Pressure Vessels

Chapter (4)
Pressure vessels
4.1 Separator, design &
application
4.1Separator, design & application
• The term separator in oilfield terminology
designates a pressure vessel used for separating
well fluids produced from oil and gas wells into
gaseous and liquid components.
• A separator for petroleum production is a large
vessel designed to separate production
fluids into their constituent components
of oil, gas and water.
• A separating vessel may be referred to in the
following ways:
1. Oil and gas separator,
2. Separator,
3. Stage separator,
4. Trap,
5. Knockout vessel (Knockout drum, knockout trap, water
knockout, or liquid knockout),
6. Flash chamber (flash vessel or flash trap),
7. Expansion separator or expansion vessel,
8. Scrubber (gas scrubber),
9. Filter (gas filter).
• These separating vessels are normally used on a
producing lease or platform near the wellhead,
manifold, or tank battery to
separate fluids produced from oil and gas wells
into oil and gas or liquid and gas.
• An oil and gas separator generally includes the
following essential components and features:
1. A vessel that includes :
(a) primary separation device and/or section,
(b) secondary ―gravity‖ settling (separating)

section,
(c) mist extractor to remove small liquid particles

from the gas,
1. A vessel that includes :
(d) gas outlet,
(e) liquid settling (separating) section to remove

gas or vapor from oil (on a three-phase unit,
this section also separates water from oil),
(f) oil outlet, and
(g) water outlet (three-phase unit).

2. Adequate volumetric liquid capacity to
handle liquid surges (slugs) from the wells
and/or flow lines.
3. Adequate vessel diameter and height or
length to allow most of the liquid to separate
from the gas so that the mist extractor will
not be flooded.
4. A means of controlling an oil level in the
separator, which usually includes a liquid-
level controller and a diaphragm
motor valve on the oil outlet.
5. A back pressure valve on the gas outlet to
maintain a steady pressure in the vessel.
6. Pressure relief devices.

4.1.1Classification of Oil and Gas Separators
4.1.1.1 Classification by Operating Configuration
• Figure 5-6 shows a typical configuration for a
vertical three-phase separator.
• Flow enters the vessel through the side as in
the horizontal separator,
the inlet diverter
separates the bulk
of the gas.
• A downcomer is required to transmit the liquid
through the oil-gas
interface so as not
to disturb the oil
skimming action
taking place.
• A chimney is needed to equalize gas pressure
between the lower
section and the gas
section.
• The spreader or downcomer outlet is located at

the oil-water interface.
• From this point as the oil rises any free water

trapped within the oil phase separates out.
• The water droplets flow countercurrent to the

oil.
• Similarly, the water flows downward and oil

droplets trapped in the water phase tend to rise
countercurrent to the water flow.
• Figure 5-3 shows an alternate configuration
known as a ―bucket and weir‖ design.
• This design eliminates the need for a liquid
interface controller.
• Both the oil and water flow over weirs where
level is accomplished by a simple displacer
float.
• The oil overflows the oil weir into an oil
bucket where its level is controlled by a level
controller that operates the oil dump valve.
• The water flows under the oil bucket and then
over a water weir.
• The level downstream of this weir is controlled
by a level controller that operates the water
dump valve.
• The height of the oil weir controls the liquid
level in the vessel.
• The difference in height of the oil and water
weirs controls the thickness of the oil pad due
to specific gravity differences.
• It is critical to the operation of the vessel that

the water weir height is sufficiently below the
oil weir height so that the oil pad thickness
provides sufficient oil retention time.
• If the water weir is too low and the difference

in specific gravity is not as great as
anticipated, then the oil pad could grow in
thickness to a point where oil will be swept
under the oil box and out the water outlet.
• Normally, either the oil or the water weir is

made adjustable so that changes in oil/water
specific gravities or flow rates can be
accommodated.
• A typical spherical separator is shown in
Figure 4-3. The same four sections can be
found in this vessel.
• Spherical separators are a special case of
a vertical separator where there is no
cylindrical shell between the two heads.
• They may be very efficient from a pressure
containment standpoint but because:
(1) they have limited liquid surge capability
and
(2) they exhibit fabrication difficulties, they

are not usually used in oil field facilities.
4.1.1.2 Classification by Function
• The three configurations of separators are

available for two-phase operation and three-
phase operation.
• In the two-phase units, gas is separated from

the liquid with the gas and liquid being
discharged separately.
• Oil and gas separators are mechanically

designed such that the liquid and gas
components are separated from the
hydrocarbon steam at specific temperature and
pressure.
• In three-phase separators, well fluid is

separated into gas, oil, and water with the three
fluids being discharged separately.
4.1.1.3 Classification by Operating Pressure
• Oil and gas separators can operate at pressures

ranging from a high vacuum to 4,000 to 5,000
psi.
• Most oil and gas separators operate in

the pressure range of 20 to 1,500 psi.
• Separators may be referred to as low pressure,

medium pressure, or high pressure.
• Low-pressure separators usually operate at

pressures ranging from 10 to 20 up to 180 to
225 psi.
• Medium-pressure separators usually operate at

pressures ranging from 230 to 250 up to 600 to
700 psi.
• High-pressure separators generally operate in

the wide pressure range from 750 to 1,500 psi.
4.1.2 Gravity Settling
• The majority of the process vessels you see in
your plant are gravity, vapor-liquid separators.
• Their main purpose is to settle out droplets of

entrained liquid from the up flowing gas.
• Factors that affect the settling rate of these
droplets are:
□Droplet size. Big droplets settle faster than
little droplets.
□Density of vapor. The less dense the vapor,
the faster the droplet settling rate.
□Density of liquid. The denser the liquid
droplets, the faster the droplet settling rate.
• Factors that affect the settling rate of these
droplets are:
□Velocity of vapor. The slower the vertical
velocity of the vapor, the faster the settling
rate.
□Viscosity of the vapor. The lower the vapor
viscosity, the faster the settling rate.
A vapor-liquid
knockout drum
4.1.3 Water-Hydrocarbon Separations
• Figure blow shows a reflux drum serving a
distillation column.
Water draw-off boot

