Building Services Course - HVAC Part - 2018 PDF

Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
”Building Services- HVAC systems” - Course Notes

Bachelor Study Programme: Civil Engineering
Year of Study: 4th
Catalin George POPOVICI

Email: popovicic@yahoo.com
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”Building Services- HVAC Systems” – Course Notes
BUILDING SERVICES CLASSIFICATION

Building services are the dynamics in a static structure,

providing movement, communications, facilities and comfort
Building Services classification
BY FUNCTION
- Heating systems
- Ventilation and air conditioning systems
- Sanitary (plumbing) systems
- Electrical systems
- Natural gas feed systems
- Refrigeration systems

A) Heating systems
Serve for creating and maintaining a thermal comfort inside a
given space.
B) Ventilation and air conditioning systems

Have the role of removing the polluted air due to man or
technological processes and keep the temperature and humidity
between given limits.
C) Sanitary systems
Are used in order to ensure the cold and hot water feed of
buildings, as well as collecting and evacuating waste water and
drainage.
D) Electrical systems
Serve the electrical energy feed of buildings.
E) Natural gas feed systems

Have the role off ensuring natural gas feed for consumption
equipments in the buildings.
F) Refrigerating systems
Serve for decreasing and keeping a given space’s temperature at a
certain level, below the natural environment’s temperature.

COMFORT CONCEPT
• THERMAL COMFORT;
• CHEMICAL AIR COMPOSITION - GENUINE AIR;
• NOISE LEVEL;
• ESTHETICHAL DEMANDS - FURNITURE, INTERIOR

DECORATIONS, COLOURS.

THERMAL COMFORT PARAMETERS
1. Indoor air temperature ti ( 0C);

2. Air velocity vi ( m/s);
3. Medium radiation temperature of space delimitation
elements Өmr ( 0C);
4. Air relative humidity øi ( %).

THERMAL COMFORT
Optimum values for thermal comfort parameters
1. Indoor air temperature ti ( 0C);
- SR 1907/2 -2014 - ti =20-22 0C;
- Thermal gradient ≤ 2,5 0C/m
2. Air velocity vi ( m/s);
- Vi=0,1 – 0,15 m/s
3. Medium radiation temperature of space delimitation
elements Өmr ( 0C);
- Өmr = ti - 6 0C
4. Air relative humidity øi ( %)
- Øi= 30- 70 ( %) Øoptimum= 60 ( %) .

HEATING SYSTEMS

HEATING SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATION

Conventional classifications split heating systems into three groups as follows :
• LOCAL HEATING SYSTEMS;
• CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS;
• GLOBAL HEATING SYSTEMS .

LOCAL HEATING SYSTEMS represent heating systems in which

thermal agent is generates in the same place where it is used, in other words, in the rooms that
need to be heated.
• Stoves made of ceramic ware or metal parts.

• Fireplaces
• Electrical heaters.

Ceramic and metalic stoves
Fireplace
Electrical heaters
Fig. 1 – Local heating systems

CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS may also be

classified as:
• Hot water heating systems;

• Steam heating systems;
• Air heating systems.

Central heating system usually contains:
- heating source;
- distribution network;
- indoor heating installation.
Thermal energy necessary for a building, or a group of buildings it is obtained in a

centralized manner, by a single heating boiler which represents the heating source.

Distribution network
Heating
source
Interior heating installation
Fig. 2- Central heating system

Hot water heating system may be classified according with

the following criteria:
By the manner the heat transfer towards rooms is made:
• by convection and radiation (static elements heating);
• by convection (air heating or convectors);
• by radiation (using radiant panels).

Heat transfer by convection and

radiation (static elements heating)
Heat transfer by convection (air

Fig 3. Hot water heating systems
heating)
classified by heat transfer manner
Heat transfer by radiation (using

radiant panels)

By the manner in which the hot water circulation is made :

• natural (gravitation);
• forced (pumping).

Natural circulation
( gravitational
circulation)
Fig 4. Hot water

heating systems classified
by hot water circulation
mode
Forced circulation
( pumping circulation)

By the number of pipes that supply the heating equipments:

• double pipes;
• single pipe.

Double pipes
Fig 5. Hot water heating

systems classified by number of
pipes
Single pipe

By the type of heating equipments:
• radiators;
• convectors;
• registers (horizontal or vertical pipe radiators);
• radiant panels ;
• curved pipes radiators.

Radiators
Convectors
Fig .6 Hot water heating systems

classified by type of heating equipments
Registers
Radiant panels

By the distribution of pipes manner:
• radiant;
• tree structure;
• circular.

Radial
Tree structure
Fig 6 Hot water

heating systems
classified by the
distribution of type pipes
manner Circular

By the nature of materials the pipes are made of:

• steel;
• copper;
• plastic materials
• multilayer

Steel pipes
Copper pipes
Fig. 7 - Hot water

heating systems
classified by the Plastic pipes
material pipes
Multilayer pipes

By functioning and exploitation manner of the installation:

• manual;
• semiautomatic;
• fully automatic.

Air heating systems

The general scheme of a air heating system is shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Air heating system scheme

1 – Air heating sourse 2 – supply duct , 3 – exhaust/recirculation duct, 4 – supply grid, 5 – exhaust grid

Air heating systems may be classified according with the following criteria:
By the air circulation manner:

• normal circulation (gravitation) ;
• forced circulation (fans).
By fresh air ratio:

• re-circulated;
• fresh;
• mixed.

Normal circulation( natural,

gravitational)
Fig.9 Air heating systems

classified by air circulation
manner
Forced circulation ( with fans)

By fresh air ratio :

• Re-circulated air;
• Fresh air ;
• Mixed air.

Steam heating systems may be classified according

with the following criteria:
By steam pressure:
• low pressure;
• medium pressure;
• high pressure.
By distribution type:
• superior distribution;
• inferior distribution.

By steam circulation manner

• free condensation return;
• forced condensation return.
By condensation pipes type

• dry condensation pipes;
• wet condensation pipes.

Global heating systems – thermal energy is obtained in the same time

with electrical energy in high power stations and heat transportation is made using long distance
transport networks.
By their means:
• Urban;
• Industrial.

Central heating systems

Hot water central heating

systems

Hot water heating systems are built according to different schemes,

depending on the nature of the construction, the local conditions, etc.
There are three components (Fig. 10.):

• Heat source - based on combustion of fuels, includes heat
generators, pumps, distributors, expansion tanks, etc.
• Distribution networks - consist mainly of pipes, fittings, expansion
joints, fixed points, etc.
• Consumer - heating units .

Fig.10. The central heating system scheme

1 – Heat source; 2 – distribution networks pipes; 3 – consumer – radiator

By the manner of hot water circulation the heating systems are

made:
• Heating systems with natural circulation drawings

• Heating systems with forced circulation drawings

Heating systems with natural

circulation drawings

The natural circulation heating systems were the first to be

used for individual residential buildings.
Due to the higher temperature, the hot water in the boiler, with a
lower specific weight, is pushed by the cold water in the return
pipe with a higher specific gravity and thus the circulation is
made.
When the water reaches the radiator, the water cools down,
making a constant difference in pressure necessary to ensure
circulation.
The installation contains:
• heating boiler placed in the basement room,
• tree structured distribution network
• supply and return pipes for heating equipments
• By distribution type of both supply and return (inlet and outlet)

main pipes, heating installation with natural circulation can have:
• inferior distribution ;
• superior distribution ;
• mixed distribution .
• Most of the heating installation are executed in double piped
systems, meaning they use two supply pipes for the heating
equipments.

a) Natural circulation hot water b) Natural circulation hot water c) Natural circulation hot water
heating system with inferior heating system with superior heating system with mixed
distribution, double pipes, ,open distribution, double pipes, ,open distribution, double pipes, ,open
expansion vessel expansion vessel expansion vessel
Fig.11. Natural distribution hot water heating system schemes

C - Boiler; B - water exchanger with accumulation; VED – expansion tank; Ca –air
discharge pipe; CPP – safety pipe; CC – conection pipe.

• The opened expansion tank has the role of taking over the volume
variations of the water due to increased temperature,
• thus maintaining continuous contact of the installation with the
atmosphere and air separating the installation.
• Feeding of the installation must be executed in the lower point of the return
pipe.
• For the choice of inferior distribution system there is the ventilation system
at the superior side of the supply pipe for each pipe where the air is
collected and exhausted through the horizontal pipe connected to the supply
safety pipe.
• In order to avoid unwanted circulating water between the main pipes, the
connection with the safety pipe is made in a sack.
• For a superior distribution system, circulation is more active due to adding the
thermal pressure resulted at cooling the water in the heating equipment with the
thermal pressure resulted at coolingwww.study.tuiasi.ro
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water both in supply and return pipes.
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Fuel used for the heating boiler may be one of the usual ones:
• gas fuel,
• liquid fuel,
• solid fuel.
This type of heating systems has the advantage of a simple steel
pipe installation and cast iron or steel reinforcements. On the other
side, there is de disadvantage of large diameter pipes, therefore a
bigger material consumption
Heating installations with natural circulation continue to function in
the buildings executed years ago, but along with the rehabilitation
works they will be replaced with other heating systems.

Heating installations with

forced circulation drawings

This type of installations have the same structure as the natural circulation
installations, except that on the supply or return pipe one ore more pumps will
be installed.
More than one pump will be mounted for the purpose of ensuring good
functioning. Forced circulation installation can be made in single or two-piped
systems, and their distribution can also be inferior, superior or mixed.
The system offers the advantage of smaller pipe diameters, comparing to

natural circulation installations, and it is highly recommended for wide surface
buildings.

In the following, we will see drawings of a water heating

installation , double piped, forced circulation, opened expansion
tank with :
• inferior distribution,
• superior distribution,
• mixed distribution.
• heating installation with closed expansion tank and safety
valve.

a) Forced
a) Forced circulation
circulation hot waterb) Forced
hot water b)b) Forced circulation
circulation
Forced hothot
circulation hot
water water
water c) Forced
c) Forced circulation
circulation hot water
hot water
heatingheating
systemsystem with inferior heating
with inferior heating
system
heating system
systemwith with
superior
with superior heating
superior heating
systemsystem with mixed
with mixed
distribution,
distribution, doubledouble pipes ,open distribution,
pipes ,open distribution,
distribution,double
doubledouble
pipes,pipes,
pipes, distribution,
open distribution, doubledouble
pipes,pipes,
,open ,open
expansion
expansion vesselvessel ,open ,open expansion
expansion
expansion vessel vesselvessel expansion
expansion vesselvessel
Fig.12. Natural distribution hot water heating system schemes

C - Boiler;P- Circulation pump B - water exchanger with accumulation; VED – open expansion tank; Ca –air
discharge pipe; CPP – safety pipe; CC – conection pipe.
The most used heating system is forced circulation hot water

heating system with closed expansion tank
Fig, 13 - C - Boiler; P – circulation pump; B – hot water exchanger with accumulation; VEI – closed
expasion tank; VA – air discharge vessel; R -valve; SS - safety valve; Ca – air discharge pipe.
Heating system with forced circulation is also used in

apartment buildings with centralized heating system.
For single family house holds, or buildings with a smaller
number of apartments, the system is used only for old or
considered as a solution for the existing ones.

Individual system for centralized heating

Centralized individual heating represents a new concept

in heating installations which combines the advantages of individual
heating with the performances of collective (centralized) heating.

Components:
• 1. heating source – represented by boiler together with the thermal agent
preparation and distribution equipment.
• 2. primary distribution network – containing the distribution network placed at
the boiler’s level and the supply column for the thermal-hydraulic modules.
• 3. thermal-hydraulic module – containing measuring, distribution and metering
equipments placed in a niche related with each apartment.
• 4. secondary distribution network or, the so called, individual apartment
knot– to which heating elements are connected.

Fig.14- Centralized individual

heating scheme I – boiler, II
– primary distribution; III –
hydraulic module; IV –
secondary distribution
network (apartment knot);
1 - boiler; 2 - thermal agent
circulating pump;3 -
distributor; 4 - collector; 5 -
supply pipe for primary; 6 -
return pipe for primary
distribution; 7 - hydraulic
module; 8 - inlet; 9 - outlet;10
- radiator valve; 11 - air valve
12 - radiator; 13 - supply
distribution pipe for
secondary network; 14 -
return distribution pipe for
secondary;

The particularity of centralized individual heating system is the

ability of thermal energy consumption control for each apartment.
Heating consumption records can be made from a common aria,
outdoors, such as the stair case.
This demand is claimed by all inhabitants of apartment
buildings or big residence assembles, for each wants to pay no
more than they consume, and the centralized individual heating
system is able to do satisfy that . Hence, it results the option of
horizontal distribution, specific for each apartment.

