center of gravity from the base of pontoon(OG) at any position of
adjustable weight, The values can be put into equation 3 and OG can be found out.
Our motive is to find out the metacentric height so just doing some basic calculations, GM can be
found out.
BG=OG-OB or GM= BM-BG
Y1(mm) OG(mm) BM(mm) BG(mm) GM(mm)
105
165
225
285
325 92
Experimental Determination of Metacentric Height
Height of adjustable Angles of list for adjustable weight lateral

weight y1 mm displacement from sail center line x1 mm
(i) (ii)
(mm) -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75
105
165
225
285
345
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Lateral position of
Weight x (mm)
Relationship between Angle of list (Ө)

And lateral position of weight(x)
From the above given graph, for the five values of y and the corresponding values of dx1/dѲ can
be extracted. Using Equation 1 values of GM can be obtained. Using Equation 3 and knowing the
immersion depth, values of OG can be derived. Also, since BM = BG + GM, values of BM can be
calculated. The above values should be calculated and arranged in tabular form as show in Table 2.
Height of G
Height of above
adjustable pontoon Metacentric Metacentric
dx1/dѲ % age % age
Weight y1 surface Height GM Radius BM difference difference
(mm) OG(mm) (mm/rad) (mm) (mm) of BM of BM
105
165
225
285
345
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 Comments:
EXPERIMENT # 3
To determine the hydrostatic force on a submerged plane and locate the position of center of
pressure
Objective
Submerged surfaces are found in many engineering applications. Dams, weirs and water gates are familiar
examples of submerged surfaces used to control the flow of water. From the design viewpoint, it is
important to have a working knowledge of the forces that act on submerged surfaces.
Apparatus
1. Center of pressure apparatus

 Water container
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 Quarter toroid
 Leveling screws and bubble(for checking level)
2. Set of Weights
3. Water Dye
Theory
Hydrostatic Force
It is the resultant force of pressure on any side of a submerged plane exerted by the fluid at rest.
 Center of pressure
It is the point on a submerged plane at which the hydrostatic force is acting.
 Depth of Center of pressure
It is the distance between center of pressure and the surface of the liquid.
 Depth of Center of Area
It is the distance of center of submerged area from the surface of liquid.
The relationship of pressure with the height is given as
P=Ƴh
The pressure at the surface of the fluid is zero and it increases linearly as we move down i.e. in the
depth of the liquid
As we know that P=F/A, thus, by rearranging the equation for hydrostatic force
determination
F=PA
Putting the values in the equation, the above equation becomes
F= Ƴh(h/2)b
F= ƳhcA
General expression for finding out the depth of center of pressure is as follows
hp= hc + -------------(i)
Where
Ic = Second moment of submerged area about horizontal axis
A = Submerged Area
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As A= bd and hc = h/2 and Ic =b /12

So, the equation (i) becomes
hp= hc +b x2/12(bh)(h) = h/2 +h/6 =2h/3
This relationship is valid only when the water surface is below the top level of the submerged plane.
Otherwise, the relationship will not be used.
 Experimental and Theoretical derivation of the hydrostatic force
R3
 Case 1:The body is partially submerged in the fluid(d1≤d)

Consider the above figure in which the partially submerged condition of a body is established in the
center of pressure apparatus.
R1= Inner radius of semi-circle
R2= Outer radius of semi-circle
R3= Moment arm hanging weights
The moment produced due to the hanging weights will be R3 x W
We know that
hp= hc +b x2/12(bh)(h) = h/2 +h/6 =2h/3
 Theoretical Hydrostatic force = Fth= ƳhcA

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=ϒ(d1/2)(bd1)
Ft=(ϒb )/2
 Experimental Hydrostatic force

Moment due to hanging weights = Moment due to water in the toroid
R3 × W = Fexp(R2 - d1 + hp)
Fexp=R3 x W/(R2 – d1 + hp)
 Case 2 : The body is fully submerged in fluid(d1>d)

We know that
hp= hc + Ic/Ahc
in this case : hc= d1 – d/2
As A= bd
Ic= b /12
hp= (d1 – d/2) + b x 2/12(bd)(d1 – d/2)
hp=(d1 – d/2) + /12(d1 – d/2)
 Theoretical Hydrostatic force
Fth= ƳhcA
=Ƴ( d1 - d/2)(bd)
 Experimental hydrostatic force