on a reflux drum
• We have a reflux drum because:
□The drum provides a few minutes of holdup
for the overhead product and reflux. This
prevents the reflux pump from losing
suction should the amount of liquid
discharging from the pump briefly exceed
the amount of liquid draining from the
condenser.
• We have a reflux drum because:
□The reflux drum separates liquid and wet
gas by gravity settling. A horizontal vapor-
liquid separator works in much the same
way as the vertical KO drum.
□The horizontal reflux drum also separates
hydrocarbon liquid from water.
Water draw-off boot
on a reflux drum
• Why do we usually want to separate water
from the reflux stream, as shown in Figure?
• Some of the bad things that happen to the

distillation tower if water persistently entrains
into the reflux are:
The distillation tray efficiency is reduced. The
water may settle out on the hydrocarbon liquid
on the tray. This reduces contact between the
upflowing vapor and the down flowing,
internal reflux.
The tray may flood. Water and hydrocarbon
mixing on the tray deck, stirred up by the
flowing gas, creates an emulsion. The
emulsion does not separate as readily as clear
liquid from the gas. Premature downcomer
backup followed by tray deck flooding result.
Tray deck, downcomer, and vessel wall
corrosion is increased. Water conducts
electricity a thousand times better than do
liquid hydrocarbons.

Corrosion involves the transfer of electrons
between steel and inorganic molecules, such
as:
Hydrochloric acid to form ferric chlorides
Hydrogen cyanide to form ferric cyanide
Carbon dioxide to form iron carbonate
Hydrogen sulfide to form iron bisulfide
• The water acts as a highway for the electrons
(the term electrons comes from the word
electricity) to move between these potentially
corrosive molecules and the vessel wall.
• Water in reflux tends to get trapped in the
tower if the tower bottom temperature is above
the boiling point of water at the tower’s
operating pressure.
• The water trickles down the tower and

revaporizes off of the hot reboiler tubes.
• As the water may be saturated with corrosive
salts and gases, reboiler tube corrosion can be
rapid. In almost every petroleum refinery
service, refluxing water is a quick route to
reboiler tube leaks.
Water draw-off boot
on a reflux drum
4.2 Filter, design &
application
4.2 Filter, design & application
4.2.1introduction
• During the flow of fluids through process
pipelines and equipment, solid particles of dirt,
rust, scale..etc, may be picked up by the fluids.
• These solids can cause damage to equipment

by erosion and blockage.
4.2.1introduction
• In order to minimize this problem, Filters or
Strainers are installed in piping, upstream of
equipment in which solid particles are
undesirable.
4.2.1introduction
• Filters are constructed according to the duty
they are to perform - a good example is the air
filter in the intake to a car engine.
• It is made of very fine material in order to

remove very tiny particles of dust which would
cause problems in the carburetor where the air
is mixed with the fuel.
4.2.1introduction
• The fuel is also filtered before mixing.
To protect the engine bearings, shafts, gears
and pistons …etc, the car lube oil is also
filtered.
4.2.1introduction
• In all cases where filters or strainers are used,
they must be cleaned or the dirty elements
changed for clean ones as soon as the filtration
process becomes poor and fluid flow
decreases.
4.2.2Filters
• Filters are generally constructed as cylinders
containing some type of screening element
through which the fluids are forced to flow.
• The elements are made up of various types of

materials depending on the degree of filtration
required.
4.2.2Filters
• Some filter elements consist of special paper
which will collect solid particles while
allowing the fluid to pass through.
4.2.2Filters
• Filters used in process operations to remove
solid particles, are constructed of a number of
elements made up of wire frames or perforated
metal tubes encased by finely woven cloth or
metal wires (screens).
4.2.2Filters
• Other types contain fibre-glass elements which
adsorb the particles of dirt, scale and rust. Still
further types consist of 'basket' type elements
which can easily be removed, cleaned and
replaced.
4.2.2Filters
• The filter elements are placed in a cylindrical
vessel which is connected into the pipe-work
carrying the fluid.
4.2.2Filters
• In continuous processes, two filter units may
be installed, where one is in use while the
other is on 'standby'.
4.2.2Filters
• A total filter bypass is also usually fitted for
use should both units become fouled due to
excess solids in the system not allowing
cleaning or element replacement to take place.
• However, in such a case, the filters must be re-

commissioned as soon as possible.
4.2.2Filters
• The system will have a means of measuring
the pressure drop across the filter and, when
this D.P. reaches a certain point, an alarm
switch may be activated.
4.2.2Filters
• The filters must then be changed over; the
dirty filter is then isolated, de-pressured,
drained and opened up to remove the dirty
elements. New elements are then installed and
the unit 'boxed up'.
4.2.2Filters
• The clean filter is then refilled and/or re-
pressurized by using the small lines and valves
provided.
• While refilling, air is vented to ensure that the

filter is liquid/gas full. It is then placed on
'standby'.
4.2.2Filters
• Where a single filter unit is installed, again, the
bypass is used while cleaning is carried out.
4.2.3Strainers
• Strainers are generally constructed of finely
perforated metal tubes or cones or of woven
wire mesh.
• They are often used temporarily after new

piping has been installed or maintenance
carried out on a process system.
4.2.3Strainers
• Their purpose in this case is to remove debris
such as welding dross or pieces of solid
material which entered the system while the
work was being done.
4.2.3Strainers
• Where small piping like fuel supplies, air to
instruments and steam / condensate systems
are concerned, strainers are installed to ensure
the smooth operation of instruments and steam
traps by removing solid particles.
4.2.3Strainers
• The main types of strainer used in such
systems are:
THE 'Y' STRAINER.
THE 'T' STRAINER
THE 'CONE' STRAINER.
• The following diagrams show the application
of strainers in process operations.
(See Figures Blow)
4.2.3Strainers
• The 'Y' Strainer
4.2.3Strainers
• 'T' Type Strainers
4.2.3Strainers
• 'Cone' Type Strainers
4.2.3Strainers
• Drum Filter:
4.2.3Strainers
• Drum Filter:
4.2.3Strainers
• Drum Filter:
4.2.3Strainers
• Drum Filter:
4.3 Scrubber, design &
application
4.3 Scrubber, design & application
• Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air
pollution control devices that can be used to
remove some particulates and/or gases from
industrial exhaust streams.
• The first air scrubber was designed to remove

carbon dioxide from the air of an early
submarine.
• Traditionally, the term "scrubber" has referred
to pollution control devices that use liquid to
wash unwanted pollutants from a gas stream.
• Recently, the term is also used to describe
systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into
a dirty exhaust stream to "wash out" acid
gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary
devices that control gaseous emissions,
especially acid gases.
• Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery
from hot gases by flue-gas condensation.
• There are several methods to remove toxic or