In the following we will enumerate other characteristics of this heating

system:
• the common boiler contains the necessary equipments for thermal agent
and hot water preparation, as long as the distribution;
• the primary distribution network, which is one for the entire building, makes
the connection between heating source and he secondary network through
thermal-hydraulic modules;
• thermal-hydraulic modules have the role of separating consumers and
recording thermal energy consumption;
• secondary distribution network, or apartment knot, can be made in different
constructive variants;
• records of thermal energy consumption, hot as well as cold water can be
made due to water meter and heat meter placed at the level of each
thermal-hydraulic module.

RENEWABLE HEATING SYSTEMS

Renewable energy:
 Solar energy;
 Wind energy;
 Geothermal energy;
 Biomass;
 Nuclear energy.
Renewable heating systems

- Solar heating;
- Geothermal heating;
- Heat pumps.

The most important features of technical heating systems

using renewable energy, are:
• Need to use specific thermal insulation solutions;

• Thermal regimes characterized by low temperature
differences;
• Need heat accumulation .

The thermal insulation reduce the heat loss and therefore

the heat consumption .
The purpose of thermal insulation is to reduce as

much as possible the energy needs . .
This goal is very important because the technologies for

converting renewable energy into thermal energy are much
expansive than classical solutions.

Solar heating

The conversion of solar energy into thermal energy is achieved

through solar collectors with various constructive principles.
For a high solar conversion rate is very important the solar
collectors orientation .
.
- Southern orientation is the best

Solar energy is used in residential area for heating and/or

domestic hot water consumption .
The available solar energy is offset by 180° comparing with the

heat needs for heating ( in winter time the solar radiation is low
) =>
heat accumulation ,
additional building thermal insulation ,
auxiliary heating system

The solar energy used for heat residential buildings purposes

two main methods :
 with the solar collectors absorbing solar radiation and converting
the solar radiation into heat and transmitting it to a thermal agent
(liquid or air);
 using the absorbent walls located on the south facade of the
building, using the so-called "greenhouse" ;
In Romania is not possible the solar heating only . All the time use
an additional classic heating system .

Heating and domestic hot water production with solar

collectors combined with classic heating system .
Fig. 15
- 1 – solar collector (PS); 2 – supply
solar collector pipe; 3 – return solar
collector pipe; 4 – solar collector coil
; 5 – heat exchanger ; 6 – cold
water; 7 – hot water; 8 – boiler coil ;
9 – expansion tank; 10 – valve; 11 –
wall boiler; 12 – chimney ; 13 –
boiler supply/retur pipes ; 14 – 3
way valve; 15 – distributor; 16 –
collector; 17 – fancoil; 18 – radiator

Solar heating systems can be classified into two main categories:

passive systems and active systems.
Passive systems are characterized by the fact that space

heating is made with natural circulation , without the circulation
of a thermal agent.
Active systems involve the existence of mechanical
equipment to produce the thermal agent circulation that
transports the heat between the collectors and the heated space
agent termic.

Passive solar heating systems
Solar heating with absorbing walls using greenhouse effect .
Fig.16
1 – solar radiaton; 2 - south facing glazing; 3 - air
channel; 4 - absorbent wall; 5 - heat transferred to the
room; 6 - cold air; 7 - heated air; 8 - inlet air grid; 9 –
outlet air grid; 10 - elements with high thermal inertia

Benefits:
 Use a cheap and inexhaustible energy source ;
 without transport costs because the energy is captured at the
place of use.
Disadvantages :
 Capture and use facilities are costly and require a highly skilled
workforce;
 can not cover the entire energy needs, hence the need for an
additional energy source;
 there is an obvious mismatch between the energy input by sunlight
and the energy needs (during the winter, the need for energy is
maximum, and the contribution by sunlight is minimal)
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Sisteme active de încălzire solară
Fig.17
1 – solar radiation ; 2  solar Fig.18
collectors; 3 – return pipe; 4 – supply 1 – aluminum case; 2 –
pipe ; 5 – pump; 6  valve; 7 – heat silicon; 3 – protection
exchanger with accumulation; 8 – glace; 4 – absorbant
heat exchanger coil; 9, 10 – element ; 5 – thermal
supply/return heating system pipes insulation; 6 –absorbant
element ; 7 – copper
joints

Benefits:
- High thermal rate, if solar radiaton is high too
Dizadvantages :
- high convection losses at high temperature differences
between thermal agent and environment .
- High cost

Geothermal water heating system

Geothermal energy heating is the technology

that uses the earth's energy to help heat /
cool the buildings.
With a relatively constant temperature of 8 ° C
at a depth of about 3 m, the earth offers
warmth during winter and cooling in the
summer.
The geothermal water

temperature ranges from 50 to
120 ° C and the depth of the
aquifers is 1 ... 3 km.

Clasificarea instalațiilor geotermale de încălzire

 După calitatea apei  instalații cu racordare directă sau indirectă;
 După raportul dintre cantitatea de căldură furnizată de sursa
geotermală și necesarul de căldură pentru consumatorul de
încălzire - instalații fără acumulare sau cu acumulare de căldură;
 După modul de asigurare a parametrilor agentului termic la
consumatorul de încălzire - instalații cu reglaj calitativ sau
cantitativ;
 După sursa de adaos - scheme care folosesc căldura de la o
centrală termică, punct termic sau de la o instalație cu pompe de
căldură.
 Dupa marimea consumatorilor şi densitatea sarcinii de încălzire,
Geothermal heating system with indirect connection,

with addition source.
Fig.19
1  Geothermal source ; 2 
deaerator 3 – pipe; 4  filter; 5 
pump ; 6  heating consumer; 7 
others consumers; 8 - Drainage of
reintroduction of water into the
ground; 9 - heat exchanger without
accumulation; 10 - secondary circuit
pump; 11 - source of addition; 12 -
chemical treatment station; 13 -
pump for reintroduction of water into
the ground.

Heat pump heating system

The heat pump can be found under all three classic types:
mechanical, ejection or absorption.
The heat pump is a thermal plant that serves to "heat" the

heat from a low to a higher temperature.
Take the heat from Eiz heat source with low thermal
potential , Tiz temperature and gives the consumer a heat at a
higher thermal potential of temperature Te, consuming a EA. drive
energy for this purpose
Eiz+EA = Ec [kWh]

The heat pump source can be:

• air (atmospheric, evacuated from climatic spaces, combustion
gases);
• water (surface, underground, geothermal or technological);
• ground (ground, household waste).
The heat consumer can be:

• the spaces heating, with the mention that low temperature
systems (with radiant floor panels, hot air, etc.) are required;
• preparation of hot water;
• various technological processes (drying, distillation, etc.).
Converting renewable energy sources into heat
Fig.20
1 - compressor; 2 -
condenser; 3 – expansion
valve; 4 - vaporizer; 5 -
expansion; 6 -
vaporization; 7 - vapor
compression; 8 -
condensation; 9 - heating
/ cooling

Water -air heat pump
Fig.20
1 - electricity (1 unit); 2 -
compressor; 3 - high
temperature gas; 4 - heat
exchanger; 5 - thermal energy
(3 units); 6 - heated water
outlet; 7 - cold water inlet; 8 -
hot liquid; 9 - expansion
valve; 10 - low temperature
liquid; 11 - a vaporizer; 12 -
fan; 13 - outside air; 14 - hot
gas

Water-water heat pump
Use of groundwater for heat pumps
Fig.21
1 - ground water layer; 2 - cold
water; 3 - heated water; 4 - water-
water heat pump; 5 - Heat
consumers.

Ground- air and ground-water heat pumps
There are two types of collectors that can be used in

intermediate heat recovery circuits in the ground:
•horizontal collectors, which are mounted at depths of approx.

1,2 ... 1,5 m,
•vertical collectors, also called wells, which are mounted by

drilling, at depths of up to approx. 100 m

Ground-water heat pump with horizontal collectors
Fig.22
1 - Horizontal collector; 2 -
distributor-collector, 3 -
ground-water heat pump; 4
- boiler; 5 - heat exchanger;
6 - heating floor. .

Ground-water heat pump with vertical collectors
Fig.23
1 - vertical collectors; 2 -
Primary Heat Pump Circuit
Pipes; 3 - ground-water
heat pump; 4 - heat
exchanger; 5 - boiler; 6 -
heating floor.

Heating boiler

Heating boiler represents the source of thermal energy for heating , the
place where it’s prepared and distributed thermal agent for heating and
water warming. In the boiler takes place the transformation of primary
energy (fuel) with help from an entire assembly of equipments and devices.
In the interior of the boiler take place technological processes for supplying
heat in the buildings installations, consequently heat and hot water for
consumers.
• Taking into consideration the role played by the boiler, it is absolutely

necessary that technical matters should be considered at it’s conception,
such as-equipments, functioning schemes, working manner and
exploitation.

Based on thermal power, boilers can be classified as:

• Micro-boilers with thermal power up to 30 KW;
• Mini-boilers with thermal power between 30 and 50 KW;
• Small boilers with a maximum thermal power of 300 KW.

Factors that influence on the choice of a boiler are:
• total thermal power, respectively necessary heat of the source;

• type and power of boiler;
• type of fuel;
• location of the boiler;
• automation level.

Due to the fact that a boiler must ensure heating, as well as

warming the water, based on necessary of heat one can choose one
or two boilers.
For thermal capacities bigger than 100 KW one will appreciate
the need for more that one boiler, even one will take into
consideration the need for a spare boiler. Based on the fuel type
used, the efficiency of boilers differ, varying between 90% for liquid
or gas fuel down to 80% for solid fuel.
Location of boiler in a building is decided based on functional
and economical criteria, taking into consideration also the gas
exhaust (evacuation) and fuel supply.

Central heating boilers
Central heating boiler have the role of transforming fuel’s chemical

energy in thermal energy using a burner and also transmitting that energy to a
thermal agent.

Based on the nature of thermal agent:

• Water boilers;
• Hot water boiler;
• Steam boilers.
Based on the material they are executed:

• Cast iron boilers;
• Steel boilers;
• Stainless steel boilers.

• Based on the fuel used:

• Solid fuel boilers;
• Liquid fuel boilers;
• Gas boilers.
• Based on construction manner:

• Horizontal boilers;
• Vertical boilers;
• Fire-tub boiler;
• Water tub boiler, etc.

• By pressure drive:
• Low pressure;
• Medium pressure;
• High pressure.
• By usage domain:
• Central heating boilers;
• Industrial boilers.

Cast iron sectioned boilers are made from elements assembled

by nipples that compose the furnace and the boiler.
The material the boiler element is made of is a special type of cast iron,
eutectic, that ensures a homogenous heat transfer , avoiding cracking due to
thermal pressure and condensation.

Fig.24. Cast iron boiler with atmospheric burner Fig.25. Cast iron boiler with blast air burner
(www.calor.ro)
1 – automatation; 2 –cast iron heat surface ; 3 –
cast iron element ; 4 – thermal insulation ; 5 – 1 – automattation; 2 –cast iron heat surface ; 3 –
gas supply; 6 – stainless steel tubes of cast iron element ; 4 – thermal insulation ; 5 –
atmospheric burner . blast air burner.

Fig. 26. Cast iron boiler Fig. 27. Cast iron element
1- automatation; 2 – thermal insulation; 3 – boiler door; 4 – 1 – cast iron element; 3 – cast iron
cast iron heat surfaces; 5- ignition room. heat transfer surface .
(http://rusnanoclimate.com)

Steel sectioned boilers are made of steel seamless pipes that form
convective thermal transfer surfaces. At modern models these surfaces are
composed from one seamless pipe pressed in the interior of another one, thus
resulting a better thermal connectivity.
Through longitudinal ribs of the interior pipe the thermal transfer surface
increases 2.5 times comparing with that given by a smooth surfaced pipe.
The contact points between the two pipes are proportioned in a manner
that, at the posterior part of the boiler, where burned gas temperature is no
longer high, heat transfer towards the boiler water decreases, avoiding gas
temperature loss below dew point of the vapors contained.