W x R3 = Fexp(r2 – d1+hp)
Fexp = W x R3/(r2-d1+hp)
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 Experimental Procedure:
1) Level the apparatus using foot screws at the bottom.
2) Hook one(empty) weight hanger to the support and add water to the trim tank until the tank is level
and the submerged plane is therefore vertical. The horizontal line on the back of the tank should line
up with 0 mm line of the back panel. The empty weight hanger is a trim weight of 10 g so there is no
need required to record the trim weight or the amount of water in the trim tank, as they are simply
to balance the empty tank at 0 degrees.
3) Add the second weight hanger with some amount of weight (w), giving a total weight
(w+10 g). the weight hanger is 10 g
4) Pour the colored water into the quadrant tank till it returns to the 0 degree. Note the weight and
height of the water in the quadrant tank.
5) Now, increase the weight in the weight hangers and again pour the water in quadrant tank to level the
0 degree line.
6) Repeat the experiment with the fully submerged plane and record readings.
 Observations and Calculations

Inner Radius = R1 = mm Outer Radius = R2 = mm
Moment arm of Weights= R3 = mm
Width of the Tank = b= mm Depth of Submerged plane=d= mm
o
Temperature = T C =
3 o 3
ÞH2O at T C = Kg/m Ƴ=Þg = N/m
 Case 1: ( d1≤ d)
Weight Hydrostatic
Mass added Force
Added in %
No. of in pan d1 hc hp
pan Difference
Observations W=mg
Fth Fexp
Gm Kg N mm M m m N N %
1
2
3
4
5
Page | 24
 Case 2: ( d1>d):
Weight
Mass Hydrostatic
added %
No. of Added in pan d1 hc hp Force
Difference
Observations in pan W=mg
Fth Fexp
gm kg N mm M m M N N %
1
2
3
4
5
 Comments:
Page | 25
Page | 26
EXPERIMENT # 4
To Investigate the Validity of the Bernoulli’s Equation when applied to a steady flow of water in
a tapered duct
Objective
The objective of performing this experiment is to verify the Bernoulli’s Equation for fluid flow. But in
Bernoulli’s equation, Ideal conditions have been assumed. This experiment can also lead to find the loss of
energy in real fluids.
Apparatus
 Venturi Meter
 Hydraulic Bench
 Stop Watch
Theory
Bernoulli’s Theorem
It states that ”For a perfectly in-compressible frictionless fluid, the sum of all the heads of a fluid i.e.
pressure head, kinetic head and elevation head, moving in a continuous stream always remains
constant”.
Mathematically it can be written as
p/ρg + /2g +Z= Constant
where
p/ρg = pressure head
/2g= velocity head
Z = Elevation head
 Energy Equation
Energy Equation is derived from Bernoulli’s Equation and Euler Equation of motion. This
Equation also accounts for the total head loss during the fluid flow.
Page | 27
 Head
It is defined as energy per unit weight.
Head= Energy/Weight
Types of Head
 Velocity Head
It is defined as the kinetic energy per unit weight.
Velocity Head=K.E/mg = m /2mg = /2g
 Elevation Head
It is defined as the potential energy per unit weight.
Elevation Head = mgh/mg = h

 Pressure Head
Pressure head = ρ/ϒ =p/ρg

 Static and total Head
The sum of Elevation head and pressure head is termed as the static head
Static Head= p/ρg+ Z
Total Head is the sum of Elevation head, velocity head and pressure head.
 Experimental Procedure
1) Measure the diameter of the pipe if not known.
2) Measure rate of flow (discharge) using hydraulic bench. This can be done by opening the valve of
the hydraulic bench and measuring a known volume of water in the storage tank of the bench( the
reading of the volume can be read from the scale mentioned on the bench).Stop watch can be used
to measure the time taken to fill the empty container. Then simple relationship can be used to find
out the discharge
Q= V/t
3) Attach the inlet pipe of the hydraulic bench with the inlet of the bench. The water will flow
from the venture meter and the level of water will increase in the mano- metric tubes.
4) Read the readings of pressure head from the scale engraved on the back panel of the
venturi meter.
Page | 28
 Observations and Calculations
Volume of Water = V = Liters
Time taken by water to fill the container = t = Sec

