Engineering Design

AMCP-706-312
AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-312
4/47/7
ENGINEERING DESIGN
HANDBOOK
REDSTONE SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
5 0510 00173208 7
ROTATIONAL MOLDING
OF
PLASTIC POWDERS )
LOAN COPY ONLY-DO NOT DESTROY )
PROPERTY OF
REDSTONE SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
APR i9 \m
HEADQUARTERS, U S ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND APRIL 1975

AMCP 706-312
This Pamphlet Contains Copyright Material
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

HEADQUARTERS UNITED STATES ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND
5001 Eisenhower Ave, Alexandria, VA 22333
AMC PAMPHLET
15 A r11 1975
No. 706-312 P
ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK

ROTATIONAL MOLDING OF PLASTIC POWDERS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viii

LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS xiii
PREFACE xvii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1-1 Definition 1-1

1-2 Background 1-1
1 —3 Materials 1—1
1 -4 Rotational Molding Process 1-1
1—5 Equipment and Tooling 1—2
1 -6 Rotational Molding Criteria 1—2
1-7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotational
Molding Process 1—3
1 —7. ] Advantages 1-3
1—7.2 Disadvantages 1-3
1—8 Applications 1—3
CHAPTER 2. ROTATIONAL MOLDS
2-1 General 2-1

2-2 Mold Materials 2-1
2-2.1 Suggested Uses 2 1
2-2.2 Mold Life 2 2
2-3 Mold Design . 2-2
2-3.1 Split Molds 2-2
2-3.2 Wall Thicknesses 2-2
2-3.3 Openings 2-3
2—3.4 Flange Mating Surfaces, Parting Lines, and
Hinges 2-3
2-3.4.1 Mating Surfaces 2-3
2-3.4.2 Parting Lines 2-3
2-3.5 Mold Mounting and Clamping 2—3
2-3.6 Corner Radii 2-7
2-3.7 Flat Panels 2-7
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
Paragraph Page
2—3.8 Core Sections, Ribs, and Handles 2—7

2-3.9 Vents 2-8
2-4 Mold Fabrication 2-8
2-4.1 Fabricated Molds 2-8
2-4.2 Cut Molds 2-9
2-4.3 Cast Molds 2-9
2-4.3.1 Pressure Casting 2-9
2-4.3.2 Gravity Casting 2-10
2-4.3.2.1 Ceramic Casting 2-10
2-4.3.2.2 Sand Casting 2-11
2-4.3.3 Attributes of Cast Molds 2—11
2-4.4 Electroformed Molds 2-12
2-5 Mold Repair 2-13
2-6 Mold Release . 2-15
2-7 Rotational Mold Manufacturers 2-15
References 2—16
CHAPTER 3. EQUIPMENT
3-1 Mold-handling Systems 3-1

3—1.1 Fixed-spindle 3—1
3—1.2 Single-spindle 3-3
3-1.3 Multiple-spindles 3-3
3-1.4 Shuttles 3-4
3—1.5 Jacketed and Ovenless Units 3-5
3—2 Biaxial Drive Systems 3 6
3—3 Spiders 3-6
3-4 Mold Filling 3-7
3-5 Mold Heating Systems 3-7
3-5.1 Hot-air Convection Heating 3-7
3—5.2 Hot-liquid Conduction Heating 3-7
3-5.3 Infrared Heating 3—9
3-5.4 Direct Gas Flame 3-9
3-6 Mold Cooling 3-9
3-7 Internal Mold Blanketing 3-10
3-8 Rotational Molding Equipment Suppliers 3-10
References 3-10
CHAPTER 4. PROCESSING PARAMETERS
4-1 General 4-1

4—2 Resin Powder Characteristics 4-1
4-2.1 Powder Particle Size, Shape, and Distribution . . 4-1
4-2.2 Powder Thermal Diffusfvity 4-3
4—2.3 Powder Viscosity 4—3
4-2.4 Powder Melt Temperature ; 4-4
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Paragraph Page
4-2.5 Pigmentation 4-5

4-2.5.1 Color Compounds 4-5
4-2.5.2 Dry Blend Coloring 4-5
4-3 Mold Charging 4-5
4-4 Clamping 4-5
4-5 Mold Rotation 4-5
4—6 Heating Cycle (Oven Cycle Times) 4-6
4—6.1 Heat Medium, Velocity, and Oven Set
Temperature '. ■ 4—7
4-6.1.1 ~ Heat Medium 4-7
4-6.1.2 Heat Medium Velocity 4-7
4-6.1.3 Oven Set Temperature 4-7
4-6.2 Transient Heating of Mold Surface 4-8
4-6.3 Heat Transfer to Powder 4-9
4-6.4 Sinter-melting 4-12
4-7 Polymer Melt Flow 4-14
4-8 Mold Releases 4-15
4-9 Surface Porosity 4-16
4-10 Thermal Degradation 4-17
4—11 Mold Blanketing and Venting 4-17
4-12 Cooling Cycle 4-18
4-12.1 Mold Heat Transfer 4-19
4-12.2 Thermal Penetration Thickness 4-19
4-12.3 Volumetric Changes 4-21
References 4—23
CHAPTER 5. QUALITY CONTROL
5-1 General . . . 5-1

5-2 Powder Screening 5—1
5—2.1 Feel or Texture of Powder 5-1
5—2.2 Microscopic Examination of Powder Particles . . 5—1
5—2.3 Particle Size Distribution 5-1
5—2.4 Dynamic Angle of Repose 5—1
5—2.5 Hot Plate Experiments 5-2
5-3 Part Quality 5-2
5-3.1 Percent Gel 5-2
5-3.2 Impact Tests 5-2
5-3.3 Density . 5-3
5-3.4 Bent Strip Test 5-3
5—3.5 Tensile Tests 5—3
5—4 Processing Problems 5—4
References 5—8
in
AMCP 706-312
Paragraph Page
CHAPTER 6. PART DESIGN
6— 1 General 6—1
6—2 Flat Surfaces 6—1
6—3 Undercuts 6-1
6-4 Threads 6-1
6—5 Inserts 6—1
6—6 Corner Radii 6—3
6—7 Composites 6-3
6-8 Wall Thickness 6-3
6—9 Inner Common Walls 6—4
6-10 Part Shrinkage 6-4
6— 11 Narrow Passages 6—4
References 6—5
CHAPTER 7. MATERIALS
7—1 Criteria for Selection 7—1

7-2 Acetal Copolymer 7—2
7-2.1 Raw Material Parameters 7—2
7—2.2 Process Parameters 7—2
7-2.2.1 Drying Cycle 7-2
7-2.2.2 Heating Cycle 7-3
7-2.2.3 Rotation 7-3
7-2.2.4 Cooling Cycles 7-3
7-2.3 Mold Release Agents 7-3
7-2.4 Properties 7—4
7-3 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) 7-4
7—3.1 Raw Material Parameters 7—4
7—3.2 Process Parameters 7—6
7—4 Cellulosics 7—6
7-4.1 Raw Material Parameters 7-6
7—4.2 Process Variables 7—7
7-4.2.3 Rotation Rates 7-7
7-4.2.4 Cooling Cycle 7-8
7-4.3 Mold Release Agents 7—8
7-4.4 Process Equipment 7—8
7-4.5 Properties 7-8
7—5 Fluorocarbons 7—8
7-5.2 Process Variables 7-11
7-5.2.1 DryingCycle 7-11
IV
AMCP 706-312
Paragraph , Page

7—5.4 Process Equipment 7—12
7—6 Ionomer 7-13
7—6.2 Process Variables 7—15
7-6.2.1 DryingCycle 7-15
7—6.4 Process Equipment 7—15
7—6.5 Properties . 7—15
7-7 Nylons 7-16
7-7.1 Nylon 6 7-16
7—7.1.1 Raw Material Parameters 7—16
7-7.1.2 Process Variables 7-16
7-7.2 Nylon 11 7-16
7-7.2.1 Raw Material Parameters 7—16
7-7.2.2 Process Variables 7-17
7-7.2.2.1 Drying Cycle 7-17
7-7.2.2.2 Heating Cycle 7-17
7-7.2.2.3 Cooling Cycle 7-17
7-7.2.3 Mold Release Agents 7-17
7-7.2.4 Properties 7-19
7-7.3 Nylon 12 7-19
7—7.3.1 Raw Material Parameters . 7—19
7—7.3.2 Processing Variables 7—19
7-7.3.2.1 Drying Cycle 7-19
7-7.3.2.2 Heating Cycle 7-19
7-7.3.3 Mold Release Agents 7-19
7-7.3.4 Equipment 7-19
7-7.3.5 Properties 7-19
7-8 Polybutylene 7-19
7—8.2 Processing Variables 7—21
7-9 Polycarbonate 7-24
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Paragraph Page
1-9 A Equipment 7-29

7—10 Polyethylene Homopolymers and Copolymers. . . 7—31
7-10.2.2 Heating Cycle 7 35
7-10.2.3 Cooling Cycles 7-36
7-11 Crosslinked High-density Polyethylene 7-39
7—11.1 Raw Material Parameters 7-43
7-11.2.1 HeatingCycle 7-43
7-11.2.3 Molding Precautions 7-47
7—11.4 Process Equipment 7-48
7-12 Polypropylene 7-50
7—12.4 Equipment 7—52
7-13 Polystyrene 7-52
7-13.2.1 HeatingCycle 7-52
7-13.4 Equipment 7—55
7-14 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 7-55
References 7—55
CHAPTER 8. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF ROTATIONAL MOLDING
8 1 General 8-1
8-2 Advantages 8-1
8—3 Disadvantages 8—1
8—4 Comparison of Process Characteristics 8 2
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd»
Paragraph Page
CHAPTER 9. ECONOMICS
9-1 General 9-1

9—2 Economic Considerations 9—1
9—3 Economic Study 9—2
References 9-4
CHAPTER 10. APPLICATIONS
10-1 General 10-1

10—2 Marine Applications 10—1
10—3 Packaging Applications 10—1
10—4 Automotive Applications 10—1
10-5 Toys 10-2
10—6 Appliances 10—2
10-7 Tanks 10-2
10-8 Residential Applications 10-2
10-9 Military Applications 10-2
10-10 Miscellaneous 10-2
GLOSSARY G-l
INDEX , 1-1
vn
AMCP 706-312
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure No. Title Page
2-1 Three Types of Flange Mating Surfaces

for Rotational Molds 2-2
2-2 Proven Mold Parting Line Designs 2—3
2-3 Two-part Mold 2-4
2-4 Mold Clamping 2-5
2-5 Spring Loaded Parting Line for Cast
Aluminum Mold 2—5
2-6 Spring Loaded Parting Line for Fabricated
Steel Mold 2-6
2-7 Mold-mounting Systems 2—6
2-8 Mold for Angles and Radii of Curvature 2-7
2-9 Mold Design With Kiss-off Section or
Handle Section 2—8
2-10 Schematic of a Vented Rotational Mold for a
Display Bottle 2-8
2-11 Two Methods To Reduce the Water Vapor
Entering Vent Tube During Cooling 2—9
2-12 Suggestions for Matrix Manufacture 2—14
3-1 Diagram of a Pivoting-arm Rotomolding System . 3—1
3-2 Diagram of a Fixed-spindle Machine 3—2
3-3 Typical Layout of Fixed-spindle Machine 3—2
3-4 Diagram of a Single-spindle Rotational-molding
Machine 3—3
3-5 Three-spindle Unit 3-4
3-6 Four-spindle Unit 3—5
3-7 Diagram of the Layout of a Six-station McNeil
Rotational Molding Machine 3—6
3-8 Typical Arm Layout of Open-end Mold on
Jacketed Mold Machine 3—7
3-9 Mechanism of Biaxial Rotation 3—8
3-10 Diagram of Typical Auxiliary Equipment for
Introducing Gas, Cool Moist Air, or Water
into a Rotational Mold 3—9
4-1 Powder Particle Shapes 4-4
4-2 Effect of rpm on Melting Rate for 7«, = 750°F,
TM = 200°F 4-7
4-3 Effect of Oven Temperature and Air Circulation
Rate on Oven Cycle Time vs Resin Wall
Thickness 4-8
4-4 Transient Temperatures of Mold Surface ........ 4—8
4-5 Effect of Mold Heat Capacity and Oven
Temperature on Oven Cycle Time vs
Resin Wall Thickness 4-9
4-6 Effect of Mold Surface to Volume Ratio and
Oven Temperature on Oven Cycle Time vs
Resin Wall Thickness \ 4-10
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AMCP 706-312
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)
4—7 Idealized Flow Configuration 4-10

4—8 Temperatures of Powder and Sinter-melt
During Rotational Molding 4-12
4—9 Effect of Set Point Temperature Tx on Times
of Initial and Final Melting 4—12
4-10 Effect of Melt Temperature on Extent of
Melting for Tx = 750°F 4-12
4-11 Kuczynski-Neuville Empirical Rate of
Sintering 4-13
4-12 Lontz Viscoelastic Rate of Sintering 4-14
4—13 Schematic of Drop on Horizontal Plane Showing
Equilibrium Contact Angle 4—15
4—14 Comparison of Computed and Measured
Tensile Strengths of Polystyrene as Functions
of the Oven Cycle Time 4-18
4—15 Dimensionless Penetration Thickness 5' and
Dimensionless Freezing Front x as Functions
of Dimensionless Time vt 4-21
4—16 Surface Rate of Cooling Rs and Bulk Rate of
Cooling R'a as Functions of Dimensionless
Time vt : 4-22
5-1 Dart Drop Impact Tester 5—3
6—1 Various Acceptable Thread Types for Use on
Rotational Molded Parts 6-1
6-2 Thread Mold Inserts 6-2
6-3 Metallic Insert 6-2
6-4 Rilsan ZMO Insert 6-3
6—5 Capillary Flow Distance During OCT = 5.5
min 6—4
7—1 Effect of Relative Humidity on the Moisture
Absorption of Ground Celcon M-90 7—3
7—2 Effect of Heating Time on Part Wall Thickness
of Plaster Cast Aluminum 7—4
7—3 Flexural Creep of Rotocast Glass-reinforced
Materials 7—6
7—4 Heating Time as a Function of Required
Thickness of GSMR 7-18
7-5 Heating Time as a Function of Oven
Temperature , 7—18
7-6 Molding Time vs Part Thickness for PB-1
Rotational Molding Resin (20 MI) 7-25
7-7 Creep Behavior of MOBIL Polybutylene 7-29
7-8 Effect of Wall Thickness on Heating Time 7-35
7—9 Effect of Heating Time on Impact Strength
of 0.95 Density PE : 7-36
IX
AMCP 706-312
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)
7-10 Effect of Heating Time on Melt Index of

0.95 Density PE 7-36
7—11 Effect of Cooling Rate on Shrinkage of
Rotomolded Thermoplastics 7-46
7—12 Nomograph for Determining the Approximate
Charge Weight of Polypropylene for a
Given Wall Thickness 7-51
8-1 Process Characteristics 8-2
9-1 Comparative Unit Costs, 20-gal Container 9—2
9-2 Comparative Unit Costs, 55-gal Container 9—3
9—3 Comparative Unit Costs, 250-gal Container 9—3
AMCP 706-312
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. . Title Page
2—1 Thermal Conductivities of the Metals for

Rotational Molds 2—1
4—1 United States Standard Sieve Series 4-2
4—2 Powder Particle Size Distributions 4-3
4 3 Rotation Ratio for Typical Shapes 4—6
4-4 Mold Material Dimensions Necessary To
Maintain First Order Time Constant of
0.202 min-1 4-10
5—1 Rotational Molding Problems and Probable
Solutions 5—4
7-1 Typical Properties of Rotocast Celcon M-90 ... . 7-4
7-2 Properties of Delrin 500 7-5
7-3 Properties of TENITE® Cellulosic Plastics for
Rotational Molding 7—9
7—4 Examples of Typical Halar® Heating Cycles .... 7-11
7—5 Suggested Rotolining Starting Conditions 7—12
7-6 Typical Properties of Halar® 5002
Rotomoldings 7—13
7—7 Typical Ionomer Properties 7—16
7-8 Shrinkage Associated With Heating of GSMR . . . 7-17
7-9 Typical Rilsan GSMRO Properties 7-20
7—10 Typical Properties of Nylon 12 7—22
7— 11 Percent Change in Linear Dimensions of a
Rotomolded PB-1 Sample 7-24
7-12 Typical Physical Properties of MOBIL
Polybutylene, Rotational Molding Grade 7-26
7--13 Chemical Resistance Tests, 7-day Immersion .. . 7—26
7- 14 Chemical Resistance of Polybutylene Results of
Six-month Exposure at 73°F 7—27
7--15 Properties of Natural Lexan® RP700 Resin 7-31
7--16 Properties of Merlon 5300 Polycarbonate Resin. . 7—32
7- 17 Effect of Increases in Melt Index and Density of
Polyethylene Powder on Properties 7-32
7—18 Effect of Glass Length and Loading on
Rotational Molding 7-32
7—19 Effect of Inert Atmosphere 7 36
7—20 Comparison of Low- and High-density
Polyethylene Properties 7 38
7-21 Poly-Eth 3003 and LR3807 Polyethylene
Powder (Gulf Oil Chem. Co.) 7-39
7-22 Properties of ALATHON® Resins 7-40
7—23 Properties of Microthene® Resins 7—41
7—24 Typical Physical Properties of Ethylene
Copolymers 7 —43
7-25 Performance of Fiber Glass in PEP-440
Polyethylene 7-44
7—26 Hot Processed Sample vs Dry Blend 7—45
XI
AMCP 706-312
LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)
Table No. Title Page
7—27 Typical Physical Properties of Microthene®

MX 11000 7-49
7—28 Nominal Physical Properties of Marlex®
CL-100 7-49
7-29 Properties of Profax 6323, 6523 Poly-
propylene 7—53
7-30 Examples of Molding Cycles With
Polystyrene Powder 7—54
7-31 Properties of Polystyrene 7-54
9-1 Selected Polyethylene Items 9-2
9-2 Representative Costs of Operation of Hot Air
Rotating Machines 9-4
Xll
AMCP 706-312
LIST OF SYMBOLS
a =~~ particle radius, cm
b' = experimental constant
Bi = Biot number, hlkm, dimensionless
c = mold specific heat, Btu/lb-°F
cPs = polymer specific heat, Btu/lb-°F
g = acceleration due to gravity; ft/sec2, cm/sec2
h = heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft2-hr-°F
k = thermal conductivity, Btu/ft2-hK°F/ft)
ks = polymer thermal conductivity, Btu/ft2-hr-(°F/ft)
K = 2[6Z/Bi)]1/2, dimensionless
K{T) - function of temperature
L = wall thickness, ft
Lc - chord length, cm
Q = dimensionless flux
T = instantaneous void radius, cm

r
= surface roughness factor, dimensionless
r0 = initial void radius, cm
R = cylinder radius, cm
^ = characteristic dimension of powder, length
R'a = bulk rate of cooling
Rs = surface rate of cooling
r = time; sec, min, hr
te = total time powder is in contact with mold

surface, min
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AMCP 706-312
LIST OF SYMBOLS (Cont'd)
= time of powder free fall, min
= time of initial powder contact with mold, min
t2 = time of powder release from mold surface, min
T = mold temperature, °F
Tf = freezing temperature, °F
Ti - liquid temperature, °F
TM - melt or tacky temperature of powder, °F
Tp = powder temperature, °F
Ts - mold surface temperature, °F

=
ôo oven set temperature, °F
T* - initial mold temperature, °F
x = distance from the initial powder contact with

the mold surface, ft
x
= web thickness during sintering, cm
~z = linear distance into capillary, cm
Z = as/ctm , dimensionless
a = thermal diffusivity, ft2/hr
Oeff = effective powder thermal diffusivity, ft2/hr
<xm = mold surface diffusivity, ft2/hr
as = thermal diffusivity at surface, ft2/hr
ß - time constant of mold, min-1
ßl = dynamic angle of repose, rad
xiv
AMCP 706-312
LIST OF SYMBOLS (Cont'd)
7 = surface tension, dyne/cm
yc = critical surface tension of solid, dyne/cm
~1LV° ~ liquid-vapor interface
ySL = solid-liquid interface

=
TSKO solid-vapor interface
5 = thermal penetration thickness, ft
5 = fluid film thickness, cm
5' = dimensionless penetration thickness
17 = viscosity, poise
6 = contact angle between drop of liquid and plane

solid surface, deg
d' * apparent contact angle, deg
v = mold time constant, min-1
p = density, lb/ft3 ■
=
Ps polymer density, lb/ft3
r = retardation time, sec
TW = shear stress at wall, dyne/cm2
v = : volume, (length)3
Xf = movement of freezing front, ft
x' = dimensionless movement of freezing front
xv/xvi
AMCP 706-312
PREFACE
The Engineering Design Handbook Series of the US Army Materiel

Command is a coordinated group of handbooks containing basic information
and fundamental data useful in the design and development of Army
materiel and systems. The handbooks are prepared for the special use of the
design engineers and scientific personnel in the Government and industry
engaged in the design, development, and upgrading of Army equipment,
materiel, components, and techniques.
The present handbook is the first in a series dealing with the technology
of plastics. The series will include groups of handbooks on materials,
fabrication, and design. This handbook is in the fabrication group. The three
handbooks to follow will cover short-fiber reinforced molding compounds,
both thermoset and thermoplastic, and joining of resin-bonded advanced
composites.
The text of this handbook was prepared by Mrs. Joan Titus of the Plastics
Technical Evaluation Center (PLASTEC), the Defense Department's
specialized information center on plastics located at Picatinny Arsenal,
Dover, New Jersey.
The Engineering Design Handbooks fall into two basic categories those
approved for release and sale, and those classified for security reasons. The
US Army Materiel Command policy is to release these Engineering Design
Handbooks in accordance with current DOD Directive 7230.7, dated 18
September 1973. All unclassified Handbooks can be obtained from the
National Technical Information Service (NTIS). Procedures for acquiring
these Handbooks follow:
a. All Department of Army activities having need for the Handbooks

must submit their request on an official requisition form (DA Form 17,
dated Jan 70) directly to:
Commander
Letterkenny Army Depot
ATTN: AMXLE-ATD
Chambersburg, PA 17201
(Requests for classified documents must be submitted, with appropriate

"Need to Know" justification, to Letterkenny Army Depot.) DA activities
will not requisition Handbooks for further free distribution.
b. All other requestors, DOD, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, nonmilitary
xvu
AMCP 706-312
Government agencies, contractors, private industry, individuals, universities,

and others must purchase these Handbooks from:
National Technical Information Service

Department of Commerce
Springfield, VA 22151
Classified documents may be released on a "Need to Know" basis verified by

an official Department of Army representative and processed from Defense
Documentation Center (DDC), ATTN: DDC-TSR, Cameron Station,
Alexandria, VA 22314.
Comments and suggestions on this Handbook are welcome and should be

addressed to;
Commander
US Army Materiel Command
ATTN: AMCRD-TV
Alexandria, VA 22333
(DA Forms 2028, Recommended Changes to Publications, which are

available through normal publications supply channels, may be used for
comments/suggestions.)
xviu
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1 DEFINITION low-density polyethylene, was publicly dem-

onstrated to the rotational molding industry.
Rotational molding, rotomolding, or roto- Indications are that polyethylenes will remain
casting is a production process to form hollow one of the most popular materials for roto-
parts of limitless size wherein liquid or pow- molding, because of their processability,
dered thermoplastic resins—and to a limited broad range of properties, and low cost.
extent thermosetting materials—are charged Today, however, most of the major thermo-
into a split mold. The mold is then rotated plastic raw material suppliers have investi-
continuously in a biaxial mode, in a high- gated specially formulated powders for rota-
temperature environment to above the resin tional molding. These include impact styrene,
melt temperature. When the plastic material polypropylene, nylons, acrylonitrile butadi-
has covered the inside of the mold and ene styrene, polycarbonate, acetals, ionomers,
densified, the mold assembly while still rotat- fluoropolymers, polybutylene, rigid polyvinyl
ing is cooled to room temperature. The chloride, and special grades of the cellulosics.
rotation is stopped and the part removed. They can be foamed or reinforced with
fiberglass. In addition to the raw material
12 BACKGROUND suppliers, many rotational molders also have
used custom grinding services or have their
Rotational molding is not a new processing own in-plant grinding facilities, which also
technique, having had a place in industry enlarges the material selection for this pro-
since the 1940's. The materials prior to 1961 cess.
were limited to vinyl plastisols in liquid form
and were used primarily in the manufacture The commercial supply of rotational mold-
of novelties and decorative items such as ing powders has been curtailed recently. The
artificial fruits, mannequins, children's toys, petroleum shortage commencing in 1973 with
and hollow display items. ensuing feed stock allocations to resin manu-
facturers and resin price controls resulted in
What is new in rotational molding in recent plastic shortages. The manufacture of molding
years relates not to plastisols but to powdered powders especially was affected since powders
resins of about 35 mesh which have triggered cost about $0.06 per lb more than pellets
improvements in equipment design and the (due to the grinding operation required) and
overall technology, making this technique the fact that rotational molding accounts for
among the major plastics processing methods only about 2 percent of the plastic processors'
of today. Therefore, this handbook will be operations.
devoted to the thermoplastic powdered engi-
neering grade polymer rotational molding 1-4 ROTATIONAL MOLDING PROCESS
technology and not to plastisols which have
little significance in the military complex. The six basic steps associated with rotation-
al molding, namely:
1-3 MATERIALS
1. Charging. Charging the molds with a
In 1961, the first polyolefin powder, a predetermined weight of powder desired in
1-1
AMCP 706-312
the end product. gle- and multiple spindles, shuttle, and jack-
eted or ovenless molds. Specific information
2. Clamping. Clamping mold parts in place. is contained in Chapter 3.
The entire mold is made of heat-conductive
material for totally enclosed pieces. When one Rotational molds are generally made from
or both ends of the pieces are to be open, cast aluminum, 10-20 gage sheet steel, beryl-
heat-insulating covers are used to close the lium-copper (Be/Cu), or electroformed cop-
mold. per-nickel. Split molds are required for part
removal. Flanges may be tongue and groove,
3. Heating. The charged molds are heated interlocking or flat with locating pins. Vent-
while simultaneously rotating around two ing of molds is recommended to maintain
axes in planes at right angles to each other. atmospheric pressure inside the closed mold
Heating can be accomplished in hot air during the entire molding cycle. Mold wall
convection ovens, molten hot salts spray, thickness will be determined by the type of
circulating oils, open flame, and infrared equipment used for rotational molding. Molds
ovens. The introduction of an inert gas such used in a hot-liquid machine should have a
as nitrogen into the mold during the heating greater wall thickness than those used in an
cycle is sometimes performed to flush out the air-convection oven - normally 0.5 in. and
oxygen and thus prevents oxidative degrada- 0.25 in., respectively, for cast aluminum.
tion of the resin while it is being fused. Molds
usually are vented to prevent pressure build- 1-6 ROTATIONAL MOLDING CRITERIA
up.
The general criteria for selecting the rota-
4. Rotation. The biaxial rotation results in tional molding process are:
the powder being evenly distributed to form
hollow objects with uniform walls when the 1. Fabrication of hollow items having large
resin fuses except where heat-insulating covers surface areas which would require extensive
are used. tool design and complicated molds.
5. Cooling. When all of the powder has 2. Fabrication of hollow items having com-
been fused into a homogeneous layer on the plex shapes such as convoluted wall sections,
walls of the mold, the mold is cooled usually undercuts, or similar irregularities that would
by air and/or water spray while still being make difficult tool design as well as produc-
biaxially rotated. tion problems.
6. Part Removal. The mold is opened and 3. The manufacture of relatively large items
the end product removed. Removal is usually subjected to widely varying production sched-
manual and simplified by use of a release ules such, as those keyed to seasonal cycles or
agent. uncertain contracts.
1-5 EQUIPMENT AND TOOLING 4. When the total production volume

would be at a level that would prohibit sizable
The mold-handling system includes all the investment in expensive tooling.
equipment required to transport the mold(s)
through the loading, heating, cooling, and 5. When the item is subject to unpredict-
unloading steps and to bring about the biaxial able changes in styling, or when a quick
rotation of rotational molding. The main styling change could be exploited profitably
parts of the system are the spindle, spider or in the market.
mold mount, and the drive mechanisms.
There are basically four types of handling 6. When identical items or different parts
machines in use. They are fixed-spindle, sin- of an item are required in different colors.
1-2
AMCP 706-312
1-7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 8. Metal inserts often can be molded as

OF ROTATIONAL MOLDING PROCESS integral parts of the item.
1-7.1 ADVANTAGES 9. Molds can be designed with little draft.
Some of the outstanding advantages of

1-7.2 DISADVANTAGES
rotational molding are:
The main disadvantages are:
1. Products can be made seamless and
virtually strain free with little or no waste
1. Rotational molding materials are quite
scrap. limited.
2. Wall thickness can be uniform to about
2. Molding cycles are longer than injection
±0.015 in.
or blow molding.
3. Intimate detail, various textures, or high
3. Labor is intensive due to manual loading
gloss are easily obtained.
and unloading of molds.
4. Molds are simple, inexpensive, and can
4. Bosses cannot be molded.
be fabricated with a short lead time.
5. Process is well suited for the production 1-8 APPLICATIONS

of very large or totally enclosed parts.
Rotational molding has been used success-
6. Prototype molds can be manufactured fully in a wide variety of applications; some
for experimental purposes without great ex- examples are portable lavatories, 15-foot
pense. boats, containers, pallets, incendiary bomb
casings, missile containers, storage tanks, au-
7. Double-wall constructions are feasible. tomobile fender liners, and battery cases.
1-3/1-4
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 2
ROTATIONAL MOLDS
2-1 GENERAL and to hard coat any portion, such as the

parting lines. The cavities should be heat
The selection of rotational molds depends treated, machined, then, if desired, hard
upon the size, shape, complexity and surface coated.
finish of the part to be molded; resin com-
pound; molding cycle time; quantity of molds Another aluminum treating process
required; and production volume. Molds (Tufram®) provides a steel-hard surface com-
should be as thin-walled and lightweight as bined with locked in permanent release prop-
practical. erties2*.
2-2 MOLD MATERIALS Other mold materials such as porous metal-

lic or ceramic have been impregnated with
There is a wide choice of mold materials polytetrafluoroethylene to produce superior
for rotational molding. They are stainless nonstick characteristics. However, they are
steel, 10-20 gage sheet steel, cast and fabri- not recommended for molding resins that
cated aluminum, cast and machined nickel, require oven temperatures above 500°F.
electroformed chrome plated nickel and nick-
el-copper, and cast and machined Be/Cu. The 2-2.1 SUGGESTED USES
thermal conductivities of these materials are
given in Table 2-1. Aluminum or electroformed nickel-copper
alloys are recommended for small or inter-
There are also some high strength alumi- mediate-sized molds, complex shapes, and
num alloys. These alloys are very susceptible when several molds of one design are re-
to a hard coating process. The coating is not a quired. Steel is used for most large molds and
plating; it does not chip or peel off. The for a prototype mold of a single design
surface of the aluminum is converted into because it is the most economical material.
aluminum oxide which is extremely hard. The Cast Be/Cu is used where fast molding cycles
surface has to be polished if a smooth finish is and superior chemical resistance are required.
desired. It is possible to mask off the cavities If overall cycle time is not important but high
surface gloss is, chrome-plated stainless steel is
recommended. Cast aluminum molds are suit-
TABLE 2-1
able for any configuration since they general-
ly do not cause wall thickness problems and
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF THE METALS allow a textured finish if desired. One prob-
FOR ROTATIONAL MOLDS lem does exist, however, with aluminum
molds-porosity. Molds that have been cast in
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES1 plaster usually have smoother, less porous
METALS Btu/ft2 -hr-(°F/ft)at572°F surface than those cast in sand.
Steel 25 Good quality, porosity-free molds with

Aluminum 133
Copper 212 *Supeisciipt numbers refer to References at the end of the
Nickel 32 chapter.
2-1
AMCP 706-312
(A) Flat •(B) Offset (C) Tongue-and-Rroove

Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 2-1, Three Types of Flange Mating Surfaces for Rotational Molds3
properly designed parting lines are essential to molding will determine the mold thickness.
successfully mold an item. Normally, properly Molds utilizing a hot-liquid (oil) or those used
welded, fabricated steel or aluminum, electro- in a hot-molding salt-spray machine should
formed, or machined molds are porosity-free. have greater wall thicknesses (about 5/16 to 1/2
in.) than those used in a hot-air convection
2-2.2 MOLD LIFE oven (3/16 to 1/4 in.). Thicker mold walls
permit the high temperatures caused by the
Mold life is shorter for rotational molding fast heat transfer of the liquid to heat the
than for injection or blow molding, since the powder uniformly without causing hot spots
exteriors of these molds and their mounting and with less risk of mold warpage. Thinner
assemblies are exposed to severe thermal mold walls result in a reduction of cycle time
shock during the molding cycle. This results in a hot air convection oven.
in crystallization of the metal. Proper mount-
ing also is required or molds will warp. When infrared mold heating is used, wall
thickness may be controlled by painting. Dark
2-3 MOLD DESIGN paints on the outer mold surface result in
higher heat absorption and consequently in
2-3.1 SPLIT MOLDS thicker part walls. Light-colored paints, or
aluminum paint, reflect the heat and result in
Rotational molds for other than plastisols thinner walls. Paints used for this purpose
should be of a split design so that the opening must be thermally stable at the high oven
coincides with the largest dimension of the temperatures used. Paints have a relatively
part. At least the opening must be large small effect on wall thickness compared with
enough so that the item can be removed insulating covers made of materials such as
without distortion. asbestos.
2-3.2 WALL THICKNESSES In addition, the wall thickness in a speci-

fied area may be reduced by the application
The type of equipment used for rotational of an insulating material, usually asbestos, to
2-2
AMCP 706-312
hot-air convection-oven or hot-liquid ma-

WELDED chines. It simplifies mold maintenance, but
ON
ALIGNMENT
FLANGE has a higher initial cost than either the offset
PIN \
or tongue-and-groove surface. The mating
WELDED
ON
FLANGE PIN
i
~~ vr
ALIGNMEN
surfaces should be machined smooth for a
good fit, and the molds should be stress-re-
lieved before the parting lines are matched.
2. Tongue and Groove. The tongue-and-

groove flange is recommended for use with
Reprinted by permission ofSPE. the hot-liquid machines since it is more
difficult for the liquid to penetrate that
Figure 2-2. Proven Mold Parting distance to the cavity.
Line Designs*
2-3.4.2 PARTING LINES
the outside of the mold resulting in a less
resin fusion. The parting line design and certain types of
inserts should be given special consideration.
Some representative mold wall thicknesses The parting line should be designed to seat on
for hot air convection ovens are: the inside surface and should be relieved to
the outside. This prevents water or vapor
1. Aluminum. 2/8 to 3/8 in. from being trapped in the parting line. As the
temperature of the mold is increased, trapped
2. Steel. 3/64 to 1/8 in. moisture or vapor can expand and blow
through the part or enter the wall and form a
3. Be/Cu. 1/16 to 3/8 in. bubble. The same basic principles should be
used for inserts that are seated on the mold.
4. Nickel/copper. 5/64 to 5/32 in. The insert should seat on its outer edge and
be tapered to the center. Two types of parting
2-3.3 OPENINGS line designs that have been successfully used
are shown in Fig. 2-2.
When openings are required in the molded
part, mold insulating lids or inserts are used in For a moderately curved parting line, the
the place of metal in the open areas. Usually offset or tongue-and-groove register can be
asbestos boards, Teflon®, or silicone foams are used. When the curved parting line becomes
used. extreme, the best register is the offset. The
tongue-and-groove can bind and not open and
2-3.4 FLANGE MATING SURFACES, close properly. If there is any choice as to
PARTING LINES, AND HINGES where the parting line should be, the rule is
the straighter the line, the better the design.
There are three main types of flange mating
surfaces for rotational molds, namely: flat, In certain cases, as shown in Fig. 2-3, two
offset, and tongue-and-groove. These are illus- objects are molded together. These are then
trated in Fig. 2-1. separated on the designed parting line or lines.
2-3.4.1 MATING SURFACES 2-3.5 MOLD MOUNTING AND CLAMPING
A brief discussion relative to the applica- Mounting bosses should be located around
tion of mating surfaces follows: the periphery of the parting line, perpendicu-
lar to its plane, and steel rods should be fitted
1. Flat. The flat-type can be used on either into them. If long mounted aluminum bosses
2-3
AMCP 706-312
Assembly system
Parting line after

extraction from the mold
Detail of the design of the

parting line
Figure 2-3. Two-part Mold5
were used, they would rob the heat. Also the ment that allows a practical unload-load cycle
metal compresses and in a short time the time.
cavity is not closing properly.
Production length will be a major influence
Molds should be mounted on a steel frame in the design. Two important features to be
welded together and designed to receive the considered are opening and closing the mold
mounting bosses of the cavities. These frames in a f -aight line perpendicular to the parting
are referred to as spiders. Some machines use line, and the use of guide pins to keep the
square spiders and some round, but the most parting lines from smashing.
important consideration is that they be made
of steel. Channel iron, square steel tubes, or Figs. 2-4, 2-5, and 2-6 show several clamp-
0.25-in. flat hot roll steel are some of the ing designs.
materials used for spiders. The square tubing
and the 0.25-in flat stock can be rolled into The two ways of mounting molds in the
concentric circles to make round spiders. spindle are double centerline and offset arm
as illustrated in Fig. 2-7. The most common
method is to attach the mold(s) to the spiders
The dimensions of the steel depend upon lying directly above and below the spindle
the size of the spider and the closing pressure double centerline mounting. This mounting is
needed to keep the cavities together. After preferred for the production of small items
the spiders are welded together they should because it permits easier mold loading and
be normalized before machining. unloading. For large items, the so-called offset
arm is preferable. Also, it minimizes variations
Spiders can be designed with just a few in wall thickness by bringing the center of
simple hold-down bolts allowing the cavities volume of the mold close to the intersection
to do all the registration to very complex of the major and minor axes of rotation. A
mechanisms with springs, worm drives, or air wide difference in peripheral velocity from
cylinders for opening and closing the mold. top to bottom, caused by a greatly offset
How elaborate the spider design becomes mold, may result in poor material distribution
depends on the situation. Also, heat distribu- and nonuniform wall thickness of the mold-
tion has to be balanced with a spider arrange- ings.
2-4
AMCP 706-312
Movable part
.•I
if■
Quick-action bolt
Locking ensured by the framework

Figure 2-4. Mold Clamping
LATCH
TYPE CLAMP
MOLD STAND-OFF
BOLT. , SPRING
\-4 sr T
H
CAST
ALUMINUM
MOLD
W
L-^
Figure 2-5. Spring Loaded Parting Line for Cast Aluminum Mold6
2-5
AMCP 706-312
-NUT
■DANLEY DIE SPRING
MOLD PREUDADED 0.1 TO
0.2 IN. SO THAT
SPRING STILL HAS
0.25 IN. TRAVEL TO
SOLID
Ô* ANGLE IRON