Fig.28. Steel boiler Fig.29.Steel boiler with blast air burner

1 – automatation; 2 – thermal insulation , 3 – the 1 – automatation; 2 – the third combustion gases
second combustion gases path ; 4 – burning room path with convective multilayer surfaces ; 3 –
; 5- high efficient thermal insulation ; 6 – large the second combustion gases path ; 4 – large
water walls . water walls; 5 – burning room ( the first
combustion gases path ); 6 – burner ; 7 – high
effective thermal insulation .
Fig.30. Flue gas way inside of steel boiler Fig.31. Steel steam boiler
1 – burner; 2 – burning room ; 3 – the first way of
flue gases; 4 - the second way of flue gases ; 5 – the
third way of flue gases ; 6 – furnance ; 7 – boiler
case ; 8 – thermal insulation ; 9 – boler support .

Condensation boilers are in part of the stainless steel

boilers category. These type of boilers with heat recovery
components, represent a new concept in what concerns the
usage of classical fuel types.
Thermal efficiency of these boilers is determined based on inferior

calorific power of the fuel, which doesn’t take account of the latent
heat of vapours in the burned gas. If this calculation is applied, for
condensation boilers, one can obtain a thermal efficiency bigger
than one unit. This aspect might be avoided if thermal efficiency of
all boilers should be calculated based on superior calorific power.

Fig.32. The condensation boiler components

1 – Convective surfaces of heat exchanger ; 2 – burner ; 3 – expansion tank ; 4 – hydromodul ; 5 – automatation; 6 –
case ; 7 – chimney ; 8 – burning room wall.
Solid fuel boilers

Another category of steel boilers are those for solid fuel.
The components of a solid fuel boiler are shown in Fig. II.5.21.
The most used are gasification boilers and works in pyrolytic dry
distillation of wood.
By burning wood with a limited amount of air, it becomes an
incandescent area. This transformation is carried out at the same time
with the appearance of wood gas, which is then directed to the burner,
where it is burned in the lower part of the boiler, in the area of the
combustion space or the exchange zone.
This combustion method is also called flame retardant
combustion and allows efficient fuel utilization - Fig.II.5.22
Fig. 33 presents the components of a gasification boiler and fig 34 the gasification principle
Fig.33. The solid fuel boiler components

1 – dry front wall; 2 – dry rear wall ; 3 – fan ; Fig.34. The gasification principle
4 – thermostatic module ; 5 – primary air ; 6
1 – burning room; 2 – primary air ; 3 –secondary air; 4
– secondary air ; 7 – heat exchanger ; 8 –
– ceramic insulation; 5 – flue fan.
solid fuel ; 9 – burning room ; 10 – burner ; 11
– burner grid .
Fig.35. Solid fuel boiler

1 – gasification burning room ; 2 – Blocked door system ; 3 – automatation; 4 – control charge system ; 5 –
charge room; 6 – burner ; 7 – grid burner.
MODERN SOLUTIONS FOR BOILERS – ”WALLS”

INTEGRATED UNITS
The apartment boiler is an assembly that includes :

• the system of producing thermal agent for heating,
• the system of hot water preparation,
• pumping system,
• expansion system,
• safety system.

Apartment boilers are mounted on the wall and can be classified as

follows:
- based on the burning room type:
• with open burning room;
• with closed burning room;
- based on burned gas exhausting mode:

• with natural exhaust gas;
• with forces exhaust gas;
- by hot water hater type:

• with instant preparation – these are made in two variants :with plate heat
exchanger and bi-thermal heat exchanger;
• with water heater exchanger with accumulation.
Fig. A presents an apartment boiler with closed burning room and plate heat
exchanger for heating water, characterized by :
• electronic flame control by monitoring thermal agent with temperature
sonde;
• electronic ignition and surveillance using an ionizing electrode;
• ability of pre-setting maximum heating power, an useful option for small
and medium apartments where the heat necessary is smaller than the
heating water necessary;
• stainless steel plate heat exchanger for heating water;
• closed expansion tank and 3 bar safety valve;
• three way valve for thermal agent redirecting towards sanitary heat
exchanger operated by differential pressure created by opening one
consumer;
• thermal agent circulation pump with variable volume;
• stainless steel burner;
-automatic by-pass for heating installations (for pump protection whether with
thermostatic valves or-in more complex installations using three way valves );
-freezing protection thermostat (balanced at 600C);
-gas valve with double shutter which automatically closes when ionization
electrode doesn’t detect the flame;
-safety thermostat (balanced at 1000C);
- water absence alarm pressure switch and fan and pump post-circulation
devices;
- burned gas thermostat and differential pressure switch mounted between
the burning gas inlet and the burned gas outlet;
- supervising functioning,signalizing errors and self diagnose at the control
board level;
- intelligent electronic management system and remote controller.

Fig.36.a. Wall boiler with closed burning room , Fig. 36.b. Wall boiler with closed burning room, forced exahaust
forced exahust flue and hot water plate heat flue and hot water heat exchanger with accumulation
exchanger incorporated
1 - exhaust fan; 2 - heat exchanger with accumation ; 3 - closed combustion chamber; 4 - modulating atmospheric
burner; 5 - hydromodul - pump and plate heat exchanger; 6 - automation panel, 7 - expansion tank; 8 – heat
exchanger coil.
Fig.37. Wall boiler connected with external hot water heat exchanger
1 – wall boiler ; 2 – external hot water heat exchanger ; 3 – radiator; 4 – hot water ; 5 – cold water; 6 –heating
system supply ; 7 –heating system return ; 8 –heat exchanger supply ; 9 – heta exchanger return.
Fig.38. Hydromodul – 1 – Circulation pump ; 2 –

Fig.39. Automatation panel
hot water plate heat exchanger
Fig. 38 illustrates the hydro module composed from plate heat

exchanger and circulating pump and Fig. 39 illustrates the frontal control
panel which, using an optical interface, can be easily connected with a
notebook giving the possibility of programming via internet , mobile phone,
etc and also facilitating maintenance/repair/service.
Fig. 40 Functional diagram for an apartment boiler with closed burning room, induced draught and bithermal heat exchanger
A – heating inlet; B – hot water inlet; C – gas inlet; D – water inlet; E – heating outlet; 1 – bi thermal heat exchanger; 2 – gas
modulant valve ; 3 – temperature sonde; 4 – gas valve;; 5 – supply valve; 6 – safety valve ; 7 - fusemeter; 8 – water
pressure switch; 9 – circulation pump; 10 - burner; 11 – expansion tank; 12 – differential pressure switch; 13 - fan; 14 –
automatic air vent ; 15 – safety thermostat; 16 – hot water temperature sonde; 17 - by-pass.
Most used functional diagram is the one in Fig. 41 that contains: apartment boiler
(wall mounted) and the apartment distribution network with heating elements and water
network.
Fig.41 Heating installation

diagram for an apartment
a - fan, b – expansion tank, c -

burner, d – plate heat
exchanger, e – thermal agent
circulation pump, f – self
diagnose control panel; 1-
distribution supply pipe, 2 –
distribution return pipe, 3 –
heating element, 4 – radiator
valve, 5 – hot water pipe, 6 –
hot water consumer.
Fig. 42 Functional diagram of an apartment boiler

with water heater
1) Pressure switch, 2) 3 bar safety valve, 3) circulating

pump, 4) gas modulating electro valve, 5) 8 liters closed
expansion tank, 6) expansion tank safety valve, 7)
burned gas chamber, 8) burning gas access chamber,
9) exhaust burned gas pipe, 10)supply air pipe, 11)
differential safety pressure switch for the burned gas
exhaust fan, 12) exhaust fan, 13) air valve, 14) heat
exchange wing, 15) burning room, 16) ceramic
insulation, 17) stainless steel burner, 18) motorized
three way valve, 19) heating circuit hydro meter, 20)
manual air valve, 21) magnesium anode, 22) curve, 23)
60 liters heater

Mounting boilers inside an apartment is executed with regard

to Design and Execution Regulation for gas supplying system I6-
98.
As in apartments it is mandatory the use of induced draught

burned gas, Fig. 43 presents some valid options for it’s connection.

Fig. 43 Connection possible options for induced draught boilers.

3 – vertical passing trough roof, 4 – connection through exterior wall, 5 – concentric intake and outlet chimne
6 – intake separated from outlet gas.
Heating elements

Heating elements are those components of a heating

installation with the role of transmitting in the room to be heated the
heat released be the thermal agent.
Heating elements transfer heat in two manners: by convection,

trough the air that comes in contact with its surface and by
radiation.

Based on the main characteristic of the two components, a

heating element will be named convector or radiant. Heating
elements can be grouped as :
• static heating elements, where the convective air circulation is natural.

This group contains radiators, convector-radiators, and convectors.
• dynamic heating elements, where the air circulation is activated by

mechanical means. This group contains unit heaters, fan coil units and
air heater batteries (heating coils) of mechanical ventilation systems.

a – curved pipe; b – register (horizontal;– vertical);
c2 – panel convectoradiator
c1- Panel radiator ;
Fig. 44 Static heating elements
d – convectoradiator; e – convector;
f – radiator; g – panel.
Most used from the static heating elements group are

radiators.
Based on the material they are made of there are three used
types:
- cast iron;
- steel ;
- aluminum.

• Cast iron radiators are the classical heating elements that use as
thermal agent water heated at maximum 115 degrees and maximum
pressure 6 bars or steam at up to 0.7bar pressure.
Fig.45. Cast iron radiators

Steel radiators are made from special iron plates with good
properties for cold-embossing, with high thermal power. They are
produced in two constructive models : a) panel radiators and b)
elements radiators.
Fig.46 a). Steel panel radiators (radiatoare-si- Fig.46 b). Steel radiators with elements
calorifere.pricer.ro)

Most used are panel radiators characterized by their high

thermal power according to the overall size surface.
One radiator contains 1,2 or 3 interior convectors. One panel is
formed from two parallel embossed iron sheets, where there are
created one distributor and one collector united by vertical channels
for thermal agent circulation.
Radiators are made by combining these panels and convectors.

Fig. 47 – Steel radiators types

Type 11 – 1 panel with 1 convector;
Type 21 – 2 panels with 1 convector;
Type 22 – 2 panels with 2 convectors;
Type 33 – 3 panels with 3 convectors;

• The steel panel radiators are made in a diverse range, with heights
between 300 and 900 mm and standard lengths of: 400, 500, 600,
700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700,
1800, 1900, 2000, 2200, 2400, 2600, 2800 and 3000 mm.
• Radiator’s thermal powers vary based on constructive type, heights

and length.

A special class of radiators are bathroom radiators user for small

spaces, mounted vertically , with a particular design, having also a decorative
role. They are produced in different constructive shapes with supplementary
elements (metallic bars, mirrors, different types of supports) in order to offer the
possibility of drying towels and event take the room’s shape (corner radiators or
wall-type radiators). These radiators can be painted in different colors, or
chromate versions.
Thermal powers for these radiators vary between 500 and 1900 W and their
dimension vary between 450 – 750 mm width and 700 – 1700 mm height.

Fig .48 Bathroom radiators

Fig .48 Bathroom radiators

Aluminum radiators have particular properties due to

material they are made of and to improve fabrication technology.
The main qualitative characteristics are design, high thermal

efficiency due to increased thermal conductivity of aluminum,
reduced water content which diminishes thermal inertia as well as
smaller weight and surface occupied comparing to thermal power
developed.

Fig. 49 Aluminum radiators with height between 350 and 800 mm

Constructive, aluminum radiators are available in

the range 350, 500, 600, 700, 800 mm which represents
the distance between axis.
There are models especially designed to solve the

heating problem in rooms where the surfaces available for
radiators mounting are narrow.
The respective radiator’s heights vary between 900

up to 2000 mm and thermal power takes value from 235
to 437 W / element .
Aluminum radiators with heights between 900 and 2000 mm

Fan coil units

• Heating and air-conditioning were treated as separate systems.

The connection element is nowadays the fan coil unit (fan coil)
which changes the manner of studying heating and air-conditioning
as a unit.
• Fan coil is a terminal element of a heating and/or air-conditioning

installation which has two basic components: one heating battery
(coil) and a fan.