Velocity
Static
No. of Tapping Diameter Area Discharge Velocity head Total
Time Head
Observation Position (D) (A) Q=V/t V=Q/A head
P/
2 3
mm mm (sec) mm /s mm/s Mm mm Mm
1 A
2 B
3 C
4 D
5 E
6 F
7 G
8 H
9 J
10 K
11 L
 Comments:
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EXPERIMENT # 5
To determine the Co-efficient of discharge of the horizontal venture-meter
Objective
 This experiment is designed to find a relationship between theoretical discharge and actual discharge
from a convergent-divergent section of pipe(Venture meter)
Apparatus
 Fluid Friction apparatus

 Venture Meter
 Piezometer
 Hydraulic Bench
 Stop watch
Theory
Venturi-meter
Venturi-meter is a device which is named after an Italian scientist venture. It is a device used to measure
discharge. It is also used for converting pressure head into velocity head and
vice versa
 Venture-meter has following types:

Horizontal Venture-meter
 Vertical Venture-meter
 Inclined Venture-meter
 Piezometer
It is used to measure pressure in pipe. It is used to measure comparatively high pressure and negative
pressure also
 Co-efficient of Discharge:
It is the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge
Cd = Qact/Qtheo
 Fluid Friction Apparatus
The fluid friction apparatus is designed to allow a detailed study of pressure drop as a result of fluid
friction, when an incompressible fluid flows through pipes, fittings, and flow metering devices.
Friction head losses in straight pipes of different sizes can be investigated with a wide range of Reynolds
Page | 30
number, covering laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow regimes. An artificially roughened tube is also
incorporated into the apparatus to demonstrate the departure from typical smooth bore pipe characteristics.
 Theoretical determination of discharge

According to the Bernoulli’s Equation,
As the pipe is horizontal so it can assumed that Z1 =Z2

P1/ρg + /2g = p2/ρg + /2g
Rearranging the above mentioned Equation
P1/ρg - p2/ρg = /2g - /2g
So, it can be easily concluded that
/2g - /2g = h(pressure head difference)
- = 2gh ………… (i)

According to the equation of continuity
A1v1 = A2v2
V1 = A2v2/A1 ………………………….. (ii)
- = 2gh
= 2gh x /( - )
V2=A1/ x ………………………… (iii)

As Qth = A2v2
V2=Qth/A2……………………….(iv)
Putting the value of (iv) in (iii)
=Qth/A2= A1/ x
Here
= A1 x A2/ x = constant
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Let this constant = k

Thus Qth = k
Where H = difference in the heights of water in the piezo-metric tubes.
 Units of K
2.5
The units of this constant are m /sec.
 Experimental procedure
1) Find the actual discharge Q act with the help of hydraulic bench and stop watch
2) Attach the hydraulic bench with the fluid friction apparatus and open the valve which will
lead the water to the venture meter. Close all the other valves
3) Attach the piezometer with the respective slots on the fluid friction apparatus and find the
difference in pressure from the reading obtained from the piezometer
4) Find K anf Q theo..
5) Repeat the same experiment with the other values of discharges and find C d.
Observations and Calculations

Diameter at the convergent section = d1
Diameter at the divergent section = d2
Area of the venturi meter at the convergent section= A 1
Area of the venturi meter at the divergent section= A2 =
 Analytical Approach
height height
of of
water water Time Qact
Qth=
No of in the in H=(H1 K Volume taken( =
K√H Cd=Qact/Q
observatio first second - of water T) V/T
th
ns tube(H tube(H H2)/10 collected(
1) 2) 00 V)
m2.5/se m3/se m3/se
(mm) (mm) (m) c. c litres sec c
1
2
3
4
Page | 32
 Graphical Approach
 Plot a graph between Q act and Q theo , Q act should be plotted on y-axis and Q
theo should be plotted on x axis.
 Draw a trend line from the plotted points.
 Find out the slope of the trend line. This slope will give us the co-efficient of discharge.
 Comments
EXPERIMENT # 6
To determine the Co-efficient of discharge of Triangular Notches (V Notch)
Objective
In Hydraulic Engineering, weirs are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers and other open
c h a n n e l s . Where the relationship between the water level upstream of the weir and the
discharge is known, the discharge at any time may be found by noting the upstream water level.
Apparatus
 Triangular/V-notch
 Hook Gauge
 Volumetric Hydraulic Bench
 Stop watch
Hydraulic bench and stop watch are used to measure Q act.
Theory
Notch:
It is a metallic plate with a regular shaped cut, used to measure discharge in open channels. notches
usually have sharp edges so that the water springs clear of the plate as it passes through the
notch.
Types of Notches:
Notches have many different types. Some of them are enlisted below.
 Rectangular Notch
 Trapezoidal Notch
 Stepped Notch
 V Notch
V-Notch:
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V notch is usually preferred to measure small discharges. The co-efficient of discharge Cd