NUT
PARTING LINE
TEE SHAPED
SECTION MADE DE-STA-CO
FROM BAR STOCK *MODEL# 311
MOLD
Figure 2-6. Spring Loaded Parting Line for Fabricated Steei Moid 6
^
Minor axia Minor axis
5\ S?
idet
Major ^t-i.i:"<r
axis >ÖT
-n --J- -n~
Spider
Spider V
(A) Offset-arm (B) Double centerline
Figure 2-7. Moid-mounting Systems
2-6
AMCP 706-312
12
4- MATERIAL 1/8" ALUMINUM
" »1
1
"
1 i 1/2UR
ISS^N/^
V"\223° \.
1 K |3S
M
16" i/4" R—a 14"
K)"
JL
J63» . 1/
v\ vw R^y
l/W R
l/B
..„>*</
'<
B"
NO SCALE
:=•!
- H
Reprinted by permission of SPE.
Figure 2-8. Mold for Angles and Radii of Curvaturex
2-3.6 CORNER RADII 2-3.7 FLAT PANELS
Rao and Throne experimented with the Flat panels should be avoided because they
aluminum corner mold shown in Fig. 2-8. will shrink away from the mold as they cool,
Corner angles of 45, 75, 90, 135, 165, 180, especially if they are cooled too rapidly with
225, and 240 deg were included in this mold consequent warpage and brittleness.
together with a 1 X 1 in. square section, and
indentations with radii of 1/16, 1/8, 3/16, 2-3.8 CORE SECTIONS, RIBS, AND HAN-
1/4, and 1/2 in. Rotational molding with DLES
many plastics in this mold has shown that
rarely will the 45- and 75-deg and 1/16- and Core sections can be made. Deep ribs,
1/8-in. test areas be free of voids. For kissed off, and handle areas should be designed
materials such as impact styrene or ABS, even with a greater taper than normal for easy part
90-deg, 135-deg, and 3/16-in. test areas were removal. A 6- to 8-deg taper is recommended
incompletely filled. The square section was for crosslinked polyethylene4. Deep handle
rarely filled, regardless of the material used. core sections and other deep core sections
Based on this testing it is concluded that, for that kiss-off from one side of the mold to the
most materials, mold radii of 3/16 in. and other should have an opening for hot air
parting lines placed on 180-deg walls are the passage through the mold as illustrated in Fig.
safe lower limits for avoidance of voids in part 2-9. This will help prevent thinning due to air
surfaces1. being static in the bottom of the core section.
2-7
AMCP 706-312
AIR FLOW
BUFFETED
x\v\u»uu ■555.
CORE SECTION
KISS-OFF
Xtaz /JfS/S// t > / > > / ■> J > > >
(A) Cross Section—Poor Design
MOLD-*..
AIR FLOW
>uvûu^
&
COSE SECTION
KISS-OFF STAINLESS
« OPENING
STEEL
THROUGH
MOLD OR TEFLON®
TUBE
£{HJf/!/>>>> /
(B) Cross Section—Good Design
-GLASS WOOL
Figure 2-9. Mold Design With Kiss-off
Section orHandieSection6
One of the most disastrous errors made by

end-users considering rotational molding for
the first time is the design and fabrication of OIL FILTER CUP
prototype tooling without pretesting mold

features such as closure, angles of radius, and By U.S. Industrial Chemicals Co., 1965;
overall variation in part thickness. This can be reprinted by permission
done by running experiments on simple molds
such as ball, cylinder, and disks molds on a Figure 2-10. Schematic of a Vented Rotational
rotational molding machine prior to design Mold for a Display Bottle.7
and fabrication of prototype or production
tooling. mold. It must enter the mold at a point where
the opening that it will leave will not harm
2-3.9 VENTS the appearance or utility of the molded item.
The vent is filled with a material, such as glass
Molds should be vented from the cavities to or steel wool, to keep the powder charge from
maintain internal atmospheric pressure during entering the vent during rotation. The end of
the molding cycle. Venting results in less the vent outside the mold must be protected
flash, less distortion of the part, thinner mold so that no water will enter during cooling, or
walls, less pressure needed to keep the mold so that hot liquid if used will not enter during
closed, and longer mold life. It will also heating. Sometimes an oil filter cup or metal
prevent blowouts caused by pressure during cup is used for this purpose. Some designs are
heating and/or part collapse or imperfections shown in Figs. 2-10 and 2-11.
resulting from any vacuum created during the 24 MOLD FABRICATION
cooling cycle.
2-4.1 FABRICATED MOLDS
The vent is a thin-walled metal or Teflon®
tube which extends to near the center of the These molds are made by convention-
2-8
AMCP 706-312
/"PIPE TEE
fA iS.
i
r-
^HOLES
vmm >
MOLD
TEFLON^ OR
STEEL TUBE mm.
-— STEEL VENT TUBE
>»
»>
USE FIBERGLASS >>>
'PACKING IN END
Figure 2-11. Two Methods To Reduce the Water Vapor Entering Vent Tube During Cooling*
al methods such as spinning, turning, and tern of the finished part. The materials for
forming and are welded together to make the this pattern can be just about any formable
finished shape. This form of mold can give substance such as plastics, plasters, woods,
fairly long production runs at a very reason- clays, and aluminum.
able price, depending upon intricacy. They
are made from sheet steel, copper, and alumi- From this pattern a female impression is
num. cast in either epoxy or high-strength plaster.
This impression is then placed on a duplicator
With steel and aluminum fabricated molds, or tracing machine, and cavities are produced
improper welding can cause porosity in the in the premachined blocks. This method
weld. To obtain good porosity-free welds produces a very accurate mold capable of
three simple steps should be taken: producing a large number of finished parts.
1. The welding rod must have a similar Machined cavities of aluminum and Be/Cu
thermal coefficient of expansion as the mate- fall into the same class as pressure-cast alumi-
rial used in the mold. num and Be/Cu. Only the steel hob is
eliminated. Molds made by this method have
2. The inside should be welded first to get a better and more uniform density than that
good penetration. found in pressure-cast and ceramic casting.
3. Grind or grit blast the back of the first 2-4.3 CAST MOLDS
pass before the second pass is made. This
procedure should be followed for each addi- Molds can be cast by two methods: pres-
tional pass. This method helps to eliminate sure and gravity. The materials used are steel,
any porosity that might be caused by oxides Be/Cu, and aluminum.
formed on the previous pass.
2-4.3.1 PRESSURE CASTING
2-4.2 CUT MOLDS
Pressure castings are produced by pouring
A cut mold is one machined from wrought molten metal over a steel hob and applying
stock. Under this heading we find steel, pressure. The metal flows to conform very
stainless steel, Be/Cu, and aluminum. The first precisely to the shape and surface finish of
step is to produce from the print which will the hob. In making the hob, allowance must
have included plastic shrinkage an exact pat- be made for the metal shrinkage (approxi-
2-9
AMCP 706-312
mately 0.005 to 0.007 in./in.) as well as a After pressurizing the chase is raised and
sufficient draft angle of at least 1.5 deg for the side or shim and pusher plates loosened
removal. by rapping them. It is important to remove
the hob from the mold before too much
Air hardening tool steels are generally best cooling occurs. If cooling proceeds too far, it
for hobs. These metals machine readily, do will be necessary to heat the hob and mold to
not shrink excessively when hardened, and facilitate separating them.
provide the necessary hardness and strength.
Generally SAE H-12 or SAE H-13 are used for Pressure casting requires a two-stage type
making hobs. When available, SAE H-23 hydraulic press to allow high speed for ap-
(oil-hardened) is one of the better grade steels proaching the working position and slow
to use where a large number of cavities are speed for pressurizing. Daylight must be large
required from a single hob. Under certain enough to provide working area. Pressure
circumstances it is possible to use a prehard- capacity must be between 1000 and 2000 psi,
ened steel. The safest thing is to check with preferably nearer 2000 psi. For a press with a
the caster before proceeding with cutting the 20-in.2 platen, this means a 750-ton press.
hob.
Pressure-cast aluminum and Be/Cu molds
The hob base requirements also will vary basically are used when the shape is not of
with the conformation of the impression. intricate design.
Therefore, it is advisable to contact the
pressure caster for the proper dimensions. 2-4.3.2 GRAVITY CASTING
Ordinarily, pressure castings can be made up
to 200 lb in weight, the limit being deter- The other method of casting molds is the
mined by the shape of the piece. "gravity cast" method. There are many differ-
ent mold mediums used into which the metal
Control of the melting and pouring temper- is poured. However, all systems are filled by
atures of the molten metal is important. gravitational force only. Atmospheric pressure
Overheating is particularly harmful. It is also may be added by the use of risers on the back
recommended to minimize turbulence during section, but basically it is gravitational force
pouring. that fills the molds. This, of course, means the
grain is of different size from pressure cast-
In pressure casting the mold, the hob ings. While this type of casting dates back to
should be thoroughly cleaned and covered ancient times, it is only recently that techni-
with a parting agent. The hob, shim plates, cal improvements have made its use more
and top pusher plate are heated (from approx- widespread in the plastics industry.
imately 800° to about 1150°F). When heated,
the chase or mold casing around the hob 2-4.3.2.1 CERAMIC CASTING
assembly is lowered and moved onto a hy-
draulic press. The molten metal is poured at Ceramic casting follows any one of a
the recommended temperature into the chase number of patented proprietary procedures.
so that it first contacts the chase walls and A typical sequence is described in the para-
then flows onto the hob. A deflector will graphs that follow.
insure this pattern of flow. When the molten
metal has covered the hob, the pusher plate is A wood pattern of the part to be produced
placed over the molten metal and press force is made with proper shrinkage allowances for
applied immediately. Because the molten metal and the plastic. These shrinkages will
metal will begin to solidify when it contacts vary from piece to piece and it is best to
the chase and hob, time and pressure are both establish them for each piece. Generally,
important. 0.016 to 0.018 in./in. is allowed for metal
2-10
AMCP 706-312
shrinkage and 0.005 in./in. for plastic. The machine are generally used to finish off the
moldmaker casts a special, quick-setting liquid external surfaces of molds. A radial drill press
rubber around the pattern. The elastic quality will suffice for drilling passages and holes for
allows stripping from the pattern even though attachment. An electric discharge machine
the pattern may have a deep-grained surface. may be useful in remedying casting defects. A
It also provides faithful reproduction. hand snagging wheel will remove stubs.
Now a ceramic is cast into the rubber mold, An enclosure box with a pump, hose, and
producing a replica of the designed part. A nozzle make up the facility for liquid honing
proper ceramic mixture will combine good for finishing molds. If pickling is desired, acid
surface reproduction with relatively high per- and water tanks, and a small heating system
meability. This last property allows adequate are all that are necessary.
outgassing during casting of the metal around
the ceramic, resulting in a sound, dense Many types of finish can be duplicated
casting. with the casting process-wood grain, leather-
ette, stippling, cloth, basket weave, etc. With
After pouring the ceramic slurry into the the exception of highly polished surfaces,
rubber mold, the moldmaker allows it to most finishes are possible.
solidify and then fires it in an oven. Melting
and pouring of the molten metal around the Some advantages of the gravity cast system
ceramic pattern follows the steps covered are:
under hot nobbing.
1. Highly irregular parting lines can be cast
After solidification of the metal, the ceram- from a model with matching cavities and
ic is broken away. Metal cooling is controlled cores.
to achieve good dimensional tolerances in the
2. The castings can be made from models
casting.
of different materials effecting a savings over
machining an expensive hob.
Ceramic casting requires a rubber pattern
shop, ceramic mixing kettles, and a bake-out 3. Castings can be made by duplicating an
oven of the car-bottom or tunnel types for existing piece.
moving large ceramic patterns in and out.
4. Undercuts can be cast by using the
2-4.3.2.2 SAND CASTING strippable rubber technique.
Sand casting is acceptable in some cases. It 5. Cores and cavities can be cast, allowing
may be used for large molds if there is no for plastic-thickness.
need for fine surface detail, as in a fender
underliner for an automobile. Generally 6. It is faster and.less expensive in many
COj -hardened sand is used. If surface finish is cases to make a model rather than machine a
important, the best approach is to use a costly steel hob.
ceramic face backed up by C02-hardened
7. Less expensive dies can be made for
sand. Sand casting equipment is not exten-
short run items by substituting less costly
sive— C02, gas tanks, hose, and a high-speed
sand muller. metals such as aluminum or die metal.
However, close tolerances cannot be main-
2-4.3.3 ATTRIBUTES OF CAST MOLDS tained on large castings, as the shrinkage rate
will vary somewhat because of size or shape
Casting molds eliminate a great deal of of the casting. The only way exact sizes can
expense in machine tools. A portable 0.5-in. be maintained in any casting is to make a
drill with a sanding wheel or a milling casting, "mike it up", adjust the. pattern, and
2-11
AMCP 706-312
make another. Since this is not feasible on tions tended to penetrate too far into wood.
large castings, the next best thing is to have However, treating the wood mandrel with
the cavity pattern made small, then, if neces- lacquer-like materials can control the penetra-
sary, it can be enlarged by machining the tion so that excellent wood grain repro-
critical areas. At other times it may be duction may be obtained. Mandrels with a
necessary to incorporate some flexibility in nonconductive surface must be sprayed with
the design of the item. reduced silver which is a liquid silver reduced
to a metallic film by the addition of formalde-
2-4.4 ELECTROFORMED MOLDS hyde or with a highly conductive silver paint.
The first method results only in a 3 X 1CT6 in.
Electroforming consists of electroplating thickness and, therefore, reproduces far more
against a conductive surface for a long period detail than the paint spray method.
of time to reproduce a reverse of that surface.
Patterns, or mandrels, as they are generally If multiple cavities are required from the
called, may be made of almost any material same mandrel, the best materials for the
that does not absorb moisture, or does not mandrels are stainless steel or electroformed
expand excessively through a 100-deg F heat nickel. Nickel can be electroformed easily
differential. Expansion during the first half- over nickel without sticking to the mandrel.
hour of plating will crack the very thin This is because nickel "passivates" readily; it
electroform. The adhesion of the plating to will not accept the plating and leaves a clean
the mandrel must be strong enough to retain parting line. Epoxy mandrels are risky to try
the surface detail and contour, but weak to reuse because surface defects can be
enough to be removed after plating. The imparted in removing the electroform from
adhesion is determined by the film deposited the mandrel. It is often feasible to make any
on the pattern or mandrel. number of cavities from a single mandrel,
depending upon part shape and mandrel
Factors affecting the choice of mandrel material. The plating rate is normally
material include surface finish requirements, 0.012-0.015 in. per 24-hr day. This rate may
shape, and plating bath composition and be increased when plating copper, but stress
temperature. Materials include plastics, glass, and brittleness also increase. Plating does go
wax, latex, rubber, wood, plaster, and most on 24 hr per day, 7 days a week, requiring 9
metals except zinc. Metal mandrels are usually to 10 days to produce a mold 0.125 in.
nickel, nickel-copper-nickel, or nickel chrome thick.
plated. Thickness can be closely controlled. It
can be as little as 0.02-in. for pressureless Molds are separated from mandrels in three
rotational molding. Nickel mold facing is ways. One-piece molds with undercuts require
chemical resistant, tough, hard, and can be a disposable mandrel which is melted or
highly polished. In the nickel-chrome, the etched out of the mold. A mold with suffi-
chrome acts as an electrical conductor as well cient draft is pried loose from the mandrel
as a release agent for the nickel since the mechanically at one or two points, then, by
electroform face will not adhere permanently the use of air pressure, removed completely.
to the chrome surface of the mandrel. An electroformed mold with little or no draft
normally can be released by cooling the
Aluminum mandrels must be sealed against pattern while heating the electroform. The
acid attack and, therefore, are not used often. expansion of the electroform usually will be
Steel, copper, and brass can be used although sufficient to remove it from the mandrel.
if any parts of the model are not to be
electroformed, those areas should be sealed, Electroformed molds produce extremely
from the plating solution. Getting the wood accurate reproduction of detail in each cavity
grain pattern of some woods has been diffi- when compared with steel for a given price.
cult until recently because the plating solu- They have zero porosity compared with alu-
2-12
AMCP 706-312
minum castings, and zero shrink when com- Nickel electroformed molds have been
pared with Be/Cu castings. Usually, the elec- backed up with a wire arc flame spraying
troformed mold is far less costly than steel, technique in Europe for over 20 yr. It is now
comparable in price to Be/Cu, and more used in this country since the development of
costly than aluminum. In some cases electro- a light-weight, hand-held unit. It involves the
forming is the only way some molds can be use of an electric arc to fuse or melt the tips
made. However, electroformed molds are rela- of two wires that are fed into the applicator
tively soft except in certain cases compared to and then sprayed onto a surface. One compa-
steel. A practical maximum hardness is about ny involved in this particular application is
48 Rockwell C scale. Plating time of two to TAFA Div., Humphreys Corp., Bow, New
three weeks also requires a substantial lead Hampshire. In this technique, the electro-
time. Delivery of multiple cavities is slow formed mold is reinforced with an integrally
without multiple mandrels or when design bonded outer layer of arc-deposited low
changes are to be made compared to alumi- carbon steel or aluminum bronze. The coating
num or beryllium castings. fills in sharp angles and builds the mold wall
to specified thickness to provide both
Configuration plays a very important part strength and uniform heat conductivity. It
in electroformed molds because of the diffi- also allows very thin-walled electroforms to
culty in electroforming to a uniform thickness be used8.
over the complete surface of the mold.
Principles of electromagnetic force dictate There are many factors to be considered
that recesses deeper than they are wide, sharp before a decision can be made as to which
corners, and most internal bosses or projec- route the mold maker will take to construct a
tions should be avoided. Some bosses may be mold. All aspects of every job must be
inserted into the mandrel as "grow-ins" and considered to determine whether it should be
the plating will securely attach itself to the made by hobbing, machining, casting, or
bottom of the boss and the "grow-in" be- electroforming. There is no simple formula to
comes an integral part of the mold. Sugges- indicate the best method. A minute detail
tions for matrix design are shown in Fig. 2-12. may be the determining factor. As for cavity
life, the electroforms will give the same or
There is a version of the electroforming better life as a hobbed cavity. The surface of
process which largely eliminates the problems the electroform is softer than the hobbing,
of the recesses and cleavage planes. The but the hardness runs deeper. Electroforms
process was developed in England and is also don't stain or rust.
patented there and in this country. It can do
jobs that cannot be done any other way and, 2-5 MOLD REPAIR
therefore, has an irreplaceable use in the mold
making industry. It is a simple matter to repair Be/Cu molds
by brazing, welding, pinning, or soldering
The patented English baths deposit a with alloys made specifically for this work. In
unique quality of metal. The nickel has a addition, when a Be/Cu mold is no longer
hardness of about 45 Rockwell C scale but needed, the metal brings a high scrap price.
the elongation at this hardness is 15 percent,
which makes the metal very resistant to The repairability of electroformed molds
permanent deformation. The deposit is very compares favorably with that of other types.
even over uneven surfaces. It will deposit They can be repaired by silver soldering,
metal, for instance, at the bottom of a slot brazing, and welding. Arc welding is not
1/8-in. wide and nearly 1/2-in. deep. Copper recommended for nickel electroforms because
has even greater throwing power and some- sulfur and other material co-deposited with
times plates faster in the low areas than on the nickel lead to fissure like cracks. The
the peaks10. problem can be overcome in wrought nickel
2-13
AMCP 706-312
Electrodeposited metal build» up on outjide corner» and thins

out on intlde corner», a. Breaking thorp corner« and providing
fillet], b, minimize) variations in metal depoiit rhicknei».
Receisei should be wider than Uie fillet» at least equal to

deep. It i» difficult and metgl depoiit thickness for
sometime» impotsible to elec- strong inside corner».
trodepoiit into deep, narrow
rece»»e».
Holes can be "»potted" for

When feasible provide »light
subsequent drilling by provid-
taper I0.0OI in per ft] to aid
ing depressions in pattern.
mandrel removal.
Nonconductive
tooting
Eliminote drilling and reom.

ing operotion» by providing
Flonge» and bosset should fit
ma»ked or nonconduetive
lightly and be flored or to-
»tud» on pottern. Hole diam-
pared to mondref diameter
eter» con be held to ±Q W2
in and have ««eilen» sur-
face fihiih.
Extend internal piece beyond end

of surrounding part to assure
Mandrel
deposition on sides as well as
end of internal "grow-in" piece.
This provision assures bonding
Grown-in
shaft of internal shaft to outside
cylinder.
ELECTRO MOLD CORPORATION Minneapolis, Minn.
Figure 2-12. Suggestions for Matrix Manufacture

2-14
AMCP 706-312
by the addition of manganese, magnesium, or 4. BÖRSE PLASTIC PRODUCTS, INC.,

some other additive. Experiments to eliminate Hinsdale, 111.
it in electroformed nickel by use of additives
in the plating bath offer some prospect of 5. CONFORMING MATRIX CORP.,
success. In repairing a nickel-copper mold, Toledo, Ohio
care must be taken because of the heat sink
effect of the copper. 6. CONSOLIDATED PATTERN & MFG.
CO., St. Louis, Mo.
Tool steel molds can be repaired or re-
worked by the use of the electroforming 7. DURO-BRONZE CO., Brooklyn, N.Y.
process. Nickel with 45-50 Rockwell C can be
added to the spot to be repaired, then 8. ELECTRO MATRIX CORP., Downers
machined to a finished size, thus saving a Grove, 111.
possibly very expensive tool steel mold,
9. ELECTROFORMS, INC., Gardena,
2-6 MOLD RELEASE Calif.
To obtain satisfactory mold release, it is 10. ELECTROMOLD CORP., Trenton,

recommended that the mold cavities be kept N.J.
clean and that a proper mold-release agent be
used. Molds which have been used previously 11. FILLOUS & RUPPEL CO., Cleveland,
with vinyl resin or other plastic material may Ohio
require special cleaning. Sometimes a caustic
bath is used. Once the cavities are clean, one 12. FLAMBEAU PLASTICS CORP.,
of the semipermanent fluid mold-release Baraboo, Wis.
agents can be applied and heat cured to aid in
part removal. 13. GERBER, R., ENTERPRISES, INC.,
Akron, Ohio
Specific recommendations for mold re-
leases are given in Chapter 7. 14. GERBER, R., ENTERPRISES, INC.,
Munroe Falls, Ohio
Molds also are permanently coated with
such materials as polytetrafluorethylene and 15. HANSON PATTERN & MOLD
silicones to facilitate mold release. CORP., Ludlow, Mass.
2-7 ROTATIONAL MOLD MANUFACTUR- 16. KELCH CORP., Mequon, Wis.

ERS
17. KERRCO, INC., Hastings, Neb.
The following is a list of some of the
rotational mold manufacturers in the U.S.: 18. KOEHRING CO., SPRINGFIELD
CAST PRODUCTS DIV., Springfield, Mass.
1. ALLIED PATTERN, INC., Hopkins,
Minn. 19. KOHLER-GENERAL, INC., PLAS-
TICS DIV., Sheboygan Falls, Wis.
2. ARROWHEAD PLASTIC ENGINEER-
ING, INC., Muncie, Ind. 20. LOWRY MFG., INC., Holland, Ohio
3. AUTOMATIC PRODUCTS CORP., 21. MODERN TOOLS, DIV. OF LOF EN-

Ashland, Ohio GINEERING PRODUCTS, Toledo, Ohio
2-15
AMCP 706-312
22. PAHCO MACHINE, INC., Trenton, CORP., Cleveland, Ohio

N.J.
33. SEGEN, EDWARD D., & CO., Devon,
23. PENTCO, INC., Trenton, N.J. Conn.
24. PERFECT DOLL MOLDS CORP., 34. TECHNI-MOLD & ENGINEERING,

New York, N.Y. INC., Gardena, Calif.
25. PLASTI-CAST MOLD & PRODUCTS 35. THANCO, INC., Grafton, Wis.
CO., Akron, Ohio
36. TOLEDO MOLDING & DIE CORP.,
26. PLATING ENGINEERING CO., Mil- Toledo, Ohio
waukee, Wis.
37. TRUEBLOOD, INC., Tipp City, Ohio
27. PYROLYTIC CO., Barberton, Ohio
38. USM CORP., STANDARD TOOL
28. REUTER, INC., Hopkins, Minn. DIV., Leominster, Mass.
29. RINGLER-DORIN, INC., New York, 39. UNICAST DEVELOPMENT CORP.,

N.Y. Pleasantville, N.Y.
30. ROTO MOLD & DIE CO., Cuyahoga 40. VEGAS MOLD CO., INC., Wood Dale,
Falls, Ohio 111.
31. ROYALTY INDUSTRIES, INC., 41. VERSATILE PLASTICS, INC., Akron,

Hialeah, Fla. Ohio
32. SCIENTIFIC CAST PRODUCTS 42. WESTERN SPECIALTY MFG. CORP.,

Cheyenne, Wy.
REFERENCES
1. M. A. Rao and J. L. Throne, "Principles 4. G. E. Carrow, "Crosslinkable Rotational

of Rotational Molding", Polymer Engi- Molding High Density Polyethylene",
neering and Science, Vol. 12, No. 4, p. Society of Plastics Engineers 30 th Annual
237, July 1972. Technical Conference, Chicago, 111., May
1972.
2. Anon., "Tufram-Treated Aluminum
Makes Permanent Release Molds", Rub- 5. "Rilsan GSMR Special Grade for Rota-
ber Age, Vol. 102, No. 2, p. 76, February tional Molding", Aquitaine-Organico, No.
1970. 168,1969.
3. R. E. Duncan, D. R. Ellis, and R. A. 6. "Technical Information on Marlex®

McCord, "Rotational Molding", Encyclo- Polyolefin Plastics: 17 Rotational Mold-
pedia of Polymer Science and Technolo- ing", Phillips Petroleum Co.
gy, Vol. 9, pp. 118-137, Wiley-Inter-
science, N.Y., N.Y. 7. "Rotational Molding of Microthene®
2-16
AMCP 706-312
Polyethylene Powder", U. S. Industrial Conference, Advanced Methods in Tool-

Chemicals Co. ing for Molding, February 23, 1972.
8. J. Frados, Plastics Focus, Vol. 5, No. 28,

Sept. 10, 1973. 10. J. B. Stokes, III, "Electroformed Molds
for Plastics", SPE Regional Technical
9. J. L. Jansen, "Applications for Electro- Conference, Nonferrous Tooling for the
formed Molds", SPE Regional Technical Plastics Industry, February 5, 1971.
2-17/2-18
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 3
EQUIPMENT
3-1 MOLD-HANDLING SYSTEMS the oven in some manner with the cooling
chamber. The basic feature of this machine is
The mold-handling system includes all the that the mold spiders have a quick connecting
equipment required to transport the mold (or feature that allows them to be disassembled
molds) through the loading, heating, cooling, quickly from the spindles in the oven or
and unloading steps and to bring about the cooling chamber. Since the molds are
biaxial rotation typical of rotational molding. transferred over the conveyor rack from the
The main parts of the system are the spindle, oven to the cooling chamber and back
the mold mount (spider), and the drive. These manually, the conveyor rack can be arranged
are shown in Fig. 3-1. in a number of configurations.
There are basically five types of Two typical arrangements are shown in
rotomolding systems in use today: Figs. 3-2 and 3-3. The fixed-spindle system is
fixed-spindle, single-spindle, multiple-spindle, used with either hot air or molten heat
shuttle, and jacketed or ovenless. transfer systems. They involve considerable
labor and are essentially noncompetitive in
3-1.1 FIXED-SPINDLE operating costs compared to other systems.
This system consists of an oven with a A new concept using only one station per
fixed arm rotating about two axes, a cooling mold has been reported5. Unlike the usual
chamber with a fixed arm rotating about one systems employing forced hot air convection
or two axes, and a conveyor rack connecting ovens, this "thermodynamic indexing
LOADING AND HEATING

UNLOADING STATION
SPIDERS
MOLDS
—i ^»Äv»!»*-!
>-11*
7 /
COOL 1 NO |
£ CHAMBER " I
I X X 1
f
FAM-*^^^
Figure 3-1. Diagram of a Pivoting-arm Rotomolding System
3-1
AMCP 706-312
<Ql
i ß
1
?. .- ATTTTTTTTm ,' .* ,V
: ! f iiiiriimi i :
V.t.J-
rotäi.r.g
-I
Jill I I'M ■ S : ]
Losing Er.d
unloading &:ation
www/Mwt/wmM
spray nozzles

Figure 3-2. Diagram of a Fixed-spindle Machine1
machine" heats the molds in a combustion temperature until all resin fuses. The molds
chamber that operates similar to a jet engine. then remain in the same chamber for water
High-intensity afterburners bring molds up to spray and/or air cooling through low- and
the desired maximum temperature in a few high-intensity cycles.
seconds, then automatically shut off, and the
main burners control the uniform An automatic indexing system stops the
/
/
o /A ' COOLING
J STATION
d
33
/
/
/
/
V7L DOOR
&
jT MOLD-ROTATING
/" SPINDLE
UNLOADING V DRIVE
STATION ? MOTORS
mH
3Ü. _y
HEATING CHAMBER
HOT AIR OR HEAT
TRANSFER SALT
LOADING STATION
Figure 3-3. Typical Layout of Fixed-spindle Machine2
3-2
AMCP 706-312
mold at a preset position and reverses the and pivot type. The straight line shuttle
rotation to insure even wall thickness, even in machine (shown in Fig. 3-4) has the drive
complicated parts. A solid-state control motors, spindle, and spindle support all
console provides push-button control of up to mounted on a carriage that moves on a track.
four or more molds independently by a single The spindle can then be moved in and out of
timer. the oven to the cooling and loading-unloading
stations. The oven and cooling chamber doors
Besides high rate production (about five should have a full opening to allow rotation
times greater than standard equipment) the of the mold to continue as the spindle is
one station has considerably lower space moved from the oven to the cooling chamber.
requirements and costs approximately
one-third of other units with comparable A pivot type single-spindle machine is
output5. shown in Fig. 3-1. With this machine the
loading-unloading station is located between
3-1.2 SINGLE-SPINDLE the oven and the cooling station. With the
addition of another spindle and cooling
The single-spindle system is the most basic chamber this unit can be made into a
of the continuous rotation machines. These two-spindle machine. The two-spindle
are used for developmental purposes or, in the machine can be used for development work
case of some large machines, production. In and limited production work at the same
addition, the molding problems associated time.
with new molds can be solved on a
single-spindle unit without taking valuable 3-1.3 MULTIPLE-SPINDLES
time on a production machine. After the
problems are solved, the molds can be The continuous machine remains by far the
transferred to a multiple-spindle production most popular in the small-to-large size range.
machine. A continuous machine includes 3, 4, or 5
spindles located in a circular pattern and
Two basic configurations of the equidistant from each other. Each arm
single-spindle machine are straight line shuttle or spindle functions with complete
Mold loading and

unloading station
^r Spiders ^/^/^/MM/Mm
-Door
Door—-s».
ffi QD Oven
Cooling chamber
£L
CD
Molds
u
Spindle
-«-— —
Carriage Travel Track 7
%$P*,
Mold carriagej

Figure 3-4. Diagram of a Single-spindle Rotational-molding Machine1
3-3
AMCP 706-312
independence as to speeds and ratios of Extra stations sometimes are added in

rotation, and extends from a common hub multiple-spindle systems to increase
that indexes intermittently, permitting productivity. For example, an extra oven can
movement of arms from station to station. be used in a three-spindle machine when the
heating cycle is twice as long as the other
Machine configuration may be vertical, cycles. The spindle is merely moved from the
similar to a ferris wheel or horizontal, similar first oven to the second to complete the
to a carrousel. heating cycle.
Each spindle contains its own set of molds; The extra station position on a four-spindle
each set may be totally different from those machine is used in some cases to separate the
carried by the other spindles. There are three mold unloading and mold loading stations
stations-the loading and unloading area, the into two stations. This can help overcome
heating chamber, and the cooling chamber. problems where insufficient time exists in a
All portions of the cycle are fully automatic given cycle for mold rework. This
with the exception of loading the materials configuration is particularly helpful where
and unloading finished parts. numerous molds are used on each arm.
Illustrations of a three- and four-spindle 3-1.4 SHUTTLES

machine are given in Figs. 3-5 and 3-6,
respectively. The multiple-spindle units have been
Heating,
Filling point
Figure 3-5. Three-spindle Unit3
3-4
AMCP 706-312
modified to accommodate extremely large control area. Oven times, heats, cooling times,
molds (approximately 204 in. diameter and etc., are all automatically controlled; and
5000 lb) on each arm similar to a locomotive heating is accomplished by hot air from either
turntable. gas-fired (natural or propane) or oil-fired
ovens. A diagram of a six-station system is
The mold is shuttled from station to shown in Fig. 3-7.
station by a rotating center hub, which
receives each arm as it returns from a phase of
the cycle, then indexes it to the next station. 3-1.5 JACKETED AND OVENLESS UNITS
A mold is filled with material in one station,
then shuttled from the loading station onto Fig. 3-8 depicts a jacketed mold system.
the turntable where it is indexed and pointed This system consists of a single station
in the direction of the oven. The mold then wherein cavities are encased by a second layer
continues along into the oven station, where of metal with spacing between the outer shell
it is rotated and heated simultaneously. and inner cavity. First hot, then cold liquid
are circulated throughout this area while the
Molds are supported on both sides and are mold rotates. No heating ovens or cooling
contained on a carrier similar to a locomotive chambers are required, and the mold is not
flat car. One, two, three, four, or more shuttle transferred between stations.
cars may be employed because the machine is
of modular design. One mold-carrying car and Its advantages include high production runs
three basic stations may be installed initially of symmetrical configurations and lower cycle
with additional cars and stations being added times. Possible seepage of heat transfer liquid
as production increases warrant. Due to the into the mold cavity and limited part design
size of the machine, it is necessary to erect it are some of the limitations of this system.
on-site.
This unit represents the most sophisticated
Operation is semiautomatic with an molds and tooling of all handling systems.
operator controlling the position of each arm Molds can cost five times as much as those for
and function of each station from a central other rotomolding machines.
Movable
spindlesv
Slotted Slotted
cooling area^ oven
Loading and' Cover

Upening unloading area
Figure 3-6. Four-spindle Unit1
3-5
AMCP 706-312
HEATING STATION
COOLING
/\ STATION
LOADING/UNLOADING
HEATING STATION STATION
Reprinted from Plastics World by permission.