corrosive compounds from exhaust gas and
neutralize it.
4.3.1 Vertical Spray Gas Scrubber
• This equipment is recommended for surface
treatment or chemical applications, depending
on the products treated and the concentration
of gases to be extracted.
• It is particularly appreciated for its compact

size, low pressure loss and high efficiency.
• The process involves establishing maximum
contact between liquid and gas using a fine,
intense spray with a high-efficiency exchange
screen separating each section.
• The scrubber is equipped with a demister at the
top which will remove most of the mist
produced by the spraying.
• The scrubber is supplied complete with its

spraying circuit, recycling pump, recirculation
tank, automatic water supply and level controls.
4.3.2 Horizontal Spray Gas Scrubber
• This mode is used for reasons of size, space
availability or combined treatment.
• The horizontal scrubber is easy to access: all

parts are within arm’s reach.
• It is very compact and can be installed in
confined spaces where there is insufficient
head room for vertical tower.
• Efficiency is generally equivalent to that of a

vertical scrubber.
• Its simple design allows several scrubbers to
be connected in series to form a multistage
scrubber which is particularly effective for
deodorizing.
• In this case, demisters separate each treatment
stage, and separate recirculation tanks are
used.
• Its box shape can easily be adapted to
customer space requirements and enable
installation in areas that were not initially
planned for vertical scrubbers.
• An inspection port at eye level is provided to

check it’s operation.
4.4 Columns, design &
application
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.1 Introduction
• The various components of crude oil have

different sizes, weights and boiling
temperatures; so, the first step is to separate
these components. Because they have different
boiling temperatures, they can be separated
easily by a process called fractional distillation.
4.4.1 Introduction
The steps of fractional distillation are as follows:

• 1-You heat the mixture of two or more
substances (liquids) with different boiling points
to a high temperature. Heating is usually done
with high pressure steam to temperatures of
about 1112 degrees Fahrenheit / 600 degrees
Celsius.
4.4.1 Introduction

• 2-The mixture boils, forming vapor (gases);
most substances go into the vapor phase.
4.4.1 Introduction

• 3-The vapor enters the bottom of a long column
(fractional distillation column) that is filled with
trays or plates. The trays have many holes or
bubble caps in them to allow the vapor to pass
through.
4.4.1 Introduction

• 3-
• The trays increase the contact time between the
vapor and the liquids in the column. The trays
help to collect liquids that form at various
heights in the column.
• There is a temperature difference across the
column (hot at the bottom, cool at the top).
4.4.1 Introduction

• 4-The vapor rises in the column.
• 5-As the vapor rises through the trays in the

column, it cools.
4.4.1 Introduction
• 6-When a substance in the vapor reaches a height where
the temperature of the column is equal to that
substance's boiling point, it will condense to form a
liquid. (The substance with the lowest boiling point will
condense at the highest point in the column; substances
with higher boiling points will condense lower in the
column.).
What is a pressure vessel?
• A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to

hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially
different from the ambient pressure.
• The pressure differential is dangerous and many

fatal accidents have occurred in the history of their
development and operation.
What is a pressure vessel?
• Consequently, their design, manufacture, and
operation are regulated by engineering authorities
backed by legislation.
• For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel
varies from country to country, but involves
parameters such as maximum safe operating
pressure and temperature.
4.4.2 Strength of material
4.4.2 Strength of material
• The term materials science and engineering

refers to that branch of engineering dealing
with the processing, selection, and evaluation
of solid-state materials.
4.4.2- Strength of material (cont.)
• This reflects the fact that engineers outside of

the specialized field of materials science and
engineering largely need guidance in the
selection of materials for their specific
applications.
• An understanding of the fundamental of solid-

state materials is the fact that atomic- or
microscopic-scale structure is responsible for
the nature of materials properties.
Note 6
• 4.4.2.1. Structure
• A central tenet of materials science is that the
behavior of materials (represented by their
properties) is determined by their structure on
the atomic and microscopic scales.
• 4.4.2.1. Structure (cont.)
• Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of the
structure-property relationship is to appreciate
the basic skeletal arrangement of atoms in
crystalline solids.
• 4.4.2.1. Structure (cont.)
• Figure 1 illustrates the fundamental possibilities,
known as the 14 Bravais lattices.
• All crystalline structures of real materials can be
produced by "decorating" the unit cell patterns of
Figure 1 with one or more atoms and repetitively
stacking the unit cell structure through three-
dimensional space.
Figure 1 - The
Fourteen
Bravais
Lattices
• 4.4.2.2 Composition
• The properties of commercially available
materials are determined by chemical
composition as well as structure.
• As a result, extensive numbering systems have
been developed to label materials, especially
metal alloys.
• Table 1 gives an example for gray cast irons.
Note 7
Table 1- Composition Limits of Selected
Gray Cast Irons (%)
SAE : Society of automotive engineers

• 4.4.2.3 Physical Properties
• Among the most basic and practical
characteristics of engineering materials are their
physical properties.
• Table 2 gives the density of a wide range of
materials in units of (g/cm3), whereas Table 3
gives the melting points for several common
metals and ceramics.
Table 2 - Density of Selected Materials
(g/m3)
Table 3 - Melting Point of Selected
Metals and Ceramics
• 4.4.2.4 Mechanical Properties
• Central to the selection of materials for
structural applications is their behavior in
response to mechanical loads.
• A wide variety of mechanical properties are
available to help guide materials selection.
• The most basic of the mechanical properties
are defined in terms of the engineering stress
and the engineering strain.
• 4.4.2.4 Mechanical Properties (cont.)
• The engineering stress, σ, is defined as:
σ = P/Ao
Where:
P is the load on the sample with an original

(zero stress) cross-sectional area Ao .
Note 8
• The engineering strain, ɛ, is defined as:
ɛ = [L - Lo]/Lo = ∆L/Lo
Where:
L is the sample length at a given load and Lo is

the original (zero stress) length.
• The maximum engineering stress that can be
withstood by the material during its load
history is termed the ultimate tensile strength,
or simply tensile strength, TS.
Stress - Strain Diagram
SMYS
UTS
YS
Elastic Failure
Plastic
Stress
SMYS
0.5% Strain 100%