Fig.50 Fig.51
1. adjustable outlet grille, 2. heating coil, 1 – recirculation; 2 – filter; 3 – fans; 4 – coil air entrance ; 5
3. condensation collector, 4. electric fan, – air supply (heated or cooled). (http://www.calor.ro)
5. air filter, 6. fresh air intake

Working principle is simple : the outgoing air trough fan is

supplied by heating coil in the room. Generally the fan coils are
mounted under windows and use the re-circulated air, but there are
models that allow interference of fresh air, or exclusive fresh air
supply.
There are many constructive types: vertical, horizontal, as well

as models designed for hidden (masked) mounting in walls or false
ceilings, especially in large rooms or if they serve for more than one
room .

a) b) c)
Fig.52 Fan coils constructive types

a) vertical, b) horizontal, c) duct model

The concealed fan coil for drop ceiling can be used in the
variant shown in Fig. 53. for rooms with large areas or for serving
more than one room.
These types are approaching, as functionality and size of the

lower limit of the range of monobloc air treatment plants. Like these,
they use recirculation and supply duct, air intakes, anemostats and
discharge grids.

Fig.53. Concealed fan coil

1 – fan coil ; 2 – fan coil plenum; 3 – insulated flexible duct; 4 – intake grid; 5 – uninsulated flexible duct ; 6
– recircualtion grid; 7 - fresh air grid ; 8 – fresh air duct.
Depending on the heat agent used, the fan coils allow the
room to be heated or cooled. It should be noted that the fan coil
can operate with the same battery for both heating and cooling
(two-pipe ventilators) or can use two separate batteries (four-
pipe fan coils) depending on the designer's option

The placement of the radiators into the rooms

The placement of the radiators in the rooms is preferably

carried out apparently on the outside walls under the windows
because this space is not usable for furniture and in particular
because this prevents the formation of cold air currents and
compensates for the effect of human radiation - window.
The Fig. 54 presented 9 heating installation options.
The location of the radiators must be such that they do not

impede the free flow of air, taking into account that the heat
dissipation is achieved predominantly by convection.

Fig.54. The radiator placement

1 – radiator; 2 – exterior wall ; 3 – concrete slab; 4 – wall niche .
50 mm – the minimum distance wall-radiator; 120 mm – the
minimum distance radiator-floor; a = 150 mm – the minimum
distance for air circulation .

Central heating installations pumps

Thermal agent’s circulation inside heating installations is

ensured by circulation pumps. Their role is to overcome linear and
local hydraulic resistance in the most unprivileged circuit of the
heating installation. For small and medium capacities there are
usually used pipe mounted pumps (in-line pumps) with
variable speed, low electrical energy consumption, silent and very
reliable.

The main characteristics of a pump are:fluid flow rate G,

expressed in m3 / h and pressure difference between
supply and exhaust expressed in N /m2 or in bars. In some
cases one uses the notion of : pumping height H as the equivalent of
pump pressure expressed in liquid column height. It is also important
to know the shaft motor’s power P, in kw, speed n, supply voltage and
electric power frequency.

The central heating pumps selection

The pumps manufacturers provide designers the G, H, P
characteristics in the diagrams form (Fig. 55.) or tables
Circulation pumps must always be

chosen in such manner that the
functioning point places on the
characteristic Q/H corresponding
to maximum motor speed, in it’s
point ,or closest to maximum
efficiency
Fig.55. The diagrams of a variable speed wet rotor pump

Circulation pumps must always be chosen in such manner that the functioning
point places on the characteristic Q/H corresponding to maximum motor speed, in
it’s point ,or closest to maximum efficiency.
Fig. 56 Pump selection

Fig.57 The technical data for wet

rotor pump , EC motor and power
electronic regulation

• Thermal agent flow resulted from calculations can be varied with more
pumps in parallel connection. Parallel mounting is currently used for the
purpose of achieving a flexible functionality, as well as increased safe
exploitation.
• In the case of two identical pumps parallel mounted in the same network, the
common characteristic curve of the two will be obtained by doubling
characteristic flows for a certain pumping height. It is also possible the
parallel mounting for two pumps with different characteristics, on the
condition that maximum pumping height will be the same. Functioning point
for the two pumps parallel connected is the intersection point of pumps
common characteristic curve with network characteristic curve.
• Pumps must be chosen in the manner that the functioning point be

positioned in the maximum efficiency aria.
EXPANSION TANKS

• In any water heating installation may occur dangerous overpressure

situation up to explosion, as consequence of exceeding vaporization
temperature.
• Standard 7132 / 1986 classifies water heating installations with maximum

temperature up to 115 0C into two categories:
• Installations directly related with the atmosphere, provided with opened
expansion tank;
• Installation not related with the atmosphere, provided with safety valves and
closed expansion tank.

• A safety system with opened expansion tank has the following functions :
• overtaking water volume variations, due to normal temperature variations
heating-cooling and ensuring a water reserve which covers for reasonable
period of time the small, inevitable loss;
• exhausting in atmosphere the steam resulted as less supervising the boiler,
errors, malpractice, negligence, automation breakdown, etc.
• maintaining the installation filled, once filled up, up to a level that exceeds
higher consumer’s level, in an inferior distribution installation, respectively,
pipe network level, in case of a superior distribution installation;
• exhausting air during filling up the installation, as well as supplying it during
emptying it, in the manner that no air nor water sacs are formed.

• For the choice of ensuring heating installations with safety valves and closed
expansion tank, safety systems functions are satisfied as follows :
• overtaking volume variations and the small water reserve by the closed
expansion tank;
• maintaining at full capacity the water in installation by the pressure exerted by
the air cushion over the water from the closed expansion tank , which, in this
case may be mounted at the inferior part of the installation, close to the boiler;
• upper limitation of installation pressure using safety valves mounted on the
boiler before every shutting element;
• exhausting air at filling and supplying it at emptying the installation trough ducts,
tanks and air valves.

• A closed expansion tank is mounted at the inferior part of the

installation, close to the boiler. Upper limitation of pressure is
made using safety valves mounted on the boiler previous every
shutting element.
• Exhausting air at during filling and supplying air at exhaustion is

made with manual or automatic air valves.
•
• Constructively, closed expansion tanks can be rectangular, disk,
or cylinder type, and their volume vary between 6 up to 5000
liters.

Closed expansion tank is provided with an elastic

membrane between eater cushion and water
a)
Fig: 58. Closed expansion tank

a – rectangular type, Vu = 6...16 l; b – disc type, Vu =
6....20 l; c –cilinder type, Vu = 6...5000 l. b)
1 – connection on the return pipe; 2 – expansion tank

wall; 3 – elastic membrane ; 4 –water surface with
variable volume ; 5 – air space with variable volume; 6 –
air valve; 7 – support.
c)

Heat exchangers

Heat exchangers are units used for hot water preparation

for the option of accumulation installation (water heater) as well as
without accumulation.
Likewise, heat exchangers are used in heating systems for the
superior parts of high buildings or for heating buildings part of
centralized heating systems that use hot water or stem as primary
agent.

Water heaters are heat exchangers with water

accumulation used for hot water preparation and they are
constructed in two shape types: horizontal and vertical.
The heat exchange surface, respectively, the coil, will be
dimensioned in a manner that will ensure warm water flow in
accordance with the temperature difference from the secondary
circuit (+10 0C cold water temperature, +60 0C warm water
temperature ) and with the temperature difference from the
primary circuit.

Fig.59. Horizontal water heatres Fig.60. Vertical water heaters

• Water heater capacity varies from 80 up to 1000 liters.

• Water heater body is made from anticorrosive protected steel , and for
supplementary cathode protection a magnesium anode is used, or, optionally
an anode fed from an external source.
• Heat losses are diminished by completely covering the heater with a thermal
insulated layer.As a construction option, water heaters can performed as
bivalent water heaters in systems with solar panels combined with
boilers.Heat supplied by the solar panel is transferred in the heater trough the
inferior coil. As an option some heaters can be provided with an electrical
heating system.

• Besides the types presented above, there is another constructive

model called Tank in Tank ,meaning, stainless steel heaters, with
high resistance to extremely corrosive water without temperature
(fig. 3.26).
• Stainless steel used is a chrome-molybdenum alloy witch give
resistance to all temperatures and corrosive waters up to 2000 mg
chlorides/liter.
• These types of heaters are used for direct sea water heating, for
therapy water, residual water in regions with extremely corrosive
waters, and they are recommended in industrial applications that
use corrosive waters.

Fig.61. Tank în tank water heaters

1 – interior steel tank ; 2 – exterior steel tank ; 3 –
Thermal insulation ; 4 – heating supply pipe ; 5 – heating
return pipe ; 6 – cold water ; 7 – hot water ; 8 –
thermostat; 9 – termometer; 10 – bulb thermostat control ;
11 – bulb termometer control; 12 – air valve; 13 –
metalic case ; 14 – hot water recirculation connection

Heat exchangers without accumulation.

The most common in this range are plate heat
exchangers. They are simple devices used for thermal energy
transfer between two fluids, made of a pack of identical stainless
steel plates, with sealing, aligned at the both superior and inferior
part of two supporting pipes between two pressure plates, one of
them fixed and another mobile.
The pack is sealed with sealing guys. Between the plates a free
space is left for fluid circulation; they are kept equidistant from
humps, scratches or dimples.

• Each plate has two walls, one representing the front, the other one
the back of the plate.
• Fluid 1 flows all along the front of the plate and bathes it and fluid 2
flows along the back of the same plate, in counter-flow with fluid 1: in
this manner the heat is transfer along the entire surface of the plate,
while the gaskets tighten the border of the plate and in the same time
separate the fluids.

Fig.62. Plate heat exchanger scheme

1 – plate heat exchanger; 2 – heat
exchanger plates ; 3 – primary
supply connection ; 4 – primary
return connection ; 5 – primary
thermal agent way ; 6 – secondary
supply connection ; 7 – secondary
return connection ; 8 – secondary
thermal agent way

Plate heat exchangers are used in heating for thermal points

modernization, for heating or preparing heated water, in the heating and
cooling processes, in heat recovery, for thermal tests on fluids (e.g.
pasteurization) and in situations were working fluids are corrosives( using
plates executed from austenitic stainless steel, resistant to corrosives
environments).
Stainless steel plates are 0,5 – 0,6 mm thick, which allows achieving
a very good transmission coefficient as well as a reduced thermal
emission, but also lead the fluid in the heat exchanger. They are made of
rubber resistant at up to 150 0C temperature (propyl-ethylene), silicon
rubber or food industry rubber .

Fig. 63Heat exchanger plates Fig.64 Plate heat exchanger

LOW TEMPERATURE RADIATION

HEATING SYSTEMS

Low temperature radiant heating systems uses thermal agents with

lowered parameters - geothermal water, hot water produced by heat recovery
from technological processes, hot water produced by the conversion of solar
energy).
This heating systems has advantages in terms of thermal comfort:

• low temperature gradient;
• more uniform distribution of the temperatures on the delimiting surfaces;
• raising the level of internal temperatures of the delimiting surfaces and
achieving a lower comfort temperature in conditions of a lower temperature
for the indoor air by 1 ... 3 ° C, which is an important comfort indicator;
• saving space and ensuring superior architectural aesthetics;
• It offers the possibility of cooling the rooms during the summer .
The low temperature of the heating surfaces required the use of large
heater surfaces, a role that can be played by the delimiting surfaces of
the room, obtaining:
• Radiant floor heating – by including heating elements inside the
floor ;
• Radiant ceiling heating - by including heating elements inside the
ceiling;
• Radiant wall heating – by including heating elements or radiant
panels (opened or closed radiant panels ) inside the walls.

• Radiant floor heating – by including heating elements inside the

floor;
• Radiant ceiling heating - by including heating elements inside

the ceiling;
• Radiant wall heating – by including heating elements or radiant

panels (opened or closed radiant panels ) inside the walls.

Using delimitating elements of a surface as radiant elements

imposes, from physiological reasons, the limitation of surface
temperatures as follows :
• 40 0 C for ceiling heating;

• 29 0 C for floor heating;
• 70 0 C for walls heating.

Radiant panel heating systems are system where the thermal

agent conductive pipe or electric heating wires are buried in
the floors (whether floor, ceiling or walls).

Low temperature radiation heating, aside the fact that gives the possibility of
using thermal agents with low parameters, also presents advantages in what
thermal comfort is concerned :
• reduced temperature gradient;
• more uniform temperature repartition over the delimitating surfaces;
• rising interior temperature at the level of delimitating surfaces and achieving a
better thermal comfort for a room air temperature with 1 up to 3 0C smaller than
usual, which is an important comfort factor;
• space saving is made and superior architectural esthetic is ensured;
• solves the energy problem by giving the chance of cooling rooms during summer,
which is a serious problem as far as comfort is concerned.