Figure 3-7. Diagram of the Layout of a Six-station McNeil Rotational Molding
Machine (Requires floor space 75 by 75 ft, with 20-ft height4)
In a somewhat similar application, one provisions should be made for changing the
particular machine directs an open gas flame ratio to correct nonuniform powder
against the mold surface while the mold is distribution and wall thickness which can
spinning around one axis and rocking about occur at the average rotation ratio. If many
another axis. These are custom units for different parts are to be produced on one
specialized use. The danger of uneven heating machine, variable-speed drives are
with "hot spots" would be one major recommended to eliminate the need to change
limitation. gears or sprockets when changing speed or
ratio of rotation. If the drive allows for
3-2 BIAXIAL DRIVE SYSTEMS variable-speed rotation of each axis
independently over a range of 1 to 35 rpm,
A variety of drive systems is available to any practical rotational ratio can be obtained.
provide biaxial rotation of the molds. They
include either a variable-speed drive or Fig. 3-9 shows the drive system for a
constant-speed drive with interchangeable double centerline mounted biaxial rotation
gears or chain sprockets. system.
Most rotational molding is carried out with

a 10- to 15-rpm rotation of the major axis and 3-3 SPIDERS
a 2- to 3-rpm rotation of the minor axis, i.e.,
an average ratio of 4 or 5 to 1. However, See par. 2-3.5.
3-6
AMCP 706-312
MINOR AXIS I
MOVABLE
COUNTER
WEIGHT
MAJOR AXIS
DRIVE END
FROM OIL
HEATER1
Figure 3-8. Typical Arm Layout of Open-end Mold

on Jacketed Mold Machine2
3-4 MOLD FILLING used to heat the air. This heat source is
particularly suitable for thin-walled molds.
Many attempts at automating the mold Oven temperatures may vary from 400° to
opening and loading sequence have been tried 900°F (205°-490°C). The higher the oven
in past years. However, due to the diversity of temperature, in this range, the shorter the
parts that can be molded simultaneously on heating cycle.
the equipment, it has proved rather
unsuccessful. Complete automation of mold Accurately directed air flow is important.
unloading and polymer filling are feasible This can be obtained by baffling the air blower.
only on very high production runs of the Equally important are the velocity of the air
same part. The technology is available for and uniformity of the temperature
complete automation, but it seems that throughout the oven. A high-velocity
automatic resin weighing systems are the scrubbing action is needed for maximum heat
extent of automation feasible at this time. As transfer. Usually, a minimum velocity of
the use of hygroscopic materials increases, it about 2,500 ft3/min per 100 ft3 of oven
is probable that a system incorporating resin volume is desirable.
drying, weighing, and conveying the powder
into the mold will become common ancillary Hot spots in the oven must be avoided
equipment for the rotational molder. when items of uniform wall thickness are to
be molded. Excess heat capacity of the oven
3-5 MOLD HEATING SYSTEMS is desirable so that the required operating
temperature can be attained rapidly after
Present mold heating methods are hot-air insertion of the cool, charged mold. If
convection, hot-liquid conduction, infrared temperatures are changed frequently, a
radiation, and direct gas-jet flames. recording temperature controller is
recommended.
3-5.1 HOT-AIR CONVECTION HEATING
3-5.2 HOT-LIQUID CONDUCTION HEATING
Hot air is the most commonly used heat
source for rotational molding. Either Heating by means of hot-fluid sprays in
gas-fired, oil-fired, or electrical heaters can be ovens also is used. A noncorrosive, eutectic
3-7
AMCP 706-312
mixture of inorganic salts commonly used for liquid spraying, therefore, normally heats the
heat treating of metals is the heat transfer molds faster than hot air. It is generally better
medium. Solvents are not used in these suited for molding pieces with heavy walls
sprays. Operating temperatures normally are and for the production of more complex
in the range of 450°-550°F (230°-290°C). shapes. However, precautions are needed to
The heat-transfer liquid is brought up to avoid part contamination and to insure
operating temperature in a melting tank, or uniform distribution of the liquid over the
reservoir, containing gas fire tubes or mold.
electrical immersion heaters. A heating period
of up to 2.5/hr, depending upon the volume The molds usually are rinsed with water to
of heating medium used, is required to reach remove the heating fluid before leaving the
operating temperature. The fluid is pumped oven. Since unrecoverable heating fluid can
through a network of spray nozzles onto the mean the difference between profit and loss
rotating mold assembly. It is important that in hot-liquid spray heating, it is essential that
the melting tanks have enough capacity to such equipment have a good system to
maintain the .operating temperature recover and reuse the heating medium. Several
throughout the heating cycle. The patents have been issued recently for
temperature drop in the melting tank should improved salts recovery.
not exceed 10-15 deg F (5.5-8.5 deg C)
during the mold-heating cycle. Hot-liquid conduction heating also is used
in jacketed molding. In this instance hot oil is
In this heating system, heat is transferred pumped through the hollow double-walled
by conduction rather than convection. Hot- mold. This system permits fast heating cycles,
Mold holder
A^ Clamp
A
Hinge'' |
_5C
Parting line
XT Â
\ Upper and lower
Spider
^^ mold halves
Minor axis i First drive
of rotation—?J
Spindle,connected to
> \ f inner shaft
/gy// ;jn\v iiW#b. Major axis

of rotation
A Second drive
V—n
f 1!
II
■! !' 11
M
i i
connected to
spindle
y^- -^
Figure 3-9. Mechanism of Biaxial Rotation.l (The spindle is turned on the major axis white the
molds are rotated on the minor axis. The ratio of the two simultaneous rotations
is determined by the gear, which may be exchangeable, or by two motor drives.)
3-8
AMCP 706-312
economical use of heat since only the molds because heaters must be designed to the shape
are heated, and very accurate temperature of each mold to insure uniform temperatures
control. around the mold. The same disadvantage
applies to electrical resistance heating and
3-5.3 INFRARED HEATING induction heating.
Infrared heating with either gas-fired or 3-6 MOLD COOLING

electrical radiation heaters is used on
special-purpose and prototype rotational- Molds are cooled by air, water, and oil.
molding equipment primarily. Spraying with water is the most common
method of cooling the mold. This is done
Heating with infrared is very fast and while the mold is biaxial rotating. Failure to
efficient, but the heat source is limited to rotate the mold during cooling will result in
molding simple shapes and single molds. the soft molten polymer sagging to the
Multiple or complex-shaped molds cannot be bottom of the mold. Well placed, highly
heated by infrared because the radiant heat atomized water sprays produce uniform and
cannot strike all parts of the mold uniformly. rapid cooling. Blowers or compressed-air
Shielded areas of the mold will not attain as nozzles in the cooling chamber also are used.
high a temperature as exposed parts of the For critical cooling applications, air and water
mold surface. Consequently, thin spots will can be used intermittently externally on the
occur in the wall of the molded item. mold surface or internally via mold blanketing
(see par. 3-7).
3-5.4 DIRECT GAS FLAME
Quick cooling is economically desirable.
In addition to the heating methods named However, too rapid cooling can cause part
previously, direct gas flame can be used. warpage. Therefore, a combination of air and
However, it is usually troublesome, especially water spray for an appropriate cooling cycle is
when a variety of products must be made, common.
Rotary I
union--*^?? -
JSA
/
«fh_ I =**
EO,
A\ Inlet ' Outlet
Ob câ C*<0
Major vent fll
\J
axis
K3^ I
Rotary
Water Air Inert
cas
union
Minor axis
Figure 3-10. Diagram of Typical Auxiliary Equipment for Introducing Gas,
Cool Moist Air, or Water into a Rotational Mold1
3-9
AMCP 706-312
In jacketed molds, cooling is accomplished 4. McNeil-FEMCO-McNeil Corp.,

by replacing hot oil with cool oil in the Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio (1, 2)
hollow mold walls surrounding the cavities.
By proper pumping techniques, instrumenta- 5. Officine Meccaniche Caccia, San
tion valving, and controlled oil temperatures, Macario, Italy (1)
accurate cooling cycles can be achieved.
6. Roto Mold & Die Co., Cuyahoga Falls,
3-7 INTERNAL MOLD BLANKETING Ohio (2)
Equipment through which inert gas and

7. Rototron Corp., Farmingdale, N.Y. (4)
cooling media can be introduced into and
vented from the mold during the heating and
cooling cycles is recommended for rotational 8. Turner Machinery Ltd., Bramley, Leeds,
molding. The inert gas and cooling media are England (1)
introduced into the mold through hollow
rotating drive shafts, mechanical seals, and a 9. Versatile Plastics, Inc., Akron, Ohio (5)
flexible high-temperature hose inserted in the
mold as shown in Fig. 3-10. The following numbers-inclosed in
parentheses after the supplier's name and
3-8 ROTATIONAL MOLDING EQUIPMENT address—indicate the type of equipment
SUPPLIERS supplied:
The following are prominent equipment (1) Hot-Air Ovens

suppliers:
1. Automated Manufacturing Systems, (2) Jacketed Mold
Inc., Hickory, N.C. (2)
(3) Molten Salts
2. E.B. Blue, Co., S. Norwalk, Conn. (1, 3)
(4) Direct Flame
3. Infra-Ray Div., Solaronics, Inc.,
Cleveland, Ohio (1) (5) Combustion Chamber
REFERENCES
1. R.E. Duncan, D.R. Ellis, and R.A. 3. "Rilsan CSMR Special Grade for
McCord, "Rotational Molding", Rotational Molding", Aquitane-Organico,
Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and No. 168, 1969.
Technology, Vol. 9, pp. 118-137,
Wiley-Interscience, N.Y., N.Y. 4. Anon, "Rotational Molding Reaches New
Dimensions", Plastics World, Vol. 28, No.
2, Feb. '70, p. 60.
2. "Technical Information on Marlex®
Polyolefin Plastics: 17 Rotational 5. Versatile Plastics, Inc. Thermodynamic
Molding", Phillips Petroleum Co. Indexing Machine, unnumbered, 1973.
3-10
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 4
PROCESSING PARAMETERS
4-1 GENERAL automated this process to the point where the

operator simply must load the powder
There are six basic steps associated with the material into the mold, press the cycle
powder molding of a finished product: button, and remove the finished product from
the mold cavity. Tomorrow's machine will
1. The bottom cavities of the unheated probably automatically load and unload the
molds are charged with a predetermined mold, eliminating the operator.
weight of powder desired in the end product.
The paragraphs that follow describe the
2. The mold parts are clamped in place on phenomena which must be considered in
a spider. When one or both ends of the pieces determining the parameters for each of the
are open, heat-insulating covers are used to processing steps listed.
close the mold.
4-2 RESIN POWDER CHARACTERISTICS
3. The charged molds are placed in an
oven, where they are heated while simulta- The part quality greatly depends upon the
neously rotating around two axes in planes at resin being used. The selection of a resin for
right angles to each other. rotational molding involves the consideration
of physical and chemical properties of the
4. The double revolving motion results in powder resin, and particularly the powder
formation of hollow objects in every mold properties; i.e., size, shape, and uniformity.
cavity, the powder being evenly distributed to
form walls of uniform thickness when the 4-2.1 POWDER PARTICLE SIZE, SHAPE,
resin fuses, except where heat-insulating AND DISTRIBUTION
covers are used. Weight and wall thickness of
the molded items can be modified by The powder properties of ground resin are
increasing the amount of powder initially put determined by measuring the pourability,
into each lower mold cavity. mesh size, particle distribution, and bulk
density. The pourability is an indication of
5. When all the powder has fused into a the fluid-like flowing properties of the
homogeneous layer on the walls of the powdered resin within the mold. ASTM
cavities, the mold is cooled while still being Procedure Dl895-69 is used to measure this
rotated. property. For example, a value of 185 g/min
or greater generally is considered adequate for
6. The mold is opened and the molding is most high-density polyethylene applications1.
removed. Then the mold is readied for the
next cycle. Mesh size and particle distribution normal-
ly are determined by screening the powder
These steps are required whether the through U.S. Standard Sieves. Mesh size is the
machine is an automatic three- or four-spindle minimum U.S. Standard sieve size which will
unit or if the machine is a manual pass 95 percent or more of the powder.
single-spindle unit. Today's machines have ASTM Procedure D1921-63 Method A or B is
4-1
AMCP 706-312
used to determine mesh size. rotational molding rather than extruder grade
pellets or granules.
Table 4-1 shows the opening sizes for a
number of standard sieve series. There are limitations on lower powder
particle size. Finer powders present molding
TABLE 4-1 problems and increase grinding costs substan-
tially. Grinding of some powders to 100-140
UNITED STATES STANDARD SIEVE SERIES1
mesh leads to excessive shearing and heating
aicvit urcraimJ ai£c of the polymer. This results in losses in
MESH
material strength and produces undesirable
SIEVE
MILLIMETERS
product characteristics such as discoloration.
NO. MICRONS INCHES
Also, tumbling of very fine powders within a
10 2,000 0.0787 2.00 mold will build up high static charges that aid
16 1,190 0.0469 1.19 in agglomerating the powders. This leads to
20 840 0.0331 0.84 uneven melting and nonuniformity of part
35 500 0.0179 0.50 wall thickness. Surface adsorption of moisture
50 297 0.0117 0.297 also is enhanced which can cause powder
60 250 0.0098 0.250 agglomeration and part defects.
80 177 0.0070 0.177
100 149 0.0059 0.149 However, some fines should be included in
200 74 0.0029 0.074 rotocasting powders. Occlusion (or pore)
density in part surfaces is strongly affected by
fines concentration. Further, fines aid powder
Heat is transferred to a particle through flow during mixing and tumbling apparently
contact with other particles, the mold surface, by lubricating the larger particles and
and contact with the surrounding air. Heat smoothing flow.
transfer from air convection is poor compared
with contact conduction heat transfer. For a The proper proportion of fines to coarse
flat sheet of thickness R, the surface to powders has not been established for all
volume ratio (a measure of the efficiency by plastics. Table 4-2 gives particle size distribu-
which heat is transferred through the particle tions for several commercially available
surface and into the particle interior) is l/R plastics. These were determined by roto-
for air convection. For a cube of side R, it is tapping the plastics up to 8 hr on a multiple
6/R and for a sphere of radius R, it is 3/R. sieve shaker table and then weighing the
However, for contact conduction, if only one amount of powder retained on each sieve.
portion of the particle is in contact with a Certainly the most important criterion on
heated surface, the surface to volume ratio particle size distribution is whether a useful
becomes 1/(2 R) for a flat sheet, 1/Ä for a article can be made using commercially
cube and zero for a sphere. Thus, the more available particle size distribution. Since this
spherical a particle becomes, the smaller the is the case, it must be concluded that the 35
area for contact heat transfer. Therefore, the mesh grind presently offered by custom
rate at which powder melts is a function of grinders and resin suppliers is satisfactory.
the shape of the powder2.
The shape of the particles plays an
Heat transfer should improve with de- important role not only in heat transfer but in
creasing particle size. The smaller the the flow of the powder during rotation. The
characteristic dimension R, the larger the flow behavior of very flat particles, such as
surface to volume ratio and the more efficient flake or cubes, is difficult to predict. This is
the contact heat transfer becomes. Therefore, due to the alternate slipping and sticking of
powder of 35 mesh generally is used in the material on the rotating surface. There-
4-2
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 4-2
POWDER PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS*
MATERIAL GRINDER MESH +50 MESH +70 MESH +100 MESH -100 MESH
Rexene 324C8 Wedco, Inc., 0.0 60.2 22.7 11.0 6.1

polystyrene nominal —35 mesh
Rexene 324C8 Wedco, Inc., 0.0 0.0 0.1 75.3 24.6
polystyrene nominal —80 mesh
Cosden high No grind. 0.2 82.2 10.9 5.6 1.1
impact polystyrene bead precipitated
USI Chemicals none, as 0.5 42.6 22.4 18.6 15.9
Microthene LDPE received

*A minus sign preceding a mesh size means all powder passes through the screen; a plus sign, all powder retained on the screen.
fore, trial and error experimentation is 4-2.2 POWDER THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY

required to determine flow patterns and cycle
times. Another powder characteristic is thermal
diffusivity, defined as the thermal conductivi-
Cylindrical particles with large aspect ratios ty divided by the product of the density and
(L/D ratios) pose molding problems of a the specific heat. This physical property is
different type. Powders that have been strongly dependent upon the density of the
ground but not polished or tumbled for some powder. Unfortunately, it is not normally
time against an abrasive surface usually have tabulated in the literature. Since the rate of
tails on the order of 10 M in diameter and 500 heat transfer to the powder is directly
to 1,000 ß long. These tails are attributed to proportional to the square root of the thermal
partial melting of the material during grinding diffusivity, it is necessary to obtain values
and likened to cylinders with large aspect that can be used with confidence. Methods
ratios. Parts produced with unpob'shed pow- for calculating thermal diffusivity derived by
der are usually more difficult to mold and are Rao and Throne are given in par. 4-6.3.
mechanically inferior to parts made with
polished powder. This is attributed to particle 4-2.3 POWDER VISCOSITY
entanglements, air entrainment, and occlusion
owing to the coiling of these tails. Some The predominant force causing polymer
shapes of rotational grade materials are shown melt flow within the mold is gravity. This
schematically in Fig. 4-1. force leads to very low shear stresses. While
some data on flow in the low-shear or
From a heat transfer and fluid flow near-Newtonian spectrum of shear rates are
processing viewpoint, the most desirable available in the technical literature, most resin
particle size is between 35 and 75 mesh and manufacturers do not provide this informa-
the most desirable particle shape is cubic with tion.
very generously rounded corners. Fines
should be included to aid both heat transfer Since this system is thermally transient, the
and powder flow. Tails should be removed to temperature dependency of the viscosity of
prevent detrimental part properties. the materials is required. Fortunately, these
4-3
AMCP 706-312
SD
o
(A) Spheres
(B) Irregular shapes
OoOö
(C) Rounded cubes
(D) Smooth cylinders or spheres

with tails
(E) Cubes with large radius

corners
Figure 4-1. Powder Particle Shapes2
data are more readily available than zero shear incorrect unless the temperature at' which the
viscosity data. However, small material material becomes tacky were used. This
changes such as the addition of internal temperature (designated as TM) usually is
lubricants can drastically affect both values unknown and must be determined by
and these effects are rarely reported by the trial-and-error.
resin manufacturers.
The values for the amount of energy
4-2.4 POWDER MELT TEMPERATURE required to melt a polymer are from zero for
amorphous materials such as polystyrenes to
The melting temperatures of many com- approximately 80 Btu/lb for Hercules Hi-Fax
mercially available polymers are available 1400 polyethylene and 120 Btu/lb for du
from the resin suppliers. However, in Pont's Zytel 101 NCLO nylon3. In general,
rotational molding, the melting temperature is except for the highly crystalline materials
not as important as the temperature when the such as high-density polyethylene or Teflon®,
polymer becomes sticky or tacky. This is the the melting temperature range of any plastic
temperature where the powder releases from is broad; and, hence, the additional energy
the mold or melt surface, to fall back in the requirements can be included as an exception-
mixing step during rotation. The efficiency al temperature-dependent specific heat. This
and cleanness of release depend upon the assumption clearly simplifies computation
tackiness of the melt. If large amounts of and energy balances, since it is not necessary
powder stick to the melt, the time of Final to account for latent heat changes at the
melting and rate of melting would be interface between liquid and solid. (See Ref. 4
44
AMCP 706-312
for comments regarding crystalline materi- 4-3 MOLD CHARGING

als.)2
Molds may be filled manually or auto-
4-2.5 PIGMENTATION matically. Manual filling is advantageous when
filling different colored items simultaneously
Color compounding and dry blending are in a multiple-cavity mold. For long runs,
the basic coloring techniques used for automatic mold-filling equipment is helpful.
rotational molding. Since there is no working Since bulk density, measured in lb/ft3, of
of the melt during molding, compounded powdered resin can vary permitting differ-
color concentrates are not recommended. ences in wall thickness, the powder charge
should be based on a weight measurement.
4-2.5.1 Color Compounds
44 CLAMPING
Color compounded powders are prepared
by hot compounding the color in the resin Many types of clamping devices are used.
and then pelletizing. The colored pellets are Where individual molds are mounted without
then ground to powder. Color compounded a spider, C-clamps or vise grips are sometimes
powders have the best pigment dispersion and clamped on the parting line flange. Usually
retention of the base resin physical properties. molds are mounted on a steel spider and held
They also allow the use of brighter more together with a group of bolts or adjustable
opaque colors since greater pigment loading is overcenter clamps. If motorized impact
possible, without loss of physical properties, wrenches are used with the bolt technique,
than with dry blends. either method could be satisfactory for
production. (See par. 2-3.5.)
4-2.5.2 Dry Blend Coloring
4-5 MOLD ROTATION
Dry blend coloring is satisfactory for many
applications. Good pigment dispersion in the The uniform continuous deposit of pow-
powder is necessary for good appearance and dered resin on the interior surface of the mold
for the development of the optimum physical is achieved by rotating the mold in two
properties. Intensive mixers (Henschel or directions (perpendicular axes of rotation)
Cowles) are preferred because of their speed, simultaneously while it is being heated. The
ability to disperse pigments evenly, and rotational molding spindle provides this type
elimination of pigment agglomerates. Low of movement. This allows various ratios of
intensity mixing techniques such as ribbon major to minor axis rotation in addition to
blenders, double cone blenders, or drum speeds of rotation, both of which are
tumblers may be satisfactory if proper important in obtaining uniform deposit of
techniques are used. powder.
Dry blending techniques are very impor- Most rotational molds are placed on the
tant. To retain optimum impact strength, rotating spider so that no portion of the mold
pigment loadings should be kept as low as is directly over the centerline of the major
possible. For example, they should be below axis. This is because, regardless of the minor
0.5 percent for high-density polyethylene axis rate of rotation, the minor radial
(HDPE), and even at these loadings some acceleration at the polar center is zero. Thus
pigments drastically affect impact strength1. powder in this region is affected only by
4-5
AMCP 706-312
major axis rotation. At the outer edge of the TABLE 4-3

mold fixture, this radial acceleration -
determined by the rate of rotation of the ROTATION RATIO FOR TYPICAL SHAPES
minor arm — is at a maximum. Likewise, (from McNeil Akron Corp.)
major speeds at the outer rim are not much
TYPICAL
greater than those at the polar center in
SPEED,
relatively fiat configurations. Thus, the local rpm
ratio of minor to major radial accelerations MAJOR MINOR
may vary from zero at the polar center to RATIO SHAPES AXIS AXIS
values in excess of unity at the outer rim of
the molds. Therefore, the shape of the mold, 8 to 1 Oblongs (horiz. 8
size, number of molds per spindle, and mounted) straight
distance from the two axes combine to tubes
influence the speed and ratio of rotation 5 to 1 Some defroster ducts
needed for each operation. Generally speeds
4.5 to 1 Balls or globes 9.75
are below 20 rpm.
3.3 to 1 Any shape showing 10 12.25
over-lapping lines of 12 14.5
Regular shaped parts with their longest
rotation at
dimension mounted parallel to the major axis
4to1
will use a ratio in which the major axis speed
is greater than the minor. A common ratio is 4 to 1 Cubes, balls, odd 8 10
shapes
3.75 to 1. If the longest dimension of an item
Rectangular boxes, 10 12.5
such as a wastebasket is mounted perpendicu-
horses with bent legs
lar to the major axis, an inverse ratio generally
is needed. A typical example would be 1 to 2 to 1 Rings, tires, balls 6 9
Any rectangle which 8 12
3.75. The proper rotation for a given mold
shows two or more
set-up is found by making a few experimental thin sides when run
runs to observe the results of various speeds at 4 to 1
and ratios. Picture frames. 10 15
Manikins, Round flat
Table 4-3 gives some suggested rotational shapes
ratios and typical axial speeds for various Horses with straight 12 18
shapes as determined by molding experience. legs
Auto crash pads
Fig. 4-3 illustrates the effect of speed on (vert, mounted)
oven cycle time at an oven set temperature of 1 to 2 Parts which should 5 15
750° for a polymer melt system of 200°F. run at 2 to 1 but show 7 21
thin side walls
It is observed that the faster the speed, the 1 to 3 Flat rectangles (gas 4 15
shorter the contact time and the thinner the tanks, suitcases, tote 6 22.5
penetration layer. However, the faster speed bin covers) 9.5 36
results in more rapid mixing. Therefore, high 1 to 4 Tires, curved air ducts 4 20
rpm and high set point temperatures are Pipe angles, flat 5 25
desirable for short operating cycles. rectangles
Balls whose sides 6 30
4-6 HEATING CYCLE (OVEN CYCLE are thin at 4 to 1
TIMES) ratio, vertical mounted
cylinders
The total heating cycle (OCT) consists of 1 to 5 Vertical mounted 4 24
four parts: cylinders
4-6
AMCP 706-312
7"a,=7SO°F (own sat temp.)

100 Tm =200 °F (polymeomelt tompj
40 80 00 100 120 140 ISO 180 200 220 240 260

OVEN CYCLE TIME.MC
Figure 4-2. Effect of rpm on Melting Rate for 7"„ = 750°F, TM = 200° F2
1. Time required to heat the mold the same value on a molten salt heat machine
and a forced hot air machine, the OCT ratio
2. Time required to heat all the powder to (air to salt) would fall in a range from 25:1
the melting temperature (for the best possible salt heat vs the poorest
hot air heat) down to 3.3:1 (for the best
3. Time required to sinter the material into possible hot air heat vs the poorest salt
the three-dimensional network heat)5.
4. Time required to densify the material 4-6.1.2 Heat Medium Velocity

into a nonporous, bubble-free homogeneous
cross section. Also there are situations in which two
different salt heat machines have OCT ratios
These functions are dependent on the as great as 2.5:1 with all controls set to the
variables described in the paragraphs that same value. This is a function of the velocity
follow. of the salt over the mold surface. This might
also occur within a group of molds on a
4-6.1 HEAT MEDIUM, VELOCITY, AND "spider".
OVEN SET TEMPERATURE
Ratios up to 3:1 have been found among
4-6.1.1 Heat Medium forced hot air machines with all variables set
to the same values because air velocity is not
Classical heat transfer considerations state controlled in a standard fashion. For example,
that heating by liquid to solid convection is a by doubling the air rate in laboratory
considerably faster technique than gas to solid machines OCT were decreased by 24 percent
convection. The heat transfer coefficient for at 400°F and by 37 percent at 600°F5.
hot oil is about 50 times greater than that for
air; condensing steam 1000 times greater than 4-6.1.3 Oven Set Temperature
that for air.
If the effect of oven set temperature and
If one assumes that all variables are set to air circulation rate are examined, even greater
4-7
AMCP 706-312
KEY:
differences will result. As shown in Fig. 4-3
700r * Too:750°Ff MOLD TOWARD OOOR
high velocity air at 600°F yields an OCT
which is only 27 percent of the OCT at 400°F <» Too= 450 °F, MOLD
TOWARD DOOR
with low velocity air. This represents an OCT
ratio of 3.6:1.
4-6.2 TRANSIENT HEATING OF MOLD

SURFACE
Metal molds used for rotational molding

are introduced into a hot isothermal environ-
ment from mold room temperature. Owing to
the large heat capacity of the materials used
(steel, stainless steel, copper, nickel, alumi-
num), the molds heat slowly to the
temperature of the oven. The heating curves
for an aluminum mold with 1/8-in. walls at
3 4 5 9 T
450° and 750°F are shown in Fig. 44.
TIME, mtn
According to transient heat conduction Reprinted by permission ofSPE.

theory based on Rao and Throne experi- Figure 4-4. Transient Temperatures of
ments1 , the mold temperature T is Mold Surface2
A» r=T„ [l-exp(-0/)] (4-1)

where
fi
£ ß = time constant for the mold
site 7"„ = point temperature
This equation fits the data on Fig. 4-4 well if

J3 = 0.202 min-1 and t is time in minutes. This
time constant should be dependent on some
measure of the heat capacity of the mold and
the value of heat transfer coefficient in the
forced air oven. A simple heat balance on the
mold was made:
(The change in internal = (The net heat flow

energy of the mold into the mold from
during time dt) the environment
during time dt)
9 ft) 19 20 23 30 99 T=T„ {l-exp[-f(fta)/IJt] } (4-2)

OVEN CYCLE HME , min
Figure 4-3. Effect of Oven Temperature and where
Air Circulation Rate on Oven Cycle Time vs
Resin Wall Thickness5 h = heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft2-hr-°F
(Based on Du Pont ALA THON® 7040 a= thermal diffusivity, k/{pc), of the
High-density Polyethylene Resin) mold, ft2/hr
4-8
AMCP 706-312
p = density of the mold, lb/ft3
c = specific heat of the mold, Btu/lb-°F
k- thermal conductivity of the mold,

Btu/ft2-hr-(°F/ft)
L = mold wall thickness, ft
Rearrangement of Eq. 4-2 and integration

yields
= exp[-/(fta)/(Z,fc)] (4-3)
By comparing ß from Eq. 4-1 and (ha/Lk)

from Eq. 4-2 we find that the average heat
transfer coefficient for the aluminum system
is h = 5 Btu/ft2-hr-°F. This is typical of 0 S 10 13 20 23 30 38
forced hot-air coefficients. To achieve this OVEN CYCLE TIME, min
rate of mold heating for other mold materials,
it is necessary to change the wall thickness in Figure 4-5. Effect of Mold Heat Capacity and
accordance with Table 4-4. Oven Temperature on Oven Cycle Time vs
Resin Wall Thickness5
Changing materials and wall thickness will (Based on Du Pont ALA THON® 7040
influence the rate of mold heating; however, High-density Polyethylene Resin)
it is also possible to change the heat transfer
coefficient h and the set point temperature of
the oven Tm. Increasing the heat transfer tures are shown in Fig. 4-6. Most large molds
coefficient, thus decreasing the oven cycle used in rotomolding have a surface to volume
time, has been achieved in commercial ratio in the range of 0.8 to 0.4 in."1 (Ref. 5).
equipment through the use of hot oils.
Kraus-Maffei is one such piece of equipment6. 4-6.3 HEAT TRANSFER TO POWDER
The effect of mold heat capacity and oven The rate of heat transfer to the powder is
temperature on oven cycle time for various directly proportional to the square root of the
resin wall thicknesses for 1/8 in. nickel and thermal diffusivity. Rao and Throne have
1/4 in. aluminum molds is illustrated in Fig. developed a model for heat transfer based
4-5. The nickel mold had an induction time upon a simple cylindrical mold2'7. An
which was 75 percent and 85 percent that of assumption was made that the powder in
aluminum at 400° and 600°F, respectively5. contact with the cylinder moved with the
cylinder, and, upon reaching a 50-deg
Mold surface to volume ratio, another dynamic angle of repose with the horizontal,
measure of wall thickness, was investigated in released from the mold and fell across the
the range 1/1 to 3/1 inT1. No appreciable remaining static powder in free fall. This is
effect was found between 2/1 and 3/1 inT1. shown schematically in Fig. 4-7. Once the
Also higher temperatures appeared to dampen material becomes tacky and sticks to the
the effect somewhat. Both the effects of mold surface, it is considered removed from
surface to volume ratio and oven tempera- the powder mass balance.
4-9
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 4-4
MOLD MATERIAL DIMENSIONS NECESSARY TO MAINTAIN FIRST ORDER TIME CONSTANT

OF 0.202 min"1 (Ref. 2)
THERMAL THERMAL WALL

DIFFUSIVITYa. CONDUCTIVITY k, BTU/FT2 - THICKNESS
MATERIAL ft2/hr(5O0°F> hr(°F/ftM572°F) aA L, in. L/Laiuminum
Aluminum 3.33 133 2.5 X 10"2 0.125 1

Copper 4.42 212 2.08 X 10"1 0.104 0.833
Nickel 0.60 32 1.88 X 10~2 0.094 0.751
Steel 0.49 25 1.96 X 10"2 0.098 0.785
The equation that describes heat transfer x = distance from the initial powder
during the contact period is given as contact with the mold surface, ft
^(0)* K dt
(4-4) ci^ff = effective powder thermal diffusivity,
ft2/hr
where t= time, In-
T = mold temperature, °F Using the mold temperature given in Eq.
4-1, a temperature profile for the powder is
obtained
T=T„[\-exp(-ßt)](l-x/6)3 (4-5)
where 6 is the distance into the powder that

lit I i *«* the effects of the mold heat can be felt. 5 is
8 K> IS 20 29
OVEN CYCLE TIME , min
Figure 4-6. Effect of Mold Surface to Volume
POINT A
Ratio and Oven Temperature on Oven Cycle
Time vs Resin Wall Thickness5
(Based on Du Pont A LA 77VO/V® 7040 Reprinted by permission of SPE.
High-density Polyethylene Resin) Figure 4-7. Idealized Flow Configuration11
4-10
AMCP 706-312
referred to as the penetration thickness. powder to fall back in free fall and recontact
Following Goodman, it was found that the the mold is given by Eq. 4-7. The new
penetration thickness can be calculated from: conditions for time t = tm + tc are set and
recalculated. The initial mold temperature T*
2/6Ö■«//
is obtained at this time from Eq. 4-1. When
6 = sinter-melting occurs, the melted material is
removed from the powder that is releasing
and freely falling, the chord length is adjusted
as well as the free fall time (since there is less
powder), and recalculations are made. Eventu-
2Tl + —=_
2TJT* ally L a0 and the process is stopped.
—= ■9*i -p-
ß ß -) The major parameters evident in this

% analysis are the rpm, the melt temperature
-■**'. _ .-ißt, (4-6) TM the set point temperature T„, and the
"20
initial chord length Lc. The magnitude of the
where initial chord length determines the final part
T* = initial mold temperature wall thickness. A typical time-temperature
profile for 7L = 750°F and TM = 300°F for
tc = total time that the powder is in two values of rpm (1 and 10) is shown in Fig.
contact with the mold surface 4-8. The large effect of rpm on the
temperature profiles is shown. The effect of
tx and t2 - initial and final times of contact, 7U on the final melting time for TM = 200° F
respectively. for various rpm's is similarly illustrated in
Note that tc = t2 - tx. Fig. 4-9.
The time tm required for the powder to fall Fig. 4-10 compares the predicted extent of
from the point of release to the bottom of the melting with experimental values obtained by
cylinder is given as rotationally molding low density poly-
ethylene at T„ = 673°F in the aluminum
tm =[2LJ(scosß1))^ (4-7) mold with 1/8-in. walls, followed by immedi-
ate water quenching. The data seem to agree
where with the predictions using the penetration
model described previously.
Lc = chord length
The OCT's calculated here are for complete
g = gravitational constant pickup of powder onto the mold surface.
That is assuming that all the powder has
ßx = dynamic angle of repose attained a temperature equal to or greater
than the melt temperature. It is not assumed
The method of calculation of time-temper- that the product is a homogeneous solid. On
ature profiles is thus very straightforward, the contrary, at this stage, the material is
although some bookkeeping is necessary. At called a sinter-melt. It is a porous three-
time / = 0, the powder is tracked at the point dimensional network and the physical proper-
of contact until it releases. By knowing the ties (such as density and thermal diffusivity)
rpm of the cylinder, the contact time tc is are about the same as the unsintered free
calculated. At this time Eq. 4-5 and the flowing powder. Thus, the model developed
integral of Eq. 4-5 are used to calculate the for heat transfer to powder in a rotating
average powder temperature (assuming no geometry is adequate for predictions of oven
melting). The time tm required for the cycle times for thin wall parts.
4-11
AMCP 706-312
800 r
■ 300 °F
, POWDER TEMPERATURE
AT I rpfli
120 190 240 300 seo

OVEN CYCLE TIME, nc
Reprinted by permission ofSPE.

Figure 4-8. Temperatures of Powder and Sinter-melt During Rotational Molding2
4-6.4 SINTER-MELTING very small corners or capillaries are filled (see

Chapter 6). This is called "densification". A
Upon continued heating of the sinter, the polymer material that has only been sintered
network begins to collapse into the void is quite porous and friable. One that has not
spaces. These void spaces are filled with been fully densified has low tensile strength,
molten polymer that is drawn into the region high surface porosity, rough interior surfaces,
by capillary force in much the same way as and interior bubbles or voids.
There are two models for sintering: The

ASSUMES Tu* 200T Kuczynski-Neuville viscous model that is an
300p
rpm • I extension of glass sintering, and the Lontz
280
•>. FINAL MELTING
260-
BLOCKS REPRESENT EXPER-
IMENTAL DATA ON DISK MOLDL
240- WITH LOPE (MICROTHENE) 7/G/70
T-.TWT rj_ «673 °F (l/8"ALUMINUM MOLD)
220-
200-
■80- rpm* 10
. I« FINAL MELTING
140-
120
100
80 rpm « 10,1
«0 INITIAL MELTING
40
20
0
350 690 730 8» 990 40 80
SET POINT TEMPERATURE ^„."F OVEN CYCLE TIME , MC
Reprinted by permission ofSPF. Reprinted by permission ofSPE.

Figure 4-9. Effect of Set Point Temperature Figure 4-10. Effect of Melt Temperature on
Tx on Times of Initial and Final Melting2 Extent of Melting for T„ = 750° F2
4-12
AMCP 706-312
viscoelastic model that relies on a four

element spring dashpot model 8. In the
former model, the growth of the web between
two particles is controlled by reduction of (POKE FILLING UNDERWAY)
free energy through decrease in total surface. ,_ (NOTE" TIME MEASURED FROMIHSTAHT TEMPERATURE
REACHES fc. H»"F)
Thus ■H EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR - 39 MESH REXENE I
^~ 3ua DN HOT PLATE
EXACT SOLUTION
EXPONENTIAL MOLD"
(x/af=-( - (4-8) TEMPERATURE PROFILE
EXACT SOLUTION
2 \ai? LINEAR "HOT PLATE"
TEMPERATURE PROFILE
where
x = web thickness, cm
a = particle radius, cm
7 = polymer surface tension, dyne/cm Reprinted by permission ofSPE.

Figure 4-11. Kuczynski-Neuville Empirical
T) = polymer dynamic viscosity; poise, i.e., Rate of Sintering1
dyne-sec/cm2
t = time, sec styrene (ABS), high-impact polystyrene, or

TFE Teflon®. Although webs are readily
For acrylic polymers, Kuczynski and Neuville formed in these materials, complete sintering
found experimentally that (x/a values greater than 0.5) requires abnor-
mally long times9.
{x/a3ls)* = K{T)t (4-9)
The Lontz viscoelastic model replaces the
fit the isothermal data. Rao and Throne standard Newtonian viscosity in Eq. 4-8 with
modified this expression to handle linear and a viscoelastic viscosity.
exponential time-temperature profiles9. The
linear profile describes transient heating of a It
Fischer Autemp hot plate, and the exponen- (x/a)2i == — (4-10)
2 \ar)[\-exp(-tM]
tial profile describes the mold transient
heating profile, Eq. 4-1. In Fig. 4-11, the where
calculated results are compared with experi-
mental results obtained by heating poly- T = retardation time
styrene powder on the hot plate for a
predetermined time, then quenching and
Values for this time can be obtained from
measuring x/a values through a 100X optical
simple viscoelastic relaxation rate or creep
microscope. Although the data seem to agree
rate data. For polystyrene, however, little
with the Kuczynski-Neuville model, it was
data are available. Rao and Throne found that
somewhat fortuitous. Rao and Throne did not
modify either surface tension or viscosity
values in the adaption of the Kuczynski-
Neuville model and the powder particles were r = T?S/4 X 10-9 sec (4-11)
irregular in shape rather than the spherical
particles used by Kuczynski and Neuville. In seemed to fit some creep data. The results for
addition, this model cannot account for the the linear and exponential time-temperature
sintering behavior of acrylonitrile butadiene profiles are shown in Fig. 4-12, along with
4-13
AMCP 706-312
where
r = instantaneous void radius, cm

NOTE: TIME HEASUREO FROH MSTAHT
TEMPERATURE REACHES ru (PORE FILLING UNDERWAY) rQ = initial void radius, cm
TM- H»"F
NEAR "HOt PLATE "

TMPERATURE PROFILE By applying the temperature at which
sintering is said to be complete (x/a = 0.5), it
THESE OATA FOR
-35 MESH REXENE
SMCS ON HOT PLATE
was found that densification of voids initially
of 450 ju in diameter to 0.45 n in diameter
finally takes less than a minute2.
4-7 POLYMER MELT FLOW

Q.03 ao« cos an QÖT aoa
TIME , hr
1 .» i>4 3JO 3,6 4.2 4.S
TIME , mln
According to Rao and Throne1 ° the liquid
Reprinted by permission ofSPE. viscosities of most plastics that have been
Figure 4-12. Lontz Viscoelastic Rate of evaluated as possible rotational molding
Sintering1 materials are 10M05 poise in the normal
processing temperature ranges. This high
viscous range, coupled with the low speeds of
rotation, implies laminar fluid flow. Further-
more, the shear rates encountered in rota-
experimental data. For this material (as- tional molding are very low. Thus they
suming that property values are correct), the consider the values for the viscosities of these
viscoelastic model predicts a much more rapid materials to be in the low-shear or zero-shear
sintering rate than either that of the viscous Newtonian region. Assuming that there is no
model or the experimental data. The choice appreciable increase in gravitational accelera-
of the proper model to use will depend, of tion owing to rotation, the maximum shear
course, on the availability of physical stress on the fluid can be calculated. This
property data and on experimental results corresponds to fluid flowing down a vertical
obtained from simple hot plate experiments. wall.
It is not of concern which method of
prediction is chosen—what is more important rw = Pg$. dyne/cm2 (4-13)
is that a realistic method for estimating
sintering times is available. where
Once the web-to-particle radius exceeds 0.5 TW = shear stress at wall, dyne/cm2
or so, it was assumed that pores or voids will
begin to fill with melt from below. Voids p = fluid density, gram/cm3
become bubbles. If melting or densification is
relatively slow, the bubbles will be pushed g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2
ahead of the advancing melt front until they
reach the free surface. If melting is relatively 5 = fluid film thickness, cm
rapid, the bubbles are encapsulated and
remain in the polymer after it is quenched9. Using polystyrene as an example, the
Frenckel developed a theory of densification investigators found that the zero-shear
of glass that can be used here. Newtonian viscosity is approximately 3 X 10s
poise at 186°C. This yields a shear stress of
250 dyne/cm2 for a 0.100 in. thick polymer
(4-12) film and a corresponding shear rate of 8 X
\ V 2r0rj 10"4 dyne (cm sec)"1. The velocity profile
4-14
AMCP 706-312
through the film layer was calculated using 4-8 MOLD RELEASES
this information. The purpose of this
calculation was to determine the maximum The polymer melt in contact with the mold
rate of movement of the polymer during surface has the same velocity as the mold
conventional molding times. If the rate of surface2. Thus the melt-solid-gas interface is
movement was very large, considerable bulk interpreted as being essentially at equilibrium.
flow throughout the mold cavity during The concept of contact angle discussed in par.
molding would occur and thus significant 4-6.3 also applies here. The contact angle 6
flow into and out of portions of the mold between a drop of a liquid and a plane solid
having large aspect ratios. This high rate of surface is shown in Fig. 4-13. When
flow would insure uniform wetting and
coating of all mold surfaces. If, on the other 1. 8 > 0 deg, the liquid does not spread
hand, the rate of movement was very small, and when
very little redistribution owing to fluid flow
would occur. Thus mold surface coating 2. 8 = 0 deg, the liquid spreads on the
would occur primarily by powder flow. surface, the rate of spreading depends on the
Sinter-melting would thus freeze the plastic viscosity and surface roughness11.
into the final configuration.
In practice every liquid wets every solid
By use of the mold time-temperature (8 ¥= 180 deg). The contact angle can be used
profile given as Eq. 4-1, an Arrhenius form for as an inverse measure of spreadability and cos
the viscosity-temperature relationship (where 8 can be used as a direct measure. It can be
the activation energy for polystyrene is 22.6 shown11 that the apparent contact angle 8'
kcal/mol), and an oven set point temperature between the liquid and the solid surface, and
of 750°F, it was found that the differential the true contact angle 8 (smooth solid
velocity between the liquid at the mold surface) are related to a surface roughness
surface and that 0.100 in. into the liquid was factor r where
approximately 0.100 in. per second. This is
approximately 2 percent of the angular true area of the solid
r=
velocity of the rotating 12-in. diameter apparent area of the solid
cylinder mold. Therefore, they concluded
that, contrary to the belief that voids in by the relationship
narrow passages are filled or emptied by cosö '
molten polymer flowing into or out of the (4-14)
passages, the molten polymer exhibits very cos 8
little fluid motion relative to the mold
surface. Thus fluid does not flow by rotation Eq. 4-14 is known as the Wenzel equation.
induced forces into or out of passages1 °. Because r is always greater than unity {8' is
VAPOR SOLID
A DROP ON A HORIZONTAL PLANE J &\S THE CONTACT ANGLE