• The "stiffness" of a material is indicated by the
linear relationship between engineering stress
and engineering strain for relatively small
levels of load application.
SHAFT STIFFNESS
500 Lbs.
(225Kg)
500 Lbs.
(225Kg)
• The modulus of elasticity, E, also known as
Young's modulus, is given by the ratio:
E = σ/ɛ
• The "ductility" of a material is indicated by
the percent elongation at failure (= 100 *
ɛfailure), representing the general ability of the
material to be plastically (i.e., permanently
deformed.)
Brittle
Ductile
Strain
• 4.4.2.5 Thermal Properties
• Many applications of engineering materials depend
on their response to a thermal environment.
• The thermal conductivity, k, is defined by
Fourier's law:
k = - [dQ/dt] / [A(Dt/dx)]
Where:
dQ/dt is the rate of heat transfer across an area A
due to a temperature gradient dT/dx .
• 4.4.2.5 Thermal Properties (cont.)
• It is also important to note that the dimensions
of a material will, in general, increase with
temperature.
• Increases in temperature lead to greater thermal

vibration of the atoms and an increase in
average separation distance of adjacent atoms.
• 4.4.2.5 Thermal Properties (cont.)
• The linear coefficient of thermal expansion,
α, is given by:
α = dL/L dT
• With α having units of: mm / (mm0C).
Note 9
Expansion Loop
Thermal expansion
4.4.3 Codes and standards
4.4.3 Codes and standards
• The Objectives of Codes and Standards

o Fixing dimensional values.
o Achieve minimum requirements for safe
construction (to provide public protection).
o Reduce the probability of disastrous failure
to the extremely low level necessary to
protect life and property by suitable
minimum requirements and safety factors.
o Suitable precautions.
4.4.3 Codes and standards (cont.)
ASME Pressure Vessel Code :
• All vessel are built in accordance with a pressure
vessel code (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section VIII, Division 1 or 2).
• This compliance with the ASME Code ensures
that the equipment is designed, fabricated,
inspected, and tested in accordance with a
widely accepted industry standard.
• What is a standard?
• A standard can be defined as a set of technical
definitions and guidelines-―how to‖-
instructions for designers and manufacturers.
• Standards, which can run from a few
paragraphs to hundreds of pages, are written
by experts.
• Standards are considered voluntary because
they serve as guidelines, not having the force
of law.
Note 10
• ASME publishes its standards; accredits users
of standards to ensure that they are capable of
manufacturing products that meet those
standards; and provides stamps that accredited
manufacturers place on their products,
indicating that a product was manufactured
according to a standard.
• ASME cannot, however, force any
manufacturer, inspector, or installer to follow
ASME standards. Their use is voluntary.
• What is a code?
• A code is a standard that has been adopted by
one or more governmental bodies and has the
force of law, or when it has been incorporated
into a business contract.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• ASME stands for ―The American society of
Mechanical Engineers‖.
• The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is

comprised of a set of manufacturing standards
that are meant to define basic construction
types and material thickness while providing
safety, reasonable cost and serviceability.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• ASME Pressure Vessel Code :

• All vessels are built in accordance with a
pressure vessel code (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1
or 2).
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII

• This compliance with the ASME Code ensures
that the equipment is designed, fabricated,
inspected, and tested in accordance with a
widely accepted industry standard.
4. ASME VIII

• ASME Section VIII Div 1 Standards for
unfired pressure vessels.
• Materials used in fabrication are in accordance
with ASME Section II and all welding
processes associated with fabrication are in
accordance with ASME Section IX.
4. ASME VIII
• Scope of ASME Code Section VIII

• Section VIII used worldwide. Objective:
Minimum requirements for safe construction
and operation. Division 1, 2, and 4.4.3
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• ASME Code Section VIII Division 1

• 15 psig < P < 3000 psig
• Applies through first connection to pipe.
• Other exclusions
o Internals (except for attachment weld to
vessel)
o Fired process heaters
o Pressure containers integral with machinery
o Piping systems
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• ASME Code Section VIII Division 2

• Scope identical to Division 1 but requirements
differ:
o Allowable stress
o Stress calculations
o Design
o Quality control
o Fabrication and inspection
• Choice between Divisions 1 and 2 based on
economics
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• ASME Code Section VIII Division 3, Alternative

Rules for High Pressure Vessels
o Applications over 10,000 psi
o Pressure from external source, process reaction,

application of heat, combination of these
o Does not establish maximum pressure limits of

Division 1 or 2 or minimum limits for Division 4.4.3
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design
• Design and engineering, although sometimes
viewed as distinct, are two facets of the same
profession.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design
• Engineering is a profession concerned
primarily with the application of a certain body
of knowledge, set of skills, and point of view
in the creation of devices, structures, and
processes used to transform resources to forms
which satisfy the needs of society.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design
• Design is the activity in which engineers
accomplish the preceding task, usually by
responding to a design imperative for the
required task.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design
• The end result of the engineering design
process is a specification set from which a
machine, process, or system may be built and
operated to meet the original need.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design criteria
• Although the general criteria used by a
designer are many, the following list addresses
almost all concerns:
o Function
o Safety
o Reliability
o Cost
o Manufacturability
o Marketability
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design criteria
• The inclusion of safety and reliability at or
near the level of importance of function is a
recent development that has resulted from
governmental regulation, expansion in the
numbers of standards created, and
development of product liability law, all of
which occurred in the late 1960s and early
1970s.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design criteria
• Although cost is explicitly fourth on the list, its
consideration permeates all the criteria just
listed and is part of all design decisions.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design criteria
• A design evaluation is generally a result of an
incident which caused damage or injury, to
mitigate the nontechnical evaluation, current
design procedures should emphasize the
following factors in addition to traditional
design criteria:
o Safety
o Failure analysis
o Documentation
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design Procedure
• The general procedure for design is widely
available in the literature.
• The following procedure is representative of
those found in the literature:
1. Identification of need
2. Problem statement or definition of goal
4.4.3 Research
4. Development of specifications
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• The following procedure is representative of
those found in the literature:
5. Generation of ideas
6. Creation of concepts based on the ideas
7. Analysis of alternative concepts
8. Prototype and laboratory testing
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• The following procedure is representative of those
found in the literature:
9. Selection and specification of best concept
10. Production
11. Marketing
12. Usage (maintenance and repair)