Reduced temperature on heating surfaces imposed the use of

wider surfaces for heating, a work for which the delimitating
surfaces fitted successfully, thus obtaining :
• radiant ceiling heating in which case the medium temperature
cannot exceed + 40 0C ;
• radiant floor (under floor) heating, in which case the medium
temperature is limited at +30 0C ;
• radiant wall heating, in which case temperature can reach up to +
70 0C .

Radiant floor heating

Radiant floor heating systems have the following components:
• the heating floor panel;

• distributors-collectors (which are the common element of more
heating circuits);
• adjustment equipment ;
• thermal energy source.

A radiant floor panel contains:
• the insulation layer (for thermal and acoustic insulation) ;

• the insulation protection layer ;
• heating pipes ;
• thermal flow allotment and emission slab (heating slab);
• final floor ;
• other elements, such as : diffusion layer, marginal insulation, etc.

The temperature at the floor level is limited, from physiological

reasons at up to +30 0C, based on the destination of the room.

Fig. 65 Heating floor’s structure

1)Interior coating, 2) plinth, 3) area strap, 4) final surface, 5) mortar layer, 6) cement layer,
7) heating pipe, 8) covering foil ( PE foil or red rosin paper), 9) thermal and acoustic
insulation layer, 10) hydro insulation, 11) concrete plate, 12)ground.
Depending on the type of insulation, three types of flooring can be

made:
• the nut plate (Fig.66.a.);
• the self-fastening plate (Fig.66.b.);
• Wire mesh plate (Fig. 66.c.).
Fig.66.a. Vario nut plate Fig.66.b. Self fastening Fig.66.c. Wire mesh plate
system system system
The nut plate

system is often
used because it is
easy to mount
(Fig.67.).

The nut plate is made of 46 ... 60 mm thickness polystyrene and the

layout of the nuts allows a casting distance of 7.5 cm (Fig. 68.a.,
Fig.68.b .).
The nuts have a perimeter on their entire perimeter with a folded profile,
with which they can be assembled quickly and safe (Fig. 68.c.).
Fig.68.a. The nuts plate Fig.68.b.The nuts plate Fig.68.c. The nuts plate
superior part folded profile

The mounting
rails system ensures
rising the pipe up to
5mm, and thus a
minimum height for Fig.69.a. Pipe fixing Fig.69.b. Pipe fixing with clamps and clips
the cement layer.

Sustaining clamps
and clips guarantee a
solid fixing of the pipe.
Fig.70.a. Wire screen system Fig.7.b. Rotating clips

The wire screen system it is used for areas with great

weight- ex auto showrooms(Fig.70.a.). The wire screen has
3 cm diameter with rotating clips and 5cm the distance
between the pipes. (Fig.70.b.)

Border insulation
Before the slab, along the walls, an
insulating strap will be laid, around
frames and pillars. Insulation will be
laid from the base floor (sub floor) till
the final floor, allowing a maximum
displacement of 5 mm.

Protective layer
Before making the tile, the insulation layer is covered with
polyethylene strips (at least 0.15 mm thick) or other materials with
similar properties.
The strips will overlap at least 80 mm.Stratul de protecţie
Pipes
The most used types of materials are:
• Reticular Polyethylene (PER);
• Copolymer of polypropylene (PP);
• Polybutalene (PB).
• Copper
PER pipes, due to higher thermal conductivity, release

more heat than the other two types. All three types have a
coefficient of expansion about ten times larger than copper
or steel and are semi-continuous. The PER tube is the most
used. It is manufactured from a high density polyethylene
tube cross-linked through a physical or chemical process. It
has a lifetime of at least 50 years and resists a temperature
of 90 ° C in a permanent mode and at a peak temperature of
110 ° C. PER pipes are assembled by screwing using
mechanical joints (not welded ). Regardless of the types of
pipes and fittings used, it is noteworthy that the assembly
technology is simplified, is fast and does not require the use
of welding processes. He tube diameters used are: 12 x 1.1
mm, 16 x 2 mm, 25 x 2.3 mm.
In addition to the prefabrication possibilities, the tubes
are available in long coats
Cement Layer
Thickness and strength class are chosen depending on the type of
structure. The nominal thickness above the pipe shall be at least three times
the thickness of the largest aggregate in the enclosure, at least 30 mm. The
thermal conductivity of the concrete used must be at least 1 W / mK.
The expansion joints are designed to accommodate the dimensional
variations of the tile.
The cemet layer additive has the role of homogenizing the structure of
the screed, improving the tensile strength as well as thermal characteristics.
Finished flooring can be made of: parquet, textile, ceramic tiles, plastic.
The thermal resistance of the floor (including the sound insulation above the
pipe) shall not exceed 0,15 m2 K / W.

The heating floor scheme it is shown in Fig.71.
Fig.71. The heating radiant floor – scheme

1 - boiler; 2 – primary distribution ; 3 – radiant floor ; 4 – distributor; 5 – colector; 6 - circulation pump ; 7 – theree
ways valve ; 8 – valves; 9 – discharge valves; 10 – distribuior; 11 – colector.

Fig.72. The heating floor components

1 – heating pipe , 2 – border insulation, 3 – insulation, 4 – cement layer , 5 - distributor-colector, 6 -
distributor-colector box

An overview for heating radiant floor for a house it is shown in Fig.73 a şi Fig.73 b.
Fig.73 a- Overview for a house-groundfloor

Fig. 73 b- Overview for a house-first floor

Fig.73 a- Overview for a house-groundfloor

Fig. 73 b- Overview for a house-first floor

Radiant ceiling heating

This type of heating system allows achieving a more

homogenous air temperature, as well as a more reduces air
circulation, which are considered important advantages as far
as thermal comfort is concerned.
For the heating surface the hole ceiling is available

,except for the cases where there are large windows (glass
surface) when supplementary heating surfaces will be added
(for example inside the exterior walls).

• Main advantage is given by elimination of exterior heating

elements, thus obtaining more free space, more
architectural freedom. The space gained, for social
buildings, can be considered an important space saving.
• Another advantage is given by the option of cooling the

ceiling during summer, thus a reversible ceiling.

• Main advantage is given by elimination of exterior heating

elements, thus obtaining more free space, more architectural
freedom. The space gained, for social buildings, can be
considered an important space saving.
• Another advantage is given by the option of cooling the

ceiling during summer, thus a reversible ceiling.

”Building Services- HVAC Systems” – Course
Notes
Different solutions are used to make the radiant ceiling depending on the heat
source - electricity or hot water.
The radiant ceiling with hot water used polyethylene or copper pipes (Fig
II.2.44).
Fig.74. Radiant ceiling Dériaz

1 – floor ; 2 – suport; 3 –cement screed; 4 – concrete slab; 5 – armature; 6 – tie-rod support; 7 – thermal
insulation ; 8 – metalic profile; 9 – heating coil; 10 – aluminium lamellae; 11 –wire screen; 12 – plaster.

Fig.75. Radiant ceiling details

Radiant wall heating

Transforming walls into heating surfaces by integrating a

curved pipes system, is possible taking into consideration the
following aspects:
• exterior walls require supplementary thermal insulation;
• there is always the chance of piercing the pipe , specially in
apartment buildings (e.g. with paintings supports);
• placement of furniture will restrict the radiant thermal flow of
the walls.

Radiant wall heating can be used in different variants :
• individually; (Fig.76.a.)
• in combination with radiant floor heating system; (Fig.76.b.)
• in combination with radiators heating system. (Fig.76.c.)

Fig.76.a. Fig.76.b. Fig.76.c.

Fig. 77 Radiant wall structure

The pipes can be

disposed in the form of simple
loop (Fig.79.a.) or double loop
(Fig.79.b.),
Fig.79.a. Simple loop Fig.79.b. Double loop

1 - pipe, 2 - rail, 3 – border band, 4 – return pipe, 5 – supply pipe, 6 – concrete slab, 7 – phonic
insulation, 8 - cemet screed, 9 – fixing dowels.

VENTILATION AND AIR

CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Ventilation systems are designed to supply or extract air into and out of
the rooms to ensure the required indoor air quality.
Air conditioning systems aims to create an interior environment that
responds to the quality of indoor air quality and thermal comfort.
Air is the agent through which all ventilation and conditioning processes
are carried out.
The quality of the indoor air is ensured by ventilation, depending on the
purpose of the room, of the type of pollution sources and the activity taking
place in the room.
In particular, air quality can be ensured by special means (active carbon
filters, deodorizing machines, etc.).

Fig.80. House ventilation system

1 – fresh air grid; 2 – heat recovery ; 3 – fresh air ; 4 – exhaust air ; 5 – exhaust grid.
There are four indoor air quality categories (IDA1 - IDA4) - SR EN 13779:2007)
Indoor air quality categories Description

IDA 1 High indoor air quality
IDA 2 Medium indoor air quality
IDA 3 Moderate indoor air quality
IDA 4 Low indoor air quality
Category CO2 level above outdoor air level [ppm]

Typical range Missing value
IDA 1 ≤ 400 350
IDA 2 400 – 600 500
IDA 3 600 – 1000 800
IDA 4 ≥ 1000 1200

The outdoor air quality is classified into five categories (ODA1 - ODA5) according
to SR EN 13779:2007).
Category Description
ODA 1 Pure air containing only temporary dust particles (eg pollen)
ODA 2 External air with high concentration of dust particles
ODA 3 External air with high concentration of gaseous pollutants
ODA 4 External air with a high concentration of dust particles and gaseous
pollutants
ODA 5 External air with a very high concentration of dust particles and gaseous
pollutants

Air quality categories introduced into rooms (according to SR EN 13779:

2005)
Categorie Descriere
SUP 1 Inlet air containing only outdoor air
SUP 2 Inlet air with external air and recirculated air

Ventilation and air conditioning systems classification
Criterion - the energy source for air circulation

Natural ventilation Mechanical ventilation with Hybrid ventilation
one circuit (monoflux)
Criterion – Room interior pressure
In depression In overpressure Balanced
Criterion – Space ventilated volume

Local ventilation General ventilation Combined ventilation
Criterion – Air treatment

Without air treatment With air treatment

NORMAL VENTILATION
Unorganized normal ventilation systems ventilation is

accomplished by opening doors and windows, by leaky rooms,
offices, warehouses, working places, etc.
Organized normal ventilation systems ventilation is made
through gaps or special constructions, windows, scuttles,
ventilation chimneys in kitchens, bathrooms, industrial buildings
etc.

a) b)
Fig.81. Natural ventilation (http://blog.intax.ro/sisteme-de-ventilatie-corect-realizate/)

a) Unorganized b) Organized
1 – internal exhaust grids; 2 – exhaust duct; 3 – external exhaust grid.
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
General mechanical ventilation systems – uses fans for air circulation

that serve the entire building and make the circulation for the entire air volume in
industrial buildings, social, cultural, commercial, administrative, etc.
Local mechanical ventilation systems act on the air supply source,

sweeps the air around the source, absorbs the harmful substances before the air
comes back in the room ( industrial furnaces, weld tables, industrial zinc bathing,
varnish removals, grinders, wood processing etc.) .
Mixed mechanical ventilation systems – apply both general and local

ventilation.

Mechanical ventilation is accomplished by fans. If hybrid

ventilation, natural outlet circuit, fans are automatically put into
operation when the natural factors can not ensure circulation.
Depending on the number of circuits, the ventilation

installations are classified into single circuit installations –
monoflow (Fig. 82.) or with two circuits (double flow - Fig.83.).
In installations with a circuit, mechanical air circulation is

provided on the air inlet or outlet circuit. For two-circuit
installations, both the introduction and the exhaust air are
performed mechanically.
Fig.82. Mechanical ventilation monoflow

(http://www.homeventilation.co; http://www.aereco.ro)
Fig.83. Mechanical ventilation double flow (http://www.homeventilation.co)

Hybrid ventilation (Fig. 84.) Is a natural ventilation to which mechanical means of air
circulation have been introduced, which only enter into operation when the pressure
differences created by the natural factors are insufficient to achieve the required air flow .
Fig.84. Hybrid ventilation

The main elements of a mechanical ventilation system

Constructive element Role Photo
Air intake Takes fresh air from the outside.
Dust filter Keep the dust from the fresh air

and recirculated.
Heating coil Heat exchanger for fresh or

recirculated air heating. It can work
with hot water or steam.