Figure 4-13. Schematic of Drop on Horizontal Plane Showing Equilibrium Contact Angle
hst- = solid-liquid interface, yL v° = liquid-vapor interface, ys v° = solid-vapor interface)2
4-15
AMCP706 312
less than 9), surface roughness would tend to polymer powder, are also employed. Among
increase the spreadability. However, the the desired properties for an internal mold
roughness of the surface could lead to voids in release agent is that it be surface active, so
the case of highly viscous liquids such as that it accumulates as an absorbed film on the
polymer melts. solid surface"12.
The role played by mold release agents can It is emphasized here that the concept of
be best understood by considering the critical surface tension is purely empirical.
concept of critical surface tension of wetting However, the concept of 7C has proved useful
developed by Zisman and his co-workers. The for characterizing the wetting and adhesion
concept of critical surface tension is described and the role of mold releases2 .
in many review articles1 2.
4-9 SURFACE POROSITY
"For a variety of liquids on a given solid,
Zisman and his workers plotted cos 9 against Surface porosity is intrinsic to rotational
the surface tension 7. The graphical points molding. Unlike air voids which can be
were found close to a straight line. The eliminated or minimized by judicious adjust-
intercept of the line at cos 9 = 1 is defined as ment of the time and temperature of the
the critical surface tension yc of the solid. polymer during the densification process,
Generally, the mold release agent has a low surface porosity cannot. Rao and Throne have
value of yc. The contact angle 9 will be larger reported that after much work with various
as the difference between 7 of the liquid and materials and various mold surfaces, mold
7C increases. The large value of 9 results in releases, particle size distributions and exter-
very poor adhesion of the liquid to the nal lubricants, these pores were attributable
surface coated with the mold release agent, to the sintering process itself. "The reasoning
such that modest external force is sufficient is as follows: Given the proper operating
for effective mold release"2. A mold release conditions, the voids in the bulk of the
agent converts a high energy metallic surface sintering powder are pushed ahead of the
to a low energy surface, and a monolayer of melting front as it proceeds toward the free
the release is enough to produce a low energy surface. These hydrodynamic forces are
surface. Typical release materials are high sufficient to overcome viscous drag of the
molecular weight amines, amides, alcohols, bubbles. Buoyant forces are relatively insignif-
fatty acids, polymethyl siloxanes, and icant when compared with these forces. For
Teflon®. the void on the mold surface, however, there
is no bulk motion. As a result, buoyant forces
"The large value of the contact angle 9 must be sufficiently strong to counteract the
results in poor wetting of the solid by the viscous drag forces and the vertical compo-
polymer melt. Therefore, in corners or narrow nent of the surface tension force that holds
passages that are hard to fill (with surface the bubble against the mold surface"10. By
tension generated driving force) the use of balancing the surface tension force against the
mold release agents would in no way help the . buoyant force (assuming that the latter
flow of the polymer melt; instead, they would always acts in such a way as to release the
be detrimental"2. Rao and Throne's experi- bubble from the surface), it was found that
ence with a mold having many sharp corners the relative magnitudes of these forces are
has shown that the voids at the corners dependent on the geometrical parameters of
increased in number when mold release agents bubble radius and area of bubble contact with
were employed. the mold surface, and on physical properties
such as density, surface tension, and the
"Frequently, internal mold release agents, contact angle that the bubble makes with the
i.e., mold release agents which are part of the liquid surface.
4-16
AMCP 706-312
They reported that for polystyrene when polystyrene in air. "Madorsky13 reported
the bubble is nearly detached (the excluded that, upon exposure, the molecular weight of
segment is 2 percent of the bubble radius) and polystyrene decreases very rapidly to a rather
the contact angle is extremely small (10 deg stable molecular weight that is 10 to 100
or so), and the bubble is under normal times smaller in magnitude than the original
gravitational force, the minimum bubble molecular weight. This can be expressed as
radius for separation from the mold surface is
400 ju. "If the voids are formed in situ during MWfO = MW(oo)(i + 6.70e~'M) (4-15)
the sinter-melting process, the void volumes
should be of the same order of magnitude as where
the volume occupied by the powder particles.
Thus for 35 to +100 mesh particles, the MW(t) = instantaneous peak molecular
voids should be 100-500 p in diameter (or weight
50-250 [i in radius)." These calculations, MW(°°) = stablized peak molecular weight
along with the visual observations, confirmed
that the formation of voids is intrinsic to the ß2 - 0.204 min"1 for Madorsky's liter-
rotational molding of plastic powder. "No ature values"9.
mechanical or chemical means can be used to
eliminate the voids, since, for most cases, the From Gel Permeability Chromatography
buoyant force is insufficient to overcome (GPC) data on oven-exposed materials, it was
surface tension force and release the bubble found that the tensile strength of polystyrene
from the mold surface"1 °. was related to its molecular weight by
1A
4-10 THERMAL DEGRADATION (T/T0)=(MW/MW0) (4-1 6)
Optimum cycle times are influenced to a where

large measure on the oven set point
temperature. The temperature of polymer in T = exposed tensile strength
direct contact with the mold surface is at or
near the mold surface temperature, which, for T0 = tensile strength of the unexposed
high set point temperatures, can reach polystyrene
temperatures where significant degradation
takes place. Materials such as acrylics, MW = molecular weight of the exposed
polystyrenes, and ABS are quite sensitive to sample
excessive temperatures. Parts can exhibit
discoloration, blisters possibly caused by MW0 = 250,000 (from GPC measurements)
gaseous degradation products, charring, and
eventually combusted surfaces. Even if By use of Eq. 4-16, the time-temperature
discoloration can be tolerated, excessive profile for the mold, Eq. 4-1, and the
oxidative and thermal degradation lead to molecular weight degradation Eq. 4-15, the
molecular weight reduction and decreased curves shown on Fig. 4-14 for various set
mechanical properties. point temperatures were obtained. The
agreement between theory and experiment
Rao and Throne examined the effect of was found to be satisfactory permitting the
excessive temperatures on final part proper- prediction of tensile strength with oven cycle
ties of polystyrene. Plotted in Fig. 4-15 are times.
data of tensile strength of rotational molded
medium-impact polystyrene obtained at vari- 4-11 MOLD BLANKETING AND VENTING
ous OCT's and 7,=o=750°F {Ref. 9). To
support these data, they examined the Equipment through which inert gas and
literature on isothermal degradation of cooling media can be introduced into and
4-17
AMCP 706-312
6000r
5000-
-4000
«330 °F
3000-
2000
IOO0- a EXPERIMENTAL VALUES

OBTAINED ON WISHBONE USING
TINIUS-OLSON, ^TWF
3 4 9
OVEN CYCLE TIME , mln

Figure 4-14. Comparison of Computed and Measured Tensile Strengths of Polystyrene as
Functions of the Oven Cycle Time2
vented from the mold during the heating and crystals and can slightly reduce the amount of
cooling cycles is recommended for rotational crystallinity. Slow cooling promotes crystal-
molding. Addition of inert gas purge can line growth and may affect adversely impact
minimize some of the oxidative degradation strength. Therefore, very slow cooling should
from trapped oxygen in the mold; however, be avoided where possible.
thermal degradation remains. Purging with
dry ice (solid C02), argon, and nitrogen have Cooling of the molds generally is accom-
been used with some success. Antioxidants plished by cool air and/or spraying water over
also have been tried. However, it was reported the molds while rotating. Since nonshocking
that at 2 percent concentrations, 2, 6 diTerti- uniform cooling is essential when molding
aryButylpara-Cresol was ineffective in pre- warpage free parts, a detailed look at the
venting tensile strength decrease at set point spraying system is required. It has been found
temperatures in excess of 700°F for poly- that the water spray rate, spray pattern, and
styrene. This is probably due to the volatility spray particle size are three important
of the antioxidant at these conditions9. variables to consider. Spraying the molds with
a garden hose, as some people do, may
Cool gases, water mist, or refrigerants have occasionally work with some resins, but is
been introduced under slight pressure to seldom satisfactory for most parts. Changes in
reduce cooling times. the cooling system will be required when
polymers are changed.
4-12 COOLING CYCLE
Throne1 4 has analyzed some of the factors
The cooling cycle can have a profound that influence the rate of cooling of an
effect on the success or failure of the amorphous plastic in a metal mold. To
rotational molding operation. Improper cool- simplify the arithmetic, the following assump-
ing conditions and techniques can cause tions were made: (1) the inner surface of the
severe problems with warpage and some loss mold has the same temperature as the outer
of physical properties. When unevenly cooled, surface, regardless of the metal wall thickness
the more highly crystalline polymers show a L and (2) the plastic part is quite thick when
greater tendency to warp. Rapid cooling on compared with the advancing "freezing"
the other hand can limit the growth of the front. These assumptions enable the use of an
4-18
AMCP 706-312
approximate method (known as the Goodman am = km l(pm cpm ), mold thermal diffusivity,
method15) to solve the transient heat ft2/hr
conduction equation that describes heat
transfer into the molten plastic. This equation is a classic first-order system
response to a step change in the environmen-
tal parameter.
4-12.1 MOLD HEAT TRANSFER
This response is a strong function of the
A heat balance is made for the mold rate at which heat is removed from the mold
material. At time t - 0, the mold, at an initial surface, the thermal diffusivity and conduc-
temperature of T0, is moved into an tivity of the mold material, and the thickness
environment at an ambient temperature Ta. of the mold wall. It is obvious that, for a
The heat balance becomes: given mold material, increasing the heat
transfer coefficient or decreasing the wall
(The change in = (The net heat flow thickness increases the rate at which the mold
internal energy from the mold into surface attains the ambient temperature.
of the mold the environment
during time dt) during time dt) 4-12.2 THERMAL PENETRATION THICK-
NESS
or
The transient heat transfer equation that
Pm 'cpm 'L'dTs=hWs ~Ta)dt, describes the temperature profile in the
(4-17)
Btu/ft2 plastic melt is
where 3 / dT\_ dT
(4-19)
cpm = specific heat of the mold material,
Btu/lb-°F where
pm = density of the mold material, lb/ft3 ks = thermal conductivity of the polymer,
Btu/ft2-hr-(°F/ft)
L = mold wall thickness, ft
ps = polymer density, lb/ft3
km = mold thermal conductivity, Btu/ft2 -
hr-(°F/ft) cDS = polymer specific heat,
Btu/lb-°F
h = forced convection heat transfer
coefficient, Btu/ft2 -hr-°F According to Goodmanl s , the temperature
profile in the polymer melt can be approxi-
7r = mold surface temperature, °F mated by
Rearrangement and integration of Eq. 4-17 (T0 -T) = (T0 Ts)(l -x/5)3 (4-20)
yields
where
(T0 -TS) = (T0-Ta)[l~ exp(-W)] (4-18)
x - distance into the melt, measured
from the mold surface
where
ö = thermal penetration thickness
v=lham/(kmL)1 X (1/60), mold time
constant, min"1 This thickness is obtained by substituting Eq.
4-19
AMCP 706-312
4-18 into Eq. 4-19 with appropriate boundary Z = aja„

conditions. This is done in detail in Ref. 2.
The form for 5(0, the penetration thickness, 5'='(1 -e-vtj\vt -72(1 -e-vt)
for a time-dependent surface temperature .... 1W
Ts(t) is given as + 1(1 _^")]
5(0 = 5'(i>0 is shown in Fig. 4-15.

(^ - Ts) (4-21)
(Note: Below vt = \, the dimensionless pene-
[Jlw.-Tf.dtf tration distance can be adequately approxi-
mated (within 10 percent) by 8'= (vt/S)1^,
where and above vt = 2.5, by 5' = (vt - 1.5)1/j. These
approximations are useful when calculating
öj = ks/(/>scps), polymer thermal diffusivi- freezing conditions beyond the range of Fig.
ty,ft2/hr 4-16.)14
The time-dependent mold surface tempera-

ture is given by Eq. 4-18. Substituting this
into Eq. 4-21, the following expression for The extent of thermal penetration into the
polymer melt can be determined by calcu-
5(0 is obtained
lating 5(0 from Eq. 4-22. At any distance x,
the temperature can be determined as a
1 6as 1 function of time by calculating 5(0 from Eq.
6(0 = 21 4-22 and T(x) from Eq. 4-20. Further, if a
'•i(Bi)am (1 -e~") "freezing" temperature 7^ can be established
(4-22) such that T0 > Tf> Ta the movement of the
X vf- 2(1 -e'vt)
freezing front can be determined by rear-
V2
+i(l-^"0 ranging Eq. 4-20:
where Bi =■- hL/km the Biot number repre-

l/3
senting the ratio of heat transfer resistance in X/ = 5 jl -[{T0 -Tf)/(T0-Ts)] 1(4-24)
the convective film of fluid next to the mold
surface to the resistance to conduction heat
transfer within the mold material. The where {T0 - Ts) is given by Eq. 4-18 and 5 is
penetration thickness is a strong function of again given by Eq. 4-22.
the ratio of thermal diffusivities of mold and
plastic.
Eq. 4-22 is rearranged slightly, introducing This equation can be rearranged in a

a dimensionless penetration thickness 6' that manner similar to that for the dimensionless
is a function only of the dimensionless time penetration thickness S'Ov)- HQ = (T0 - 7/)/
vt {T0 - Ta), then Eq. 4-24 can be written as
6/1 = Kb' (4-23) Xf = KL8'(\ -e1/3e-"r/3) (4-25)
where or, defining x'(vt) = (XflL)jK, x'(vt) can be

plotted as shown in Fig. 4-15 with Q as a
K=2[6Z/(Bi)]V2 parameter.
4-20
AMCP 706-312
O.OI Ql I.O
DIMENSIONLESS TIME ut
Figure 4-15. Dimension/ess Penetration Thickness 5' and Dimension/ess Freezing Front xas
Functions of Dimensionless Time vt (Q,Dimensioniess Freezing, is Parameter)14
4-12.3 VOLUMETRIC CHANGES (dv/dt)T =k'e-$<-R THa+bT - v) (4-28)
According to McKelvey16, volumetric The rate of cooling dTjdt for conventional

changes in amorphous materials such as rotationally molded plastics in standard mold
polystyrene are functions of the rates of materials is extremely rapid when compared
thermal cooling and the rates of viscous flow with the rate of chain segment rearrange-
of chain segments. "McKelvey shows that the ment"14. Thus Throne chose to neglect the
rate of volume change at any point in the effect of Eq. 4-28 on the time-dependent
material can be written as a total differential volumetric change of Eq. 4-26. This dramat-
ically simplifies the form for the volumetric
dv/dt = {dv/dT)tdT/dt + (dv/dt)T (4-26) change, since now the volumetric changes are
directly proportional to the temperature
Spencer and Boyer17 have shown that the changes
instantaneous time-dependent volume change
is directly proportional to the temperature dv/dt =b'(dT/dt) (4-29)
change
Further, any linear change in dimension is
(3u/3D,= b' (4-27) directly proportional to the cube root of the
temperature change.
and that the isothermal rearrangement of
chain segments can be described as Differential changes in dimension are
4-21
AMCP 706-312
a:
z
_l
o:
o
§
ui
5}
0.I 1.0 K>
DIMENSIONLESS TIME vt

Figure 4-16. Surface Rate of Cooling R% and Bulk Rate of Cooling R'aas Functions
of Dimensionless Time vt (Also Shown as Dotted Line is Cooling Rate Ratio)
considered more important than the absolute Wo ~ *%r, =/ (T0 - T)dx(f*dx)1 (4-32)
values of these changes. According to Throne
a measure of this can be obtained by taking or upon integration
the ratio of the volumetric change of the
material at the surface to that in the bulk. (T0-T)ayg = (T0~Ts)8/4 (4-33)
(dv/dt)s (dTJdt) Rs
(4-30, and thus the bulk rate of cooling becomes
(dv/dt)„„ (dT/dt\avg
Ra = (1 - e-'O/S = (K/Wa (4-34)
"The surface rate of cooling is obtained from
Eq. 4-18 as where
R ."tr" (4-31) <=(1 -e-"')/fi' (4-35)
and the bulk rate of cooling is obtained by The surface rate of cooling Rs, the reduced
differentiating the average temperature in the bulk rate of cooling R'a, and the ratio Rs/R'a
bulk. The average temperature is obtained as are shown in Fig. 4-16'" 4.
4-22
AMCP 706-312
Throne's analysis indicates that the temper- temperature; and Q = (T0-Tf)/(T0~Ta), a

ature profile, the average temperature, and dimensionless freezing temperature. All
the position of the "freezing" front are strong necessary physical constants are obtainable,
functions of several parameters: Z = as/am , and the heat transfer coefficient can be
the ratio of the thermal diffusivities; estimated for various cooling media. Thus a
Bi = hh\km . the dimensionless Biot number; method is proposed by which methods of
v = ha.m jLkm , a time constant for the mold cooling and types of mold materials can be
response to a step change in environmental compared.
REFERENCES
1. "Technical Information on Marlex® Rotational Molding-Part III: Sinter-

Polyolefin Plastics: 1 7 Rotational Mold- Melting and Degradation", Society of
ing", undated, Phillips Petroleum Co. Plastics Engineers, 30th Annual Technical
Conference, May 1972, Chicago, 111.
2. M. A. Rao and J. L. Throne, "Principles
of Rotational Molding", Polymer Engi- 10. M. A. Rao and J. L. Throne, "Theory of
neering and Science, Vol. 12, No. 4, July Rotational Molding Part II: Fluid Flow",
1972, pp. 237-264. Ibid.
3. E. C. Bernhardt, Ed, Processing of 11. A. W. Adamson, Physical Chemistry of

Thermoplastic Materials, Sec. Ill, Rein- Surfaces, Interscience Publishers, New
hold, New York, N.Y., 1959. York, N.Y., 1960.
4. W. E. Gloor, SPE Trans., Vol. 19, No. 27, 12. J. B. Stokes III, Society of Plastics
1963. Engineers Regional Technical Con-
ference, Mountainside, N.J., Feb. 1971.
5. Du Pont, Rotational Molding Process
Variables. 13. S. L. Madorsky, Thermal Degradation of
Organic Polymers, Interscience, 1964.
6. A. J. Soroka and J. A. Tallmadge, AIChE
J, Vol. 17, No. 505, 1971. 14. J. L. Throne, "Some Factors Influencing
Cooling Rates of Rotationally Molded
7. M. A. Rao and J. L. Throne, "Theory of Parts", Polymer Engineering and Science,
Rotational Molding-Part I: Heat Trans- Vol. 12, No. 5, September 1972, pp.
fer", Society of Plastics Engineers, 335-339.
Annual Technical Conference, May 1972,
Chicago, III. 15. T. R. Goodman, Advances in Heat
Transfer. Vol. 1, Chapter 2, Academic
8. J. F. Lontz, "Sintering of Polymer Press, New York 1964.
Materials", Fundamental Phenomena in
the Material Sciences, L. J. Bones, W. W. 16. J. M. McKelvey, Polymer Processing, p.
Hausner, Eds., Vol. 1: Sintering and 123, Wiley, New York, 1962.
Plastic Deformation, Plenum Press, 1964.
17. R. S. Spencer and R. F. Boyer, /. Appl.
9. M. A. Rao and J. L. Throne, "Theory of Phys., Vol. 17, p. 398, 1946.
4-23/4-24
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTERS
QUALITY CONTROL
5-1 GENERAL shape is cubic with generous radii, 35-100

mesh, and few fines. The shape of the
Due to the cost of rotational molding particles can be quickly determined by 20 X
equipment and the uncertainty about success- microscope examination.
fully processing a material of choice in a
desired mold configuration, materials and 5-2.3 "PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
mold designs should be screened before the
decision to rotational mold is made.
Roto-tapping 300-500 g of powder through
U.S. Standard sieves of 30, 50, 70, and 100
5-2 POWDER SCREENING
mesh for one to two hours yields particle size
distribution data. Roto-tapping is preferred
Rao and Throne1 outline several simple
over manual methods because static electric
experiments that can be run which yield
charge build up easily can clog manually-
qualitative information about the rotational
operated screens."1 This test is recommended
moldability of a plastic powder. These
on each batch of powder as a quality control
experiments can be run on inexpensive
of the grinding operation.
equipment and can serve as a screening
procedure for materials.
5-2.4 DYNAMIC ANGLE OF REPOSE
5-2.1 "FEEL OR TEXTURE OF POWDER
This can be determined with fair accuracy,
A quick way of determining possible simply by manually rotating the powders in a
rotational molding problems is by allowing glass beaker or cylinder and estimating the
the powder to run through your hands. If the angle with a hand-held protractor. The
powder feels coarse, it may not have been slip-stick phenomenon mentioned in Chapter
ground fine enough. If the powder is dusty, 4 is more important to processing than the
the fines content may be too high. If it feels absolute value of the dynamic angle of repose.
very slippery, this is an indication either that The more cubic or flat the particles become,
the particles are spherical in shape or that the more they tend to alternately stick to and
external lubricants have been used. Both of slip down the wall during rotation. This can
these can lead to molding problems. If it be detected during manual rotation of the
packs, it might be wet and might not cast hand-held cylinder. Increasing sphericity or
properly. If it is very fluffy, the material may addition of external lubricants usually cause a
sinter properly but crack during densification. dramatic visual reduction in this phenomenon.
Furthermore, it may agglomerate during Slip-stick can also be caused by moisture
tumbling, owing to static electric charge adsorbed on the particles. If moisture is
build-up."1. suspected, visual -comparison of oven-dried
and wet materials in rotating cylinders should
5-2.2 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF show a dramatic difference in flow behavior.
POWDER PARTICLES A small variable-speed power-roller, such as
that manufactured by U.S. Stoneware, can be
As discussed in Chapter 4, the ideal particle used to good advantage here.
5-1
AMCP 706-312
5-2.5 HOTPLATE EXPERIMENTS as a function of time and temperature under

C02, nitrogen, and argon atmospheres can be
It was found that a hot plate surface determined. Theoretically, the effect of
simulated, to a large extent, the mold surface thermal degradation could be separated from
for electro-deposited nickel and cast alumi- the effect of oxidation degradation.
num. The time-temperature profile was nearly
linear throughout the useful temperature 5-3 PART QUALITY
range (< 600° F). The important fact,
however, is that the profile is reproducible. Some tests which can be used for part
The hot plate can be used to determine an quality control are percent gel, low tempera-
experimental value for the effective powder ture drop impact, density, resistance to stress
thermal diffusivity a eff. While this is not an cracking (Bent Strip), tensile strength, and
accurate method, it yields values which can be elongation. These are in addition to visual
used in OCT calculations if no other is observations for smooth, imperfection-free
available. surfaces.
Several visual effects can be observed while
the powder is heating. First, the temperature 5-3.1 PERCENT GEL
at which the powder becomes tacky or sticky
can be determined simply. The powder is The percent gel is a measure of the
moved across the mold surface with a probe insoluble portion (gel) of the material in
until it sticks to the hot surface. The boiling ethyl benzene. The higher the percent
temperature at which this occurs is TM- gel, the higher the degree of cure. For
Secondly, a series of experiments, terminating example, to obtain optimum properties of
at incremental temperatures, will give a good crosslinked high-density polyethylene a per
indication of the development of the sinter cent gel above 95% is required. The test
stage and of the progression of the melt stage requires special equipment and takes 16 hr to
through the sintered plastic. Microscopic run. It could be used to establish the initial
examination of the cross section of the time cycle and as a periodic check but would
sample yields information on the extent of not be practical as a production control test2.
encapsulation of voids as a function of time.
By controlling the rate of heating, a good 5-3.2 IMPACT TESTS
indication of the effect of rate of densifica-
tion on bubble encapsulation can be obtained. A relatively small change in the heating
This test also can be used to determine cycle can make a significant difference in the
whether a new material can be melted. For impact strength. Laboratory tests have shown
example, using this test Rao and Throne that the impact strength can be used as an
found early indications that increasing rubber effective method of determining when the
content in ABS led to increased difficulty in maximum physical properties have been
densification. This problem was verified achieved.
during rotational molding of the prototype "Impact testers such as the one shown in
part. Fig. 5-1 can be built at low cost. This
The extent of thermal degradation of particular tester has a maximum drop height
certain temperature-sensitive plastics also can of 7.5 ft because of ceiling height limitations.
be observed using the hot plate. Flat disks, Therefore, two different weight darts were
suitable for compression, flexure, or tensile necessary to obtain a sufficient range of
testing, can be cast against the hot plate impact values for testing parts up to 0.375 in.
surface and physical property deterioration thickness. The 5-lb dart has a range of 0 to
determined as a function of time and 37.5 ft-lb impact and the 10-lb dart has a
temperature. With an asbestos enclosure range of 0 to 75 ft-lb impact. The dart has a
placed over the hot plate, inert gas purge can 0.5 in. radius impact point and it strikes the
be used. Thus, physical property deterioration part to be tested in the center of the 3.5 in.
5-2
AMCP 706-312
diameter unsupported area. The support base

could be removed and then whole molded
parts could be impacted; however, care should
be used to compare the results to parts
impacted under the same condition. Results
using the impact tester described in ASTM
test D2444-70 with the 0.5 in. radius tip give
very similar results, and it or other dart
impact testers could be used to obtain the
necessary impact data3".
Using parts molded at increasing heating
cycle times, an impact versus oven time curve
can be developed. "From comparison of the
impact curve and actual observation of the
molded part, an optimum cycle time can be
selected. This optimum cycle is the shortest
cycle where the majority of the impact
strength and physical properties are developed
that are adequate for the intended applica-
tion. The optimum cycle for some resins may
be significantly shorter than the cycle needed
for the maximum impact strength3 ".
Low temperature impact tests also are
e
used. To serve as any type of control the test
must be run at least — 20° F for crosslinked Figure 5-1. Dart Drop Impact Tester
high-density polyethylene2. The impact can
be run on a slab cut from the part or the part 5-3.4 BENT STRIP TEST
itself can be impacted. A simple 0.5 in. radius
dart has been used to test slabs. The slabs are Another test which can be used as a means
cooled to — 20° F in a bath containing an for quality control for crosslinked polyethy-
alcohol-water solution and dry ice. In lene is a Bent Strip Test. For this test a small
production, a ball peen hammer has been used strip approximately 0.5 in. X 4 in. is cut from
for this test With the dart or hammer, there the part. Any size 0.25 in. wide or greater
should be no failure, or if failure does occur it which can be easily bent can be used. "The
should be ductile. If at -20°F a part will take strip is bent such that the inside surface is
a good swing with a 5-lb ball peen hammer, exposed until the two ends meet. If cracks
the part is probably good. appear in the stressed area, the part is
undercured. This indicates that the inside
5-3.3 DENSITY surface has not reached sufficient temperature
to cure and a longer heating time is needed.
Density of the part can be used for quality Ideally, the inside surface when bent to give
control when rotomolding natural crosslinked maximum stress should look like the outside
polyethylene. For natural parts, a density surface when under maximum stress. When
between 0.930 and 0.933 g/cm3 is necessary this occurs, the optimum properties of the
for optimum part quality. Density cannot be resin have been obtained2 ".
used for black or pigmented parts, since a
very slight change in percentage of pigment 5-3.5 TENSILE TESTS
could vary the density enough to make it mis-
leading2 . Tensile properties have been used widely
5-3
AMCP 706-312
for determining production quality. Changes D638, D1708, D1623, etc.). In some cases,
in tensile strength and elongation may be used however, specimens can be taken from some
to follow the progress of chemical or physical part of the finished part and some measure of
changes taking place in the polymer—such as the quality of the finished part determined.
densification, thermal or oxidation degrada- Tensile test procedures and properties are well
tion or, in crosslinked polymer, degree of documented in the open literature.
curing. Tensile properties also are used to
determine uniformity of production. Gener- 5-4 PROCESSING PROBLEMS
ally, finished parts are difficult to test because
of their geometry, and tensile testing is Table 5-1 presents some of the major
accomplished on standard test specimens rotational molding problems, their probable
using standard ASTM test procedures (i.e., cause, and suggested remedies.
TABLE 5-1
ROTATIONAL MOLDING PROBLEMSAND PROBABLE SOLUTIONS4
PROBLEM PROBABLE CAUSE REMEDIES
Uneven wall thickness of Improper mold rotation Correct rotation to get adequate number of powder
molded part overlays and even coverage.
Uneven mold thickness Use care in designing molds to eliminate excessive
variations in mold wall thickness. This is es-
pecially important with steel molds that have low heat
conductivity.
Shielding of mold pre- Mount mold on spider so as to minimize shielding.
venting hot air flow.
Buffeting of hot air flow Avoid deep dished areas when possible.
in deep dished areas.
Reduce thickness of mold in dished areas.
Open handles so that air can flow through kiss-off
in mold.
Excessive oven cycle Low oven temperature Increase oven temperature.
Check calibration of instruments as they may be
reading high.
Excessively thick molds Reduce mold wall thickness to normal for
industry.
Oven heat capacity Clean and readjust burners.
insufficient
Check air velocity and correct if low.
5-4
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 5-1 (Continued)
ROTATIONAL MOLDING PROBLEMS AND PROBABLE SOLUTIONS4
Warped parts Uneven cooling caused by Excessive or too effective a mold release
resin pulling away from
mold wall
Rotate during cooling cycle.
Make sure mold is venting to prevent vacuum.
Add air pressure through drilled spindle during
cooling.
Decrease cooling rate.
Allow short air cooling before water cooling.
Mold design Improve wall uniformity of part.
Blow holes through part Porosity in cast aluminum Obtain better quality castings.
or ringworm effect under mold Drill through void and drive in pin or weld from
outer part wall surface — inside.
other than parting line
Relieve from outside by drilling into void from
outside.
Remove parts from molds while mold is quite warm to
touch. This helps drive moisture out of pores.
Pores or holes in welds Use proper welding rod and procedure.
Weld inside surface first to get good penetration.
Blow holes through Poor fit on inserts, allowing Refit inserts and relieve, so as to allow trapped gases
part around inserts moisture or vapors to be to escape to the outside of the mold.
trapped around insert and
expand, blowing a hole
in the part
Bridging of resin Change insert dimensions or location to allow powder
because of close to flow without bridging.
dimensions
Surface of part Surface oxidized Flush mold with inert gas.
discolored
Excessive heating cycle Reduce oven time or temperature.
Contaminated mold Check mold wall for a contamination such as rust.
Speckled color and Insufficient blending Break up agglomerates of pigment before blending.
lumps of color in dry
blended colors
Use high intensity mixer.
If unable to achieve a desirable color balance, use a
color compound.
5-5
AMCP 706-312

Pock marks with Mold release Change to a mold release that is satisfactory for
crosslinkable resin crosslinkable resins.
Too high oven temperature Lower oven temperature to 600°F or lower
Delamination with Improper rotation Change speeds and/or rotation to give even coverage
crosslinkable resins of mold.
Small bubbles and Vacuum inside part due Install vent.
large blowholes at to plugged vent or lack
Relocate vent to put end in middle of mold if
parting line of vent
possible.
Use small amount of glass wool in vent.
Use low conductivity material such as Teflon® resin
for vent tube.
Poor parting line Clean parting line and apply new mold release on
parting line.
Remate parting line if necessary and check to see
that adequate clamping force is evenly applied.
Excessive flash on Poor parting line or mold Clean parting line and apply new mold release on
parts mismatch parting line.
Remate parting line.
Use lower melt index resin.
Check vent for plugging.
Reduce air pressure in part if used.
Sticking to mold Lack of mold release Reapply or use more release agent.
agent
In some cases, old release and film must be removed,
and new mold release applied for good results.
Ineffective mold release Use mold release that is effective for resin and temper-
atures used.
Shrinking onto large, Provide adequate taper.
deep inserted areas.
Use very effective mold release on insert area.
Remove part warm.
Provide adequate provision for applying force to
separate mold halves.
Undercuts in mold Design mold so that undercuts are at parting line
so that mold has draft angle for part removal.
Decrease heating cycle or oven temperature.
Increase cooling cycle.
Vent mold.
Reduce cooling rate during initial part of cooling
cycle.
Reduce oven temperature.
Avoid large flat panels when possible.
5-6
AMCP 706-312
Sticking to mold Uneven cooling caused Remove shielding panels and replace with screen if
(cont'd) by shielding panels necessary.
Uneven cooling caused Check and clean nozzles on a periodic schedule.
by clogged water
nozzles
Low impact strength Overfusion Decrease cycle time.
Insufficient fusion of Increase time or temperature.
resin
Too slow cooling Avoid excessive air cooling.
Cool as rapidly as possible using techniques men-
tioned to prevent warpage.
Improper coloring Select pigment and pigment loading that do not
materially affect impact strength.
Use color compounds.
Bridging or webbing Poor mold design Design corners of mold with more generous radii.
of resin across one Avoid ribs with width of less than 4 X wall thickness.
wall to another,
causing poor fill of Use higher melt index powder.
narrow passages in
mold
Poor pourability of Make sure powder has acceptable pourability.
powder ground in plant
or by custom operator
Improper mold rotation Correct ratio and speed of rotation
Part contains small Water in mold Reduce water in mold by running with warm molds
bubbles or blisters and dry mold before charging with powder.
in wall, has small
bubbles that have
ruptured on exterior
surface, causing pin Insufficient cycle time Increase oven cycle.
holes or has rough or molding temperature
powdery inside Increase oven temperature.
surface
Mold design Use thinner wall on part. Improve mold wall uni-
formity.
Watermarks — glossy Water in mold interior Redesign vents to prevent water from entering
marks on otherwise during cooling cycle.
dull surface
Use fog instead of water spray.
Cool in air cycle.
5-7
AMCP 706-312
REFERENCES
1. M.A. Rao and J.L. Throne, "Principles of R.L. Rees, "Rotational Molding of High
Rotational Molding", Polymer Engineering Density Polyethylene", Society of Plastics
and Science, Vol. 12, No. 4, July 1972, Engineers, 27th Annual Technical Confer-
pp. 237-264. ence, May 5-8, 1969, pp. 567-571.
2. G.E. Carrow, "Crosslinkable Rotational

Molding High Density Polyethylene",
Society of Plastics Engineers 30th Annual 4. "Technical Information on Marlex® Poly-
Technical Conference, Chicago, 111., May olefm Plastics: 17 Rotational Molding",
1972, pp. 762-765. Phillips Petroleum Co.
5-8
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 6
PART DESIGN
6-1 GENERAL designed to avoid flat sections and, where

necessary, they should be broken up with
A few of the part design parameters that either ribs or domes to hold warpage
should be given special considerations are flat problems to a minimum.
surfaces, undercuts, threads, inserts, radii of
corners, narrow passages, and composites.
6-3 UNDERCUTS
6-2 FLAT SURFACES
Undercuts should be held to a minimum in
Large flat surfaces can create warpage rigid parts. If undercuts are required, the
problems. If at all possible, parts should be mold should be parted to allow for easy part
removal. Also, undercuts usually require
additional time for loading and unloading the
mold.
0.020R
0.020R
6-4 THREADS
"Threads should either be a round glass

0.020R bottle or a modified buttress. The round glass
(A) ALL PURPOSE THREAD bottle thread will fill well without any
modification. For the buttress to fill and form
10 TO 30" properly, generous radii on the edges of the
threads are required. Sharp V threads should
0.030 R-v I be avoided, for powder tends to bridge
0.020 RA\
causing very poor fill"1. The various types of
0.030R threads are illustrated in Fig. 6-1.
To produce an internal thread, as shown in
Fig. 6-2, rapid extraction (after a strictly
^0.030R limited cooling time) is usually necessary
(B) MODIFIED BUTTRESS THREAD because the plastic material shrinks onto the
-D core2.
0.031 MAX R
6-5 INSERTS
Metallic or plastic inserts of appropriate

(C) ALTERNATE TYPE (GLASS) shape may be positioned into the mold before
the addition of the resin by use of jigs or
Figure 6-1. Various Acceptable Thread Types magnets. In this way inserts can be molded in
for Use on Rotational Molded a one shot operation. Such inserts can be used
Parts1 to fix outlets, filters, valves, etc., to a hollow
6-1
AMCP 706-312
Thread mold insert
Thick base essential

to produce a thin wall
(A) Internal thread (B) External thread
Figure 6-2. Thread Mold Inserts1
part. However, with metal inserts, care must shown in Fig. 6-4, of the inserted piece melts
be taken to minimize built-in stresses in the sufficiently to produce perfect adherence to
molded part due to differential shrinkage of the nylon layer while the thickest central part
the metal and the plastic. Inserts should be of the insert support bears the thermal shock
carefully degreased before they are inserted. with no deformation of any sort2.
Fig. 6-3 illustrates such an insert, and the Heterogeneous inserts (metal-plastic) made
method of attaching the piece to the mold. by normal injection molding (i.e., a metallic
Excellent results have been reported using nut in a plastic surround) may also be used.
Rilsan ZMO (30 percent glass-filled nylon 11) The shape of such pieces is a function of the
inserts, to which the nylon 11 rotomolding specific problem in hand.
grade layer adheres well. The insert and its Inserts held in the mold by bolts should
support are so designed that the flange, as not be placed far from other inserts in the
Metallic insert
(Interior of mold
Materials
Supporting block
Figure 6-3. Metallic Insert1
6-2
AMCP 706-312
Rilsan ZMO insert

Inside of mold
Method of attachment
Metallic support for insert

Insulating
material
Figure 6-4. Rilsan ZMO Insert2
same part. This is because large shrinkage Multilayer or sandwich composites are
forces can be generated which will cause rotomolded by two basic methods:
difficulty in removing the bolts that hold the
inserts in place. It may be possible to use 1. Resin powders of two different melting
magnets or specially designed insert mount- temperatures are premixed and charged into
ings in the mold to hold the inserts in place. the mold cavities. An example of such a
In crosslinking resin systems the fastening of technique is the familiar ice bucket which has
inserts in molds should be done in such a a polystyrene core and a polyethylene skin.
manner that gases or steam generated behind
the inserts are relieved to the outside of the 2. The mold is charged with the required
mold, quantity of the first thermoplastic. After this
layer is formed against the mold, the mold is
6-6 CORNER RADII opened and charged with the appropriate
second resin. This is then rotomolded on top
Well radiused corners are recommended to of the previous layer. If a solid skin with a
prevent molded-in stresses and part thickening honeycomb interior is required, a blowing
in the corners. Normally, radii of at least 1/4 - agent is used in one of the powdered resins.
3/16 in. are required. See par. 2-3.6.
6-7 COMPOSITES 6-8 WALL THICKNESS
Multilayer products are possible which are The wall thickness of molded parts is
formed by the juxtaposition of layers of usually fairly constant. However, wall thick-
thermoplastic materials of different nature nesses can be varied by:
but adhering together. Thus, it is possible to
combine the specific properties of each of the 1. Adjusting the rotational ratio such that
materials used to produce a cheaper or better the powdered resin has more contact time
product, for example, replacing a certain with either the walls parallel to the major axis
thickness of an expensive material with the of rotation or the walls parallel to the minor
equivalent or greater thickness of a cheaper axis of rotation. The increased contact time
material. will produce thicker walls in these areas.
6-3
AMCP 706-312
2. Either speeding up or slowing down part wall thickness and, to a substantial

heat transfer in the desired area. This can be degree, by the mold release condition.
accomplished by varying the wall thickness of Therefore, it is impossible to quote a specific
the metal mold in the area of interest. value for each resin system for different
Another technique is to paint a surface of the designs. Linear shrinkage for parts molded in
mold with black paint for thicker wall the laboratory and others from production
sections, or with aluminum paint for thinner has varied from 0.0125 in./in. to 0.025 in./in.
wall sections. Also mold preheat in the areas for crosslinked polyethylene1. Indications of
requiring thicker wall sections is feasible. shrinkage are given in Chapter 7.
Thicker mold walls for thinner resin wall
sections should be used with care. The mold 6-11 NARROW PASSAGES
wall thickness should be increased with the
least amount or no increase in the outside Experimentation by Rao and Throne3 have
area of the mold. Otherwise, the resin shown that, contrary to the belief that voids
build-up under this thicker section will be in narrow passages are filled or emptied by
thinner than desired in short OCT but thicker
in long OCT. This is because the increased D"
mass of metal acts first as a heat sink and its
temperature rises more slowly than the rest of
the mold. Thus, the heat transfer time for the
molding surface under this thicker section is
longer than for the rest of the mold. During a OVEN CYCLE TIME = 5.5 min
long OCT, the thick section, with increased XT

outside area, will act as a heat funnel. Then
the molding area under this section will flux
more heat into the polymer wall which is
building on it. The lower limit of part wall
thickness is approximately 0.05 to 0.06 in.
6-9 INNER COMMON WALLS |«N- 10-

<
It is possible to have a hollow rotomolded
body split into two chambers by a solid wall
of resin. This can be accomplished by placing
a screen mesh insert in the position where the
inner wall is to occur. The screen must be ü-"-
affixed to the mold so that it will get enough LEGEND
heat to fuse the polymer. Under these X POLY (STYRENE)
conditions an inner wall can be built POLY (FTHYLENE
simultaneously with the rest of the molding.