(Ratio between actual discharge and theoretical discharge) for a V notch is between 0.6 to 0.7.The angle
between the two planes of V notch ranges between 10ᵒ and 90ᵒ.
 Theoretical Determination of discharge from a V notch

Consider the V notch shown in the figure given above. The head available for the flow measurements
is H. Consider a small differential area dh which will carry all the properties of the the flow.
We know that
Qth=A.Vth
For the elementary strip of the notch dh
dQth = dA
Here dA=2x.dh
tanӨ/2 = x/H-h
x= (H-h) tanӨ/2
dA= 2(H-h) tanӨ/2 dh
Now for sake of simplicity, consider a constant k’ which is equal to
K’ = 2√2g tanӨ/2
dQth = K’√h(H-h) tanӨ/2
To get the total flow rate we will integrate this expression
∫dQth = ∫(Hh1/2 – h^3/2)dh
By solving integral,we get
Qth = 4/15 K’H^5/2………..(i)
By again putting back value of K’ in equatiom(i)
Qth = 4/15(2√2g tanӨ/2) H^5/2
Now we will introduce another constant K which is equal to
K = 4/15(2√2g tanӨ/2)
Thus
Qth = KH^5/2
The actual discharge can be found out by simply measuring flow rate in the hydraulic bench
Qact = VL/t
Now, we can find out the co-efficient of discharge as well
Cd = Qact/Qth
 Experimental Procedure
Page | 34
 Apply the grease (supplied) to the edges of the weir to help seal it into the slot on the
Notch.
 Make sure that the water in the weir channel is level with the bottom of the notch.
To do this, admit water from the bench supply to the apparatus until the level is
approximately correct, and then carefully bale small amounts out or in, using a small
beaker, until the crest of the weir lies just in the surface. For the V notch, the
reflection of the V in the surface indicates whether the level is correct or not . When
the correct level has been obtained the depth gauge should be set to coincide with
the free water surface, and this reading used as a datum.
V-notch
Reflection
on
Water
surface
Incorrect level Correct level
 Take measurements of discharge and head on the weir, regulating the flow using the
bench supply. Take the first reading at maximum discharge, and
subsequent readings with a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal decrements in head. Stop readings
when the level has fallen to a point at which the stream ceases to spring clear of the notch
plate.
 This occurs when the head has been reduced to about 10mm for a rectangular notch and
about 20mm for a V notch.
 Eight sets of reading for each notch should be sufficient.
Page | 35
Observations and Calculations
o
 For 30 Notch
Qth = Volume of
Time
No. of water Q act
H K K taken
observatio collected =V/t Cd= Qact/Q
(T)
ns (V) theo
3 3
(mm) (m) m /s litres sec m /s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
o
 For 90 Notch
Qth = Volume of
Time
water Q act
No. of H K K taken
collected =V/t Cd= Qact/Q
observations (T)
(V) theo
3 3
(mm) (m) m /s litres sec m /s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Comments:
Page | 36
EXPERIMENT # 7
To determine co-efficient of contraction, co-efficient of velocity and co-efficient of an orifice and

calibrate it.
Objective
 To understand the functions & working of Orifice.