Air intake and exhaust They are single-aspirating or
fans double-aspirating or axial type
centrifugal type and are designed to
circulate air from ventilation
systems.
Ventilation ducts t is used for the air transport and

are used in galvanized sheet metal,
plastic or polyisocyanurate both
insulated and uninsulated.
Air inlet and outlet They are used to introduce or
evacuate the air and there are a
variety of types such as shape,
composition and material. It is used
together with air flow control
elements and vertical and horizontal
jet routing.


Outlets for outdoor air They have an identical design with
the air intake and are used to
evacuate outside the air.
Recuperator de căldură They have an identical design with

the air intake and are used to
evacuate outside the air from room
Silencer It is made of sound-absorbing

sound absorbing material, which,
when passing through the air,
reduces the noise level.
Balancing elements There are elements that fit along

the path of a ventilation duct and
stop or regulate airflow.

General mechanical ventilation systems

General mechanical ventilation systems are designed
taking into account the type of supply or exhaust , but also the
parameters of the air introduced.
Thus, the following general mechanical ventilation systems
are obtained:
• Absorption ventilation (aspiration) systems;
• Discharge ventilation systems;
• Discharge and absorption ventilation systems;
• Ventilation and humidification systems;
• Ventilation systems with cooling;
• Ventilation systems with air drying.

Mechanical suction ventilation

Applies to rooms with dirty air : kitchens, closets, labs,
wardrobes, and others (Fig.85 and Fig.86).
Fig.85. Mechanical suction ventilation

GA – exhaust grid; VE – fan; GE – outlet grid.
Fig.86. Mechanical suction ventilation system example (http://www.calorserv.ro)

Discharge ventilation
It is used in rooms without toxic substances releases: offices, shops, exhibition halls and more.
Inside the ventilation room, air is introduced from the outside, which will also penetrate into the neighboring
rooms or will be evacuated outwards (Fig.87.). The air introduced will be filtered and heated in the winter. It
will create a pressure that will prevent harm from entering adjoining rooms.
Fig.87. Discharge mechanical ventilation

GR - discharge grid; VE - fan; PA – intake grid.
Discharge and absorption ventilation systems

This system can operate with outside air, partially recirculated (mixed) or recirculated air (in full
recirculation mode). This system can also heat the room. In Fig. 88. there is presented the simple
installation that works only with outside air, and in Fig. 89. there is shown an air treatment plant diagram that
can operate in the three variants - only with fresh air, with partially recirculated air or with total recirculation
mode. An example of installation is shown in Fig.90.
Fig.88. Discharge and absorption mechanical ventilation system

GR – discharge grid; VE –fan ; PA – intake grid; FP – filter; GA – exhaust grid.
It is used for cinemas, restaurants and other rooms with crowds.
Fig.89. Discharge and absorption ventilation system with air handling unit
1 – intake grid; 2 - outlet grid; 5 - filter; 9 – suction fan; 10 - silencer; 11 – fresh air duct; 12 – fresh air grid;
13 – air treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid; 15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer; 17 – exhaust fan ; 18 -
C catalinpopovici_tuiasi damper
www.study.tuiasi.ro www.learning.tuiasi.ro
Fig.90 Discharge and absorption ventilation system with air handling unit example

Mechanical ventilation combined with hot air heating

It is used in the case of rooms where the heating is carried out through ventilation systems during the
winter period. This system can be used to combine mechanical ventilation with air heating only (Fig.91).
Fig. 91 Mechanical ventilation combined with heating

Fig.92. Mechanical ventilation combined with hot air heating

1 – intake grid; 2 – outlet grid; 5 -filter; 6 – heating coil; 9 – suction fan; 10 - silencer; 11 –fresh air duct; 12 –
fresh air grid ; 13 – air treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid; 15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer; 17 – exhaust fan
C catalinpopovici_tuiasi ; 18 – damper.
Ventilation combined with cooling

The ventilation cooling is used when it is desired cooling in addition with ventilation in the summer
period (Fig.93.).
Fig.93. Ventilation combined with cooling

1. GR – discharge grid , 2. VE – fan, 3. PA – intake grid, 4. GA – exhaust grid, 5. BR –cooling coil, 6. FP – filter
The Fig. 94 scheme . combines mechanical ventilation with cooling using the air handling unit
Fig.94. Ventilation combined with cooling using air handling unit

1 – intake grid; 2 – outlet grid; 5 -filter; 6 – cooling coil; 9 – suction fan; 10 - silencer; 11 –fresh air duct; 12 –fresh
air grid ; 13 – air treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid; 15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer; 17 – exhaust fan ; 18 –
C catalinpopovici_tuiasi
damper
Ventilation combined with humidification

For rooms with high humidity requirements, moisture ventilation is adopted. Humidification of the air
introduced into the room is accomplished by adiabatic means, by spraying with water (closed circuit) into the
air flow (Fig.95.) Or by steam injection (isothermal humidification).
Fig.95. Ventilation combined with humidication

GR – Discharge grid, VE – fan, PA – intake grid, GA – exhaust grid, BR – cooling coil, FP – filter, BI – heating coil, CU
– humidification module.
A complete ventilation scheme with air handling unit including humidity control is shown in Fig. 96.
Fig.96. Mechanical ventilation combined with humidification using air handling unit
1 - intake grid; 2 – outlet grid; 5 - filter; 6 – heating coil ; 7 – cooling coil ; 8 – humidification module; 9 –
suction fan; 10 - silencer; 11 – fresh air duct ; 12 –fresh air grid ; 13 – air treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid;
15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer; 17 – exhaust fan ; 18 – damper
Mechanical ventilation combined with drying

It is used in rooms with high humidity releases. Cooling and humidification schemes are valid for
drying, with the following specifications: when using cooling batteries, their temperature should be lower than
the dew point temperature of the cooled air, and when using wet rooms, use only water with a temperature
lower than the dew point temperature (Fig.97).
Fig.97. Mechanical ventilation combined with drying

1 - intake grid; 2 – outlet grid; 5 - filter; 6 – heating coil ; 7 – cooling coil ; 8 – humidification module; 9 –
suction fan; 10 - silencer; 11 – fresh air duct ; 12 –fresh air grid ; 13 – air treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid;
15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer; 17 – exhaust fan ; 18 – damper; 19- drying module
Ventilation combined with heat recovery
Energy recovery can be done by:
• Recirculation of part of the exhaust air ;

• Use of plates heat recovery ;
• Use of rotating heat recovery ;
• Intermediate fluid heat recovery units ;
• Heat recovery with heat pump .

Recirculation of part of the exhaust air
Fig.98. Recirculation of part of the exhaust air

AP – fresh air; PA – intake fresh air; CR – damper; CA – mixing room; AI –
discharge air; AE – exhaust air; AR – recirculated air; GE – exhaust grid.

The regulation of the intake-recirculated-exhaust air flows is

achieved by correlating the CR dampers, which will carry out the
ratio of the recirculated air mixture to the fresh air and the
recirculated air mixture to exhaust air (Fig.98).
When adjusting the mixing ratio, take into account that the
fresh air flow from the outside must be at least equal to the fresh
air flow required in the room.
The overall layout is shown in Fig. 99 having representative

mode of heat recovery 3.

Ventilation combined with heat recovery
Fig.99. Mechanical ventilation combined with heat recovery

1 - intake grid; 2 – outlet grid; 3- heat recovery 5 - filter; 6 – heating coil ; 7 – cooling coil ; 8 –
humidification module; 9 – suction fan; 10 - silencer; 11 – fresh air duct ; 12 –fresh air grid ; 13 – air
treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid; 15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer; 17 – exhaust fan ; 18 – damper; 19-
C catalinpopovici_tuiasi drying module
”Building Services- HVAC Systems” – Course
Notes
Plates heat recovery

There are equipments where air streams are separated by means of plates made of steel,
aluminum, plastics, etc., which are arranged parallel to short distance.
The air crosses the plates in cross-flow or parallel and there is no contact between the fresh
air and the exhaust.
The plates heat recovery is a surface heat exchanger .
The plates have corrugations in parallel with 2 ... 10 mm spaced between the plates.
Fig.100. Plates heat recovery

The plates heat recovery can be located in air handling unit component (Fig.99.), Respectively
the heat recovery module of air handling unit. In the case of some small installations, specific equipment
called heat recovery systems can be used which can be located in the rooms they serve (Fig.101). An
example of location is shown in 102. They are usually equipped with pre-heating coils to increase
thermal power and reduce the risk of frost.
Fig.101. The plates heat recovery unit

1 – suction air; 2 – discharge air; 3 – plates heat recovery; 4 – preheating coil ; 5 – fresh air; 6 – recirculation damper;
7 – exhaust air.
Fig.102. Ventilation system with heat

recovery unit (www.ecohouseinstal.ro;
http://www.fantronix.com)
1 – intake grid ; 2 – discharge grid; 3 –
suction grid; 4 –heat recovery unit ; 5 –
exhaust grid.
Fig.103. Plate heat recovery

1 – fresh air; 2 – plate heat recovery; 3 –
preheating fresh air; 4 – exhaust air; 5 –dust ; 6
– exhaust air after heat release.

Rotary heat recovery

The rotary heat recovery are made up of movable elements that pass consecutively through the
exhaust air flow taking up the energy and then through the fresh air stream to which it delivers energy.
The heat accumulating material rotates slowly at speeds of 5 ... 10 rpm and passes in the same direction,
but in opposite directions, by two air streams: fresh and exhausted(Fig.104).
Fig.104. Rotary heat recovery

1 – fresh air; 2 – exhaust air; 3 - motoreductor; 4 – purge
sector; 5 – storage material roll

Heat Recovery unit with heat pump

The heat pump heat recovery unit is a plates heat recovery unit with a mechanical
compressor (Fig.105). For the winter period on the evacuated air circuit, the evaporator is
intercalated and the condenser is intercalated on the fresh air circuit. For the summer period
the functions of the two heat exchangers are reversed: on the exhaust air circuit there will be
the condenser and on the fresh air circuit will be the evaporator (Fig.105).
Fig.105 Construction of a heat pump heat

recovery (http://www.e-energieverde.ro)
1 - compressor group; 2 - condenser-
evaporator; 3 - expansion valve.

Buildings air conditioning systems

Air conditioning systems range
The buildings air conditioning systems range ensures the thermal

comfort in the rooms throughout the year. Air conditioning can be done
with local air conditioning units or with centralized air conditioning
systems.
Centralized air conditioning systems are classified as follows:

• "air only" air conditioning systems;
• "air-water" air conditioning systems;
• "air-refrigerant" or “direct-expansion” air conditioning systems.

"Air only" air conditioning systems

"Air only" air-conditioning systems (Fig. 106) are characteristic of both small-area buildings, but especially
those with very large areas. Be provided in the design space for routing air ducts and correlation with other
specializations.
Fig.106 “Air only” air conditioning system

1 – fan/air handling unit; 2 – main rectangular duct; 3 – secondary rectangular duct; 4 – flexible duct ; 5 – grid
plenum ; 6 – grid ; 7 – duct grid ; 8 – main duct damper ; 9 – secondary duct damper; 10 – wall passing ;
“Air-only" air conditioning systems with a constant flow channel

These air conditioning systems are called "one channel" because the input channel is
considered, but the system also has an exhaust duct. The system operates all the time with the same
airflow, both in summer and winter.
A single-zone air conditioning system serving multiple rooms is shown in Fig. IV.3.5.
Fig.107. Air conditioning system with one low/high pressure channel for one area, serving multiple rooms
1 – intake fresh air; 2 – exhaust air; 5 - filter; 6 – heating coil; 7 – cooling coil ; 8 – humidification module; 9 –
suction fan ; 10 - silencer; 11 – supply air duct; 12 – discharge grid; 13 – air treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid;
15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer; 17 – exhaust fan; 18 - damper; 19 – drying module; 20 – local heating coil.
"Air only" air conditioning with variable flow

Variable flow installations are a solution that is being practiced more and
more for economic reasons.
Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems have been developed from
conventional "air only" systems with constant airflow with introduction of
special elements: variable flow air ducts, flow variables simple, induction
variators and auxiliary fan variants.
Recommended applications are, in particular, large tertiary buildings with
many modular structures, different working hours, time-varying heat loads.
These systems are designed to operate in such a way as to provide the
air flow strictly necessary to satisfy the interior conditions of an area or room,
depending on the area's own needs, in which the constant air temperature of
the air channel network the flow of air introduced into the rooms varies
according to their thermal requirements.
Air-conditioning systems with one channel variable air flow