The screen insert, however, remains as an
integral part of the molding.
U
400 600 800 1,000
6-10 PART SHRINKAGE OVEN TEMPERATURE,°F
Part shrinkage is a very complex phenome- Reprinted by permission of SPE.

non and is also influenced in rotational Figure 6-5. Capillary Flow Distance During OCT
molding by oven temperature, resin type, = 5.5 Min (Oven set point temperature is
mold configuration restrictions, cooling rate, parameter. Ft = 0.01 cm (Ref. 3)).
6-4
AMCP 706-312
molten polymer flowing into or out of the ever, the viscosity is exponentially dependent
passages, the molten polymer exhibits very on temperature, whereas surface tension is
little fluid motion relative to the mold linearly dependent. As shown in Fig. 6-5, the
surface. "Thus fluid does not flow by rotation depth of capillary fill at a given OCT of 5.5
induced forces into or out of passages. This min dramatically increases with increasing set
lack of complete filling results in voids and point temperature. Even so, the depths of
gaping holes. The main driving force for the capillary that can be filled with polystyrene at
flow of a viscous fluid into a narrow passage is T„ = 950°F after 5.5 min (R = 0.01) is only
surface tension." The maximum possible flow 0.100 cm long. Thus it is concluded that deep
of a polymer in an axial direction in a cavities cannot be filled successfully either by
horizontal capillary tube is given by rotation, induced flow, or by capillary forces.
This conclusion is, to a large extent,
A? = (zl -. R
»-fr 7(f)
i?(0
dt (6-1) applicable to the filling of corners and areas
of relatively sharp radii as well. Thus,
The surface tension 7 and viscosity 77 both designers must take this factor into account in
decrease with increasing temperature. How- the design of parts3.
REFERENCES
1. "Technical Information on Marlex® Poly- M.A. Rao and J.L. Throne, "Theory of
olefin Plastics: 17 Rotational Molding", Rotational Molding-Part II: Fluid Flow",
Phillips Petroleum Co. Society of Plastics Engineers, 30th Annual
Technical Conference, May 1972, Chicago,
2. "Rilsan GSMR (Special Grade for Rota- 111.
tional Moulding)", Aquitaine-Organico, No.
168, 1969.
6-5/6-6
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 7
MATERIALS
7-1 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION Generally compounded color is superior to

dry color in the rotomolding process.
The base resin selection is very important
since it is the foundation of the process and Specific resin properties—i.e., melt index,
must be selected to fit the performance of the density, tensile strength, elongation, low
product. In selecting a resin system the temperature brittleness, flexural stiffness,
following end use requirements should be impact strength, heat distortion temperature,
considered: stress crack, and chemical resistance—and
FDA approval must be considered in assessing
1. Strength requirements the best resin system for product require-
ments.
2. Rigidity or flexibility
Stress crack problems have been and are a
3. Temperature range part will be sub- source of concern because of part failures.
jected to They have occurred in fertilizer tanks,
gasoline tanks for utility vehicles, and other
4. Life requirement of the part containers where certain liquids have been
confined. Recently, the resin producers have
5. Indoor or outdoor use given this area special considerations, and
several new resins have been developed to
6. Part surface requirements—texture or solve the problem. Unfortunately, they also
finishing acceptability cost more than the previously used materials.
These new materials include polybutylene,
7. Color requirements crosslinked polyethylene, and special co-
polymer modifications.
8. Special requirements, i.e., stress crack
resistance, chemical resistance, FDA approval, Improper part mounting is sometimes
etc. responsible for failures attributed to stress
cracking. For example, a large fertilizer tank
These requirements will influence the resin requires a full length cradle. If the tank is
selected as well as possible additives and secured by bands, the bands should allow for
fillers. Additives such as plasticizers, ultra- expansion of the tank with rising tempera-
violet stabilizers, and flame retardants often ture. Otherwise, the bands can exert sufficient
are incorporated into the resin system stresses to possibly cause failure.
depending on specific requirements. Glass
reinforcements also are included to increase Rotational casting resins may be purchased
strength and impact properties. from suppliers in the powder form. Some of
the larger rotational molds li.-we their own
When color is desired, pigments and pulverizing facilities. Generally, a resin in
concentration levels should be selected that powder form costs from $0.05 to SO. 10 per lb
will not affect resin strength properties. more than the pellet form of the resin. On a
7-1
AMCP 706-312
large volume operation, the molder can save though reduced by grinding, imparts the
by having his own grinder. required stiffness and high-temperature creep
resistance needed. Other properties improved
Other approaches to rotomolding parts by glass addition are dimensional stability,
with specific applications have developed. lower coefficient of thermal expansion, and
One has been to post-fill hollow rotomolded higher deflection temperatures.
parts with rigid urethane foam in order to
achieve additional strength and rigidity. This The higher the melt index of the resin used,
is particularly true in the application of the better the material flows during the last
rotomolded styrene in the furniture industry. portion of the heating cycle, producing a
The rigid foam reinforcement also changes the smooth inner surface.
metallic ring of styrene to the dull sound of
wood. Suppliers are
The field of powder molding materials has 1. Celanese Plastics Co.

come a long way since liquid vinyl plastisol 550 Broad Street,
rotational casting. A summary of available Newark, N.J. 07102
materials as of this time is presented along Celcon M-90
with a general description gained from
processing these materials and their proper- 2. E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
ties. Because of rapid changes in the cost of Wilmington, Del. 19898
resins only approximate costs are given. Delrin 500
7-2 ACETAL COPOLYMER Costs are approximately $0.95 per lb.
Acetal copolymers offer the rotational 7-2.2 PROCESS PARAMETERS

molder an excellent combination of strength,
stiffness, solvent resistance, good fatigue, 7-2.2.1 Drying Cycle
endurance and creep resistance, low moisture
absorption, and good thermal stability. Fig. 7-1 shows the effect of relative
Glass-reinforced grades are also available. humidity on moisture absorption of ground
resin. These tests were conducted by exposing
7-2.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS approximately 1/8 in. depths of resin to
constant humidity conditions and determin-
Proper stabilization of compounds, as well ing the weight gain with time. At 50 percent
as proper operating temperatures, is impor- relative humidity the ground resin absorbed
tant when acetal resins are used to produce only 0.09 percent moisture. At 100 percent
rotocast parts. relative humidity, moisture absorption was
fairly rapid. It has been found that moisture
It is recommended that the acetal copoly- levels of a few tenths of a percent can be
mer be ground 30-100 mesh (< 5 percent by excessive. Therefore, care should be taken to
weight through 100 mesh) for rotocasting. minimize exposure of the ground resin to high
This provides a particle size distribution that humidity conditions.
can be met readily by commercial grinding
equipment. If the ground resin contains excessive
moisture, then the surface of the rotocast
A 20 percent glass-fiber-reinforced grade of parts will be marred by small bubbles or
the acetal copolymer has been successfully blisters. The parts also will be somewhat
used commercially in a rotocast military porous, resulting in a lower part density and
application. The glass particle size, even tensile strength. For best results, resin should
7-2
AMCP 706-312
50% RH
O 15 20 25
DAYS EXPOSURE

Figure 7-1. Effect of Relative Humidity on the Moisture
Absorption of Ground Celcon M-901
be rotocast soon after grinding. If the material 7-2.2.3 Rotation

is stored, it should be in moisture-proof
containers or foil-lined bags. Poor surface Normal rotational speeds and ratios are
appearance of parts may be corrected by used in rotocasting the acetal copolymer. For
drying resin at 200°-225°F. Usually, drying every part geometry the optimum speeds and
times of one to two hours in a circulated-air ratio should be determined by trial runs to
oven are sufficient1. obtain the degree of wall thickness uniformity
desired.
7-2.2.2 Heating Cycle
7-2.2.4 Cooling Cycles
Normal oven temperatures in a recirculated
hot-air heating system are 400°-500°F. When Rapid cooling, however, with a crystalline
producing thick-walled parts (> 0.25 in.) polymer such as acetal copolymer promotes
normal production operating temperatures are part warpage and locked or "frozen-in"
420'M50°F. For thinner-walled parts higher stresses in the finished part. These problems
oven temperatures can be used to reduce the can more than offset any advantage in
heating time. A problem could arise in shrinkage or reduced cooling time gained
rotocasting thick-walled parts at higher oven from rapid cooling. Molds should be designed
temperatures (~ 500°F); it is possible for the using proper shrinkage values for the material
outside wall to start degrading before the being rotocast; therefore, warpage is usually
complete part is fused. the controlling factor in producing rotocast
parts. To minimize warpage, parts are cooled
For comparison, a curve for a 0.96 density while rotating in air with a light water spray
grade of polyethylene is shown in Fig. 7-2. or mist applied for the last few minutes of the
This curve was generated at an oven cooling cycle1.
temperature of 500°F. Curves of the type in
Fig. 7-2 can be used only to obtain the 7-2.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS
approximate heating conditions for produc-
tion machines. Variations in mold thickness, Normally, no mold release is needed when
mold surface area/resin charge, and air rotocasting acetal copolymers. The shrinkage
circulation rates can alter the heating is usually sufficient to allow parts to be easily
conditions for the wall thickness desired. removed from the molds. If a mold release is
7-3
AMCP 706-312
0.980 DENSITY POLYETHYLENE

OVEN AT 300 °F
S/8
20 35 40 60
HEATING TIME, min

Figure 7-2. Effect of Heating Time on Part Wall Thickness of Plaster
Cast Aluminum (Mold cavity 9X 11 X 6 in. Depth1.)
needed, both baked-on silicone and Teflon® To demonstrate the excellent creep re-
coatings have been used successfully. Spray sistance of the glass-reinforced acetal copoly-
type mold releases must be used sparingly. If mers for use in a pressurized container,
too much mold release is used, parts will tend flexural creep tests were conducted at 165°F
to draw away from the mold wall during the and 95 percent relative humidity1. These test
cooling cycle and result in part warpage. A conditions are similar to the highest tempera-
light coating of fluorocarbon spray in corners ture-humidity requirements of military en-
or ribbed sections of the mold should be vironmental testing. Fig. 7-3 shows the
sufficient for producing numerous parts1. superiority of the acetal copolymer over a 40
percent glass-reinforced grade of nylon 6/6.
7-2.4 PROPERTIES Samples for testing were obtained from
rotocast containers.
Typical properties of rotocast Celcon M-90
are shown in Table 7-1; properties of 7-3 ACRYLONITRILE BUTADIENE STY-
Delrin 500, in Table 7-2. RENE (ABS)
The rotational molding of ABS is still

TABLE 7-1
experimental. The present materials have
yielded hard but brittle products. Tougher
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF ROTOCAST material development is required by the resin
CELCON M-901 suppliers. Therefore, little information is
available.
Tensile strength, psi 8200 - 8800
Tensile modulus, psi X 10"' 3.9 - 4.2 7-3.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS
Izod impact strength, ft-lb/in. of notch 1.0 - 1.2
Density, g/cm3 1.37- 1.38 Particle sizes of 30-35 mesh are
Melt index, g/10 min 9.0 recommended.
Shrinkage, % 2-0
Powder mesh size 30-100
« 5 % by weight through 100) There are no U.S. suppliers, The only
Reprinted by permission of SPE. supplier is Dakel ABS ROM® which is
14
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-2
PROPERTIES OF DELRIN 5002
Impact strength, izod ft-lb/in. -40° F 1.2

73°F 1.4
Tensile strength, psi -68° F 14,700

73°F 10,000
158°F 7,500
Flexural yield strength, psi 14,100
Flexural modulus, psi 73° F 410,000

170°F 190,000
250° F 90,000
Compressive stress, psi 1% deformation 5,200

10% deformation 18,000
Deformation under load, % 2000 psi at 122° F 0.5
Melting point (crystalline), °F 347
Flow temperature, °F 363
Specific heat, Btu/lb-°F 0.35
Thermal conductivity, Btu/hr-ft2-(°F/in.) 1.6
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion, per °F 4.5 X10'5
Flammability, in./min 1.1
Water absorption, % 24 hr immersion 0.25

equilibrium, 50% RH, 77°F 0.2
equilibrium immersion 77°F 0.9
Rockwell hardness M94, R120
Specific gravity 1.425
Poisson's ratio 0.35
Heat of combustion, Btu/lb 7,400
7-5
AMCP 706-312
lOOO
TIME , hr

Figure 7-3. Flexural Creep of Rotocast Glass-reinforced Materials1
(165°F - 95% RH, 1500 psi Fiber Stress)
Japanese. The approximate price is SO.72 per with a mixture of the two. Pellets exhibit
lb. more uniform melting and flow-out, and have
less tendency than powder to bridge across
7-3.2 PROCESS PARAMETERS corners and restricted areas. Powder melts
more quickly than pellets and tends to fill
Oven temperatures between 550° to 800°F small surface details better in some instances.
have been employed, depending on facilities
used. Cycle times have ranged from 4 to 8 TENITE® cellulosics can be mixed with
min depending on the cooling system. Water higher-melting materials to produce unusual
cooling is preferred but air cooling has also effects. Some of the materials that have been
been employed3. used are pellets of harder-flow (higher-
melting) TENITE® cellulosic formulations,
7-4 CELLULOSICS rigid-vinyl chips, metallic flake, and poly-
styrene pellets. These materials flow little or
The cellulosic plastics generally used for not at all during the molding operation, and
rotational molding are cellulose butyrate and they therefore remain as discrete particles
cellulose propionate. They are tough materials within the wall or on the interior surface of
and normally used in applications utilizing the finished piece. A decorative light globe
their clear-transparent or translucent optical made of transparent or translucent TENITE®
properties such as signs and lighting fixtures. cellulosic mixed with some of these other
materials and internally illuminated can give
7-4.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS striking appearances.
Cellulose butyrate and cellulose propionate The resin supplier for TENITE® Butyrate
are offered for rotational molding in 1/16 in. 457 and TENITE® Propionate 335 is
(1.6 mm) pellets and in 18 mesh (0.82 mm) Eastman Chemical Products, Inc. Both of
powder. Pellets are available in almost any these formulas contain very high-boiling plas-
color; 18 mesh powder, in clear-transparent ticizers-an important factor at the tempera-
and translucent white4. tures generally used for rotational molding.
The flow generally suggested is MS, S, or S2*
Some applications have been most success- "These designators refer to varying degrees of softness from
ful with powder, some with pellets, and some MH down to S2.
7-6
AMCP 706-312
for TENITE® Butyrate 457; MH, M, or MS and by proper control of the temperature. No
for TENITE® Propionate 335. Costs are flash fires of the type described have been
approximately $0.90 per lb. reported at oven temperatures below 500°F
(Ref. 4).
7-4.2 PROCESS VARIABLES
The time required for melting the plastic
7-4.2.1 Drying Cycle inside the mold will vary with the size of the
mold and the size of the charge. A light globe
Cellulosic plastics absorb small amounts of having a wall thickness of approximately 1 /8
water from the atmosphere and should be in. (3 mm), weighing about 1.1 lb (500 g)
dried before they are molded. Drying for 2 required heating about 11 min at 500°F (Ref.
hrs in a dehumidified-air oven at 130°-150°F 4).
(54°-66°C) generally is recommended.
7-4.2.3 Rotation Rates
When undried or inadequately dried, the
absorbed moisture turns to steam as the Experience has shown that the most nearly
plastic heats. If the mold is vented, most of uniform wall thickness has resulted when the
the steam will escape through the vent; but major-axis-to-minor-axis rotation ratio is
some may be trapped within the heat- about 4 to 1. Also, the most nearly uniform
softened plastic and cause bubbles in the wall thickness has resulted when the rotation
finished product. However, bubbles in the was as slow as possible down to 6 rpm for the
molded item do not necessarily mean that the major axis. If the mold is of a particularly odd
plastic needs additional drying. shape, however, another ratio or a higher
rotation rate might be better4.
If the plastic remains in the oven too long,
The oven temperature for rotationally it will begin to degrade. A change in color is
molding TENITE® should not exceed 500°F evidence that it has undergone slight overheat-
(260°C). Higher temperatures can cause ing, and a badly discolored or brittle item
excessive degradation and the release of indicates that extreme overheating has oc-
volatile materials inside the mold, as well as curred.
excessive vaporization of the plasticizers. If
organic vapors concentrate inside the mold at Wall roughness indicates that the plastic has
temperatures above about 500°F, they can not been heated enough to cause it to flow
form combustible mixtures with the oxygen into a smooth layer. Heating time can be
that will enter through the mold vent when increased to promote better flow-out of the
cooling is begun. If autoignition or ignition by plastic; or the oven temperature can be raised
a static spark should occur under these as long as the safe limit is not exceeded.
conditions, the resulting flash fire inside the
molded article would result in a sudden large Bubbles in a molded item are formed by
increase in pressure in the mold. This gases (air or vapor) that are trapped within
sequence of events can lead to mold rupture, the plastic when it melts. If thorough drying
and even to explosion of the mold with of the plastic fails to eliminate the bubbles, a
potentially dangerous force. The possibility of slight reduction in oven temperature, with
such accidents can be minimized by use of consequent slower melting of the plastic, is
rotational molding formulas (not a formula recommended. There is no technique cur-
with a lower-boiling plasticizer), by con- rently known, however, that will ensure
tinuous purging of the mold with inert gas, bubble-free rotationally molded pieces.
7-7
AMCP 706-312
7-4.2.4 Cooling Cycle but molds with hard, nonporous surfaces

frequently will give parts with better appear-
Generally, cellulosics are cooled first in a ance. There is a tendency for pores in cast
water-spray. Like the heating time, the aluminum to trap air, which will expand after
required cooling time varies with the size and the plastic melts and seals over it; the result is
weight of the article. A 1/8 in. thick light air bubbles in the surface of the molded
globe required about 5 min of water spray4. article. These bubbles are particularly notice-
When spraying is discontinued, the still-warm able when the plastic is transparent.
mold is dried by forced air. The mold then
can be opened and the molded items are Molds should be vented. Flexible polyfluor-
ready for removal. Adequate cooling is ocarbon tubing is excellent for this purpose.
necessary if the molded article is to be A vent area of 0.25 in.2 for each cubic foot of
removed easily from the mold. The mold is mold volume (ca. 6 mm2 per liter of mold
cooled sufficiently when it is no longer volume) is usually adequate4.
uncomfortably hot to the touch.
Water entering the vent or the junction of 7-4.5 PROPERTIES

the mold sections may spot transparent
plastic or cause bubbles to form in the wall of Some of the properties of cellulosics are
the molded piece. If this becomes a problem, given in Table 7-3.
the water spray can be omitted and the mold
cooled with forced air.
7-5 FLUOROCARBONS
7-4.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS Ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene (E-CTFE)

is a copolymer of ethylene and monochlor-
Before a mold is charged with plastic, its otrifluorethylene in a special powder form.
inside surfaces must be clean. If initial trials "Halar"® resin 5002 combines the high-
show that the molded item is difficult to performance properties of fluoropolymers
remove from the mold, the mold may be with the processing ease of rotomolding. This
treated with a mold-release agent. These are fluoropolymer is highly resistant to chemical
generally silicone compounds, and two types attack and stress cracking in organic, mineral,
are available—sprays that must be used every and oxidizing acids, bases, salts, and per-
few moldings, and longer-lasting, baked-on oxides. It has low permeability, and there is
finishes that will be effective for several days no known organic solvent for it up to 250°F.
of normal operation. Some mold-release
agents used specifically for rotational molding
are obtainable from Fre-Kote, Inc., 2300 N. 7-5.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS
Emerson Avenue, Indianapolis, Ind. 46218;
Orb Industries, Inc., P. O. Box 544T, Media, Halar® 5002 is supplied as a free-flowing
Pa. 19063; Specialty Products, Inc., 15 powder having a bulk density of 40 lb/ft3.
Exchange Place, Jersey City, N.J. 07302;and Resin requirements may be calculated on the
Stauffer Chemical, 299 Park Avenue, New basis of 0.009 lb of Halar® E-CTFE per
York, N.Y. 10107. square foot of surface area per 0.001 in. of
wall thickness.
7-4.4 PROCESS EQUIPMENT The supplier is Allied Chemical Corp., P.O.

Box 2365R, Morristown, N.J. 07960. Ap-
Cast aluminum molds frequently are used, proximate cost per pound is:
7-8
AMCP 706-312
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AMCP 706-312
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7-10
AMCP 706 312
10- 100- 2,000 confirm the integrity of moldings. Some

99 1,999 lb & examples of typical Halar® polymer heating
Type lb lb Over cycles are shown in Table 7-45.
5001 (Rotomolding, Table 7-5 lists conditions that have been

coarse) $7.40 $7.20 $7.00 used to rotoline valves and fittings with
5002 (Rotomolding, E-CTFE resin. Similar conditions can be used
fine) $7.65 $7.45 $7.25 effectively as starting conditions for establish-
ing other cycle conditions. Cycles times are
7-5.2 PROCESS VARIABLES slightly longer when using PTFE end caps,
inasmuch as PTFE is a thermal insulator.
7-5.2.1 Drying Cycle Rotolining is a technique for lining hollow
metal objects with thermoplastic resins. It is
Halar® E-CTFE is not hygroscopic and essentially identical with rotomolding except:
need not be dried prior to rotomolding. (1) the object acts as the mold, and (2) the
thermoplastic is not removed from the
7-5.2.2 Heating Cycle "mold", but remains an integral coating
within the metal part. Parts that lend
Oven temperatures ranging between 540° themselves to rotolining include tanks,
and 675°F have been successfully employed ductwork, pipe, valves, T's, Y's, crosses, and
in rotomolding Halar® E-CTFE. Tempera- reducers.
tures in the 550°-600°F range are recom-
mended because temperatures above 610°F 7-5.2.3 Cooling Cycle
tend to cause small surface bubbles.
Halar® resin crystallizes at a rapid rate and
Cycle time must be determined experi- to a high degree of crystallinity on cooling.
mentally for each part. To determine For this reason, Halar® may be cooled rapidly
optimum cycle, it is recommended that cycle with water after only a brief 1-2 min air fan
times be approached from the short side and cool without exhibiting marked distortion5.
increased until complete flow-out is achieved. Cooling cycles of 1 to 2 min fan cool, 4 to 8
Specific gravity and tensile property measure- min water spray, and 1 to 3 min fan dry are
ments are excellent quality control checks to satisfactory for cooling 2- to 4-in. cast-
TABLE 7-4
EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL HALAR®HEATING CYCLES
WALL OVEN
PART MOLD THICKNESS, in. TEMP/F TIME, min
Hair dryer case 1/4 in. aluminum 0.075 600 13

18 in.X 4 in.X 6 in. tank 1/16 in. sheet metal 1/16 565 14
6 in. spherical globes 1/4 in. cast aluminum 1/8 565 14
2 in. pipe T 1/2 in. cast ductile iron 0.140 600 25
7-11
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7 5
SUGGESTED ROTOLINING STARTING CONDITIONS«6
END CAP SHOT WEIGHT OVEN TEMP, ROTATION

PART MATERIALS (1/8-in. LINER), g TIME, minb °F RATIO
2-in. pipe'T' Al or steel 19-20 24-30 600-620 4:1 or 8:1

TFE 13-14 27 33 600-620 4:1 or 8:1
2-in. 90 deg Al or steel 12-14 23-28 600-620 8:1c
long-radius 'L' TFE 8-9 26-30 600-620 8:1c
TFE 8-9 24-25 640 8:1c
1Vi-2in.
diaphragm valve A) or steel 8/12-13 25-29 600-620 4:1 or 8:1
4-in. pipe T' TFE 5/9-10 29-33 600-620 4:1 or 8:1
TFE 40-48 44-48 620 4:1 or 8:1
TFE 40-48 35-40 675 4:1 or 8:1
4-in. 90 deg
long-radius 'L' TFE 24-26 44-48 620 620 8:1c
a. Suggested on the basis of experimental data with McNeil Corp. rotomolding machines. In theory, shorter cycles can be obtained
by heating precharged castings at 700° to 800°F to raise casting temperature rapidly to 450° to 500°F then reducing oven
temperature to about 550° F to effect fusion and flowout.
b. Time will vary with machine due to differences in temperature calibration and heating response rate.
c. Mounted horizontally.
Reprinted by permission of Modern Plastics Magazine, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
ings. There has been no evidence of prop- steel which has been hard chrome plated and
erty variation during such cooling cycles6. the plating tested and found to be free of
pinholes. It is especially important to prevent
7-5.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS contact of the melt with copper alloys and
unprotected tool steel as such contact will
Bake-on silicone or fluorocarbon mold reduce the melt stability of the resin. Venting
release agents can be used if part sticking is a of molds is recommended.
problem. However, mold release must be used
sparingly as excessive mold release tends to End caps are used to seal the ends of
cause premature release from the wall during rotolined castings. Caps made from spun steel,
cooling, resulting in part warpage5. machined steel, aluminum, and 1 in. thick
PTFE have been employed successfully. To
7-5.4 PROCESS EQUIPMENT permit resin to flow onto flange faces, end
caps must have a raised or machined-out
Conventional rotational molds such as section approximately 5/8 in. deep, with a
plaster-cast aluminum types are used with diameter 1/8 in. less than the interior of
Halar® 5002, but generously radiused corners bolt-hole-circle diameter.
in excess of 0.5 in. are recommended to
produce smooth surfaces of uniform The PTFE end caps have the additional
thickness. advantage of reducing resin requirements and
minimizing post finishing operations, since
All surfaces in contact with hot E-CTFE resin will not adhere to PTFE. A I /4-in.
must be made of corrosion resistant materials aluminum plate on top of the cap
such as "Xaloy" 306, B.C.I. N02, Duranickel, minimizes warpage and prolongs its useful
Hastelloy C, 303 or 416 stainless steels, or life. Metal end caps should be coated
7-12
AMCP 706-312
with a bake-on mold release to enable has a peak particle size distribution of from
removal of the cap. 25 to 40 mesh. Particle shape is as important
as the correct particle size for the production
One end cap should be vented to reduce of quality parts. The optimum shape, i.e.,
pressure buildup during heating, and to regular spheres or cubes with no tails, is only
permit the entry of air upon cooling6. attainable when the grinding process is
carefully monitored and controlled.
7-5.5 PROPERTIES
Melt blending in an extruder gives the best
Typical properties of Halar® 5002 are dispersion of pigments or filler materials.
shown in Table 7-6. Certain pigments such as carbon black and
titanium dioxide (white) are very hard to
7-6 IONOMER disperse by dry blending. Low pigment
loadings (less than 0.1 percent by weight) of
The ionomer resins possess superior impact color pigments can be made successfully.
strength, especially at sub-zero temperatures. Higher pigment loadings (more than 0.25
Abrasion resistance and absence of plasticizer percent by weight) can coat the resin particles
make ionomers unique thermoplastic and result in poor particle fusion and
materials for rotational molding process. consequent loss of impact strength.
7-6.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS Ionomers lend themselves to in-place

foaming. This foaming is accomplished by dry
Surlyn® Al 558 is a rotational molding blending a small amount (one to two percent
ionomer. This resin offers superior impact by weight) of a dry foaming agent with the
strength retention at low temperatures, easy ionomer powder before placing it in the mold.
processability, and is easy to grind. Sodium bicarbonate and 'Celogen'* AZ seem
to be the most successful blowing agents that
A 35-mesh grind has proven to be too fine have been tested. With one to two percent by
for ionomers. The most successful parts have
been made with a nominal mesh grind that *Uniroyal Corp. costs are approximately $0.50 per lb.
TABLE 7-6
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF HALAR® 5002 ROTOMOLDINGS5
PROPERTY UNITS TEST METHOD VALUES
PHYSICAL
Bulk Density lb/ft3 ASTM D 1895 40
Specific Gravity - ASTM D 792 1.69
Melting Point °F DSC 465
DTUL at 264 psi stress °F ASTM D 648 170
Brittleness Temperature °F ASTM D 746 <-110
Op-l
Thermal Expansion ASTM D 696 14 X 10"5
Thermal Conductivity Btu/hr-ft2-(°F/ft) - 1.1
Radiation Resistance rad — Retains Useful
Properties to 109 rad
Mold Shrinkage in./in.-°F - 0.01
7-13
AMCP 706-312
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF HALAR® 5002 ROTOMOLDINGS5
PROPERTY UNITS TEST METHOD VALUES
MECHANICAL
Tensile Strength at psi ASTM D 1708
Yield 4200
Break 6000
Elongation at % ASTM D 1708
Yield 5
Break 200
Flex Modulus psi ASTM D 790 240,000
Tensile Creep Modulus psi ASTM D 674 90,000
at 1500 psi stress,
250 hr
Notched Izod Impact
Strength ft-lb/in"1 ASTM D 256
at 73°F No Break
at-40°F 2-3
Drop Weight Impact ft-lb Tup A of
Strength ASTM D 2444
at73°F 4 in. dia,90mil thick >140
at-85°F sheet on 3 in. ID support 65
Hardness Rockwell R ASTM D 785 93
Armstrong Abrasion Vol loss, cm ASTM D 1242 0.3
Method B
FLAMMABILITY
Limiting Oxygen Index %0, ASTM D 2863 60

U.L. Vertical, 0.01 in. Bulletin 94 Meets SE-0
Federal Standard
ccc-T-19lb-5903
Flame-out time sec 0
Burn length in. 2.7
ELECTRICAL
Dielectric Constant/ ASTM D150
Dissipation Factor
at 60 Hz 2.6/0.0009
at 1 kHz 2.6/0.003
at 1 MHz 2.5/0.01
Dielectric Strength V/mil ASTM D 149
Short Time
0.125 in. 490
0.040 in. 1000
0.010 in. 2000
Volume Resistivity ohm-cm ASTM D 257 >1015
7-14
AMCP 706-312
weight of these blowing agents added to the min at 525°F (274°C) (Ref. 7).
resin in the mold, part densities of 1 5 to 20
lb/ft3 are attainable. At the end of the cycle, 7-6.2.3 Cooling Cycle
foamed parts with excellent rigidity and high
impact strength are extracted from the mold. lonomers are less sensitive to cooling rate
changes than HDPE and can be cooled more
The resin supplier is E. I. du Pont de slowly without losing toughness. This slower
Nemours & Co., Inc., Wilmington, Del. cooling can be obtained with a medium water
Surlyn® Al 558 is approximately $0.49 per spray. The advantage of this cooling rate is
lb. reduced part warpage. Slow cooling with air is
unnecessary.
7-6.2 PROCESS VARIABLES
7-6.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS
7-6.2.1 Drying Cycle
Severe part sticking in the mold occurs
lonomers are hygroscopic. Grinding these when fJuorocarbon spray mold release agents
resins greatly increases the surface area are used. A wipe on-wipe off silicone oil is
available for moisture pick-up. Therefore, recommended. It usually is applied before
ground hydroscopic resins will pick up each shot.
moisture more rapidly than the same resins in
normal pellet form. Additives, such as carbon 7-6.4 PROCESS EQUIPMENT
black, can also increase the rate at which
moisture is picked up. The moisture can The molds suggested for rotational molding
vaporize during molding and create bubbles ionomers are the standard cast aluminum,
and pitting of the part surface. If possible, the spun aluminum, electro-formed nickel plated,
resin should be stored in a low humidity and fabricated sheet steel used for HDPE.
environment and containers of resin should be Since surface detail of the mold is duplicated
kept closed. Overnight drying in a accurately on the outer surface of the
dehumidified oven at 50°C will eliminate ionomer part, a polished mold is required to
most of the moisture. produce a very smooth part. The most
important factor in reducing the bubble count
7-6.2.2 Heating Cycle in an ionomer molding is the surface finish of
the mold. The use of a polished nickel mold
The oven cycle time and temperature are greatly reduced the number of bubbles when
similar to the oven cycle used for HDPE. compared to moldings made in a cast
Using these settings as a starting point, the aluminum mold. Small pores in the aluminum
cycle can be established accurately with a few surface apparently trap air that in turn forms
trial moldings. Oven residence time should be bubbles in the part which are nearly
kept to a minimum after a smooth inner wall impossible to drive out. The nickel surface is
of the molded part is attained. A yellow or so smooth that very little air is trapped which
light brown tint in the corners or along the accounts for the relatively few bubbles in the
parting line indicates excessive oven time part. The mold should be vented. This venting
and/or temperature. Oven air temperature will prevent the part from collapsing as the
should be around 700°-850°F (370°-455°C) hot air trapped inside contracts upon
to minimize induction time. The optimum cooling7.
oven cycle for foaming is longer and cooler
than a regular part. A 120-mil wall requires 10 7-6.5 PROPERTIES
min at 700°F (371°C); a foamed part using
the same weight of resin requires about 15 Typical properties are listed in Table 7-7.
7-15
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-7 7-7.2 NYLON 11
TYPICAL IONOMER PROPERTIES To date nylon 11 has the widest acceptance

ASTM of the commercial grades of nylon for
TEST TEST rotational molding. This is due to its lower
PROPERTIES METHOD DATA gravity 1.04, 40°F lower cold impact, low
moisture sensitivity, improved chemical
Melt index, g/10min D 1238 5.0 resistance, and lower melting point facilitating
Mold shrinkage, in./in. D955 ease and speed of processing.
Specific gravity D972 0.935
Water absorption, % D570
Tensile strength, kpsi D638 2.4
Flex modulus, kpsi 32.0
7-7.2.1 Raw Material Parameters
Tensile impact, ft-lb/in.1
at73°F 141
atO°F 56 Rilsan GSMR nylon 11 is supplied as a
ground powder and is available only in natural
color. However, it is possible for the molder
7-7 NYLONS to introduce suitable colorants, and items
rotationally molded from Rilsan GSMR can
In comparison with other thermoplastics, be dyed.
the nylons offer superior strength, toughness,
low temperature resistance, solvent resistance, The particle size of GSMR has been
and low permeability of hydrocarbons. To tailored to give rapid, uniform melting of the
date, three nylons nylon 6, 11, and 12—are particles. The particle size distribution
rotomolded commercially. includes:
7-7.1 NYLON 6 1. 10%of particles larger than 300/i
Nylon 6 is more moisture sensitive and 2. 10% of particles smaller than 100 ju.
more subject to yellowing than nylons 11 and
12. Nylon 6 also may require an inert gas These values can be taken only as an
atmosphere during processing to avoid approximate guide since the particles tend to
embrittlement. Parts when removed from be irregular rather than spherical in shape.
molds are normally bone dry and very brittle.
One of the specific properties of GSMR,
7-7.1.1 Raw Material Parameters and of Rilsan, is its low moisture regain. This
is particularly important in the volume-
A 35-mesh particle size is recommended. surface relation of the particles. The
Costs are approximately $ 1.00 per lb. low moisture regain stops the formation of
steam bubbles that might appear during
7-7.1.2 Process Variables processing.
Predrying nylon 6 is not required. Oven Nylons are known for their susceptibility
temperatures in the 500°-600°F range have to oxidation. GSMR has been modified by the
been successful, depending on part and mold inclusion of an additive that protects it
variables. Oven cycle times of approximately against oxidative degradation during the
30 min have been reported. Cooling has been molding cycle. Therefore, it is not necessary
accomplished by combination of air followed to use an inert gas (nitrogen), which involves
by 5-min water spray. Release agents are more costly and complex equipment. The
required8. Presently there are no nylon 6 supplier is the Rilsan Corporation, 139
powder suppliers. Harristown Road, Glen Rock, New Jersey
7-16
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-8
SHRINKAGE ASSOCIATED WITH HEATING OF GSMR
SHRINKAGE, %
WEIGHT OF AVERAGE HEATING TIME

GSMR, g THICKNESS, mm AT 280°C DIAMETER HEIGHT
120 1.9 7' 30" 2.7 1.8

135 2.1 7' 40" 2.8 2
150 2.4 8' 2.9 2.1
200 3 9' 30" 2.9 2.15
07452. Costs of nylon 11 are approximately 7-72.2.3 Cooling Cycle

$1.60 per lb.
Cooling is effected by water spray
7-7.2.2 Process Variables (approximately 3 min) on the mold during
rotation until the material solidifies.
7-7.2.2.1 Drying Cycle
None. 7-7.2.3 Mold Release Agents
7-7.2.2.2 Heating Cycle In order to extract the molding from the

mold more readily it is advisable to spray the
Oven temperatures for GSMR range inside of the mold with a thermosettLng resin;
between 536°F (280°C) and 572°F (300°C) examples are:
for an acceptable item. The duration of
heating is a function of the temperature 1. A2 resin, marketed by Etablissements
selected, the thickness of the plastic wall, and ROBERT, 6, rue de Vemeuil, Paris (7e);
the mold, and is finally determined during the
preliminary tests. The chosen time will be 2. 4673 resin, made by RHONE-
slightly higher than that necessary to make POULENC.
the last fragments of GSMR powder adhere to
the already melted product (usually 2 to 10 3. DP 290 resin obtainable from I.C.I.
min). polymerizes at ambient temperature.
The heating time, as a function of the Resins A2 and 4673 must be baked at
weight of powder introduced into the mold, 140°C for about 30 min.
and the shrinkage of the pieces 24 hr after
molding, are shown in Table 7-81 °. The inside of the mold must be polished
and free from porosity. Silicone-based release
Figs. 7-4 and 7-5 plot the heating time agents also can be sprayed on the walls of the
versus wall thickness and oven temperature. mold to assist mold release.
7-17
AMCP 706-312
STEEL MOLD, 4 mm THICK