4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design Formulas
• For cylindrical shells (circumferential stress),
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design Formulas
• For spherical shells
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design Formulas
• For cylindrical shells (circumferential stress),

4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• Design Formulas
• Where:
 Ro = outside radius of the shell course under
consideration, in.
 T = minimum required thickness of shell, in.
 P = internal design pressure , psi
 R = inside radius of the shell course under
consideration, in.
 S = maximum allowable stress value, psi
 E =joint efficiency.
SMYS
UTS
YS
Elastic Failure
Plastic
Stress
SMYS
0.5% Strain 100%

4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
ASME Material Selection Factors

• Strength
• Corrosion Resistance
• Resistance to Hydrogen Attack
• Fabricability
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Strength
• Determines required component thickness
• Overall strength determined by:
– Yield Strength
– Ultimate Tensile Strength
– Creep Strength
• Rupture Strength
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Corrosion Resistance
• Deterioration of metal by chemical action
• Most important factor to consider
• Corrosion allowance supplies additional
thickness
• Alloying elements provide additional resistance
to corrosion
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Resistance to Hydrogen Attack

• At 300 - 400°F, monatomic hydrogen forms
molecular hydrogen in voids
• Pressure buildup can cause steel to crack
• Above 600°F, hydrogen attack causes permanent
damage through component thickness
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Maximum Allowable Stress

• Stress: Force per unit area that resists loads
induced by external forces.
• Pressure vessel components designed to keep
stress within safe operational limits.
• Maximum allowable stress:
– Includes safety margin
– Varies with temperature and material
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Reinforcement of Openings
• Simplified ASME rules - Area replacement
• Metal used to replace that removed:
– Must be equivalent in metal area
– Must be adjacent to opening
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Post Weld Heat Treatment

• Restores material properties
• Relieves residual stresses
• ASME Code PWHT requirements
– Minimum temperature and hold time
– Adequate stress relief
• Heatup and cooldown rates
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Inspection and Testing

• Inspection includes examination of:
– Base material specification and quality
– Welds
– Dimensional requirements
– Equipment documentation
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
Summery
• ASME Section VIII, Division 1 for pressure
vessel mechanical design covered:
– Materials
– Design
– Fabrication
– Inspection
– Testing
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
• Today, the various boiler and pressure vessel

stamps are recognized by many organization and
countries as indicative of products manufactured
in compliance with the Code and under a
quality program acceptable to the Society.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
• A manufacturer obtains permission to use one of
the stamps through the ASME conformity
assessment process.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
• The manufacturer’s quality control system is
reviewed by an ASME team.
• If it meets ASME requirements and the

manufacturer successfully demonstrates
implementation of the program, the
manufacturer is accredited by ASME.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
• The manufacturer then may certify the product
as meeting ASME standards and apply the stamp
to the product.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
Pressure Vessels - Section VIII Division 1
U Pressure Vessels
UM Miniature Vessels
UV Pressure Vessels Safety Valves
UD Pressure Vessels Rupture Discs

4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.2 ASME Stamps
U2 Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels
U3 High Pressure Vessels
UV3 Safety Valves for High Pressure Vessels

4.4.3.1 ASME VIII Contents & Method of Stamping
(ASME VIII Div 2 – Article S-1)
• AS-100 REQUIRED MARKING FOR

VESSELS
• Each pressure vessel to which the Code symbol
is applied shall be marked with the following:
– (a) the official Code symbol, as shown in Fig.
AS- 100.1

VESSELS
– (b) name of the Manufacturer of the pressure
vessel, preceded by ―certified by‖;

VESSELS
– (c) design pressure, psi, at coincident
temperature, °F;
Contents & Method of Stamping
VESSELS
– (d) minimum design metal temperature;
– (e) Manufacturer’s serial number;
– (f) year built.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• AS-101 :Methods of Marking Vessels With
Two or More Independent Chambers
– Either of the following arrangements may be
used in marking vessels having two or more
independent pressure chambers designed for
the same or different operating conditions.
– Each detachable chamber shall be marked so
as to identify it positively with the combined
unit.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• AS-101.1: If Markings Are Grouped in One

Location.
• The markings may be grouped in one location
on the vessel, provided they are arranged so as
to indicate clearly the data applicable to each
chamber, including the maximum differential
pressure for the common elements, when this
pressure is less than the higher pressure in the
adjacent chambers.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• AS-101.2 If Each Independent Chamber Is

Marked.
• The complete required marking may be applied
to each independent pressure chamber, provided
additional marking, such as stock space, jacket,
tubes, or channel box, is used to indicate clearly
to which chamber the data apply.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• AS-110: APPLICATION OF STAMP
• (a) The Manufacturer who completes the fabrication of
the vessel shall have a valid Certificate of Authorization
for the use of the Code symbol.
The Code symbol shall be applied by the Manufacturer
only with the acceptance of the Inspector. Such
application of the Code symbol, together with final
certification in accordance with the rules of this
Division, shall confirm that all applicable Code
requirements have been fulfilled.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII

• (b) Except as provided in (c) below, the Code
symbol shall be applied after the hydrostatic test
or pneumatic test.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII

• (c) The Code symbol may be preapplied to a
nameplate. The nameplate may be attached to
the vessel after the final fabrication and
examination sequence but before the hydrostatic
test or pneumatic test, provided the procedure
for sequence of stamping is described in the
Manufacturer’s accepted Quality Control
System.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• AS-130 NAMEPLATE
(a) The marking required in AS-100 shall be
applied to a separate nameplate permanently
attached to the vessel.
The nameplate shall be located within 30 in. of
the vessel and shall be attached by suitable means.
Removal shall require the willful destruction of the
nameplate or its attachment system.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
(a) (cont.)
(1) Nameplates may be attached by either welding,
brazing, or soldering.
(2) Nameplates may be attached by fasteners of
suitable metal construction.
(3) Nameplates may be attached with pressure
sensitive acrylic adhesive systems.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• The marking shall not be stamped directly on the
vessel, except that steel stamping shall be
permitted on the head section of vessels over 1⁄2
in. (13 mm) thick having 1⁄4 in. (6 mm) greater
thickness than the design requirements for the
head; such stamping shall be done with ―low
stress‖ stamps as commercially available .
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
(b) An additional nameplate may be installed on
the skirt, supports, jacket, or other permanent
attachment to a vessel.
All data on the additional plate, including the
Code symbol, shall be cast, etched, or stamped
and this marking need not be witnessed by the
Inspector.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
• AS-131 Stamping of Nameplate