 To visualize the phenomenon of Vena-Contracta & determination of related co-efficient.
Apparatus
 Orifice and Jet apparatus

 Hydraulic Bench
 Stop watch
Theory
 Orifice
It is an opening in the wall or in the bottom of the tank or in a plate normal to the axis of pipe used to
measure discharge.
Types of Orifice
1) Based on shapes
 Circular orifice
 Triangular orifice
 Square orifice
 Curved entrance orifice
2) Based on Size
 Small
 Large
3) Based on nature of the Jet
 Open/Simple Orifice
 Submerged Orifice
Jet
It is a stream issuing out of the orifice and is not enclosed by solid boundaries.
Page | 37
Types of Jet
 Free Jet
 Submerged Jet
 Vena Contracta & Jet Contraction:
The stream lines will converge at approaching orifice, because of inertia of particles, they will
continue to converge beyond the surface of orifice , until they reach the section when they become
parallel minimum X-section area of the jet will be called “Vena Contracta”.
For a shaped edge circular orifice of diameter D,Vena contracta will be at a distance D/2 from plane
of orifice.
Co-efficient of Velocity ( Cv )
It is the ratio of actual velocity uc and ideal velocity u◦ through the orifice.
Cv = uc/ u◦ = √Hc/H◦
Co-efficient of Contraction (Cc )
It is the ratio of the cross-section of the vena contracta Ac , to cross-section of the orifice A◦.
Cc = Ac/A◦
Co-efficient of Discharge (Cd)
It is the ratio of the actual discharge Q to that which would take place if jet discharged at the ideal
velocity without any reduction in of area Qo .The actual discharge Q is given by
Q = ucAc
And if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity u◦ over the orifice area a◦, the discharge Q◦would be
Q◦ =u◦A◦=A◦(√2gH◦)
So from the definition of co-efficient of discharge,
Cd = Q/Q◦ = Acuc/A◦u◦
Or in terms of quantities measured experimentally
Cd = Q/ A◦(√2gH◦)
From above equations it can be derived

Cd = Cv x Cc
 Procedure
a) Set the apparatus on the hydraulic bench.
b) Note down the diameter of the orifice.
c) Start the hydraulic bench and fill the tank, transparent part of apparatus, just below the overflow pipe.
d) Adjust the vertical inlet pipe upwards so that its outlet is just below the surface of the water in the tank
(to help reduce any disturbance near to the orifice).
e) Allow the conditions to stabilize and use the hydraulic bench to measure the flow. Record the Head
inside the tank (HO).
f) Adjust the pitot so that its tip point directly upwards into the water flow and the tip is in the middle of
the contracted section of the jet.
g) Record the pitot manometer reading (HC).
h) Measure the width of the vena contracta - at the same height as the pitot tip.
Page | 38
 Observation & Calculations
Orifice/Nozzle
Orifice diameter D(mm)
Orifice area A◦ (mm2)
Water collected (litres)
Time(sec)
Flow rate(m3/sec)
Head (mm)
Head H◦(m)
Pitot reading (mm)
Pitot reading Hc(m)
Jet Diameter(mm)
Jet Diameter D(m)
Cd
Cv
Cc
Cc x Cv
 Comments
Page | 39
EXPERIMENT # 8
Visualization of Vortex Flow

Apparatus
 Vortex flow apparatus
 Hydraulic bench
Theory
Vortex Flow
Vortex flow is defined as flow of fluid on a curved path or flow of rotating mass of fluid.
General relation for variation of pizometric head(p/ρg+z ) across the stream lines of a vortex flow is
given as
dd (p/ρg +z)= /gr …………….eq1
dr
Relation for variation of total head (H) across the stream lines of vortex flow
dhd/dr = vd/g (dv/dr + v/r)………….eq2
Types of Vortex flow
 Forced Vortex Flow
 Free Vortex Flow
In Forced Vortex Flow external torque is required to rotate the fluid mass and this type of
flowangular velocity of the fluid remains constant, .The tangential velocity of any fluid particle is given
by
v=xr
Where r = distance of fluid particle from the axis of rotation
 = v/r
Considering the forced vortex flow, then we can write eq .(1)
d/dr (p/ρg + z) = ω²r/g………eq3
after integrating
(p/ρ + z) = ω²r²/2g +C
Page | 40
P=0 ω²r²/g
ω²r²/2g
Z=0
Where ‘C’ is constant of integration. For the case of a liquid rotating about a vertical axis, as
indicated in above Figure , it is convenient to choose atmospheric pressure as the datum, and the surface
elevation at the centre as the datum for z. Thus, in Equation (6), where r = 0, p = 0 and z = 0, then C = 0
also. The equation becomes:
(p/ρ + z) = ω²r²/2g
This gives the distribution of piezometric head throughout the fluid. In the surface, p = 0, so the
surface shape is given by putting p = 0 in above equation
Z = ω²r²/2g………………eq4
Similarly we can derive it for Total head ‘H’
H = ω²r²/g
Examples of such type of flow are
 A vertical cylinder containing liquid which is rotated about its central axis with a constant
angular velocity.
 Flow of liquid inside the impeller of a centrifugal pump.
 Flow of water through the runner of a turbine.
In Free Vortex Flow there is no external to rotate the fluid mass .Thus the liquid in case of free
vortex flow is rotating due to the rotation which is imparted to the fluid previously. Examples of the free
vortex flow are
 Flow of the liquid through a hole provided at the bottom of a container
 Flow of liquid around a circular bend in the pipe
 A whirlpool in a river
 Flow of fluid in a centrifugal pump casing
The relation between velocity and radius, in free vortex is obtained by putting the value of external
torque equal to zero, or, the time rate of change of angular momentum, i.e. moment of
momentum must equal to. Consider a fluid particle of mass ‘m’ at a radial distance ‘r’ from the
axis of rotation, having a tangential velocity ‘v’. Then
Angular Momentum = Mass x Velocity = m x v
Page | 41
Moment of Momentum = Momentum x r =m x v x r