MOLD HEATED BY HOT AIR
2 3 4 9 6 7
THICKNESS OF THE WALL IN GSMR, mm
Figure 7-4. Heating Time as a Function of Required Thickness of GSMR1 °
E
UJ
STEEL MOLD, 4nun THICK
Z THICKNESS OF GSMR. 2.2 mm
I- 10-
o
z
5
_L_
200 290 300 340
OVEN TEMPERATURE ,*£
Figure 7-5. Heating Time as a Function of Oven Temperature i °
7-18
AMCP 706-312
7-7.2.4 Properties 7-7.3.2.2 Heating Cycle
Table 7-9 presents the typical properties of Heating temperatures of 550°-750°F are
Rilsan GSMR. recommended if hot air convection ovens are
used. Mold rotation speeds will vary according
Rilsan GSMR has the same advantages as to the design and size of the article being
other nylons with regard to chemical molded. For small hollow objects without
inertness. Rilsan GSMR has good resistance to narrow projections, 10 to 12 rpm about the
bases and saline solutions, to sea water and major axis and 2-3 rpm about the minor axis
coastal atmospheric conditions, and to oils, should be satisfactory9.
greases, and petroleum products. Its resistance
to mineral and organic acids varies in each Inert gas purging of the mold is not
case, so it is advisable to carry out tests under necessary for rotational molding of the
practical working conditions when possible. specially heat-stabilized type 1640 powder,
but should be used for unstabilized types to
The degree of shrinkage is a function of the avoid any embrittlement that may occur on
geometric shape of the piece (strengthening the inside surface of the object.
ribs) and of the cooling time. An item will
shrink 3 percent or more if it is cooled in the 7-7,3.3 Mold Release Agents
air or if the high calorific capacity of the
mold leads to slow cooling. Mold release agents, preferably of silicone
or fluorocarbon type, must be used. Molds
7-7.3 NYLON 12 that previously have been used for molding
vinyls may require special cleaning by
Nylon 12 combines the typical properties sandblasting or hand scrubbing with pumice
of nylon such as good mechanical and impact and water9.
strength, high resistance to abrasion and to
chemical and solvent attack, with properties 7-7.3.4 Equipment
similar to polyolefins. These properties
include low water absorption (lowest water Inexpensive split molds made of cast
absorption of all commercial nylons), low aluminum or electroformed copper-nickel are
density, and excellent low-temperature recommended for small or intermediate size
flexibility (no embrittlement to -110°F). articles; sheet steel, for large articles.
They show a slow increase in the melt index
with increasing temperature and, therefore, 7-7.3.5 Properties
easy processing characteristics.
Table 7-10 presents the typical properties
7-7.3.1 Raw Material Parameters of nylon 12.
A supplier of nylon 12 is the Allied 7-8 POLYBUTYLENE

Chemical Company, P.O. Box 365,
Morristown, N.J. 07960. The cost is This material is a flexible, crystalline,
approximately $ 1.60 per lb. stereo regular polyolefin having a density of
0.91 and offering a unique combination of
7-7.3.2 Processing Variables properties. Some of its important
characteristics include: exceptional resistance
7-7.3.2.1 Drying Cycle to environmental and mechanical stress
cracking, creep or cold flow, good toughness,
None. high permissible working temperature (225°F
7-19
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-9
TYPICAL RILSAN GSMRO PROPERTIES10
ASTM
PROPERTY UNITS METHOD GSMRO
Specific Gravity D792 1.04
Water Absorption % immersion 24 hr/73 F D570 0.3

65% RHsaturation/73°F — 1.1
Tensile Strength - 40° F

+ 68° F kpsi D638 7.5
+ 176°F
Elongation - 40° F
+ 68° F % D638 150
+ 176°F
Impact Strength - 40° F ft-lb/iin. of notch D256

+ 68° F
Cold
BrittlenessTemp. °F D746 -94
Taber Abrasion
C17 wheel, 1000 q wt mg/1000 cycles D 1044 5
Hardness — Rockwell RScale/75°F/65%RH D785 108
Flexural Modulus — 40°F 1.92

+ 68°F psiX 10s D790 1.42
+ 176°F 0.27
Compressive Strength kpsi D695 10.0
Deflection 66 psi °F D648 302

Temperature 264 psi 131
Melting Point Range D2117 367-383
Linear Expansion
Coefficient - 22° + 104°F io-s/°c 15
+ 104° +248° F D696 15
Specific Heat cal/g-°C 0.47
Thermal Conductivity 10"4 cal/sec-cm2-(°C/cm) 8
Flammability in./min D635 self-extin-

guishing
Volume Resistivity ohm-cm D257 7.8X 1013

68°F/65%RH
7-20
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-9 {Continued)
TYPICAL RILSAN GSMRO PROPERTIES10
ASTM
PROPERTY UNITS METHOD GSMRO
Dielectric 100 cycles 3.9

Constant 103 D 150 3.7
106 3.1
Power Factor 100 cycles 0.044

103 D 150 0.045
104 0.042
Dielectric Strength V/mil (dry) D149 425

Short Time
Characteristics For Rotational

Molding
Available in
Colors
softening temperature), good stiffness, and to retain the optimum properties when long
low density. Polybutylene also provides cycle times and high temperatures are
excellent electrical insulation properties and encountered.
resistance to most chemical environments.
7-8.2.2 Cooling Cycle
7-8.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS
The cooling cycle consists of a 1-min delay
A particle size distribution in the range in air followed by a 5-min water cooling
25-200 mesh is recommended11. The supplier period. Since part shrinkage is not a major
is Witco Chemical Corporation, Polymer problem with polybutylene, rapid cooling
Division, P.O. Box 305, Paramus, N.J. 07652. rates can be used and are desirable in order
The cost for polybutylene rotomolding resins that the molded part possesses the maximum
is approximately $0.43-0.45 per lb in impact strength.
truckload quantities.
7-8.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS
7-8-2 PROCESSING VARIABLES
Polybutylene does not exhibit any
7-8.2.1 Heating Cycle appreciable shrinkage immediately after
molding. This necessitates the use of a mold
Oven temperatures in the range release agent. Satisfactory results have been
500°-650°F with a 1/8 in. thick aluminum obtained using a wide variety of spray-on type
mold for part thickness 0.75-0.300 in. have release agents, e.g., a fluorocarbon type.
given satisfactory results. Fig. 7-6 presents
molding time versus part thickness at four 7-8.4 PROPERTIES
oven temperatures.
Polybutylene posses a unique character-
Although venting is not required, the istic in that it is relative soft and
introduction of an inert gas is recommended flexible immediately after molding. Hardness,
7-21
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-10
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF NYLON 129
(A) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
STANDARD1
3
PROPERTY TEST METHOD UNIT TYPES
Density ASTM D 792 g/cm3 1.01-1,02

lb/ft3 62.9-63.5
Bulk Density ASTM D1895 g/cm3 0.58-0.60
lb/ft3 36.2-37.5
Bulk Factor ASTM D1895 - 1.7-1.8
Melting Range ASTM D2117 °C 175-180
°F 347-356
Water Absorption ASTM D 570
Immersion in Water
at 23°C, 24 hours % 0.25
Long Term % 1.4
Impact Strength ASTM D 256
Method A ft-lb/in. 2-5.5
Flexural Stress ASTM D 790 psi 6800-7100
(at 5% strain)
Flexural Modulus ASTM Ö 790 psi 170,000-180,000
Tensile Stress at Yield ASTM D 17D8 psi 7000-7900
Elongation at Yield ASTM D 1708 % 8-9
Tensile Strength at Break ASTMD 1708 psi 6500-7400
Elongation at Break ASTM D 1708 % 220-280
Rockwell Hardness ASTM D 7852 — R 106
M31
Cold Impact Drop Weight °F Rupture at
200 g from 200 mm
height. Test speci- <-94
men at 0.5 mm
Dimensional {ASTM D 1525) °C 160-168
Stability Under Heat (Measured in oil) °F 320-325
(Vicat)
Thermal Conductivity ASTM C 177 cal/sec-cm2 -(°C/cm) 5.3 X 10"4
1
Coefficient of Linear Expansion ASTM D 696 "c- 1.04 X 10"4
Flammability ASTM D 635 Self-extinguishing
types 1600-1801;
Burning types
1901-2101
Deflection Temperature ASTM D 648 °C 49-55
°F 120-131
(B) ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Insulation Resistance ASTM D 257 ohm 2.5 X 10"J

Volume Resistivity ASTM D 257 ohm-cm 2.5 X 1015
Surface Resistivity ASTM D 257 ohm 1.7 X 1015
7-22
AMCP 706-312
(B) ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

STANDARD1
PROPERTY3 TEST METHOD UNIT TYPES
Dielectric Strength ASTM D 149 V/mil 452

(Short-time) V/mil 4074
ASTM D149 V/mil 409
(Step-by-step) V/mil 3644
Dielectric Constant ASTMD 150

60 cycles1 4.17
103 cycles1 3.82
106 cycles1 3.14
60 cycles2 4.41
103 cycles2 3.98
106 cycles2 3.18
Dissipation Factor ASTM D 150

60 cycles1 0.0422
103 cycles1 0.054
106 cycles' 0.0273
60 cycles' 0.0475
103 cycles2 0.0536
106 cycles2 0.0305
Arc Resistance ASTM D 495 sec 1091

(failure by
melting)
(C) CHEMICAL RESISTANCE PROPERTIES

PERCENTAGE INCREASE IN
(ASTM D 543)
TEMP, THICK- DIAM-

CHEMICAL5 °F WEIGHT NESS ETER
ASTM Fuel B 73 0.35 0.80 0.14

Carbon Tetrachloride 73 0.37 0.80 None
Ethyl Alcohol (50%) 73 1.48 0.79 0.26
Ethyl Alcohol (95%) 73 2.65 1.88 0.24
Ethylene Dichloride 73 1.80 0.81 0.15
2-Ethylhexyl Sebacate 73 -0.03 None 0.05
2-Ethylhexyl Sebacate 302 2.17 1.1 0.4
Gasoline (regular) 73 0.25 None 0.11
Hydrochloric acid (10%) 73 0.37 0.81 0.05
Isooctane 73 0.11 None -0.05
Kerosene 73 0.10 None None
Sodium Carbonate (10%) 73 0.39 0.55 0.05
Sodium Chloride (10%) 73 0.42 None 0.05
7-23
AMCP 706-312

(C) CHEMICAL RESISTANCE PROPERTIES
PERCENTAGE INCREASE IN
(ASTM D 543)
TEMP, THICK- DIAM-
CHEMICAL5 °F WEIGHT NESS ETER
Sodium Hydroxide (10%) 73 0.42 None None
Sulfuric Acid (3%) 73 0.44 None 0.05
Toluene 73 0.70 0.80 0.05
Transformer oil 73 0.07 None 0.05
Transformer oil 158 0.14 None 0.05
Trichloroethylene 73 4.20 2.2 0.19
Water, Distilled 73 0.46 None None
Water, Distilled 158 1.47 None 0.29
1
Standard Types L1600, L1700, L1700M, L1801, L1801F, L1901, L1901F, L2101, L2101F
* Long Term Immersion at 20° C
3
All samples conditioned by Procedure A, ASTM D 618 (40 hr at 73.4°F and 50% RH1
4
Conditioned by Procedure D, ASTM D 618 (24 hr immersion in water at 73.4°F)
'Two-inch diameter discs of nylon 12 (Type L1801) were immersed in several typical solvents and chemicals for 168 hr at the
temperatures indicated. They were wiped dry and measurements were made on weight and dimensional changes.
stiffness, and density increase over a period of precautions have limited the use of this
5-7 days, at which time it attains its ultimate material in rotational molding. The powder
properties. As a result of this change, must be absolutely dry before molding, and
polybutylene exhibits excellent creep resis- the use of a nitrogen atmosphere is necessary.
tance and possesses excellent environmental
and mechanical stress crack resistance. Shrink- 7-9.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS
age accompanies the change in crystallinity as
shown in Table 7-11. This shrinkage is Generally a -35 mesh particle size is used.
predictable and can be taken into con- However, some evidence indicates that mesh
sideration when designing close tolerance sizes smaller than -35 promote better mold
parts1'. definition, but such finer grinds can be
Typical tensile properties for a 75-mil

polybutylene rotomolded part are
TABLE 7-11
Elon-
Tensile Yield Break ga- Dens-
Modulus Strength Strength tion ity MI PERCENT CHANGE IN LINEAR DIMENSIONS
OF A ROTOMOLDED PB-1 SAMPLE1'
PB-630 37,200 psi 2270 psi 3000 psi 314% O.902 20.4
PART
Typical property data are presented in TIME, MOLDING THICKNESS,
Tables 7-12, 7-13, 7-14, and Fig. 7-7. DAYS L,% CONDITIONS in.
0 0 600°F 15-1-5 min 0.250

7-9 POLYCARBONATE
3 0.61 600°F 15-1-5 min 0.250
4 0.79 600°F 15-1-5 min 0.250
Polycarbonate is transparent and tough, has 5 1.19 600° F 15-1-5 min 0.250
good rigidity, and has high temperature 6 1.49 600°F 15-1-5 min 0.250
resistance compared to many thermoplastics. 7 1.68 600°F 15-1-5 min 0.250
The higher resin costs and special processing 11 1.86 600°F 15-1-5 min 0.250
7-24
AMCP 706-312
S
85
§
—
8 5
g
.o
8(75 \6
o
QC
in
• *-■
Q UJ OQ
s 2 CL
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7-25
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-12
TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MOBIL POLYBUTYLENE,

ROTATIONAL MOLDING GRADE1'
(Compression Molded Specimens — Conditioned 10 Days at 23°C, 50% Relative Humidity)
STANDARD
ASTM METHOD UNIT TYPES
Density D1505-63T g/cm3 0.91

Melt Index D1238-57T - 20
Yield Strength D638-66T psi 1900-2200
(DieC, 20in./min)
Tensile Strength D638-66T psi 4200
Percent Elongation at Break D638-66T % 360
Modulus of Elasticity D638-66T psi 35000
Izod Impact Strength D256-56 ft-lb/in. No break at 73°F
notch 13at32°F
Melting Point Range - °C 124-126
Softening Point, Vicat D1525-65T °C 113
Brittleness Temperature D746-64T °c -18
Shore Hardness D1706-61 D Scale 53
Environmental Stress Crack D1693-60T - No failures
Resistance
Dielectric Constant D-150 - (2000 + hr)
2.2
Dissipation Power Factor D-150 — 0.0002
TABLE 7-13
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE TESTS, 7-DAY IMMERSION11
PERCENT CHANGE IN
TENSILE YIELD BREAK

REAGENT TEMP., °C MODULUS STRENGTH STRENGTH WEIGHT VOLUME
Cone. HCI 65 - 8.15 + 2.25 - 4.5 0.1 0

Cone. H2S04 65 - 9.9 + 0.75 -16.8 0 0
5% NaCI02 23 + 2.85 + 0.75 - 9.65 0 0
5% NaCIOi 65 -13.7 - 3.75 - 13.2 0 0
25% KOH 23 + 2.2 0 + 2.2 0 0
25% KOH 65 -10.5 - 4.5 -11.3 0 0
#2 fuel oil 23 -44.2 -14.3 - 18.3 + 4.85 + 2.77
7-26
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-14
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF POLYBUTYLENE RESULTS OF

SIX-MONTH EXPOSURE AT 73°F11
WEIGHT APPEARANCE STRENGTH

CHEMICAL CHANGE, % CHANGE CHANGE, %
Acids and Bases

HCI concentrated + 0.1 None + 1
HCI 1% + 0.11 None None
HN03 concentrated + 1.9 Attack -40
HNO3 1% None None None
H3PO4 concentrated None None None
H3P04 1% None None None
H2S04 concentrated + 3.1 Attack
H2S04 1% + 0.1 None None
NaOH 20% None None None
Solvents
Acetone - 0.3 None None
Benzene + 13.5 Swollen -22
Ethanol - 0.3 None None
Ethyl Ether - 6.2 Crazed + 5
Methanol - 0.3 None None
Water None None None
Oils
Com Oil + 0.3 None None
Mineral (White) Oil + 30 Swollen
Olive Oil + 0.3 None None
Peanut Oil + 0.3 None None
Silicone Oil - 0.1 None + 5
#2 Fuel Oil + 4.9
Other Chemicals Tested

Formalin, 36% + 0.4 None None
Hydrogen Peroxide, 3% + 0.2 None None
Igepal, 100% - 0.6 None None
Igepal, 1% - 0.3 None None
produced only at slower rates with propor-

tionately higher grinding costs.
Suppliers are:
1. General Electric Company 12
Resin Designation Description
Lexan® RP 70 General purpose, not UV stabilized
7-27
AMCP 706-312
Resin Designation Description
Lexan® RP703 A general purpose resin with a broad temperature range

(-215° to 270°F).It is light, UV stabilized, and rated SE
11 according to UL Bulletin 94.
Lexan® RP704 Meets Food and Drug Administration approval for food and
beverage container applications.
Lexan® RP7I4 An improved flame resistant grade with all the properties of
standard Lexan resin, plus flame resistance. It is UL rated
SE 1, and rated Class A according to Federal Aeronautics
Administration flame resistance specification 29.853.
2. Mobay Chemical Company 1 3
Melt Flow, Merlon 5300 is recommended as a general purpose grade. It

Merlon g/10 min, has an optimum combination of end-use properties and pro-
Grade ASTMD1238 cessing characteristics, and should be selected for the initial
rotomolding trials when investigating new applications.
5400 12.0 - 24.0
5300 6.0 - 11.9 All grades are available in water-white/transparent colors,
5200 3.0 - 5.9 and grades 5300 and 5200 are supplied in selected opaque
colors. UV stabilizer can be added, and FDA requirements
can be met.
Costs are approximately $ 1.30 per lb.
7-9.2 PROCESS VARIABLES min exposure time of the dry powder to the
atmosphere between oven and machine is
7-9.2.1 Drying Cycle undesirable.
All polycarbonate resins must be predried Hopper dryers are satisfactory if they are
before molding. For example the moisture specially designed for powder drying. Units
content of Lexan® resins should be less than such as the UNA-DYN ® PD line are
0.02 percent. recommended. Hopper dryers used for
pelletized resin are not acceptable12.
Recommended drying conditions for
polycarbonate resins are 2 hr at 250CF in a The rotomolding machine oven can be used
dehumidifying oven equipped with a for drying Merlon powder by placing undried
desiccant bed. The air in the oven should have powder in the mold, in the oven, with the
a dew point of -20°F or lower. For efficient inlet air temperature set at 350°F. The 350°F
drying, the resin should be placed in trays not setting is maintained for 5-7 min, then
more than 1 in. deep1 3. The oven should be increased to the temperature required for the
positioned immediately next to the loading heating cycle1 3.
station of the machine. By pre-weighing the
powder, the time of exposure to the 7-9.2.2 Heating Cycle
atmosphere between oven and rotomolding
machine is held to a minimum. Greater than 1 Quality of the parts is highly dependent on
7-28
AMCP 706-312
100
2200 pai. 25 °C
Q.
UJ 1350 psi .TO*^
in
Ü 1300 psi ,25°C
60S psi,70°C^
_L _L
O0I 0.1 10 100 1000
TIME.hr
Figure 7-7. Creep Behavior of MOBIL Polybuty/ene11
(Note that no significant change occurs
after the initial elongation)
the time-temperature relationship during the weighing 3 lb can be molded at 750°F for 8
cycle. For example, as little as 10 percent min or at 700°F for 10 min. At a temperature
change in shot size without altering time and of 600° F the heating time increases to 14-16
temperature results in parts of significantly min. Parts with 1/8-in. wall sections are best
different appearance. molded at 725°F for 8 to 10 min. Parts with
wall sections under 1/8 in. are best molded at
For a rule-of-thumb, the recommended 725°Ffor 8 min or less12.
time/temperature relationship for start-up is
1 5 min at 725°F. Generally, cycle times will Appearance of the parts will suggest what
vary between 10 and 20 min, and changes, if any, need to be made. A tan
temperatures between 575° and 800°F, with appearance means that the parts have been
rotational speeds of 8-10 rpm. As the oven exposed too long at too high a temperature; a
temperature is reduced, the molding time cloudy appearance or frosty, rough interior
must be increased. Local molding conditions walls indicate that parts have not been
will dictate the optimum time/temperature exposed to temperature long enough1 A.
relationship for a given part. A few trial runs
are usually required before finished parts are 7-9.2.3 Cooling Cycle
produced which meet all design parameters.
Forced air is the primary cooling medium.
Normally, cycle time should be increased at For operating efficiency, however, the length
least 25 percent for each 50-75 deg F of the cooling cycle should be identical to
reduction in temperature from 750CF. For that of the preceding heating cycle and, in the
example, a 15-in diameter spherical ball case of certain parts, a short water spray of at
7-29
AMCP 706-312
least 2-3 min may be desirable at the end of 7-10 POLYETHYLENE HOMOPOLYMERS
the cooling cycle. AND COPOLYMERS
7-9.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS These materials—low- and high-density

polyethylene homopolymers; and
Peninsula Chemical MR-22 bake-on silicone ethylene-butene, ethylene-ethyl-acrylate, and
mold release is recommended, but it requires ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers—are the
refurbishing three or four times in a normal workhorses of rotational molding. They have
month of production. Fre-Kote Chemical's the greatest range of properties and are
Fre-Kote 33 also offers excellent results. processed easily with good flow down to a
When using an aerosol release, enough time melt index of 0.8. High-density polyethylene
must be allowed for the solvent carrier to possesses greater strength and rigidity than
flashoff the mold surface and out of the low density, but it is also more prone to
cavity. The standard releases approved for use distortion and warpage in molding. Internal
with Lexan® resin are: GE SR475, Dow cooling is necessary when large flat sections
Corning 230, Zip S-100, and Ram GS-312. are present in high-density parts.
Steel molds with a generous draft of about 5 Glass-reinforced low-density polyethylene is
deg require no mold release14. also suitable for rotational molding. The
glass-containing molded articles approach the
7-9.4 EQUIPMENT rigidity of high-density polyethylene while
essentially maintaining the easy moldability
In general, the higher the quality of the of low-density polyethylene.
mold, the better the part. Machined nickel
and aluminum are the preferred mold The ethylene copolymers offer improved
materials, although cast nickel and aluminum flexibility and resilience over a wide
also have been used effectively. The interior temperature range and exhibit high impact
surface must be scrupulously clean and highly strength even at very low temperatures.
polished to avoid porous molds. Allow
generous drafts of at least 3 deg, and corners 7-10.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS
where the inside radius is less than 0.2 in.
should be avoided12 'i4. A 35-mesh particle size is generally
satisfactory for both high and low density
All molds should be designed with polyethylene homopolymers and copolymers.
connections permitting purging during the However, they are offered with a variety of
oven and cooling cycles. Molds must be well combinations and wide ranges of melt
fitted and constructed so that the mold can indexes, densities, and particle sizes. The
be clamped vapor tight around the joining effects of melt index and density on the
surface at the loading station. Also, machine end-product properties and processability are
arms should be drilled to permit an inert gas quite critical for rotational molding, whereas
purge of the mold while maintaining about 20 those of particle size are considerably less.
psig internal mold pressure. Dry nitrogen is Some of the effects are given in Table 7-17.
suitable as a pressurizing purging medium, and
the equipment should include a small The flexible ethylene copolymers differ
rotometer to measure the flow of gas through distinctly from ethylene homopolymers in the
the mold14. relationship of density to stiffness modulus.
The stiffness of copolymers decreases as the
7-9.5 PROPERTIES density increases (see Table 7-17).
Tables 7-15 and 7-16 present some typical Chopped strand fiber glass, preferably 1 /8
property data for polycarbonate in. in length, can be used with higher melt
resins. index, low-density polyethylene resins in the
7-30
AMCP 706-312
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7-31
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-16 TABLE 7-17
PROPERTIES OF MERLON 5300 EFFECT OF INCREASES IN MELT INDEX

POLYCARBONATE RESIN13 AND DENSITY OF POLYETHYLENE
POWDER ON PROPERTIES15
ASTM
PROPERTY METHOD VALUES MELT
INDEX DENSITY
Specific Gravity D792 1.2 INCREASE INCREASE
Tensile Strength: D638
Yield 8000-9500 psi Melting point decreases increases
Ultimate 9000-11,500 psi Flow increases
Elongation: D638 Impact strength decreases decreases
Yield 7-9% Stiffness increases
Ultimate 100-130% Vicat softening
Flexural Modulus D790 3.2-3.5 X 10s psi temperature decreases increases
Impact Strength, D256 12-17 ft-lb/in. Resistance to low-
Notched Izod, temperature
1/8-in. Specimen brittleness decreases decreases
Heat Distortion D648 265°-285°F Barrier properties increase
Temp/264 psi
Light Transmission D1003 85-88%
Flame Resistance D635 Self-extinguishing
Temperature Use
Range -150°to+250°F
the glass strands to "lay-over" into the molten

rotational molding process. Satisfactory polymer and be covered sufficiently to
moldings can be produced at about 8 percent present a smooth, uniform interior surface.
glass in complex molds, and up to 15 percent The lower melt index and higher density
glass in simple molds. Predispersion of the resins do not exhibit this ability16.
glass in the polyethylene powder is necessary «
to achieve maximum interior surface Table 7-18 shows the effect of glass lengths
smoothness. The higher melt index resins on interior wall surface and mold fill out in a
provide lower melt viscosity and some degree complex mold with PEP-400 polyethylene
of flow during the molding cycle. This allows (0.924 density, 27 melt index).
TABLE 7-18
EFFECT OF GLASS LENGTH AND LOADING ON ROTATIONAL MOLDING16
INTERIOR WALL SURFACE MOLD FILL OUT

GLASS LENGTH, in. GLASS LEVEL, % GLASS LEVEL, %
5 10 15 5. 12
1/32 OK OK OK OK OK
1/8 OK OK Rippled OK Slight Bridging
1/4 OK Rippled Unacceptable Bridging —
Poor Fill Out
7-32
AMCP 706-312
Some of the resin suppliers are:
1. Phillips Petroleum Co:
Marlex® Resin
Number Density Melt Index Description
*TR-955 0.955 6.5 Copolymer, excellent processability
*TR-980 0.955 18.0 Copolymer, outstanding processability
TR-960 0.964 6.5 Excellent surface appearance
2. Gulf Oil Chemical Co:
Poly-eth
Resin Number Density Melt Index Description
3003 0.922 2.0 High impact strength and excellent stress crack
resistance
LR 3807 0.964 6.5 High impact strength and exceptionally high

stiffness
*Ethylene-butene copolymer
3. E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc:
ALATHON®
1724 0.916 12 Homopolymer containing slip; good processing

characteristics
1730 0.922 6 Moderate rigidity and toughness
2005 0.919 1.9 Outstanding toughness and stress crack resistance
7440 0.940 4 Copolymer, toughness and stress crack resistance
7140 0.950 4.5 Copolymer, good toughness, lower warpage
7040 0.960 6 Maximum stiffness and dimensional stability.

Good toughness
8140 0.950 4.2 Superior impact strength
8043 0.962 6 Meets FDA Food Additive Regulations

BK011
7-33
AMCP 706-312
4. Union Carbidiz Corp:
PEP
231 0.919 10 Good low temperature impact
315 0.919 10 Good low temperature impact, surface

characteristics and mold release
326 0.923 1.15 Good stress crack resistance, low temperature

impact
530 0.924 Good surface characteristics and toughness
5. U. S. I. Chemicals Corp:
Microthene®
MC 10-734 0.915 22 White pigmented
MK08-256A 0.953 5 High stiffness, excellent impact strength, resis-

tance to weathering, good toughness
MN701 0.912 70 Low stiffness, higr flow characteristics
MÜ703-Ö6 0.917 1.2 Very high toughness, low stiffness, contains

antioxidant
MN706 0.923 22 High resistance to moisture and chemicals
MN710-20 0.916 22 Contains slip additive
MN711-20 0.914 22 Contains slip additive
MN714 0.912 70 High flow characteristics
MN718 0.915 8 Low stiffness
MN720 0.915 12 Low stiffness
MN721 0.924 5 Medium to low stiffness
MN722 0.924 5 Medium to low stiffness
MN751 0.924 8 Good toughness, low stiffness
MN754-18 0.924 12 Outstanding processability
**MU763 0.928 9 High stiffness, toughness and impact strength
7-34
AMCP 706-312
Microthene®
**MU760 0.941 20 Good flexibility, adhesion, low temperature

resistance
MA778 0.949 High stiffness, good toughness
**Ethylene-vinyl acetate
Costs are approximately $0.26 per lb.
7-10.2 PROCESS VARIABLES temperature, part thickness, and the kind of

resin used. Commercial cycles may vary from
7-10.2.1 Drying Cycle 5 to 20 min. High-density polyethylene
usually requires 10-20 percent more heating
None. time than low-density polyethylene for the
same part.
It was found that an oven cycle 1 to 2 min
Oven temperatures range from 550° to longer than that needed for the straight low
700°F. Temperatures of 650°F have been density resin was required to form, fuse, and
reported to be satisfactory for molding most fill out glass containing low-density
high-density polyethylenes in hot air ovens. polyethylene parts16.
Generally, the larger and more sophisticated
operators use the higher temperatures because The effect of wall thickness on heating
cycle times can be reduced. However, with time for high- and low-density polyethylene is
high oven temperature, control must be more shown in Fig. 7-8.
accurate to avoid overheating the resin.
The effect of heating time on impact
Heating times, of course, vary with oven strength is illustrated in Fig. 7-9. A series of
0.40
4 8 12 16 20 24
HEATING TIME, min

Figure 7-8. Effect of Wall Thickness on Heating Time3 2
7-35
AMCP 706-312
4 8 I2 6 & &
HEATING TIME , min
4 6 8 K> 12 W 16 18
HEATING TIME, min
Reprinted by permission of SPE. Reprinted by permission of SPE.
Figure 7-9. Effect of Heating Time on Figure 7-10. Effect of Heating Time on
Impact Strength of 0.95 Density PE3 2 Melt Index of 0.95 Density
(Melt Index 5 g/10 min) PE32
1/8 in. thick parts was molded at the the inner surface of the molding, but will add
indicated heating period using molten salt no color or odor to the part. Table 7-19
spray equipment at 550°F. Flat panels were indicates some results of inert purging.
cut from each molding and tested with a
constant height, falling weight impact tester 7-10.2.3 Cooling Cycles
at —20°F. The program was repeated using
parts molded at 500°F to show the influence Due to the design of most rotational
of molding temperature. molding machines, cooling cycles equal
heating cycles. Quite often, the cooling cycle
The effect of heating time on melt index will be in two phases: an initial cooling in air,
is shown in Fig. 7-10. followed by a water spray. The air cooling
may be approximately one-third of the total
Discoloration and odor can be eliminated available cooling time and is helpful in
by flushing the air out of the mold with an
inert gas, such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide.
The mold is purged before the heating process TABLE 7-19
is started. The gas flow rate will depend upon
the size of the mold. A flow rate of 10 to 15 EFFECT OF INERT ATMOSPHERE32
cfm for 30 sec is sufficient for a mold volume (0.95 Density, 5.0 Melt Index PE)
of 1 ft3. If the gas flow is continued during
NITROGEN AIR
heating, it tends to have a cooling effect on
the resin, and upsets the previously
Impact Strength (Gardner),
established heating time. As the mold heats ft-lb/0.125in. at-20°F 40 37
up, a pressure is created inside the mold, Stress Crack Resistance,
which keeps air from returning. The inert gas hr/FS0 2.9 1.9
is turned on again during cooling. A low
molecular weight film will still be present on Reprinted by permission of SPE.
7-36
AMCP 706-312
reducing warpage particularly with agent with excellent release effectiveness;

high-density material. high-density polyethylene does not. For
example, if a very effective release agent is
High-density polyethylene parts generally used on the mold with high-density
are cooled with a highly atomized water spray polyethylene and then the mold is cooled in
on the rotating mold. Rapid cooling is the manner normally used for low-density
desirable to obtain the best physical polyethylene, bad warpage occurs. This
properties. However, if the water is applied warpage is caused by the item releasing
too vigorously, warpage or localized partially from the mold wall while it is still
brittleness may result. In practice, control of quite hot.
warpage dictates how fast a part can be
cooled. Variables such as the mold type, mold
finish, part configuration, and the particular
One way to obtain rapid and uniform density resin used will affect the release
cooling is to use a combination of external characteristics. The release agent selected and
and internal cooling. Cooling the polymer the technique of application, if it affects the
from both sides not only increases the rate, release characteristics, should be chosen so
thus improving the physical properties, but that the part releases at a relatively low
gives better dimensional control by promoting temperature. Properly used release agent
uniform shrinkage. The same arrangement for along with controlled uniform cooling will go
inert gas may be used for internal cooling. a long way toward eliminating part warpage
Cooling time can be cut in half by passing for high-density polyethylene.
chilled air or water vapor through the mold.
Liquid carbon dioxide also has been used. As Zinc stearate powder provides a temporary
the liquid passes through an orifice in the mold release for high-density polyethylene. It
mold, it changes phase and absorbs heat from is applied by dusting or spraying onto the
the hot polymer. A thin wall part can be mold surface every second or third part. The
cooled in a matter of seconds by this method. release effectiveness depends somewhat upon
the amount applied to the mold; this does not
Shrinkage is unusually hard to predict in change the life, however. This method has not
rotational molding. High-density polyethylene been recommended because of its short life,
will shrink from 1.5 to 3.5 percent, depending its adverse effect on part impact strength, and
upon the density and melt index of the resin, the fact that it reduces adhesion of labels and
the shape of the part, and the release causes decorating problems. Also, tests at
characteristics of the mold. The most elevated temperatures have indicated that it
significant factor, however, is cooling; the may promote surface crazing and stress
highest shrinkage is found in slowly cooled cracking of high-density polyethylene parts
parts. This is to be expected, since the molded which could cause premature failure of
density is higher. Parts with an interrupted molded parts in actual service17. However, it
surface tend to shrink less than smooth flat has been reported18 that dry-blending
parts. The shrinkage on one long slender tank approximately 1/20 percent of calcium or
with transverse corrugations was 1.85 percent zinc stearate powder into the material was
over the long dimension. At right angles, or sufficient to produce good parts. In sufficient
parallel to the corrugations, the shrinkage was quantities, stearates may become an
2.4 percent. For mold construction purposes, embrittlement agent as previously mentioned,
a shrinkage factor of 2.5 percent normally is but in these concentrations no significant
used for high-density polyethylene. embrittlement has been found-
7-10.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS Semipermanent mold release agents based

on fluorocarbon resins, silicone resins, or
Low-density polyethylene requires a release other high temperature resins generally are
7-37
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-20
COMPARISON OF LOW- AND HIGH-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE PROPERTIES1 7
HIGH-DENSITY
LOW ETHYLENE HEXENE HIGH-DENSITY
PROPERTY DENSITY COPOLYMER HOMOPOLYMER
Density, g/cm3 0.924 0.952 0.962

ASTM-D1505-63T
Melt Index 3.8 2.4 2.7
Heating Time 650°F 11 min 12min 13 min
Tensile Strength, psi 1300 3700 4000

(20 in./min)
ASTM-D638-64T
Elongation, % 250 35 24
(20 in./min)
ASTM-D638-64T
Tensile Tear, lb/0.001 in. 0.40 0.90 0.90

ASTM-D1004-66
Impact Strength, ft-lb 30 40 40

(Dart Drop)
0.125 in. thick parts
applied to the mold. Care should be taken to polyethylene resins vary because of
insure that only silicone solutions are differences in molecular weight,
recommended and never silicone emulsions molecular weight distribution, melt
which adversely affect stress crack resistance. index, copolymerization, glass reinforce-
When properly applied and cured, these may ment, and other factors. These ac-
be effective from about 50 to several hundred count for differences in the maximum
releases per application19. Since there is very impact strength, toughness, moldability, and
little transfer of release agent to the part, the optimum heating cycle. In general, resins of 1
ability of the part to take decorating to 6 melt index, which border on the lower
treatment should not be affected. limit of processability, tend to have the best
impact strength and toughness. Resins of 10
Several commercial compounds that have to 20 melt index possess better moldability
proven satisfactory are C.P. Hall's MR-22 and than those of 1 to 6 melt index, and
Dow Coming's R-671 two heat curing frequently are used where moldability is more
semipermanent type silicones; and Dow important than impact strength.
Coming's DC20, High-temp Mold Release, Du
Pont's "Vydax AR", and General Mills Table 7-20 compares general values of the
Release Agent H-15-120. physical properties of high-density
homopolymers and high-density ethylene
7-10.4 PROPERTIES hexene copolymers of approximately the
same melt index with a low-density resin.
The physical properties of the various These data show that the high-density resins
7-38
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-21
POLY-ETH 3003 AND LR3807 POLYETHYLENE POWDER

(GULF OIL CHEM. CO.)21
TYPICAL TYPICAL
ASTM TEST AVERAGE VALUE AVERAGE VALUE
PROPERTY METHOD 3003 LR3807
Resin
Melt Index, g/10 min D1238-65T 2.0 6.5
Density, g/cm3 D1505-63T 0.922 0.964
Color — Natural Natural
Particle Size, mesh U.S. Standard 35 35
Compression Molded Samples

Brittleness Temperature, °F D746-64T -40 <-180
Softening Point, Vicat, F D1525-65T 200 257
Yield Strength, psi D638-64T 1,600 -
Tensile Strength, psi D638-64T 1,600 4,000
Elongation, % D638-64T 500 280
Stiffness in Flexure, psi D747-63 25,000 140,000
Hardness, Shore "D" D1706-61 50 68
Environmental Stress Crack D1693-66 Very Good Good
Resistance
are much stiffer, have much higher tensile from powder into which the glass had been
strength, and have much higher tensile tear hot compounded rather than dry blended.
strength than low-density polyethylene. The data reveal that the addition of glass by
Low-density polyethylene has considerably dry blending results in properties superior to
greater elongation when measured at 20 those obtained when the glass is added by hot
in./min. In addition to increasing stiffness, compounding. This is attributed to the fact
increasing the density raises the melting point, that, in the case of hot compounding, the
permits higher service temperature limits, and glass fiber length is reduced by the subsequent
improves barrier properties of the end pulverizing operation. Maximum rein-
product. forcement is obtained when longer fibers
are present in the molded part1 6.
Some typical property data are listed in
Tables 7-21, 7-22, and 7-23. Fig. 7-11 compares the cooling rate on
shrinkage of various polyethylene resin
Table 7-24 contains some typical properties systems.
of ethylene copolymers.
7-11 CROSSLIIMKED HIGH-DENSITY
Table 7-25 compares the effect on physical POLYETHYLENE
properties of the three fiber lengths at various
levels in PEP^40. The data clearly Crosslinked polyethylene has excellent
demonstrate that the rigidity, tensile strength, impact strength, tensile creep resistance, tear
and yield and tear strength increase as the strength, and exceptional stress cracking
level and length of the glass fiber increases. resistance. The stress cracking resistance and
tensile creep resistance of parts far exceed
Table 7-26 compares the physical that of all other noncrosslinkable HDPE
properties of samples which had been molded rotational molding resins. The crosslinked
7-39
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7-42
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-24
TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHYLENE COPOLYMERS24
TYPICAL VALUES
ASTM TEST 20% 28%
PROPERTIES METHOD VINYL ACETATE VINYL ACETATE
Melt Index, g/10 min D1238 25 25