• The Code symbol and the Manufacturer’s serial
number shall be stamped on the nameplate, but
the other required data may be stamped, etched,
cast, or impressed thereon.
• The data shall be in characters not less than 5⁄32
in. (4 mm) high.
• The arrangement shall be substantially as shown
in Fig. AS-131.1.
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII
4.4.3.1 ASME VIII Contents & Method of
Stamping
• AS-132 Attachment of Nameplate
• If the nameplate is marked before it is affixed to
the vessel, the Manufacturer shall ensure that the
nameplate with the correct marking has been
applied to the vessel to which it applies and the
Inspector shall satisfy himself that this has been
done.
• The nameplate shall be permanently attached by
a method which will not affect the integrity of
the vessel .
4.4.4- Post weld heat treatment
Post weld heat treatment
What is PWHT?
• Postweld heat treatment (PWHT), defined as
any heat treatment after welding, is often used
to improve the properties of a weldment.
• In concept, PWHT can encompass many
different potential treatments; however, in steel
fabrication, the two most common procedures
used are post heating and stress relieving.
When is it Required?
• The need for PWHT is driven by code and
application requirements, as well as the service
environment.
• In general, when PWHT is required, the goal is
to increase the resistance to brittle fracture and
relaxing residual stresses.
• Other desired results from PWHT may include
hardness reduction, and material strength
enhancements.
• Post Heating
• Post heating is used to
minimize the potential for
hydrogen induced cracking
(HIC). For HIC to occur, the
following variables must be
present (a sensitive
microstructure, a sufficient
level of hydrogen, or a high
level of stress (e.g., as a
result of highly constrained Criteria for hydrogen
induced cracking (HIC).
connections).
Stress Relieving
• Stress relief heat treatment is used to reduce
the stresses that remain locked in a structure as
a consequence of manufacturing processes.
• There are many sources of residual stresses,
and those due to welding are of a magnitude
roughly equal to the yield strength of the base
material.
Stress Relieving
• Uniformly heating a structure to a sufficiently
high temperature, but below the lower
transformation temperature range, and then
uniformly cooling it, can relax these residual
stresses.
• Carbon steels are typically held at 1,100 to
1,250°F (600 to 675°C) for 1 hour per inch (25
mm) of thickness.
Stress Relieving
• Stress relieving offers several benefits.
• For example, when a component with high
residual stresses is machined, the material tends to
move during the metal removal operation as the
stresses are redistributed.
• After stress relieving, however, greater
dimensional stability is maintained during
machining, providing for increased dimensional
reliability.
Stress Relieving
• In addition, the potential for stress corrosion
cracking is reduced, and the metallurgical
structure can be improved through stress
relieving.
• The steel becomes softer and more ductile
through the precipitation of iron carbide at
temperatures associated with stress relieving.
Stress Relieving
• Finally, the chances for hydrogen induced
cracking (HIC) are reduced, although this
benefit should not be the only reason for stress
relieving.
• At the elevated temperatures associated with
stress relieving, hydrogen often will migrate
from the weld metal and the heat affected
zone.
Stress Relieving
• However, HIC can be minimized by heating at
temperatures lower than stress relieving
temperatures, resulting in lower PWHT costs.
Post heat applied immediately after last pass.

Temperature Condition Diagram

• A-B : The work shall be given unrestricted

heating from ambient temperature to300oC.
• B-C : Temperature shall be raised and
controlled from 300oC to 620oC ± 20oC with
the heating rate of 200oC/Hr divided by metal
thickness in inch, but in no case more than
200oC/Hr and not be less than 55oC per hour.
• C-D : After the maximum temperature of

620oC ± 20oC is reached, the temperature
shall be held or maintained (Soaking period)
for at least one (1) hour. During soaking
period, there shall be no greater difference than
84oC between the highest and lowest point
throughout the heat treatment period.
• D-E : Cooling shall be controlled at the rate of

250oC/Hr divided by the metal thickness in
inch but in no case more than 250oC/Hr and
not be less than 55°C per hour.
• E-F : As the temperature reduces to 300oC,
cooling rate to ambient temperature shall be
left unrestricted.
• A-B : The work shall be
given unrestricted
heating from ambient
temperature to300oC.

• B-C : Temperature shall
be raised and controlled
from 300oC to 620oC ±
20oC with the heating
rate of 200oC/Hr
divided by metal
thickness in inch, but in
no case more than
Temperature Condition Diagram 200oC/Hr and not be
less than 55oC per hour.
• C-D : After the maximum
temperature of 620oC ±
20oC is reached, the
temperature shall be held
or maintained (Soaking
period) for at least one (1)
hour. During soaking
period, there shall be no
greater difference than
84oC between the highest
Temperature Condition Diagram and lowest point
throughout the heat
treatment period.
• D-E : Cooling shall be

controlled at the rate of
250oC/Hr divided by
the metal thickness in
inch but in no case more
than 250oC/Hr and not
be less than 55°C per
hour.
• E-F : As the temperature

reduces to 300oC,
cooling rate to ambient
temperature shall be left
unrestricted.

4.4.5- Dimensional tolerances for
pre-fabricated piping assemblies
FLANGE ALIGNMENT CHECKS
Out- of Parallel Alignment Check
Out-of parallel alignment

will be the results of P1 minus P2
Out-of Axial Alignment

Out-of Radial Alignment

(Bolt Hole Alignment)
FLANGE ALIGNMENT TOLERANCES

4.4.6- Inspection and Welding
Repairs of Pressure Vessels
Introduction
Repairs are required for pressure vessels in order to:
 restore its original /
 intended operating condition,
 safe operation
 and to prolong trouble free service life.

Introduction
• The vessel condition deteriorate due to various
factors mainly:
Mechanical Problems,
Process Related Problems
and Corrosion Problems.