 Time rate of change of angular momentum =� (mvr)/�t
(mvr)/�t = 0
For free vortex
Integrating we get mvr = constant or vr = constant/m = constant
Above figure shows the essential features of a free vortex in a liquid having a surface open to the
atmosphere. Choosing the surface elevation at a large value of r as the datum for H, the surface falls
towards the centre as shown. The depression, –z, of the free surface below the datum, is given at
any radius r, by:
-Z = v²/2g = C²/2gr² which is the equation of free surface shape

Such a motion is produced in a whirlpool where a very small circulating velocity at a large radius becomes
greatly magnified as it spirals towards the centre. Under conditions of perfect axial symmetry, even the
rotation due to the Earth’s motion about its axis is sufficient to produce a noticeable vortex, provided that
the amount of liquid is sufficiently large, the rotation being anticlockwise in direction in the Northern
Hemisphere. Where the symmetry is imperfect, or where rotation is deliberately included (as in the
experiment described here), a strong vortex of either sign may be produced.
Procedure
Forced Vortex
1) To produce a forced vortex, insert the centre plug and remove the perforated cylinder.
2) Switch on the controller; ensure that the variable knob is set fully anticlockwise. Slowly increase
the speed of rotation by turning the knob clockwise until the vessel is rotating at around 60
rev/min, and then slowly fill the vessel to approximately half depth.
3) After a few minutes, when the vortex produced is constant; plot the surface profile by
raising the pointer through discrete steps and move the cross slide horizontally away from the
zero datum.
4) Take at least 10 readings and carry out the calculations.
5) The rotational speed should also be recorded by counting the number of revolutions over a period
of around one minute.
6) Record the total head by replacing the pointer with open end opposing the flow. Take at least
10 readings and carry out the calculations.
7) Observe the distribution of total head by replacing the probe with a Pitot tube. It should be
inserted just sufficiently for the end of the tube to be completely immersed, and the open end
Page | 42
should face the direction of flow.

8) Note the water level in the tube at several radii.
9) Enter the results into a table and plot the graphs.
Free Vortex
1) Remove the centre plug and place the perforated cylinder into the vessel.
2) Introduce the water into the annular space around the cylinder, and rotate the vessel at a fairly low
speed.
3) Carefully maintain the rate of water flow and rotational speed so that a steady vortex is produced
(the auxiliary pointer positioned in the cross slide will assist this adjustment).
4) When the conditions is quite stable, measure the surface profile and rotational speed in the
same way as for the free vortex experiment, and fill in the tables and plot the graphs. Note:
It is not possible to use the pitot tube in the free vortex.
Observation and Calculations
Measurement of Surface Profile of forced vortex

Vertical scale
Serial no. Z Horizontal scale reading r 2
reading r
Page | 43
Measurement of Total Head in a Forced Vortex

Horizontal scale reading Pitot tube reading
Serial no. R 2 Mean H
r
Measurement of Surface Profile of free vortex