In Fig. 108. the scheme of a variable flow air conditioning system with a channel is presented. The
specific equipment is the VAV flow rate 21.
Fig.108. Air conditioning system with one low/high pressure channel variable flow, serving multiple rooms
1 – intake fresh air; 2 – exhaust air; 5 - filter; 6 – heating coil; 7 – cooling coil ; 8 – humidification module; 9 – suction fan ; 10 -
silencer; 11 – supply air duct; 12 – discharge grid; 13 – air treatment area; 14 – exhaust grid; 15 – exhaust air duct; 16 - silencer;
17 – exhaust fan; 18 - damper; 19 – drying module; 21 – VAV.
There are also situations where VAVs with heating coils or cooling coils are used so that we have
different temperatures in neighboring rooms (Fig.109.).
Fig.109. Neighboring rooms using

VAV with heating or cooling coils

“Air-water” air conditioning systems
"Air-water" air-conditioning systems are used for air-conditioning buildings with low
heights and with a large variation of thermal loads - administrative buildings, hotels, banks,
restaurants, office buildings, individual residential buildings, etc.
The air conditioning of these spaces is accomplished by means of terminal devices
that treat the air locally with the help of heat exchangers. Depending on the type of terminal
equipment, the systems may be with fan coil , ejector convector or cooling beams. Both
systems can only operate with recirculated air only or fresh air and recirculated air.
The supply of heat exchangers is made with 2 or 4 pipes. Because this systems
also operate with a cooling coil, the system are provided with a condensate tray and
condensing pipe.
The heat thermal agent is hot water supplying the heating coil taken from a heat
pump or chilled water supplying and the cooling coil taken from a chilled water unit called
the chiller.
There are systems where an air flow, called primary air, treated in a central or central
air handling unit is also provided in the air-conditioned space and this flow is equal to the
www.study.tuiasi.ro
fresh air flow required.
C catalinpopovici_tuiasi www.learning.tuiasi.ro
"Air-water" air conditioning systems with fan coils
These systems use thermal agent - hot or cold water, centrally

prepared, to transport heat or cold to the air-conditioned rooms, depending on
the season. The water is pumped and distributed in terminal apparatuses by
means of two, three or four pipes .
The most used system, where the primary fluid is water, is fan coils
system.

"Air-water" air conditioning systems with 2-pipe fan coils

"Air-water" air-conditioning systems with 2-pipe fan coils use fan coils with one coil , connected
to a 2-pipe system. These 2 pipelines provide heat supply with DHW heating 90/70 ° C or 80/60 ° C in the
winter or 7/12 ° C chilled water supply in the summer situation (Fig.111 ).
Fig.111. Installation ceiling fan coil with 1 coil and 2 pipes

Fig.110. Wall fan coil (http://www.instalbiz.com/resources/47-resource- (http://flowcon.com/)
fan-coil_49.html) 1 – fan coil ; 2 – supply thermal agent; 3 – return thermal
1 – electric panel; 2 – coil; 3 – fan; 4 –fan coil case. agent; 4 – 2 way motorized valve; 5 – thermostat.
Fig.113. Installation ceiling fan coil scheme

1 – fan coil; 2 – supply air duct; 3 – discharge grid; 4
Fig.112. Fan coil thermostat – air treatment ; 5 – recirculated air; 6 – recirculation
grid; 7 – filter; 8 – access hatch.

Fig.114. Fresh air in the aspiration of ceiling fan coil

1 – ceiling fan coil; 2 – fan coil plenum; 3 –flexible insulated air duct ; 4 – discharge grid ; 5 – flexible
uninsulated air duct; 6 –recirculation grid; 7 – intake fresh air grid; 8 – fresh air duct.

"Air-water" air conditioning systems with 4-pipe fan coils
"Air-water" air conditioning systems with 4-pipe fan coils use fan coils with two coils
(Fig.115.), Connected to a 4-pipe system.
These 4 pipelines provide heat supply with hot water heating 90/70 ° C or 80/60 ° C in
winter or 7/12 ° C chilled water supply in the winter situation (Fig.116 .).
The indoor air temperature control for each room is controlled by a control device
designed to control two 3 or 2-way valve actuators, respectively the fan, as well as automatic
switching from heating to cooling.
Air-to-water air conditioning systems with 4-pipe VCV are used for buildings where
there are simultaneous requests for room operation in heating or cooling mode.

Fig.115. Fan coil with 2 coils and 4 pipes Fig.116. Installation scheme for fan coil
1 – fan; 2 – coils; 3 – supply/return heating thermal with 2 coils and 4 pipes (http://flowcon.com/)
agent; 4 - supply/return cooling thermal agent; 5 – 1 – fan coil; 2 –supply/return heating
drainage case thermal agent; 3 – supply/return heating
thermal agent; 4 – 2 way actuator valve;
5 – thermostat

Air conditioning with induction units (ejection convectors, cooling

beams)
The feature of these equipment is the use of fresh air treated in

centralized installations and individually introduced by each appliance.
Systems using induction units prepare primary air and treat it, then it is
sent at high speed and constant flow to the ejection convectors or cooling
beams.
Primary air flow will be distributed to ejector units / cooling beams via
thermally and soundproof ducts, and in the winter situation, the primary air
may be humidified.
Ejector convectors are fitted inside which the primary air under pressure is
filled through nozzles, which produces an induction effect by induction of air from the
room where the ejector convector is located (Fig. 118).
The air thus sucked passes through a filter, then a coil that circulates hot water
or cold water.
There can also be two coils, one heating and one cooling, making the system
with 2 coils or 4 pipes.
The primary air is mixed with the recirculated air, heated or cooled, and is then
discharged into the room at constant flow and variable temperature.
Regulated air temperature control is obtained either by adjusting the flow of
water flowing through the coil by means of the control valves or by varying the air flow
rate input by means of a motorized damper. The two controls are operated by an
ambient thermostat.
The scheme of an ejector convector is shown in Fig. 117

Fig.117. Circulation of fresh air, recirculated and treated for an ejector with two coils
1 - fresh air; 2 – ejector convector ; 3 - recirculated air; 4 - cooling / heating coil; 5 -
introduction of treated air; 6 - thermal agent connection.
Fig.118. Placement ejector convectors

Active cooling beams are used for a wide range of applications, for the
cooling and ventilation rooms with high thermal loads and high heights, without creating airflow.
They are located at the ceiling of the rooms (Fig. 120.), and another feature of the cooling beams
is no condensation because the temperature of the thermal agent is above the dew point.
Active cooling beams provide fresh air from the air handling unit in space to maintain
indoor air quality and also provide cooling and / or heating functions with cooling and / or heating
coils.
Fresh air is introduced into the mixing chambers through the nozzles. Secondary air
passes through induction through an input grid and then enters the mixing chambers through the
heat exchangers mounted vertically.
Here it is mixed with fresh air, the air mixture being then introduced horizontally into
space through the slit diffusers in Fig. 119. the diagram of the cooling beam and the circulation of
primary and secondary air are shown.
These devices are available in variants with different nominal lengths, combined with
different nozzle sizes, allowing for optimal adaptation of air flow and thermal functions,
maintaining low noise levels and low differential pressure.
Heat exchangers are available in 2-pipe and 4-pipe versions respectively.
Fig. 119. Cooling beams

1 - introduction of fresh air; 2 - recirculated air; 3 -
treated air input; 4 - Cooling coils.

Fig. 120. Placement of cooling beams

Air conditioning systems with heat pump with water loop
The system is recommended for large buildings with spaces distributed over
thermal areas that simultaneously require heating and cooling.
The thermal agent used in this air conditioning system is water, which circulates in a
closed loop, or a "water loop". This air-loop heat pump system is basically based on the
energy transfer between the indoor air and a closed water circuit (the water loop inside the
building). Pumps take from, or yield to the loop, the energy required to achieve the desired
ambient temperature.
The major interest in this system is the recovery and transfer of thermal energy,
which is realized as follows:
• The cooling heat pump will yield heat from the condenser to the water loop;
• Conversely, the heat pump operating in the heater will recover heat from the water loop;

Fig. 121. Vertical heat pump with water loop Fig. 122. Horizontal heat pump with water loop
1 – Connection to primary thermal agent ; 2 – 1 – Connection to primary thermal agent ; 2 –
expansion valve ; 3 – heating/cooling coil ; 4 – expansion valve ; 3 – heating/cooling coil ; 4 –
condenser; 5 – compressor; 6 – fan; 7 - filter. condenser; 5 – compressor; 6 – fan; 7 - filter.

"Air-refrigerant" air conditioning system

Local "air - refrigerant“ systems
Local air conditioning systems with direct expansion is performed with split-type system and can be
used in residential buildings in office buildings with a small number of rooms. It is advisable to use appliances that
can also operate in the winter heat pump mode. The cooling capacities of the internal units are 7,000 Btu/h, 9,000
Btu/h, 12,000 Btu/h, 18,000 Btu/h or 24,000 Btu/h. The indoor units shall be located so that the air jet does not
disturb occupants.
Buildings that are climatized with split units must be able to place the outdoor units. The outdoor units
should be placed as far as possible on the façades of a little sunny and where the aesthetic aspect is not
important (Fig.124).
Fig. 123. Split units systems Fig.124. Placement of external unit

To reduce the number of outdoor units, multisplit systems can be used. The
multisplit system consists of one to five internal units, which are served by a single outdoor
unit (Fig. 125)
Fig.125. Multisplit system

1 – outdoor unit; 2 – refrigerant pipes; 3 – indoor units.
Ducts system can be used for large rooms and can be fitted with air ducts and intake / extraction
grids (Fig.126).
Fig.126. High pressure available duct system and connection to inlet / outlet grids
1 - plenum; 2 - air inlet / outlet ducts; 3 – inlet grids; 4 – outet/recirculation grids.
Centralized air conditioning - refrigerant with Variable

Refrigerant Flow/Volume (VRF/V)
The Variable Refrigerant Volume (VRV) is one of the most

efficient air conditioning systems.
This is indicated for buildings with a large number of rooms with
high thermal load differences and where there is no heat source or where
no hot water or cooling water piping is required for an air-to-water system.
The VRV system shown in Fig. 127. and Fig. 128. is composed of
the external unit and several internal units (Fig. 129).
Outdoor units can be located on the roof of the air-conditioned
building or on the ground in specially designed areas.

Fig. 127. VRV system including ventilation with heat recovery

Fig. 129. VRV system including ventilation with heat recovery components
1 – VRV outdoor unit; 2 - refnet; 3 – discharge fresh air grid; 4 – discharge air treat grid; 5 – recirculation grid; 6
– heta recovery unit; 7 – fresh air ; 8 – exhaust air; 9 – exhaust air grid.

Fig.130. VRV indoor units and outdoor units

Ventilation / air conditioning systems components

Terminal elements and devices for air intake and
exhaust
Terminal devices for the air intake and exhaust
The main types of air intake devices are shown in Table 1. and the
recommended use range for them is given in Table 2.