Density, g/cm3 D1505 0.940 0.950
Hardness, Shore "A" D676 88 85
Tensile Strength, psi D412 2160 2000
Ultimate Elongation, % D412 750 750
Secant Modulus, psi D638 4700 3480
Brittleness Temp., T50, °C* D746 -78 - 100
*The temperature at which 50% of the number of samples tested show failure.
part behaves as a thermosetting resin. It CL-100

softens at temperatures similar to that of
conventional resins but does not melt at 2. Raychem Corp.-Flamolin 711
400°F or higher.
3. USI Chemicals Co.-Microthene®
When properly pigmented and UV MX1100
stabilized, its weathering characteristics are
similar to or slightly better than the high Costs are approximately $0.37 per lb.
molecular weight resins used for extrusion,
blow molding, or injection molding2 5. 7-11.2 PROCESS VARIABLES
7-11.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS 7-11.2.1 Heating Cycle
A particle size of 35 mesh is recommended Generally, an oven temperature between

for crosslinkable polyethylene powder. An 550° and 625°F should be used. However,
antioxidant and active peroxide usually are exceptions on either side of this range have
added to ensure thermal stability during been made. Temperatures below 550°F can
processing and optimum curing results. be used quite satisfactorily but longer cycle
times are required. In many commercial
Color compounds give the best pigment ovens, temperatures above 625°F tend to
dispersion without significant loss of impact generate too rapid a decomposition of the
strength. Pigments that do not retard the crosslinking agent. This can cause bubbles in
crosslinking must be used. the wall, blow holes through the wall, pock
marks on the surface, rough inside surface, or
Dry blends are possible, but they usually over-pressuring of the mold if adequate
are not recommended since many pigments venting is not provided19.
can drastically retard the crosslinking and
most molders do not have proper facilities for Oven residence times required to
testing to determine the effect of the "thermally crosslink" high-density poly-
pigments. ethylenes are approximately twice those
required for normal fusion. These times may
Crosslinked polyethylene suppliers are vary from 9-13 min depending on the mold,
part wall thickness, and oven input
1. Phillips Petroleum Co.-Marlex® temperature. For this reason, proper
7-43
AMCP 706-312
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AMCP 706-312
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COOLING TIME, MIN (700° to 150° F)
LEGEND:
■ CROSS LINKABLE POLYETHYLENE
# CROSS LINKABLE WITH 9% GLASS
• CROSS LINKABLE WITH 10% GLASS
D LINEAR POLYETHYLENE (DYLAN 5440)
O LINEAR POLYETHYLENE WITH 10% F/G
O LINEAR POLYETHYLENE WITH 5% F/G
Figure 7-11. Effect of Cooling Rate on Shrinkage of Rotomolded Thermoplastics3
7-46
AMCP 706-312
temperature and cycle time must be vacuum lance should be provided so that the
established for a given part on each individual operator can sweep out any decomposition
machine. The Low Temperature Impact Test products as the molded item is released. In
and the Bent Strip Test are good methods for addition, it is possible to sweep a large
checking the cure. portion of the decomposition products from
the part during the cooling cycle by
7-11.2.2 Cooling Cycle introducing inert gas in the part from one side
and exhaust through a vent or vents from
Air cooling followed by water spray, which other sides.
gives uniform coverage of the mold, is
required to produce warp-free parts. Also, "2. Molding of large, open-sided concave
internal pressure during the cooling cycle surface items should be conducted in molding
helps to prevent warpage. equipment enclosed with an exhaust
ventilated booth. The ventilation rate should
Inert gas injection should be used during be adequate to prevent the escape of vaporous
the cooling cycle to flush a large portion of substances into the operator's environment. A
the products of decomposition of the vacuum lance should be provided to sweep
crosslinking agent from the molded part. This out any decomposition products inside the
is accomplished by introducing an inert gas at fabricated item as it is released from the
low pressure through rotary unions and a mold.
drilled spindle into the mold. The mold is
then vented on opposite sides with several "3. The operators involved in the
vents that are open to atmospheric pressure in rotational molding process should wear
the cooling chamber. The exhaust fan then freshly laundered work clothing daily either
removes these gases from the work area. To in the form of a cover-all or else as a shirt and
prevent the possibility of generating a trousers combination. A light fabric cap and
combustible mixture during purging of the impervious protective gloves should also be
mold, an inert gas should be used instead of worn by the operators. If physical contact
air. between the molded item and the operator's
body is required to remove the item from the
7-11.2.3 Molding Precautions mold, an impervious apron should be worn by
the employee. At the end of the work day, a
Crosslinkable resins contain a crosslinking cleansing shower should be taken before the
agent that emits small amounts of pyrolytic employee changes into his street clothing"19.
products during molding. The molding
powder and the emitted vapors may produce 7-11.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS
skin, eye, and nasal irritation to the operator.
For these reasons the following procedures Too effective a release will cause warpage
should be observed during molding: and pock marks. Several of the silicone mold
releases and the fluorocarbon sprays have
"Operators in a molding plant are exposed been used with Marlex® CL-IOO and CL-50.
to the finely divided molding powder and a Most of the silicones have to be diluted with
small amount of vaporous and liquid solvent to get the release properties desired.
decomposition products arising from the The fluorocarbon releases can be used with
additive present in the resin and formed when molds that have good draft and require only a
the molding powder is heated. slight degree of release. To apply the
fluorocarbon without causing warpage or
"1. If the molding process produces an pock marks requires considerable experience.
enclosed item which entraps the Each individual mold may require a slightly
decomposition products in its interior, a different degree of release. Maintaining
7-47
AMCP 706-312
internal pressure by injection of an inert gas deep into the part are less likely to become
such as nitrogen during the cooling cycle plugged. These vent tubes should have a small
allows a wider range of mold release amount of fiberglass insulation packed lightly
effectiveness to be tolerated on any individual into the end to prevent powder from flowing
mold. down inside the tube where it can melt and
block the tube.
Molders have had good success with
Fre-Kote 33. For flat surface, large radii and If internal pressure is used during the
highly tapered areas, or any area requiring less cooling cycle, the tubes and rotary unions
effective release, Fre-Kote 32 and 31 can be must be kept open. "In addition, on machines
used. Fre-Kote 32 and 31 both are less where a regulator controls the pressure
effective than 33 with 31 being the least applied during the cooling cycle, there should
effective. Ram GS-3 also gave excellent be a pressure relief valve placed between the
results. output of the regulator and the mold vent
tube. This relief valve should be set to relieve
The release on molds having complex at a pressure just above that pressure desired
shapes can be controlled by using different to be maintained in the mold. It is possible
releases on various areas of the mold. Core that pressure can continue to build up in the
areas requiring good release can be coated mold during the cooling cycle until the plastic
with an effective release while flat sections temperature falls off considerably. In molds
where poor release is desired can be coated with large volumes and cross-sectional areas,
with less effective release. With bake-on significant forces can be generated. For
releases this technique has been successful. example, with internal pressure of only 6 psig
When changing from one mold release to in a mold 36 in. X 36 in. a force of almost
another, especially to the Fre-Kote type, all 7800 lb is being exerted on the mold
old release should be removed from the mold. surface1 9 ".
Most of the time this requires scrubbing with
steel wool and an abrasive powder. On some Also, to further reduce the possibility of
fabricated aluminum and steel molds a light excessive pressure buildup, the mold parting
grit blast could be used to remove the old line should be clamped with spring loaded
release19. devices. This allows the mold halves to
separate slightly and relieve excess pressure
7-11.4 PROCESS EQUIPMENT before damage to the mold can occur.
High quality porosity-free molds Another method of relieving an unusual

constructed by any of the conventional pressure buildup is to incorporate a thin
methods can be used. For easy part removal a section that had been scored in an "X"
taper of 6 to 8 deg is recommended19. All fashion to perform as a rupture disk. Design
molds must be adequately vented to handle of such a disk would require trial and error
the decomposition gases which can cause a work to determine the proper thickness and
pressure buildup in the mold. To prevent depth of scoring. It would also require
mold damage in cases where vents are not shielding with material such as several screen
adequate or become plugged, the mold should wire layers to prevent increased part wall
be designed to withstand several pounds of thickness at the thin section. Fastening of
pressure or be provided with some method to inserts in molds should be done in such a
prevent over-pressuring. manner that gases or steam generated behind
the inserts are relieved to the outside of the
Multiple large vent tubes that are placed mold.
7^8
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-27
TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MICROTHENE® MX 1100023
ASTM TEST
PROPERTY PROCEDURE VALUE
Density, g/cm3 * D1505 0.940

Particle Size, mesh US Standard Sieve Screen ing 35
Tensile Strength at 2 in./min )638 (with Type IV specimen)

Break, psi 3,000
Elongation, % 450
Stiffness in Flexure, psi D747 100,000

Vicat Softening Temperature, °C D1525 125
Hardness, Shore "D" D2240 60
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance, D1693 > 1,200

hr/F50"
Torsional Stiffness, psi D1043 80,000
Low-Temperature Brittleness, °C/FS0** D746 <-76
'Density of the molded, crosslinked part

**F50 =50% failure
TABLE 7-28
NOMINAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAR LEX® CL-1003"
PROPERTY» ASTM TEST VALUE
Density, g/cm3** D1505-68 0.930-0.933

Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance, D1693-70 >1000
F5o,hr
Tensile Strength, Ultimate, psi D638-68 2600
2 in./min Type IV Specimen
Elongation, At Break, % D638-68 450
2 in./min Type IV Specimen
Vicat Softening Temperature, °F D1525-65T -240
Brittleness Temperature, ° F D746-64T <-180
Flexural Modulus, psi D790-66 100,000
Dielectric Strength D149-64 475
1/8 in. thick, V/mil
'Physical properties are based on parts rotational molded with percent gel greater than 95%.
"Density Of the crosslinked product.
7-49
AMCP 706-312
7-11.5 PROPERTIES 7-12.2 PROCESS VARIABLES
Typical properties of crosslinked 7-12.2.1 Heating Cycle

polyethylene are shown in Tables 7-27 and
7-28. It has been found with Pro-fax SB-351 that
better moldings can be accomplished by
7-12 POLYPROPYLENE dividing the heating cycle into two parts, an
initial phase in which the molds remain
Present available polypropylene formula- motionless and a second phase in which the
tions lack adequate impact strength molds are rotated. The duration of the
for rotationally molded parts. An inert gas nonrotating dwell is dependent on mold
atmosphere has given better properties with dimensions and material but 3 to 4 min is a
less degradation over a standard vented mold. good starting point.
Formulations specifically tailored for
rotational molding to prevent oxidative Typical start-up cycle conditions for
degradation are required. rotational molding of a Pro-fax SB-351
polypropylene sphere with 1/8 in. wall
7-12.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS thickness in a 1/4 in. thick aluminum mold
are27.
The usual 35 mesh particle size is
recommended. Fig. 7-12 presents a 1. Mold rotation ratio: 2/1
nomograph for determining the approximate
charge weight of polypropylene for a given 2. Major axis setting: lOrpm
wall thickness.
3. Minor axis setting: 15rpm
Colored parts can be made by dry blending
pigment with the natural polypropylene 4. Forced air oven temperature: 710°F
powder. For noncritical applications tumble
blending of pigment is satisfactory. If extreme 5. Heating time: 3 min dwell, 7 min
care in color-on-color uniformity is required, rotating
then blending in a high intensity mixer like a
Henschel mill is recommended. 6. Cooling time (water mist spray): 4 min
There are presently no suppliers of Color has a definite effect on cycle times.
rotational molding powder but polypropylene Most cycle times must be increased to
pellets can be obtained from produce the desired consolidation and
physical properties.
1. Hercules Incorporated
Wilmington, Delaware 19808 7-12.2.2 Cooling Cycle
2. The Rexene Polymers Corp. Cooling is accomplished by water spray.

11 5 W. Century
Paramus, New Jersey 07652 7-12.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS
3. Amoco Chemicals Corp. Aluminum molds can be used without

130 E. Randolph Drive mold release when molding polypropylene.
Chicago, Illinois 60601 Only where other materials have stuck to the
mold surface or impurities are present in the
The cost is approximately SO.56 per lb. aluminum will sticking occur. If such areas
7-50
AMCP 706-312
0400T
0.350-
0.300-
0.250-
x
O200-
i ÜJ
Q
tr
5X
o
OI50-
aioo .
aoso-
Figure 7-12. Nomograph for Determining the Approximate Charge Weight of

Polypropylene for a Given Wall Thickness2 7
(Draw straight line through desired wall thickness and mold surface area to weight line and read
weight.)
Example: A 0.100 in.-wall thickness on mold with 10,000 in.2 area required 32.6 lb.
7-51
AMCP 706-312
exist, they should be cleaned off or given a 7-13.1 RAW MATERIAL PARAMETERS
light coating of fluorocarbon mold release. In
production it is only necessary to see that the Polystyrene has been rotomolded from a
mold is clean and dry before introducing the 35-mesh particle size powder and a spherical
new charge of material. bead2 9'30 . There is a definite limitation as to
the depth of color which can be produced.
Steel molds should be given an initial light However, a wide range of pastels is
coating of fluorocarbon mold release. available3'.
Whenever a "sticking" condition develops,
those areas affected should be recoated. At this writing there are no commercial
suppliers of rotomolding grade polystyrene.
On molds where the parting line allows a
large area of flash it is advisable to coat these Pigments have been blended into
flash areas intermittently with mold release. polystyrene powder by stirring, ribbon
This makes cleaning of the mold between blending, or tumbling. The following
parts much easier2 7. pigments have produced satisfactory
dispersions without detrimental effect on
7-12.4 EQUIPMENT moldability30:
Where an existing mold is to be used, Chromic Oxide Green G-6099-C. K.

consideration must be given to the mold Williams & Co.
shrinkage of polypropylene which is
approximately 0.015 in./in. This is roughly Ti02-TiPure R-100 du Pont E. I., De
1/2 that of the average low or high density Nemours & Co., Inc.
polyethylene. Therefore, the polypropylene
part will be somewhat larger than a Pure Black Iron Oxide BK-247-C. K.
polyethylene part produced in the same mold. Williams & Co.
Molds should be provided with small vent Mercadmium Red Medium Cone.
tubes to allow escape of the internal gases X-2570-Hercules Powder Co., Inc.
during heating.
C.P. Deep Orange A-4337-Hercules Powder
7-12.5 PROPERTIES Co., Inc.
An indication of property data is given in Mapico Lemon Yellow—Columbian Carbon

Table 7-29 for injection molded general Co.
purpose sample.
Monastral Blue B+449D du Pont E. I., De
7-13 POLYSTYRENE Nemours & Co., Inc.
Polystyrene is a rigid thermoplastic that 7-13.2 PROCESS VARIABLES

gives a finished surface that is hard, yet is
warm to the touch. Modified polystyrene is 7-13.2.1 Heating Cycle
not waxy and can be nailed, stapled,
cemented, and sawed. Because of these Normal oven temperatures for polystyrene
characteristics, products presently produced range from 450° to 900°F. Most rotational
in wood can be developed in the modified molding is carried out at oven times of 6 to
plastic. 12 min29. A typical oven cycle for a large
7-52
ANICP 706-312
TABLE 7-29
PROPERTIES OF PROFAX 6323, 6623 POLYPROPYLENE28
TEST TYPE
PROPERTY METHOD 6323 6523
Density, g/cm3 D792A-2 0.904 0.904

Izod Impact at 23°C, ft-lb in. notch D256A 0.4 0.5
(1/8-in. specimen)
Izod Impact at -18°C, ft-lb in. notch D256A 0.3 0.3
(1/8-in. specimen)
Tensile Strength at Yield, psi D628 2 in./min 5,000 4,900
(1/8-in. Type III specimen)
Flexural Modulus (1% secant), psi D790B 2-in. span 230,000 220,000
(1/8-in. specimen)
Stiffness in Flexure, psi (1/8-in. specimen) D747 4-in. span 160,000 155,000
Rockwell Hardness, R Scale D785A 99 99
Deflection Temperature at 66 psi, °C D648 101 99
(1/8-in. specimen)
Deflection Temperature at 264 psi, °C D648 59 59
(1/8-in. specimen)
Deformation Under Load 1,000 psi and D621A 1.3 1.3
50°C, % (composite of 1/8-in. specimens)
Deformation Under Load 2,000 psi and D621A 5 5
50°C, % (composite of 1/8-in. specimens)
Water Absorption, 24 hr, % D570 0.02 0.02
Environmental Stress Cracking D1603 Does not Does not
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion, D696
in./in.-°C (Annealed specimen)
-30° to 0°C 6.4 X 10"5 7.1 X 1Ö"5
0° to 30°C 8.6 X 10~5 9.7 X 10"5
30° to 60° C 9.4 X itr5 11.0X itrs
Shrinkage From Mold Dimension, in./in. D955 0.015 0.015
(parallel to flow, 1/8-in. specimen)
Shrinkage From Mold Dimension, in./in. D955 0.009 0.009
(parallel to flow, 1/16-in. specimen)
All molded specimens prepared by injection molding (ASTM-D2146).
hollow high impact polystyrene part would be examples are to be used only as guides since
720°F for approximately 10 min3*. oven heat capacity and air velocity, in
addition to the previously mentioned
Typical molding cycles will vary with mold variables, will determine actual cycle times
composition and wall thickness, oven required. Venting of the mold sometimes is
temperature, and wall thickness of the part. recommended to ensure optimum uniformity
Some examples of molding cycles are cited in of wall thickness when molding in large
Table 7-30 with polystyrene powder30. These volume molds.
7-53
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 7-30
EXAMPLES OF MOLDING CYCLES WITH POLYSTYRENE POWDER30
MOLD PART OVEN

COMPOSITION THICK, in. SIZE, in. SHAPE WT,g THICK, in. TEMP, °F TIME, min
Stainless Steel 0.035 7.25 Cylindrical 600 0.125 450 20

(Dia) X 8.5
(Dia) X 8.5
(Dia)X 8.5
Sheet Metal 0 0625 14X 13.5 Rectangular 1400 0.125 550 10
X 6
Sheet Metal 0.0625 14 X 13.5 Rectangular 2800 0.250 550 15
X 6
Aluminum 0.250 5 (Dia) Spherical 180 0.125 550 10
Aluminum 0.250 5 (Dia) Spherical 360 0.250 550 15
Length-to-diameter ratios must be limited TABLE 7-31

because of "bridging". A 4:1 LID ratio is
considered to be a maximum as a general PROPERTIES OF POLYSTYRENE3
rule3'.
Bulk Density, g/cm3 0.48
lb/ft3 30
Specific Gravity 1.04
7-13.2.2 Cooling Cycle Izod Impact, ft-lb/in. of notch,
90-mil specimen 0.5
Cooling usually is accomplished by water Falling Weight Impact11', ft-lb,
spray during rotation. Care should be taken to 150-mil specimen 1
prevent too rapid a cooling rate. This can be 200-mil specimen 2.5
controlled by regulating the flow of water, Tensile Strength, psi 3,000
Flexural Yield, psi 5,500
the temperature of the water, or by mixing air
Flexural Modulus, psi.
cooling with water cooling.
74°F 411,000
120°F 324,000
140°F 220,000
7-13.3 MOLD RELEASE AGENTS 160°F 84,000
Durometer Hardness, Shore "D" 75
The use of mold release agents is not Heat Distortion Temperature,
required with polystyrene powders. Difficulty 264 psi, °F 162
Vicat Softening Point, °F 176
may occur in molds having insufficient draft,
Shrinkage*2', in./in. 0.002-0.007
due to the small amount of shrinkage. A light
application of a silicone release agent may be Note: (1) Two pound weight having 5/8 in. dia punch
of assistance in such instances. (2) Shrinkage is dependent on specimen geometry
7-54
AMCP 706-312
7-13.4 EQUIPMENT of natural polystyrene rotational molding

powder.
Due to the low shrinkage factor for
polystyrene, a draft angle must be provided in
the mold design. Also, undercuts should be
eliminated. Mold detail is reproduced 7-14. POLYVINYLCHLORIDE (PVC)
extremely well, and a highly polished mold is
essential for a glossy surface. Powders suitable for rigid or semirigid
rotational molding require further
7-13.5 PROPERTIES development for adequate flow and stability.
At present there are no commercial suppliers
Table 7-31 presents some typical properties of rigid PVC powders.
REFERENCES
1. J. M. McDonagh, "Rotational Casting of Plastics Engineers Inc. Regional Technical

Acetal Copolymer", Society of Plastics Conference—Plastics Powders-Ill, Akron,
Engineers, Inc., Regional Technical Ohio, March 12, 1969.
Conference, Plastics Powders-Ill, Akron,
Ohio, March 12, 1969. 8. Telephone conversation, February 6,
1974, Mr. Robert Brison, Whittaker
2. E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Corp. and Mrs. Joan Titus, PLASTEC.
Delrin Acetal Resins—Design and
Engineering Data. 9. Allied Chemical Corp., A Report on
Nylon 12, trade literature.
3. Uniroyal Chemical Co. Letter dated 24
January 1974, s/Joseph V. Garelli. 10. "Rilsan GSMR (Special Grade for Rota-
tional Moulding)", Aquitaine-Organico,
4. Eastman Plastics Technical Report, No. 168, 1969.
Rotational Molding of Tenite® Cellulosic
Plastics, TR-37A, ECP 463, January 11. Witco-Chemical Co. letter dated 16
1973. January 1974, s/M. P. Schard, Director
Technical Service.
5. Allied Chemical Plastics Division, Halar®
New Generation Fluoropolymer—Roto- 12. General Electric Company, Lexan® RP
molding Halar® Fluoropolymer, Bulletin 700 Resins—the First Engineering Plastic
P-l, form #854-171, February 1973. for Rotational Molding, CDC-566A, un-
dated.
6. G. A. Toelcke and A. B. Robertson,
"Rotolining with E-CTFE Fluoro- 13. Mobay Chemical Company, Merlon Poly-
polymer", Modern Plastics, Vol. 50, carbonate Rotomolding, undated, un-
No. 12, December 1973. numbered.
7. S. R. Paquette, "A Guide for Selecting 14. W. F. Foster, "Need a Tqugh Roto-
Rotational Molding Powders", Society of molded Part? Now You Can Rotomold
7-55
AMCP 706-312
Polycarbonate", Plastics Technology, 25. Phillips Petroleum Co., Price List for
Vol. 16, No. 12, November 1970, pp. Marlex® Polyolefin Plastics, March 30,
4748. 1973.
15. R. E. Duncan, D. R. Ellis, and R. A. 26. Union Carbide letter dated November 30,
McCord, "Rotational Molding", Encyclo- 1973, s/H. R.Howard.
pedia of Polymer Science and Tech-
nology, Vol. 9, pp. 118-137. 27. Hercules, Inc., Technical Information
Report Pro-Fax SB 351 Polypropylene
16. M. W. Sowa, "Rotational Molding of Rotational Molding Resin, undated, un-
Glass Reinforced Powdered Poly- numbered.
ethylene", 28th Society of Plastics
Engineers, Inc. Annual Technical Confer- 28. Hercules, Inc., Profax, trade literature,
ence, May 4-7, 1970, New York. undated, unnumbered.
17. R. L. Rees, "Rotational Molding of High 29. Cosden Oil & Chemical Company Tech-
Density Polyethylene", 27th Annual nical Bulletin, Subject: Rotational Mold-
Technical Conference, Society of Plastics ing of Polystyrene, No. 36; date July 17,
Engineers, May 5-8, 1969. 1967.
18. R. E. Soderquist, "Rotational Casting of
30. Union Carbide Corporation, Bakelite®
Powders", Society of Plastics Engineers,
Polystyrene Powder TMPA 9130 Natural
Inc., Regional Technical Conference, 23, trade literature.
Plastics Powders-II, March 29, 1967,
Akron, Ohio.
31. Paul F. Bruins, Ed., Basic Principles of
Rotational Molding, Gordon and Breach,
19. Phillips Petroleum Co., "Technical In-
Science Publishers, New York, N.Y.,
formation on Marlex® Polyolefin Plas-
1971.
tics: 17 Rotational Molding."
20. Union Carbide, Polyethylene Powders. 32. R. E. Duncan and A. B. Zimmerman,

"Rotational Molding of High Density
21. Gulf Oil Chemicals letter dated October Polyethylene Powders", Society of Plas-
1, 1973. tics Engineers, Inc., Regional Technical
Conference Plastics Powders-II, Akron,
22. Du Pont, "Rotational Molding Resins Ohio, March 29, 1967.
Properties Guide", Alathon Polyethylene
Resins, unnumbered, undated. 33. W. Benjamin, et al., Boeing Co., Rota-
tional Molded Plastic Tricon Containers,
23. U. S. I. Chemicals, "Microthene®", October 1972, Prepared for U.S.A.
MA 778, MC10-734, MK08-256A, Mobility Equipment Research and Devel-
MN701, MN703-06, MN706, MN710-20, opment Center, Fort Belvoir, Va. Con-
MN711-20, MN714, MN718, MN720, tract DAAK02-71-C-0201.
MN721, MN722, MN751, MN754-18,
MU763 Data Sheets, unnumbered, un- 34. G. E. Carrow, "Crosslinkable Rotational
dated. Molding High Density Polyethylene",
Society of Plastics Engineers, Inc., 30th
24. Union Carbide, Ethylene Copolymer Annual Technical Conference, Chicago,
Powders. 111., May 1972.
7-56
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 8
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ROTATIONAL MOLDING
8-1 GENERAL 8. Cross-sectional part deformation and

warpage are at a minimum.
Rotational molding not only broadens the
limits of part design but also has many 9. Wall thickness can be closely controlled
advantages when compared with other mold- and uniform.
ing techniques. Some of the advantages are
listed in par. 8-2. 10. Parts can be made seamless and
relatively stress-free with a minimum of
8-2 ADVANTAGES locked-in stresses. This latter asset permits
superior environmental stress-crack resistance.
Some advantages of rotational molding
follow: 11. Identical, similar items, or different
sections of one piece can be molded at the
1. The lead time for tooling is much shorter same time in different colors on a single
than other processes. spindle.
2. Costs for molds and tooling are low, 12. Plastic or metal inserts can often be
especially for short runs. The technique, molded as integral parts of the item.
however, can be adapted easily to continuous
production methods and high production 13. Double-wall, composite, glass rein-
rates when multiple molds are used. forced, and foamed constructions are feasible.
3. Prototype molds can be manufactured 14. Excellent detail and finish, various
for experimental purposes without great textures, or high gloss can be obtained on
exposure. exterior surfaces.
4. This process permits a wider selection of 8-3 DISADVANTAGES

mold materials than most other processes.
Copper, Be/Cu, stainless steel, carbon steel, Some disadvantages of rotational molding
aluminum, nickel, and combinations of these follow:
have all been used successfully.
1. The main disadvantage is the limited
5. There is little or no waste scrap since the range of commercially suitable materials for
desired weight of the part is placed into the this process. Also, there is the additional cost
mold. of the material since the powder must be
ground from conventional extrusion pellets.
6. Parts having complex shapes, convoluted
wall sections, undercuts, and large surface 2. For the most part, molds must be
areas can be molded easily. manually loaded and unloaded. Automatic
part ejectors have not proved practical owing
7. Part sizes are limited only to oven size to the high environmental temperature,
and strength of the mold spindles. thermal cycling, and the complex mechanism
-1
AMCP 706-312
of the rotating assembly. Mechanical robots 8-4 COMPARISON OF PROCESS CHARAC-

are futuristic. Thus, labor per piece remains TERISTICS
high, limiting the process application. In
addition, the manual loading and unloading Fig. 8-1 compares the major molding
contribute to a longer molding cycle than process characteristics.
injection and blow molding.
ABILITY
ABILITY ABILITY TO MOLD
TO MOLD LOW TO MOLD ABILITY MATERIAL THERMO-
PARTS LOW COST FOR DOUBLE TO MOLD VARIETY SETS AND
GREATER MOLD LARGE WALL INSERTS AVAILABLE THERMO-
MOLDING
THAN 4 ft COST PARTS CNTNR PLASTICS
METHOD LDffJ
ROTATIONAL
BLOW
n 1
M
VV\ v
INJECTION
KEY:
VACUUM
1
FAIR POOR
EXCELLENT GOOD
Figure 8-1, Process Characteristics
8-2
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 9
ECONOMICS
9-1 GENERAL readily. Also, different molds of similar size

can be run on the same spider so that little
Very few cost comparisons have been made production time on other items is lost.
between the various processes. This is
primarily due to the fact that the process 3. Changes in wall thicknesses do not
selection normally depends on the part design require tooling changes but only quantity of
and the polymer selected. As noted under the molding powder and cycle time.
materials chapter, not all resins are suitable
for rotational molding. In fact of all the resins 4. There also is the ability to mold items of
available, the powders recommended for different colors at one time on a single spindle
rotational molding are very limited, especially or single machine.
in the so-called "engineering plastics" area.
5. Multilayer items can be molded with
Also, the same resin system cannot be used different materials or different colors or both
in different processes. With rotational mold- in one mold; for example, a polyethylene-
ing, for example, a change in resin composi- lined nylon container.
tion, density, melt index, or molecular weight
makes a much larger change in cycle time 6. There is very little scrap or waste
than it does with injection or blow molding. material and trimming compared to injection
However, some basic economic statements and blow molding.
can be made for the rotational molding
process. 7. Usually the larger the item, the more
economical rotational molding becomes over
other processes.
9-2 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
8. High production rotational molding
Some economic considerations of rotation- facilities require considerably more space than
al molding follow: other processes. Excluding office space,
generally, four to five times the floor space of
1. Rotational mold costs are relatively low the rotomolding machine is required. In
in comparison with injection and blow addition, the facility should be equipped with
molding. This is because the internal pressures concrete floors, 13- to 20-ft ceilings, exhaust
developed inside the mold are in the order of stacks, and fuel source such as natural gas,
0.25 to 1.5 psi and only female molds are propane, or oil for ovens, all of which are not
used. Generally, there is a savings of required in blow and injection molding
approximately 80 percent. Tool delivery is facilities2.
much faster, around 6 to 8 weeks compared
to 14 to 18 weeks for injection molds. 9. Many large volume molders have found
it economical to purchase grinding equipment
2. Since the cost of rotational molds is and to grind the pelletized material in their
rather low, the molder can modify the molds plants. It is estimated that a savings of
if necessary. Prototype items can be produced approximately $0.05 per lb can be realized2 .
9-1
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 9-1
SELECTED POLYETHYLENE ITEMS
5.0 MELT INDEX PE

WALL INJECTION, ROTA- 1.0 MELT INDEX PE
THICKNESS, TIONAL MOLDING BLOW MOLDING
ITEMS mil WEIGHT, lb WEIGHT, lb
20-gal waste can with lid 90 5.35 5.89

55-gal drum with lid 90 9.5 10.5
250-gal tote bin 200 48.7 53.6
9-3 ECONOMIC STUDY blow molded article may be reduced by

programmed parison control but only at some
A study compiled by Arthur D. Little, Inc., cost in cycle time1.
for U.S. Industrial Chemical Company,
compares containers of various sizes by 5. Variations in wall thickness in blow
injection molding, rotational molding, and molding are partially compensated by the
blow molding1. The highlights are presented higher viscosity resins. This study assumed
here to illustrate the possible economics that the blow molded items weighed about
involved in the different processes. The ten percent more than comparable injection
containers are described in Table 9-1. or rotationally molded parts.
The following assumptions were made in 6. To make a fair comparison between

this study: processes, cycles and production levels were
selected to represent the best average levels a
1. A good molder with economical typical molder without specially engineered
equipment; a trained work force; and a facilities could expect to meet.
location with moderate labor and utility costs
were utilized. 7. The quantities considered were ten
thousand to ten million items per year. The
2. A five year write-off on the plant, a two unit costs are shown in Figs. 9-1 through 9-3.
year write-off on molds, and a ten percent
return on investment were assumed. Fig. 9-1 shows the costs of the 20-gal
container. Injection molding is the most
3. Where production is less than plant economical means of making this item except
capacity, the investment write-off, except for at low production levels.
the molds, was prorated on an hourly basis.
The molds were written off on the length of Fig. 9-2 shows the rotational molding
run.
4. All parts in the study were compared on

the basis of equal strength. This is quite
important because, in the blow molding
process, much of the plastic remains in BLOW MOLDING
relatively thick sections of the bottom and TOTIONAL MOLDING
top pinch points and not in the wall. Thus, in
I04 I05 10*
parts of equal minimum wall thickness, the
ANNUAL PRODUCTION
blow molded item may weigh thirty to one
hundred percent more than the injection or Figure 9-1. Comparative Unit Costs,
rotationally molded items. The weight of a 20-gal Container1
9-2
AMCP 706-312
IOOO 60.00
BLOW MOLDING
600- INJECTION v "
5 400-
500
b ROTATIONAL MOLDING
z
3
2,00 ROTATIONAL MOLDING
1.50 laoo
104 I0S o8 "io5 io* o«
PRODUCTION, units/year PRODUCTION ,units/year
Figure 9-2. Comparative Unit Costs, Figure 9-3. Comparative Unit Costs,
55-gal Container1 250-gal Container1
process as the most economical way of experienced at low production levels.

making the 55-gal container. Some 55-gal
drums are being made by injection and blow Blow molding unit cost decreases rapidly
molding in spite of high cost. These are and levels out. Rotational molding unit cost
usually made at fairly high production rates starts lower than the blow molding, and with
where the costs are not as critical, and usually high production equipment drops consider-
they are being made with resins such as ably. Injection mold cost and high investment
high-density or high-viscosity polyethylene make it very costly for low production items.
which require long rotational cycles or are not With higher production, the unit cost
suited to rotational casting1. decreases in the same general region as blow
molding and rotational molding.
Fig. 9-3 shows the unit cost for the 250-gal
tote bin. Again, rotational casting has the Therefore, even at the lowest production
lowest cost at all levels. Injection molding levels, it is apparent that rotational molding
approaches fairly close to it. Even though low has the lowest unit cost per container no
production costs are quite high, unit cost matter which item is chosen, while injection
drops rapidly. Blow molding costs most at molding has the highest costs. Thus, the
high quantities. There is some doubt on an rotational molding process with conventional
item this large — this weighs 50 lb — whether hot air machine, the short run and prototype
it can be blow molded. moldings, is economically superior to injec-
tion or blow molding.
As revealed by these figures, production
rates can have a larger effect on the cost of Table 9-2 offers some representative cost of
the item than the method of production. This operating conventional hot air rotating
is because the mold investment costs play a machines. These are machine costs only and
large role in the costs at lower production do not reflect labor, facility, resin, and mold
levels and the poorer overall efficiencies costs.
9-3
AMCP 706-312
TABLE 9-2 Lb Capac ity/ In. Spherical Hourly

Arm Dia Swing Cost
REPRESENTATIVE COSTS (3) WATER

OF OPERATION OF 500 48 $0.04
HOT AIR ROTATING MACHINES2 800 64 $0.10
1500 88 $0.15
1700 110 $0.75
(1) HEAT 3000 200 $0.75
Lb Capacity/ In. Spherical Hourly 5000 204 $1.00
Arm Dia Swing Cost Based on 50^/100 ft . Water consumption is

approximately 4,5,12, 30, 40 and 50 gal/min for the
500 48 $0.25
6 basic models at continuous water usage. Water
800 64 $0.40
recirculation reduction is 50-75% depending on cycle.
1500 88 $0.60
Water usage, however, is only about 50%, resulting in
1700 110 $0.80
the given costs.
3000 200 $1.25
5000 204 $1.60
4) DEPRECIATION
3 500 48
Based on average price of gas at 70^/1000 ft . $0.30
Oven consumption at 1000 ft3/hr or each 1,000,000 800 64 $0.60
Btu of oven output. Average oven usage: 60%. 1500 88 $0.96
1700 110 $1.50
3000 200 $2.60
2) ELECTRICITY 5000 204 $3.00
$0.09 Assumes 10-year depreciable life at 5 days/wk

500 48
64 $0.14 round-the-clock operation and 80% load factor.
800
1500 88 $0.22 (5) TOTAL COST OF OPERATION
1700 110 $0.31
200 $0.56 500 48 $0.68
3000
204 $0.65 800 64 $1.24
5000
1500 88 $1.93
Based on 15^/kW-hr and average usage or 1700 110 $3.36
efficiency of 50%. 3000 200 $4.16
5000 204 $6.25
REFERENCES
1. W.C. Johnson, "Economic Evaluation of 2. D.J. Ramazzotti, "How to Plan a Rota-

Rotational Molding", Symposium on Ro- tional Molding Facility", Plastics Tech-
tational Molding, sponsored by U.S. nology, Vol. 18, No. 1, January 1972, pp.
Industrial Chemicals Co., McCormick Place, 19-21.
Chicago, 111., Nov. 19, 1963.
9-4
AMCP 706-312
CHAPTER 10
APPLICATIONS
10-1 GENERAL 1. Marker buoys
Rotational molding is not a replacement of 2. Boat bumpers

either injection or blow molding, but is
another process that is designed to produce 3. Rafts, floats
items of design features which limit other
processes either physically or economically. 4. Boat hulls
For example, injection molding produces high
precision parts at high production rates, but is 5. Holding tanks
not feasible for a one-piece closed vessel.
Blow molding is best suited for making 6. Gas tanks
bottles and other items which have reentrant
curves that require a high-viscosity resin. It is 7. Surfboards
not well-suited to making heavy-walled parts.
Rotational molding is best suited to making 8. Aquariums.
closed parts with heavy walls.
10-3 PACKAGING APPLICATIONS
Rotational molding also is well suited for
small quantities of large items for which mold
Packaging applications include:
costs are an important factor, or in the
development of a new item in which changes
1. Luggage
must be made quickly and inexpensively and
various wall thicknesses must be tried. This
2. Trash containers
technique produces parts of uniform thick-
ness and without the internal stresses that
3. Tote boxes
thermoforming might produce. It is generally
used for large parts such as drums and
4. Shipping igloos for aircraft
carboys. The minimum wall thickness that
can be produced is about 0.030 in.
5. Containerization for ships, rail, and
trucks
There are virtually no limitations to the
hollow shapes that can be molded. Products
6. Shipping drums.
may be made seamless and strain free. Also,
intimate detail, various textures, or high
glosses are obtained easily. Commercial 10-4 AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS
applications utilizing rotational molding are
listed in the paragraphs that follow. Automotive applications include:
10-2 MARINE APPLICATIONS 1. Traffic cones
Marine applications include: 2. Air ducts
10-1
AMCP 706-312
3. Fuel tanks 4. Agricultural-chemical