Serial no. Vertical scale reading Z Horizontal scale reading R
Page | 44
Page | 45
Results:
Comments:
Page | 46
EXPERIMENT # 9
To find the value of ‘k’ and hence coefficient of discharge in the equation Q= k H3/2 for a rectangular
notch
Apparatus
1. Hook gauge.
2. Rectangular notch.
3. Collecting/measuring tank.
4. Stop watch.
Theory
The external discharge (which is always less than the theoretical discharge due to losses)
through a rectangular notch is given by the relation:
Q= L
=k
Where, k = L which is almost constant for a given notch.
( = co-efficient of discharge)
Procedure:
.
1. Close the valve and adjust the pointer of the gauge in such a way that it touches the water
level. Note down the reading (initial) on the hook gauge ( say ).
2. Open the valve and allow the water to pass over the notch for sometime till the head over the
notch becomes constant. Note down the reading (final) on the hook gauge (say ).
3. Note down the time required to collect a known amount of water in the collection/measuring
tank.
4. Repeat the experiment by changing the constant head and take several reading and
tabulate them as shown in Table 13.
Page | 47
Observations:
Width of the rectangular notch, L=………
Initial reading of the hook gauge, = ……….
Table 13. Rectangular notch-observations
S. No. Final hook Static head Rise of water Time taken, Discharge
gauge reading level in the collected, k Cd= Qact/Qth
H (mm) H (m) measuring t
tank, ‘Z’
Q=
1
2
3
4
5
Precautions:
1. The head should remain constant throughout e reading.
2. Initial reading of the hook gauge should be taken when water becomes still.
3. While taking the final reading of the hook gauge it may be ensured that water surface is free from
eddies or waves.
4. All the reading must be taken and recorded carefully.
Comments:
Page | 48

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FLUID MECHANICS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

Created by: Mr. Syed Karar Hussain

Date: August, 2012

Last Updated by: Ms. Sana Iftikhar

Date: July, 2015

Approved by the HoD: Dr. Shahid Ali

Date: July, 2015

2 Experiment No. 1, Layout of the Fluid Mechanics Lab. 5

Experiment No. 2, To determine the metacentric height of a floating body

9 Experiment No. 8, Visualization of Vortex flow. 40

1 Stability of Floating Body Apparatus

2 Center of Pressure Apparatus

4 Volumetric Hydraulic Bench

5 Fluid Friction Apparatus

7 Orifice & Jet Apparatus

8 Vortex Flow Apparatus

Layout of the Fluid Mechanics Lab

 Equipment’s pertaining to pipes

1. Equipment’s pertaining to channels:

2. Equipment’s pertaining to Pipes:

8. Impact of Jet apparatus

Description of the Equipment

o Fluid Friction Apparatus

o Water Hammer Apparatus

o Orifice free jet flow Apparatus

o Reynold’s Number and Transitional flow Apparatus

o Impact of Jet apparatus

o Volumetric Hydraulic bench

o Center of Pressure Apparatus

o Stability of a floating body Apparatus

o Centrifugal pump test Apparatus

o Positive displacement pump module Apparatus

FB = Weight of the volume of the liquid displaced by the immersed body

 Inter Relationship of Weight, buoyancy and stability of a floating body

(a) (b) (c)

 Calculation of Metacentric Height

Wo= Jockey Weight (Small moveable Weight)

V=Volume of liquid displaced by body

The height of the center of gravity may be found as follows

 Procedure for finding Metacentric Height

 Measure the dimensions of the ship

Results and Calculations

Standard dimensions for the model

Total weight of floating assembly (W) = kg

Adjustable weight () = kg

Breadth of pontoon (D) = mm

Length of pontoon (L) = mm

Second moment of area I= m4

Volume of water displaced V= m3

Height of metacenter above center of buoyancy BM = m

Depth of immersion of pontoon = m Depth of

height of the adjustable weight.

so OG will change in steps of (Jockey Weight×60)/ ( Total Weight of the sail)

Experimental Determination of Metacentric Height

Height of adjustable Angles of list for adjustable weight lateral

(mm) -75 -60 -45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75

Relationship between Angle of list (Ө)

1. Center of pressure apparatus

As A= bd and hc = h/2 and Ic =b /12

 Experimental and Theoretical derivation of the hydrostatic force

 Case 1:The body is partially submerged in the fluid(d1≤d)

 Theoretical Hydrostatic force = Fth= ƳhcA

 Experimental Hydrostatic force