Introduction
• Repairs are required to:
– be planned
– and carried out under the strict supervision and

control of a competent Inspector.
Introduction
• Repair and maintenance of parts and components
is a major activity in any process industry.
• Repair welding can be carried out as a logical
procedure that ensures the part is usable and safe.
• If repairs are done with proper care or
precautions, it can avoid premature failures, large
warranty claims, safety of property and personnel
and result in satisfied customers.
Introduction
• Failures of pressure vessels are still observed,

which result in a costly down time of production
and product losses also sometimes it results in
environmental hazards and unsafe working
conditions or disasters.
• Every owner user wants to extract highest
possible safe service life from equipment.
Method of Inspection and decision for repairs.
• Pressure vessels are designed to any

recognized code of design and construction.
• We must under stand that the design
thickness can be considerably lower than the
actual Fabricated .
• During design itself corrosion allowance is

added in the base metal thickness and the
manufacturer fabrication chooses the next
available thickness.
• Thereby we have an excess thickness
available for the service which result in a
considerably lower operating stress value.
• Steps involved in the decision making for

repairs.
• Operating conditions, Inspection history,
Material of construction of pressure vessel
.
• Reasons for failure .
• Location of the damaged area by visual
inspection and evaluation by NDTs.
• Steps involved in the decision making for

repairs.(cont.)
• Re-evaluate the need for repairs (Back
to design calculations).
• Repair Methods, (For pressure retaining
parts) .
• Preparation of repair procedures.
• Replacement of major components.
• Operating conditions, Inspection history, Material of
construction of Pressure vessel:
• A careful study of the operating parameters and
inspection history and properly maintained
internal inspection reports, materials of
construction, its behavior with the process fluid,
welding techniques used during construction,
design consideration etc, also gives an adequate
confidence level about the use of pressure vessel.
Such information is also useful for making the
repair decision.
• Operating conditions, Inspection history, Material of

construction of Pressure vessel:
• Carefully selected material of construction and the
fabrication procedures, welding procedures as well
as inspection and certification by the competent
inspection authorities during fabrication stage,
always intend to give such information.
• Reasons for failures:

• Undesirable premature failures can occur due to any one
or more of the following reasons .
• Faulty design, faulty workmanship, wrongly selected
material of construction, wrong welding techniques such
premature failures generally occur in an early service
period, where as the normal service failures are attributed
to corrosion, changes in the working parameters,
operation of the vessel for which it is not designed,
impurities in the operating fluids, metallurgical changes in
the base metal etc.

• Undesirable premature failures can occur due to any one
or more of the following reasons .
• Faulty design,
• faulty workmanship,
• wrongly selected material of construction,
• wrong welding techniques
such premature failures generally occur in an early
service period,
• Undesirable premature failures can occur due to any one or
more of the following reasons .
where as the normal service failures are attributed to
 corrosion,
changes in the working parameters,
 operation of the vessel for which it is not designed,
 impurities in the operating fluids,
metallurgical changes in the base metal etc.

• Once the damage is identified the pressure vessels
must be thoroughly inspected to evaluate the
extent of damage, need for repair and the repair
method.
• Thorough visual inspection of the pressure vessel
can be supplemented by a suitable NDT
examination, to locate the defects and the extent.
• Location of the damaged area by visual inspection

and evaluation by NDT.
• On opening the equipment it is necessary to make it
safe for entry as the remaining fluid or fumes of gases
could be dangerous for human life.
• The personnel may be required to stay for internal
inspection there could be possible repairs where hot
work is involved, there fore a safe entry permit from
a competent authority i.e from the safety and
operation departments.
• Location of the damaged area by visual

inspection and evaluation by NDT.
• During internal inspection, some responsible
operator should always be accessible to the
inspector performing internal inspection.
• Such assistance can always be handy for any
critical situation.
• Location of the damaged area by visual
inspection and evaluation by NDT.
• The external surface should be checked for
any corrosion below the insulation,
obvious leakages,
structural attachments,
 connections,
foundations,
leak proof tightness of pressure relief valves etc.
• Location of the damaged area by visual inspection and

evaluation by NDT.
• The internal surface should be reasonably cleaned so as to
visually verify its condition ,
condition of threaded connections,
Flange connections,
closures,
internals
and damage due to corrosion.
• Location of the damaged area by visual inspection and
evaluation by NDT.
• Different corrosion problems anticipated are
 pitting,
 line corrosion.,
 General uniform corrosion,
 grooving,
 Galvanic corrosion,
 Fatigue,
 Creep,
 temperature,
 Hydrogen attack / Embrittelment,
 Stress corrosion cracking, etc.
• Different corrosion problems anticipated are
pitting, Fatigue,
line corrosion., Creep,
General uniform corrosion, temperature,
grooving, Hydrogen attack / Embrittelment
Galvanic corrosion, Stress corrosion cracking, etc.


• The identified damage can be supplemented by
NDT for the extent, where by decision for
repairs can be taken confidently, various NDT
possible, are UT thickness measurement, UT
scanning, RT, MPI and LPT.
• Re-evaluate the need for repairs (Back to design

calculations)
• Based on the NDT results obtained, the same
can be verified by the designer and inspector by
performing design calculations, to ensure that
the remaining thickness is still safe, and whether
the repairs are warranted or not.

calculations)
• Based on the remaining thickness corrosion rates
are calculated and the MAWP at the available
thickness also calculated.
• If the MAWP required is lower that the
calculated MAWP then the repairs are not
warranted provided the owner user is ready to
carry out internal inspection as per next
scheduled interval.

calculations)
• Location of defect is also important.
• On base metal away from the weld metal, a
monitor thinning can be left unattended.
• In event there are borderline case the thickness
can be recalculated by carrying our full RT and
thereby revising the Joint efficiency.
calculations)
• Following design considerations are reviewed during
re-evaluation
 Patch repairs welded by fillet welding can be used on
temporary basis. Such repairs shall be checked and
verified by the design Engineer. The same should be
replaced with permanent measure at the next available
maintenance opportunity. A fully encirclement lap joint
may be considered as a permanent repair method. Such
full encirclement patches shall also be designed to meet
the code requirements.

calculations)
re-evaluation
 Minimum thickness observed shall be evaluated for
MAWP and the corrosion rate, so as to decide the next
inspection interval.

calculations)
re-evaluation
 The Inspector should think out all such possibilities
and advise the owner user, so as to take a precise
judgment on the repair.
• Repair methods: (For pressure retaining parts)
 The cracks are gouged out or removed and weld
repairs can be carried out from both sides, if
approach is available,
 The deep pits or localized corrosion can be weld
built to restore the original thickness.
 The larger area, which cannot be welded by
build up, can be replaced with patch or a shell
course or a head.
• Preparation of a repair procedure:

• The repair procedure should take care of the
requirements of the base metal, welding consumables,
sequential weld deposits, requirements of preheat,
Interpass temperature, post weld heating, PWHT, and
the NDT requirements.
• The repair procedure shall be qualified as per the
recognized code such as ASME sec IX, using an
experienced welder. Maintain the records of procedure
qualification as well as performance qualification.
• Preparation of a repair procedure:
• If PWHT is required in original construction and
it is not practicable or advisable during repairs,
then the Inspector and the Pressure Vessel
Design Engineer shall review the reason for
original PWHT of the equipment.
• If the Original reason why PWHT was done is
due to the service requirements, then the
alternative methods allowed the Repair to avoid
the PWHT after repairs.
• Non-Destructive Examination and testing of

repaired location.
The prepared surface can be checked by using
MPI or LPT before welding.
After completion of welding, NDE acceptable to
the Authorized Inspector or the owner user are
selected and applied to ensure soundness of the
weld.
• Non-Destructive Examination and testing of

repaired location.
 After repairs the need for pressure test is to be
decided by the Inspector. The test temperature
and the minimum design metal temperature of
Pressure vessel shall be carefully evaluated.
 If Hydrostatic test is impracticable, then
pneumatic test should be considered with
appropriate safety consideration.
4.5 De-aerators, design
& application
4.5.1 General
• The Deaerators (Figures 4.5.1) are designed to
operate with steam generation plants, or
wherever oxygen-free water is required.
4.5.1 General
• Boiler feedwater usually contains two harmful
dissolved gases; oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The purpose of deaeration is to remove these
gases before they are liberated in the boiler.
4.5.1 General
• This reduces corrosion in the boiler, steam
lines, condensate lines, and heat transfer
equipment. The deaerator conditions feedwater
so that it has less than 0.005 CC oxygen per
liter. This is termed ―zero oxygen‖ and is the
practical limitation of current chemical testing
equipment. Carbon dioxide is, for all practical
purposes, eliminated. Water delivered to the
boiler is pre-heated.
4.5.1 General
• Deaerators are designed to operate on steam
from the boiler, exhaust steam, or both. If
exhaust steam is currently going to waste, it
may be used in the deaerator — reducing the
fuel expense of the plant approximately 1% for
each 10 °F rise in boiler feedwater
temperature.
4.5.2 Boiler feedwater deaerator
• Figure 4.5.2 is a sketch of a typical boiler
feedwater deaerator.
• The lower portion of the deaerator acts as a

surge vessel for the boiler charge pump.
• The working part of the deaerator is the smaller

vertical section on top of this surge vessel.
FIGURE 4.5.2Deaerator is intended to remove O2 from boiler feedwater.
• The vertical section is essentially a small, four-
tray, steam stripper tower.
• Sometimes these trays are called mixing shelves,

but their function is the same as any distillation
tower tray: to bring the vapor (steam) into
intimate contact with the liquid (soft water).
• The objective of the little tower is to drive off
the light component (air, dissolved in the soft
water) with the heavier component (steam).
• The deaerator shown in Fig. 4.5.2 is operating
at 250°F. This particular temperature
corresponds to the boiling point of water at15
psig. We can say, then, that the temperature of
the deaerator controls its pressure. But it is
equally correct to say that the pressure of the
deaerator sets its temperature.
FIGURE 4.5.2Deaerator is intended to remove O2 from boiler feedwater.
• The 120°F soft water is heated to 250°F by the
50-psig heating steam. In most deaerators, the
vast majority of the heating steam is
condensed inside the deaerator. The heat of
condensation of the steam is used to heat the
soft water.
• Usually, only a small amount of the heating
steam—specifically, stripping steam—is
vented through the restriction orifice out the
atmospheric vent. It is this small stripping
steam flow that drives the air out of the soft
water.
• Note that the collected steam condensate does
not pass through the little stripper section. As
this stream is just condensed steam, it should
be free of air. Hence, it does not need to be
stripped.
End
of
Article

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Chapter (4)

(b) secondary ―gravity‖ settling (separating)

(c) mist extractor to remove small liquid particles

(e) liquid settling (separating) section to remove

(f) oil outlet, and

(g) water outlet (three-phase unit).

6. Pressure relief devices.

• The spreader or downcomer outlet is located at

• From this point as the oil rises any free water

• The water droplets flow countercurrent to the

• Similarly, the water flows downward and oil

• It is critical to the operation of the vessel that

• If the water weir is too low and the difference

• Normally, either the oil or the water weir is

(2) they exhibit fabrication difficulties, they

• The three configurations of separators are

• In the two-phase units, gas is separated from

• Oil and gas separators are mechanically

• In three-phase separators, well fluid is

• Oil and gas separators can operate at pressures

• Most oil and gas separators operate in

• Separators may be referred to as low pressure,

• Low-pressure separators usually operate at

• Medium-pressure separators usually operate at

• High-pressure separators generally operate in

• Their main purpose is to settle out droplets of

Water draw-off boot

• Some of the bad things that happen to the

• The water trickles down the tower and

• These solids can cause damage to equipment

• It is made of very fine material in order to

• The elements are made up of various types of

• However, in such a case, the filters must be re-

• While refilling, air is vented to ensure that the

• They are often used temporarily after new

• The first air scrubber was designed to remove

• There are several methods to remove toxic or

• It is particularly appreciated for its compact

• The scrubber is supplied complete with its

• The horizontal scrubber is easy to access: all

• Efficiency is generally equivalent to that of a

• An inspection port at eye level is provided to

• The various components of crude oil have

The steps of fractional distillation are as follows:

The steps of fractional distillation are as follows:

The steps of fractional distillation are as follows:

The steps of fractional distillation are as follows:

The steps of fractional distillation are as follows:

• 5-As the vapor rises through the trays in the

• A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to

• The pressure differential is dangerous and many

• The term materials science and engineering

• This reflects the fact that engineers outside of

• An understanding of the fundamental of solid-

SAE : Society of automotive engineers

P is the load on the sample with an original

L is the sample length at a given load and Lo is

0.5% Strain 100%

• Increases in temperature lead to greater thermal

• The Objectives of Codes and Standards

• The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is

• ASME Pressure Vessel Code :

• ASME Pressure Vessel Code :

• ASME Pressure Vessel Code :