Tab.1. Air intake devices

Jet nozzle Grids Wall air Ceiling wall Perforated air
diffuser diffuser diffuser
Cone Jet air diffuser Perforated Floor air Underchair

diffusers wall air diffuser air grid
(anemostats) diffuser

Perorated wall
Jet air diffuser
Perforated air
Anemostats
Underchair
Ceiling air
Jet nozzle
Air grids
Floor air
Wall air
diffuser
diffuser
diffuser
diffuser
diffuser
grid
Offices (heat+cold) ** ** ** ***
load: 0 – 30 W/m2 ** ** *** *** *** *** ***
30 – 60 W/m2 ** *** ** ***
> 60 W/m2 ** ** ** ** ***
Conference rooms * ** ** ** *** ***
Cinema * * * ** ** **
Auditorium * * * ** ** * Tab..2. Application
Restaurants * ** ** ** *** ** ** recommended for air intake
Course halls ** ** *** *** *** *** * devices (according I5 / 2010)
Exhibition halls * ** *** *** *** *** *** ***
Market * * ** ** *** *** ***
Supermarket * * *** *** *** ***
Sport halls *** ** ** *
Swiming pools *** ** * ** **
Industrial kichens * ** ** ** **
Laboratories * ** ** ** **
Clean rooms * ** ** ***
Houses ** ** *** ***
Institutions ** ** *** *** **

The connection of the air intake / extraction devices is done either directly to the
air ducts or by a plenum box, depending on the recommendation of the equipment
supplier.
In Fig. 131. there are some types of plenum boxes.
Fig.131. Constructive types of plenum boxes

Air ducts and accessories
Air ducts are used for air transport. Materials and technologies for air ducts are
chosen according to the particularities of the building, the conditions of exploitation,
installation, aesthetics, economic considerations, etc.
Ventilation ducts are made of non-combustible materials (reaction classes A1, A2-s1,
d0). Air ducts made of highly flammable materials (fire reaction classes B1, C, D) are allowed
in buildings with low and medium fire risk, provided the piping is located so that it does not
contribute to fire propagation.
Classification of the ventilation ducts in terms of fire performance is based on the
criteria of fire integrity (E) and thermal insulation (I) and the minimum fire performance for the
ventilation ducts is EI 15.
Thus, for air ducts can use:
• steel sheet (galvanized or stainless steel) or aluminum;
•plastic products;
• mineral wool slabs;
• expanded polyisocyanurate coated with aluminum foil;
• textiles etc
Metal ventilation ducts
They are prefabricated elements for ventilation, air conditioning for buildings, for the
transport and distribution of fresh air introduced, and for the evacuation of vapors, noxes and
light suspensions from civil, industrial or agricultural buildings. Metallic air ducts for ventilation,
air conditioning in buildings are prefabricated elements including straight, curved, or circular or
rectangular sections.
The products are made of steel sheet (galvanized, black or stainless steel), aluminum
or copper, with sections in accordance with the dimensional requirements specified in SR EN
1505, SR EN 1506 and SR 13446 standards.
It is made with a rectangular or circular section

Straight sections and special rectangular pieces of galvanized sheet are manufactured in
accordance with the dimensional requirements specified in SR EN 1505, SR EN 1506 and SR 13446
standards. In Table 3. there are presented some special rectangular pieces and the right section of
galvanized sheet. Tab.3. Straight section and special rectangular special parts
(www.climatherm.ro)
Rectangular 90° Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular tee

straight section bend reduction bounce

The circular air ducts are made of sheet metal with a width of 137 mm and a thickness of
0.5 mm - 1 mm, with nominal diameters between 80 ... 1250 mm Also joined by rabbets
Tab.4. Circular straight sections and special joints with gasket www.climatherm.ro
Circular Circular
Circular straigh 90° circular bend Circular tee
reduction with connector with
section with gasket with gasket
gasket gasket

Ventilation ducts made of mineral wool slabs

Self-supporting pipe systems of mineral wool slabs are made by cutting and joining plates of mineral
wool or high density glass on both sides (Fig. 132) According to the desired air ducts profile.
The resulting ventilation ducts are insulated and are used for ventilation and air conditioning
installations.
In accordance with I15 / 2010, these pipes can be used for the introduction of air into civilian or production
buildings falling under the fire risk categories provided that they are plated on both sides with aluminum foil.
Fig.132. Ventilation ducts made of mineral wool slabs (http://www.isover-technical-insulation.co)

Plastic air ducts

Plastic air ducts are designed and used for operation in corrosive environments. As with metal
ventilation ducts, they are made with a rectangular or circular section.
Plastic air ducts can not be used in buildings with high and high fire risk, high and very high
buildings, crowded rooms.
Fig.133. Rectangular and circular plastic air ducts

(http://buildguide.info/tr/pages/832589; http://erkanplast.com/)

Ventilation ducts made of polyisocyanurate coated with aluminum foil

Aluminum foil polyisocyanurate ventilation ducts are made of high performance polyurethane
foam insulated polyurethane foam, CFC (HCFC), HCFC (hydrofluorocarbons) or HFC
(hydrofluorocarbons), coated with 60 μm corrugated aluminum foil, on both sides and thickness 20 mm
(Fig. 134.) The density of the polyisocyanurate foam is 35 kg / m3 with a thermal conductivity λd = 0.024
W / m2K
Fig.134. Aluminum foil polyisocyanurate

material (http://alp.it)
1 – rigid polyurethane foam; 2 –
aluminiu foil
Fig.135.Ventilation ducts made of aluminum-

coated polyisocyanurate with rectangular (a)
and circular cross section (b) (http://alp.it)
a) b) www.study.tuiasi.ro
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The airflows control dampers

The air flow control devices are designed to ensure aeration balancing of the flow through the air
channels in order to achieve optimal flow parameters by completely or partially closing the air circulation in
certain sectors or to maintain a constant flow regardless of air characteristics entrance. They can be operated
manually or automatically with a servomotor.
Depending on the section of the air channels, the dampers can be rectangular or circular.
Fig.136. Rectangular damper
Fig. 137. Circular damper

Silencers
Silencers are used to reduce the noise level to an admissible value through the absorption
phenomenon. They are provided with sound-absorbing material inside to enhance the attenuation phenomenon.
The outer shell is made of galvanized steel sheet, the perforated steel sheet inside and the interior is filled with
mineral wool for noise mitigation.
Depending on the section of the air channels, the silencers may be rectangular or circular section.
Fig.138. Rectangular silencer
Fig. 139. Circular silencer

Fans
They are hydraulic machines used to transport air and gas and produce a pressure of up
to 30,000 Pa.
Fans range product

Depending on the type of construction or motor drive mode, see Table IV.4.7. different
types of fans.

Tab.5. Types of fans
By constructive type
Radial (centrifugal) Axial With transvers current
Axial suction and radial Axial suction and discharge The suction is through a part
discharge of the rotor and discharge on
other part of the rotor

Radial fans classification

By constructive form
For circular duct For rectangular duct Roof fan
By pressure function
Low pressure Medium pressure High pressure
0...1000 Pa 1000...3000 Pa peste 3000 Pa

By the shape of the rotor blades

backward Forword Straight (Radial)
By application
Smoke exhaust Corrosive environment Pneumatic transport

Axial fans
By mounting position
Duct mounting Window mounting Wall mounting Roof mounting

Central air-handling units
Central air treatment units are used to treat the required air for one
or more large rooms.
The central air-handling units can be made in the following
variants:
• Single or SPLIT system;
• discharge of open air through grids and connection to ventilation ducts;
• for operation during the summer or all year round.

Single or split systems

A system is compact if the assembly of central, terminal and intermediate equipments are
grouped within a monobloc assembly.
From this category we distinguish: individual air conditioners (window or split system),
Fig.140
Fig.140. MONOBLOC window system

1 - vaporizer; 2 - compressor; 3 - condenser; 4 fan; 5 - engine; 6 – expansion valve; 7 - fan; 8 - recirculation
damper; 9 - fresh air damper; 10 - fresh air; 11 - treated air (heated / cooled); 12 - recirculated air; 13 - exhaust air.

Local air-refrigeration air conditioning systems

Air conditioning cabinets
They are especially used for air-conditioning of Data Center servers, but they are also used
for air-conditioning of large rooms: meeting rooms, restaurants, shopping malls.
Fig.140. Air conditioning cabinet

1 – outdoor unit; 2 - condensed; 3 – refrigerant pipes; 4 - compressor; 5 – direct expansion coil ; 6 - fan; 7 -
fresh air; 8 - treated air (heated / cooled); 9 – suction ; 10 - outside air for cooling.
Air treatment units
Central air handling units are industrial modular devices and consist of
parallelepiped elements with the same cross section, called modules.
Aggregates are usually delivered in modules to be easily handled and installed
treatment plant, introduced in turn, transported and placed easily.
All modules respond to a certain type of dimension are of common width
and height and may comprise one or more components of the treatment unit
(mixing chamber + filter, heating battery + cooling battery, reheat + fan battery,
etc.).
The treatment units can be constructed in two constructive variants:
• for rooftop mounting, called "Rooftop" aggregates;
• for Air Handling Unit (AHU).

Roofing treatment units - Rooftop

The Roof Top Series was introduced in the 1970s as the preferred solution of the largest companies
operating in this area to achieve an economical and sustainable building ventilation.
The flat roof treatment units Fig.141 were introduced in the 1970s as a solution for heating, cooling,
ventilation, humidification and dehumidification of large shops, shopping centers and industrial premises. They
have the particularity of integrating both the ventilation equipment and the cooling / heating equipment into one
unit.
Fig.141 Rooftop units

Air treatment plants - AHU

The in-house assembly units are also built in two ways:
- small, flat flow units (Fig. 132.); aggregates of this type are used for flows of 500 ... 6000 m3 / h and
are built for:
- Horizontal installation in or near the climatic room in the false ceiling;
- vertically on a wall adjacent to it.
They consist of: filter; heating battery; electric heating battery; cooling battery with drop
separator;
Fig.142. Slim air handling unit

Air handling units with normal dimensions for high flow rates up to
100000 m3/h.
In the case of normal air-handling units, the modules are designed to

match the air flow rate. The units are designed to operate at an average cross-
sectional speed of 2.5 ... 3.5 m / s, limited to 3 m / s for noise reasons.
The air handling units can be placed side by side or double deck .
Combination modes are multiple.
In Fig. 143. there are some possibilities of modulated ventilation and
partial air conditioning devices.

Fig. 143. Air handling units

a) outside air only ; b) with mixed air.
Several variants of inlet and outlet groups for partial ventilation and air conditioning are presented
below:
• In line air handling unit - Fig.144 .;
• double deck air handling unit - Fig.145 .;
• Double deck air handling units with heat recovery module - Fig. 146.
Fig.144. In line air handling unit

Fig.145. Double deck air handling unit
Fig.146. Double deck air handling unit with heat recovery module
Air handling unit components :
The components of the air handling unit presented in Table 6 are:

• Case;
• Filters;
• Heating / cooling coils;
• Heat recovery;
• humidifiers;
• Fans.
• Adjustment dampers;

Case:
• Aluminum structure with rounded
corners;
• Panels are attached directly to the
structure;
• Without fixing screws.
Panels:
• Sandwich panels 50 mm thick;
• Insulation with polyurethane foam
(42 kg / m3) or mineral wool (40 kg
/ m3 or 100 kg / m3).
Synthetic prefilters:
• Metal G2 (75% efficiency, EU2);
• G3 (85% efficiency, EU3);
• G4 (90% efficiency, EU4).
Tab 6- Air handling unit components :

Bag Filters:
• Rigid or light bags;
• Class F7;
• Class F9.
Other Filters:
• Absolute Filters;
• Roll filters;
• Carbon filters;
• Electrostatic filters;
• UV lamps.
Tab 6- Air Heating / cooling coils:

• water coils;
handling unit • direct expansion coils ;
components : • Steam coils;
• electric coils .
Fans:
• Curved back pallets;
• Fans with direct drive.

Heat Recovery:
• Efficiency: 50 ... 70%;
• G4 prefilter for fresh air;
• Condensate trays;
• Recirculation damper;
• Bypass damper.
Adiabatic humidification:
• Water pump.
• PVC panel with / without
recirculating pump;
• Air compressor;
Tab 6- Air
handling unit
components : Steam Humidification:
• Steam generator.
• AISI 304 stainless steel steam
distributor;

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Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services

”Building Services- HVAC systems” - Course Notes

Catalin George POPOVICI

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BUILDING SERVICES CLASSIFICATION

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Building services are the dynamics in a static structure,

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B) Ventilation and air conditioning systems

E) Natural gas feed systems

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• CHEMICAL AIR COMPOSITION - GENUINE AIR;

• ESTHETICHAL DEMANDS - FURNITURE, INTERIOR

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THERMAL COMFORT PARAMETERS

1. Indoor air temperature ti ( 0C);

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HEATING SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATION

• LOCAL HEATING SYSTEMS;

• CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS;

• GLOBAL HEATING SYSTEMS .

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LOCAL HEATING SYSTEMS represent heating systems in which

• Stoves made of ceramic ware or metal parts.

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Ceramic and metalic stoves

Fig. 1 – Local heating systems

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CENTRAL HEATING SYSTEMS may also be

• Hot water heating systems;

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Central heating system usually contains:

Thermal energy necessary for a building, or a group of buildings it is obtained in a

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Interior heating installation

Fig. 2- Central heating system

Hot water heating system may be classified according with

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Heat transfer by convection and

Heat transfer by convection (air

Heat transfer by radiation (using

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By the manner in which the hot water circulation is made :

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Fig 4. Hot water

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By the number of pipes that supply the heating equipments:

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Fig 5. Hot water heating

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By the type of heating equipments:

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Fig .6 Hot water heating systems

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By the distribution of pipes manner:

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Fig 6 Hot water

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By the nature of materials the pipes are made of:

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Fig. 7 - Hot water