5. Truck
4. Glove compartments
6. Holding for trailers, boats
5. Camper bodies 7. Gasoline for lawn mowers, snow-
mobiles, etc.
6. Fender liners
10-8 RESIDENTIAL APPLICATIONS
7. Dashboards Residential applications include:
8. Auto bodies 1. Garden planters
9. Battery cases. 2. Furniture—tables, cabinets, chairs, etc.
10-5 TOYS 3. Lamp globes
Toy applications include: 4. Mail boxes
1. Hobby horses 5. Water closets
2. Dolls 6. Sinks and shower stalls.
3. Basket balls 10-9 MILITARY APPLICATIONS
4. Volleyballs. Military applications include:
10-6 APPLIANCES 1. Aircraft flight simulator
Applicance applications include: 2. Bomb case
1. Humidifiers 3. Bomb dispenser
2. Ducts for refrigerators and freezers 4. Missile containers.
3. Ice chests 10 10 MISCELLANEOUS
4. Lamps Miscellaneous applications include:
5. Housings for business machines, vending 1. Burial vaults
machines.
2. Light globes
10-7 TANKS
3. Portable outdoor toilets
Tank applications include:
4. Mannequins
1. Water
5. Pipe
2. Milk
3. Waste receptacles 6. Medical equipment: urinal, emesis basins.
10-2
AMCP 706-312
GLOSSARY*
alloy. Various polymers or copolymers blend- that generate inert gases on heating, causing
ed or mixed to develop a material of certain the product to assume a cellular structure.
desired properties.
blow molding. A process by which a tube
ambient temperature. The temperature of the (parison) of softened plastic is formed into
medium surrounding an object. the shape of the mold cavity by blowing air
under pressure through the tube.
amorphous. Noncrystalline; without descrip-
tive physical form or selective structure. boss. A protrusion, land, or bump on a part.
A boss is used for such functions as locating,
annealing. A process of using time and a fastening, or adding strength.
temperature below the melting point of a
material to relieve stresses and strains that bubble. A spherical, internal void; globule of
may be introduced during a molding oper- air or other gas trapped within a plastic.
ation.
bulk density. The density of a molding
antioxidant. Substance that, when added in material in loose form expressed as a ratio of
small quantity to the resin during the mixing, weight to volume.
prevents its degradation and contributes to
the maintenance of its properties. bulk factor. The ratio of the volume of loose
molding powder to the volume of the same
arm. That portion of the rotating molding weight of the part molded from this material.
machine containing the required drive en-
gines, shafts, and gears necessary to produce cast. To pour a liquid plastic material into a
simultaneous rotation about two axes that are mold and allow it to harden or "polymerize".
at right angles to each other (also called
spindle). cavity. A depression in a mold that forms the
external surfaces of a plastic part.
backing plate. Sometimes referred to as a
support plate. This is a plate used to back up cellular plastic. A plastic whose density is
cavity blocks, inserts, and pins. decreased substantially by the presence of
numerous cells disposed throughout its mass.
Biot number. Ratio of heat transfer resis-
tance in convective film of fluid next to the centrifugal casting. Centrifugal or rotational
mold surface to the resistance to conduction casting is a molding operation in which a
heat transfer within the mold material. plastic material is placed in a mold that can be
rotated on several axes. The rotating action,
blister. An imperfection on the surface of the coupled with a heating and cooling operation,
molded article caused by gases, trapped permits the plastic to melt and then harden
within the part, that were given off during the into the desired shape against the walls of the
molding operations. mold.
blowing agents. Chemicals added to plastics charge. The measurement or weight of

*Seealso: ASTM D883-72c, Definition of Terms Relating to
material used to load a mold at one
Plastics. time or during one cycle.
G-l
AMCP 706-312
clamping pressure. The pressure required cycle. The cycle or cycle time of a molding
during the molding operation to keep the operation is considered from one point to the
mold closed against the pressure of the corresponding point in the next repeated
material. sequence.
coefficient of linear expansion. A measure of deflashing. Covers the complete range of

the change in dimension of an object caused operations used to remove the flash from a
by a change in temperature; specifically molded plastic part.
measured by the increase in length of an
object per unit length per degree change in degradation. A deleterious change in the
temperature. chemical structure of a plastic.
coefficient of thermal expansion. The change density. The weight per unit volume.
in volume per unit volume produced by a one
degree rise in temperature. deterioration. A permanent change in the
physical properties of a plastic as evidenced
cold flow. See: creep. by impairment of these properties.
conditioning. Treating test specimens or parts dimensional stability. A property of the

so that they are uniform before tests or material to hold its exact shape after it has
processes are performed on them. This allows been molded. Dimensional stability can be
the results to be comparable to each other. correlated to shrink factor and other material
properties.
copolymer. A polymeric system which con-
tains two monomeric units. discoloration. A change from an original
color in a material; caused by such things as
crazing. A network of fine cracks on or under degrading the material by overheating, chem-
the surface of a plastic part; can be induced ical attack, or exposure to sunlight.
by testing with certain solvents.
draft. The amount of taper given to the side
creep. Sometimes called "cold flow". This is walls of a molded part to allow for easier
the dimension change in a plastic under removal from the mold.
continuous load.
dry-blend. A free-flowing dry compound
crosslinking. The setting up of chemical links prepared without fluxing or addition of
between the molecular polymer chains. When solvents.
extensive, as in most thermosetting resins,
crosslinking makes one infusible super- dry coloring. A method of mixing dyes and
molecule of all the chains. pigments with uncolored plastics to produce a
desired color of the part.
crystallinity. A state of molecular structure
in some resins attributed to the existence of electroforrhed mold. A mold made by elec-
solid crystals with a definite geometric form. troplating a metal onto a reverse image of the
Such structures are characterized by unifor- part to be molded.
mity and compactness.
embossing. A process used to produce depres-
cure. Commonly applied to the chemical sions on a plastic sheet or part.
change a thermoset material goes through,
under heat and pressure, during the molding environmental stress cracking. The cracking
process. or crazing of a plastic material subjected to a
G-2
AMCP 706-312
combination of chemical and stress. hobbing. The method of forming cavities in a

mold by pressing the hob into the steel under
filler. A cheap, inert substance added to a high pressure.
plastic to make it less costly. Fillers may also
improve physical properties, particularly hard- homopolymer. A polymer consisting of only
ness, stiffness, and impact strength. The one monomeric species.
particles are usually small.
hopper dryer. A circulating hot air device
finish. The ultimate surface appearance of a used with a hopper to keep the plastic
plastic part. material dry.
flash. Excess plastic on a molded part found injection molding. The method of forming
at the mold parting line, or in cavity areas objects from granular or powdered plastics,
that are worn, inverted, or loose. most often of the thermoplastic type, in
which the material is fed from a hopper to a
flash line. A raised line similar to a parting heated chamber in which it is softened, after
line on the face of a molded part. It is caused which a ram or screw forces the material into
by the match line of the opposite molding a mold. Pressure is maintained until the mass
surface. has hardened sufficiently for removal from
the mold. In a variation called flow molding
foamed plastics. Plastic resins with a sponge- additional molten material is forced into the
like structure. They can be rigid or nonrigid, mold during cooling of the initial charge to
open or closed cell, and of various densities. overcome shrinkage. When a screw is used
rather than a ram for applying injection
foaming agents. Chemicals added to plastics pressure by forward movement of the screw,
to produce a gas that causes foaming action the term reciprocating screw injection mold-
and foams the cellular structure. ing is applied. In another variation called the
screw-piston type of injection molding, the
fusion. In vinyl dispersions, the heating of a screw does not reciprocate but delivers the
dispersion to produce a homogeneous mix- molten material to an accumulator chamber
ture. There is an apparent mutual solvation of through a check valve, then a piston forces
the resin and plasticizer. the material from the chamber into the mold.
gloss. The shine or luster of a surface. insert. A component (usually metallic) either
molded in, or pressed into, a plastic part.
grit blasted. A method of "roughing up" the Sometimes a separate piece or section of a
cavity surface, and also a means of removing mold is called an insert.
flash from a molded part. In the case of the
cavity, sand or steel shot usually is used. laminar flow. The movement of one layer of
For flash removal, sand or finely ground fluid past another layer with no transfer of
nut pits are used. matter from one to the other. The friction
between two such layers is called viscosity
heat sink. A contrivance for the absorption coefficient. Laminar flow of thermoplastic
or transfer of heat away from a critical resins in a mold is achieved by solidification
element or part. of the layer in contact with the mold surface,
thus providing an insulating tube through
hob. A hardened steel pattern used to sink which material flows to fill the remainder of
that shape into soft steel to form a mold the cavity. This type of flow is essential in
cavity. order to duplicate the mold surface.
G-3
AMCP 706-312
major axis. By choice, the axis parallel to the applied. The viscosity is independent of the
ground. rate of shear.
melt index (MI). A measurement of thermo- parison. In blow molding, the hollow plastic
plastic material viscosity. tube from which a product is blown.
micron. A unit of length, 1 X l(T6m; 0.001 parting line. A mark on a plastic molding
mm; 104 Angstroms; or about 0.00004 in. caused by the meeting of the mold halves.
minor axis. By choice the minor axis is the plasticizer. Chemical agents added to plastic
moving axis. Its relationship to ground is compositions to improve flow and process-
continuously changing during operation, but ability, and to reduce brittleness. This is
it is always normal to the major axis. achieved by lowering the glass transition
temperature.
moisture absorption. The pick-up of water
vapor from air by a material. pock-marks. Slight indentions that sometimes
occur on the surface of the crosslinked part.
mold. The tool used to produce the shape of They are generally round and vary in size
a plastic part. from about 0.75 in. to 1.5 in. in diameter and
a depth between 0.005 in. to 0.030 in.
molding cycle. The time required to produce
a plastic part in a molding operation. polymer. Compound formed by the reaction
Measured from a point of one operation to of simple molecules having functional groups
the same point of the first repeat of the that permit their combination to proceed to
operation. high molecular weights under suitable condi-
tions. Polymers may be formed by polymer-
molding powder. Plastic molding compound ization (addition polymer) or polycondensa-
in a powder form (as opposed to granular tion (condensation polymer). When two or
form). more monomers are involved, the product is
called a copolymer.
molding shrinkage. The difference in size,
expressed in inches per inch, between the porous molds. Molds which are made up of
plastic part and the mold cavity, both being at bonded or fused aggregates (powdered metal,
room temperature when measured and usually coarse pellets, etc.) in such a manner that the
24 hr after molding. resulting mass contains numerous open
interstices of regular or irregular size.
mold release. A lubricant such as wax,
powder, or spray used to coat the cavities of a powder molding. A general term encom-
mold to prevent the part sticking or hanging passing rotational molding, slush molding, and
up in the mold, and allowing for easy centrifugal molding of dry, sinterable powders
ejection. such as polyethylene, nylon, and PVC. The
powders are charged into molds that are
monomer. A relatively simple compound heated and manipulated according to the
which can react to form a polymer. process being used, causing the powders to
sinter or fuse into a uniform layer against the
multicavity mold. A mold that produces internal mold wall.
more than one plastic unit.
powdered plastics. Resins or plastic com-
Newtonian liquid. A liquid in which the rate pounds which have been finely pulverized for
of flow is directly proportional to the force use in fluidized bed coating, rotational
G-4
AMCP 706-312
molding, and various sintering techniques. rotomolding. A contraction of the term

rotational molding. See also: rotational cast-
powder thermal diffusivity. The thermal ing, powder molding, slush molding.
conductivity divided by the product of the
density and the specific heat. set. Interchangeable term with cure; to allow
the plastics to change from liquid to solid.
predrying. The drying of a resin or molding
compound prior to its introduction into a slush casting. A method of forming hollow
mold. Some plastic compounds are hygro- objects, widely used for doll parts and
scopic and require this treatment, particularly squeeze toys, in which a fluid plastic mixture,
after storage in a humid atmosphere. usually vinyl plastisol, is poured into a hollow
mold provided with an opening until the mold
prototype mold. Usually an inexpensive mold is full. Heat, applied to the mold before
constructed of soft metals or epoxies or and/or after filling, causes a layer of material
combination of same. Used for development to gel against the inner mold wall. After the
of permanent tooling (molds), final part layer has reached the desired thickness, the
design, final process determination, and for excess fluid material is poured out, and
short-run model parts. additional heat is applied to fuse the layer.
After cooling, the article is stripped from the
PVC. Polyvinylchloride. mold. Molds for slush casting are thin-walled
for rapid heat transfer. Electroformed copper
release agent. A lubricant used to coat the molds or aluminum castings are used most
cavities of a mold to allow for easier release or often.
ejection of the part from the cavity without
sticking. slush molding. The preferred term for the
process similar to slush casting but employing
resin. Any of a class of solid or semi-solid
dry, sinterable powders.
organic products of natural or synthetic
origin, generally of high molecular weight,
with no definite melting point. Most resins are spider. Matching sets of metal frame work
polymers (qv). which have the mating halves of molds affixed
to them. Mold halves are clamped together by
rib. A reinforcement to a plastic part to add clamping the "spiders" together, not the
functional strength. individual molds.
rotational casting. Also called rotational spindle. See: arm.

molding; a process used to mold hollow parts,
usually of a large size. The material is placed stabilizer. An ingredient used in the formula-
in the cavity of a mold that rotates on two tion of some polymers to assist in maintaining
axes. The mold is subjected to alternate the physical and chemical properties of the
heating and cooling while rotating and the compounded materials at their initial values
material melts and adheres to the cavity walls throughout the processing and service life of
to form the shape desired. the material, e.g., heat and UV stabilizers.
rotational ratio. This is the ratio of major thermal conductivity. The ability of material
axis rpm to minor axis rpm, and more to conduct or transfer heat. The physical
specifically the ratio R when both numerator constant for quantity of heat that passes
and denominator are reduced to the lowest through unit cube of a substance in unit time
possible whole numbers by multiplying both when the difference in temperature of two
by the same quantity. faces is 1 deg.
G-5
AMCP 706-312
thermal decomposition. Decomposition re- The following table of approximate viscosities

sulting from action by heat. It occurs at a in centipoises at room temperature is useful
temperature for which some components of for rough comparisons.
the material are separating or associating
together, with a modification of the macro- water 1
or microstructure. kerosene 10
motor oil, SAE 10 100
thermal expansion. The dimension change castor oil, glycerine 1,000
per unit length for each unit change in corn syrup 10,000
temperature. molasses 100,000
thermal stress cracking. A cracking or crazing When the ratio of shearing stress to the rate of
condition on the surface of a plastic part shear is constant, as is the case with water and
induced by overexposure to elevated tempera- thin motor oils, the fluid is called a
tures. Newtonian fluid. In the case of non-
Newtonian fluids, the ratio varies with the
thermoplastic. A thermoplastic is a material shearing stress, and viscosities of such fluids
that goes through a physical change only are called apparent viscosities.
under the application of heat and pressure.
The material can be remelted and rehardened. viscosity coefficient. The shearing stress nec-
Wax would be an example of the thermo- essary to induce a unit velocity flow gradient
plastic concept. in a material. Note: In actual measurement,
the viscosity coefficient of a material is
thermoset. A material that undergoes a obtained from the ratio of shearing stress to
chemical reaction by the application of heat shearing rate. This assumes the ratio to be
and pressure. The material is softened, constant and independent of the shearing
formed, and hardened. It cannot be remelted stress, a condition which is satisfied only by
and rehardened. Newtonian fluids. Consequently, in all other
cases, values obtained are apparent and
trim. To remove flash or sharp edges and represent one point on the flow curve. In the
corners mechanically or by hand from a metric system, the viscosity coefficient is
molding. expressed in poises, units being dyne-sec per
cm2.
vent. Minute opening in the cavity of a mold
to allow for escapement of trapped gases viscous flow. A type of fluid movement in
released during the molding cycle. which all particles of the fluid flow in a
straight line parallel to the axis of a
viscosity, dynamic. A measure of the internal containing pipe or channel, with little or no
friction resulting when one layer of fluid is mixing or turbidity.
caused to move in relationship to another
layer. The units of measure are (1) the poise voids. Gaseous pockets that have been
(shear stress in dynes per cm2 divided by the trapped and cured into a laminate or molding;
rate of shear in seconds); (2) the centipoise an unfilled space in a cellular plastic
(one one-hundredth of a poise); (3) the substantially larger than the characteristic
stroke, an expression of kinematic viscosity, individual cells.
(viscosity in poises divided by the fluid
density, i.e., units of cm2 per sec); and (4) the warpage. Distortion in a plastic part after the
centistoke (one one-hundredth of a stoke). molding operation.
G-6
AMCP 706-312
weld line. Sometimes called a knit line or the flow of material or incomplete fusion
flow line. A visible line on the surface of a of the material when joining,
plastic part caused by the interruption of
G-7/G-8
AMCP 706-312
INDEX
Axes
centerline, 4-5
ABS See: Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene major, 3-6
Acetal copolymers, 7-2 minor, 3-6
glass fiber reinforced, 7-2, 7-4 rotation rate, 4-5
military applications, 7-2 Axial speed, 4-11
Acrylic polymers, 4-12 vs oven cycle time, 4-6
Acrylics, 4-17 vs shape, 4-6
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS),
4-13,4-17,5-2,7-4 B
raw material parameters, 7-6
process parameters, 7-6 Bent strip test, 5-2, 5-3
Additives, 7-1 Beryllium-copper, 2-1,2-13
Agents, mold release, 4-15 Biot number, 4-20
Air convection, 4-2 dimensionless, 4-23
Airflow Blanketing, 4-17
direction, 3-7 internal mold, 3-10
velocity, 3-7 Blisters, 5-7, 7-2
Air voids, 4-16 Blow holes, 5-5, 5-6
ALATHON resins, properties, 7-40 Blowers, 3-9
Aluminum, 2-1,2-3, 2-12 Bosses, 2-3, 2-13
Amorphous Brazing, 2-13
materials, 4-21 Bridging, 5-7
plastics, 4-18 cellulosics, 7-6
Angle Bubbles, 5-6, 5-7, 7-2
draft, 2-10 resin, 4-16
liquid polymer contact, 4-15 Bulk density, 4-1, 4-5
repose, dynamic, 5-1
Antioxidants, 4-18
Appliances, 10-2
Applications Cars, shuttle, 3-5
appliances, 10-2 Castings
automotive, 10-1 ceramic, 2-10
commercial, 10-1 gravity, 2-10
marine, 10-1 molds, 2-11
military, 10-2 pressure, 2-10
miscellaneous, 10-2 sand, 2-11
packaging, 10-1 Cavities
residential, 10-2 machined, 2-9
tanks (containers), 10-2 multiple, 2-12
toys, 10-2 C-clamp, 4-5
Asbestos, 2-2 Cellulose butyrate, 7-6
ASTM Procedures Cellulose propionate, 7-6
Dl895-69, 4-1 Cellulosics, 7-6
D1921-63 Method A or B, 4-1 cooling cycle, 7-8
D2444-70, 5-3 costs, 7-7
Automation, 3-7 drying cycle, 7-7
Automotive applications, 10-1 heating cycle, 7-7
Average powder temperature, 4-11 mold release agents, 7-8
1-1
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
Cellulosics (cont'd) Chord length, initial, powder, 4-11
process equipments, 7-8 Core sections, 2-7
process variables, 7-7 handles, 2-7
properties, 7-8 ribs, 2-7
raw material parameters, 7-6 Corner radii, 6-3, 6-5
rotation rates, 7-7 Costs
suppliers, 7-6 flange mating surfaces, 2-3
Celcon M-90, rotocast, typical materials, 7-1, 7-6, 7-11, 7-15, 7-16, 7-21,
properties, 7-4 7-34, 7-43, 7-50
Chrome plate, 2-1 mold, 2-12, 8-1,9-1,9-3
Circulating oil heaters, 1-2 operation of conventional and hot air
Clamping, 1-2 rotating machines, 9-3
designs, 2-4 unit, 9-2
Color, 8-1 Covers, heat insulation, 4-1
compounded, 7-1 Cracking stress, 5-2, 7-1
compounding, 4-5 Creep resistance, 1-4
compounds, 4-5 Critical surface tension, 4-If
concentrates, 4-5 of solid, 4-15
dry, 7-1 of wetting, 4-15
dry blending, 4-5 Crosslinked high-density polyethylene
Commercial applications, 10-1 See: Polyethylene, high-density crosslinked
Comparison of process characte istics, 8-2 Cubic powder shapes, 5-1,
Complex shapes, 8-1 Cure, degree, 5-2
Composites, 6-1, 6-3 Cut molds, 2-9
double-walled, 8-1 Cycle times, 3-9,4-11, 7-29
Conduction, transient heat optimum, 4-17
theory, 4-8
Conductivity, thermal, 4-19
Contact Defects, part, 4-2
mold powder, 4-10 Degradation
angle, liquid polymer, 4-15 oxidative, 1-2, 4-17
Contamination, part, 3-8 thermal, 4-17, 4-18, 5-2
Conveyor rack: arrangement, 3-1 Delamination, 5-6
Cool air, effect of, 4-18 DELR1N 500, properties, 7-5
Cooling, 3-9, 7-6 Densification, 4-11, 4-13, 5-1, 5-2
cycles, 3-2, 3-9, 4-18, 4-23, 7-3 Frenckel, theory of, 4-13
cycles automatically controlled, 3-5 process, 4-16
cooling, 7-3 Density, 4-11,5-2, 5-3
drying, 7-2 bulk, 4-1,4-5
heating, 3-8, 4-17,7-3 Diffusivity
inert gas, 3-10 ratio of, 4-23
media, 3-10,4-17 ratio of mold and plastic, 4-20
mold, 4-1 thermal, 4-9, 4-11,4-23, 5-2
rapid, effect of, 4-18 Dimensions, linear change in, 4-21
rate, 4-18, 4-21 Discoloration, 4-17, 5-6
slow, effect of, 4-18 Double-walled composites, 8-1
surface rate, 4-22 Draft
thermal, 4-21 angle, 2-10
Copolymers, 7-2 mold, 2-12
acetal, 7-2 Drives, 3-1
1-2
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
Drive systems, 3-6 process variables, 7-11

constant speed, 3-6 properties, 7-14
double centerline mounted, 3-6 raw material parameters, 7-8
variable speed, 3-6 suppliers, 7-8
Dry blend, 4-5 Forced air machine, 4-7
coloring, 4-5 Forces
techniques, 4-5 buoyant, 4-16
Dry blending for color, 4-5 surface tension, 4-16
Dryers, hoppers, 7-28 viscous drag, 4-16
Drying cycle, 7-2, 7-28 Freezing temperature, dimensionless, 4-23
Dynamic, angle of repose, 5-1 Frozen-in stresses, 7-3
Economics Gases
mold costs, 2-12, 3-1,3-3, 3-9, 7-1, 9-1 cooling, 4-18
studies, 9-2 inert, 3-10,4-17
E-CTFE See: Fluorocarbons Gel, percent, 5-2
Ejectors, automatic parts, 8-1 Glass
Electrical resistance heating, 3-9 lengths, 7-32
Electroforming, 2-12 reinforcements, 7-1, 7-4, 8-1
process, 2-13, 2-15 particle size, 7-2
English plating bath, 2-13 Glossy marks, 5-7
Epoxy, 2-12 Gravity castings, 2-10
Ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene advantages, 2-11
See: Fluorocarbons Grinding equipment, 9-1
Ethylene copolymers, properties, 7-43 GSMR See: Nylon 11
Fabrication, molds, 2-8 Heat

Filling, automatic, molds, 3-7, 4-5 capacity, mold, 4-8
Fines, paiiicles, 4-2, 4-3 conduction, transient theory, 4-8
Finishes, 2-11 transfer transient equation, 4-19
Flange mating surfaces, 2-3 Heat transfer, 4-2, 6-4
flat, 2-3 medium, 4-7
offset, 2-3 steam, 4-7
tongue-and-groove, 2-3 to powder, 4-9, 4-10
Hash, 5-6 through mold, 4-19
Flat surface, 6-1 Heat transfer, coefficient, 4-9, 4-19, 4-23
Flow patterns, particle, 4-3 aluminum system, 4-9
Fluid flow, polymers, 4-14, 4-15 forced air system, 4-9
Fluorocarbons, 7-8 hot oil, 4-7
cooling cycle, 7-11 in hot oven, 4-7
cost, 7-11 Heating, 1-2
drying cycle, 7-11 circulating oil heater, 1-2
heating cycle, 7-11 cycles, 3A 3-8, 4-6, 4-17, 5-2, 5-3,
mold release agents, 7-12 7-3, 7-28
process equipment, 7-12 cycles, optimum, 5-3
1-3
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
Heating (cont'd)
direct gas flame, 3-9 Insulation, asbestos, 2-2
hot air circulation ovens, 1-2, 2-3
hot air convection, 1-2, 3-7
infrared ovens, 1-2, 2-2, 3-9
molten hot salt spray, 1-2, 2-2 Kraus-Maffei, 4-9
rate of mold, 4-9 Kuczynski-Neuville viscous
Heating, conduction, 3-7, 3-8 sintering model, 4-11
contact, 4-2
heat transfer liquid, 3-8
hot fluid spray, 3-7
Heating, electrical resistance, 3-9
Heating, induction, 3-9 LEXAN RP700, properties, 7-30
Heavy-walled parts, 10-1 Lid, mold insulating, 2-3
Hobs, 2-9 Life, mold, 2-2
Hollow-wall shapes, 10-1 Liquid, heat transfer, 3-8
Hot oil heat transfer coefficient, 4-7 Loading stations, 3-4
Hot plate experiments, 5-2 Lontz viscoelastic sintering model, 4-11,4-13
Hot spots, 3-7 Low impact strength, 5-7
Hub, rotating center, 3-5 Low temperature impact drop test, 5-2, 5-3
LR3807 polyethylene powder,
I properties, 7-39
Impact, drop, low temperature M

resistance to, 5-2, 5-3
Impact strength, 5-7 Machines,
Impact tester, 5-2 forced hot air, 4-7
Impact vs oven time curve, 5-3 molten salt heat, 4-7
Induction heating, 3-9 multispindle See: Multispindle machines
Inert gas open flame, 3-6
cooling, 3-10,4-17 Madorsky, 4-17
purge, 5-2 Mandrels, 2-12
Infrared heating, 3-9 aluminum, 2-12
Inner common wall, 6-4 epoxy, 2-12
Inserts, mounting, 6-3 materials, 2-12
Ionomer, 7-14 metal, 2-12
cooling cycle, 7-15 nickel-chrome, 2-12
cost, 7-14 wood, 2-12
heating cycle, 7-15 wood grain reproduction, 2-12
mold release agents, 7-15 Manufacture mold, 2-15
process equipment, 7-15 Marine applications, 10-1
process variables, 7-15 McKelvey, 4-21
properties, 7-15 Melt
raw material parameters, 7-14 flow, 4-14
suppliers, 7-15 index, 7-2
Inserts temperature, powder, 4-4, 4-11
metal temperature, range 4-4
metal-plastic MERLON 5300, properties, 7-31
mounting Mesh size, 4-1
plastic Metal, molten, 2-10
\A
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
Microthene fdling, automatic, 3-7

MX11000, properties, 7-49 grain, 2-10
resins, properties, 7-41 heat capacity, 4-8,4-9
Military applications, 10-2 heat transfer, 4-19
Miscellaneous applications, 10-2 heat transfer surface, 4-8
Models, sintering, 4-11 heating rate, 4-9
Kuczynski-Neuville viscous, 4-11 heating system, 3-7
Lontz, viscoelastic, 4-11,4-13 hot liquid machine, as used in, 1-2
Mold-handling systems, 1-2, 3-1 insulation, 2-2
fixed-spindle, 1-2, 3-1 life, 2-2
jacketed, 1-2,3-1, 3-5,3-10 manufacture, 2-15
multiple-spindle, 1-2, 3-1 materials See: Mold materials
ovenless, 1-2, 3-1, 3-5 mounting, 2-4, 3-6
shuttle, 1-2, 3-1 ovens, air convection, as used in, 1-2
single-spindle, 1-2, 3-1, 3-5 porosity, 2-9
Mold materials, 2-1, 2-9, 7-1, 8-1 pretesting, 2-8
aluminum alloys, 2-1 prototype, 8-1
aluminum, cast and fabricated, 2-1 radii corners, 2-7
beryllium-copper, cast and release, 2-15,4-15,6-4
machined, 2-1, 2-13 release agents See: Mold release agents
chrome-plated nickel, electroformed, 2-1 repair, 2-13
chrome-plated stainless steel, 2-1 rotation,. 1-2, 4-5
nickel, cast and machined, 2-1 rubber, 2-11
nickel-copper-nickel, cast and separation, 2-12
machined, 2-1,2-13 split, 1-2, 2-2
stainless steel, 2-1 clamping, 2-3
steel, 2-1 insulating lid, 2-3
steel 10-20 gage, 2-1 insulation, 2-2
tool steel, 2-15 mounting, 2-3, 2-4
Mold release agents, 2-15, 4-15, 4-16 surface, painted, 6-4
baked-on coatings, 7-4 surface to volume ratio, 4-9
permanent coated, 2-15 unloading, automatic, 3-7
polytetrafluoroethylene, 2-15 venting, 1-2,4-17
silicones, 2-15 wall thickness, 1-2, 2-2, 4-19, 6-4,
sprayed on, 7-4 7-3,9-1
sprayed on internal, 4-16 Molecular weight, 4-17
Molds degradation equation, 4-17
blanketing, 4-17 Molten hot salt spray heating, 1-2
charging, 4-1 Mounting bosses, aluminum, 2-3
complex shape, 3-9 Mounting inserts, 6-3
cooling, 3-9, 4-1 Mounting, molds
cost, 2-13, 8-1,9-1,9-2 double centerline, 2-4, 3-6
cut, 2-9 offset arm, 2-4
design, 2-2 Multispindle machines, 3-3
electroformed, 2-12, 2-13 configuration, 3-3
electroformed, reinforced, 2-13 continuous, 3-3
electroformed, repair, 2-13 extra stations, 3-4, 3-5
fabrication, 2-8 extra oven, 3-4
filling, 3-7 heating cycle, 3-4
1-5
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
Multispindle machines (cont'd)

loading stations, 3-4
three stations, 3-4 Packaging applications, 10-1
Painted mold surfaces, 6-4
N Panels, flat, 2-7
Particle
Nickel, 2-1,2-12, 2-13
Nozzles, compressed air, 3-9 cubic, 5-1
Nylon, 4-3 cycle times, 4-3
Nylon 6, 7-16 flat, 4-2
cost, 7-16 flow patterns, 4-3
process variables, 7-16 mesh size, 4-1
raw material parameters, 7-16 shape, 5-1, 5-2
size, 4-2, 4-3
Nylon 6/6, glass reinforced, 7-4
size distribution, 4-1,4-2, 5-1, 7-3
Nylon 11,6-2,7-16
cooling cycle, 7-17 Parting line design, 2-3, 2-7
cost, 7-17 Part
contamination, 3-8
heating cycle, 7-17
defects, 4-2
mold release agents, 7-17
process variables, 7-17 different colors, 8-1,9-1
properties, 7-19 heavy walled, 10-1
mounting, improper, 7-1
suppliers, 7-16 quality, 5-2
Nylon 12,7-9 seamless, 8-1
sizes, 8-1
cost, 7-19
stress free, 8-1
drying cycle, 7-19
thin wall, 4-11
heating cycle, 7-19
Passages, narrow, 4-15, 6-4
mold release agents, 7-19
Pattern, 2-12
process equipment, 7-19
material, 2-8
process variables, 7-19
properties, 7-22 Penetration thickness, thermal, 4-10, 4-20
dimensionless, 4-20
PEP 400, 7-32
suppliers, 7-19
Pigment, 7-1
dispersion, 4-5
Pigmentation, 4-5
OCT, 6-4 Plating
Open flame heating, 3-6 English bath, 2-13
Oven rate, 2-12
cycle times, 4-6, 4-9, 4-11, 5-4, 6-4 time, 2-13
dehumidifying, 7-28 Pock marks, 5-6
extra, 3-4 Polybutylene, 7-1, 7-19
hot air convection, 1-2, 2-2, 2-3, 3-5 cooling cycle, 7-21
infrared, 1-2,2-2 cost, 7-21
rotomolding machine, 7-28 heating cycle, 7-21
set temperature, 4-7, 4-9, 4-11,4-17, 6-4 mold release agents, 7-21
Oxidative degeneration, 1-2, 4-17 process variables, 7-21
1-6
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
properties, 7-21 heating cycle, 7-50

raw material parameters, 7-21 mold release agents, 7-50
suppliers, 7-21 process equipment, 7-52
Polycarbonate, 7-24 process variables, 7-50
cooling cycle, 7-29 properties, 7-52
cost, 7-28 raw material parameters, 7-50
drying cycle, 7-28 suppliers, 7-50
heating cycle, 7-28 Polystyrene, 4-4, 4-12, 4-14, 4-16, 4-17,
mold release agents, 7-29 4-18,4-21,6-3,6-5,7-52
process equipment, 7-29 cooling cycle, 7-54
process variables, 7-28 heating cycle, 7-52
properties, 7-29 mold release agents, 7-54
raw material parameters, 7-24 process equipment, 7-55
suppliers, 7-27 process variables, 7-52
Poly-Eth 3003, properties, 7-39 properties, 7-55
Polyethylene, 4-4 raw material parameters, 7-52
high-density, 4-1 suppliers, 7-52
high-density, crosslinked, 5-2, 5-3, 6-4, Polystyrene, high impact, 4-13
7-1,7-39 Polytetrafluorethylene, 2-15
cooling cycle, 7-47 Polyvinyl chloride, 7-55
cost, 7-43 Porosity, mold, 2-9
heating cycle, 7-43 Pourability, 4-1
mold release agents, 7-47 Powder
molding precautions, 7-47 agglomeration, 4-2
process equipment, 7-48 characteristics, 4-1
process variables, 7-43 fines, 4-2, 4-3, 5-1
properties, 7-50 flow, 4-2
raw material parameters, 7-43 initial chord length, 4-11
suppliers, 7-43 melt temperature, 4-4, 4-11
Polyethylene homopolymers and properties, 4-1
copolymers, 7-31 resins, 4-1
cooling cycles, 7-36 screening, 5-1
cost, 7-34 tails, 4-3
drying cycle, 7-35 temperature profile, 4-10
heating cycle, 7-35 viscosity, 4-3
mold release agents, 7-37 Pressure castings, 2-9, 2-10
process variables, 7-35 Process characteristics, comparison of, 8-2
properties, 7-38 Processing problems, 5-4
raw material parameters, 7-31 blisters, 5-7
suppliers, 7-32 blow holes, 5-5, 5-6
Polymer bridging, 5-7
acrylic, 4-12 bubbles, 5-6, 5-7
crystalline, 4-18, 7-3 delamination, 5-6
fluid flow, 4-14, 4-15 discoloration, 5-5
melt flow, 4-14 flash, 5-6
velocity profile, 4-14 glossy marks, 5-7
Polypropylene, 7-50 low impact strength, 5-7
cooling cycle, 7-50 oven temperature, 5-4
cost, 7-50 pock marks, 5-6
1-7
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
wall thickness, 5-4 Release, molds, 2-15, 4-15

warp age, 5-5 Repair, molds, 2-13
watermarks, 5-7 brazing, 2-13
Processing steps, 4-1 electroformed, 2-13
Production nickel-copper, 2-15
rate, 3-3 pinning, 2-13
runs, 3-5 soldering, 2-13
Productivity, multistage spindle, 3-4 tool steel, 2-15
Profiles welding, 2-13
temperature, 4-23 Residential applications, 10-2
time-temperature, 4-11, 4-12, 4-13, Resins
4-14,4-17,5-2 costs, 7-1, 7-2, 7-6, 7-7, 7-11, 7-14, 7-15,
Prototype molds, 8-1 7-17,7-34,7^3,7-50
Pumping techniques, 3-10 powder, 4-1
Purge, inert gas, 5-2 powder characteristics, 4-1
PVC See: Poly vinyl chloride suppliers, 7-2, 7-21, 7-27, 7-32, 7^3,
7-50, 7-52
vinyl, 2-15
Resistance, creep, 7-4
Quality, part, 5-2 Rigid foam reinforcements, 7-2, 8-1
Rotational mold
flange mating surfaces, 2-3
materials, 1-2
Radii, corner, 6-3, 6-5 Rotational molding
Rao and Throne advantages, 8-1
densification, 5-2 applications, 1-3
effect of excessive temperature, 4-17 definition, 1-1
molds with sharp corners, 4-16 disadvantages, 8-1
narrow passages, 6-4 equipment suppliers, 3-16
polymer melt flow, 4-14 history, 1-1
rotational molding, 4-9 materials, 1-1
screening experiment, 5-1 ratio, 3-6
sintering model, 4-12, 4-13 Rotational ratio, 3-6, 6-3
surface porosity, 4-16
Ratio Rotational speeds, 4-6, 7-3
mold and plastic thermal ratio, 4-6, 7-3
diffusivity, 4-20 ratios vs shape, 4-6
mold surface to volume, 4-9 Rotational systems, double centerline
rotational, 6-3 biaxial, 3-6
rotational speeds, 4-6 Rotocasting, definition, 1-1
Raw material parameters, 7-2 Rotomolding
Reinforcements criteria for selection, 1-2
glass, 7-1, 8-1 definition, 1-1
rigid foam, 7-2, 8-1 machine, oven, 7-28
Relative humidity, 7-2 processes, 1-1
Release agents, 2-15 advantages, 1-3
polytetrafluorethylene, 2-15 charging, 1-2
semipermanent fluid, 2-15 clamping, 1-2
silicones, 2-15 cooling, 1-2
1-8
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
disadvantages, 1-3 Sprays

heating, 1-2 hot fluid, 3-7, 3-8
part removal, 1 -2 water, 4-18
rotation, 1-2 Stations, loading, 3-4
Rubber mold, 2-11 Steel, 2-1,2-15
Strength
impact, 4-5, 5-2, 5-7
tensile, 4-17
Salt heat machine, 4-7 Stress, cracking, 5-2, 7-1
Sand casting, 2-11 Stress-free parts, 8-1
equipment, 2-11 Stresses, "frozen in", 7-3
Scrap, 8-1, 9-1 Styrene, 7-2
Screening powder, 5-1 Surface
Seamless parts, 8-1 appearance, 7-3
Shape flat, 6-1
complex, 8-1 Surface heat transfer, 4-8
hollow, 10-1 Surface tension, critical
powder, ideal, 5-1 of solid, 4-15
Shrinkage, 2-13, 6-3, 6-4, 7-3 of wetting, 4-15
metal, 2-10 SURLYN See: Ionomer
plastic, 2-9, 2-11
rate, 2-11
Sieves, U.S. Standard, 4-2
Silicones, 2-15 Tacky powder temperature, 5-2
Single-spindle machines, 1-2, 3-1 Tails, powder, 4-3
pivot, 3-3 Tanks (container) applications, 10-2
straight line shuttle, 3-3 Tank, melting, 3-8
Sinter melting, 4-11, 4-14, 4-16 Teflon, 4-13
Sintering, 4-11,4-16,5-2 Temperature
Sintering models, 4-11 controls, 3-9
Kuczynski-Neuville viscous model, 4-12 freezing, dimensionless, 4-13
Lontz viscoelastic model, 4-11 hot spots, 3-7
Slip-stick phenomenon, 5-1 melt, 4-4, 4-11
Soldering, 2-13 oven, 3-7
silver, 2-13 oven set, 4-7, 4-9, 4-11,4-17, 64, 7-3
Space, 9-1 powder, average, 4-11
Specific heat, 4-2 powder, tacky, 5-2
Speed profiles, 4-19, 4-23
axial vs oven cycle time, 4-6 Tensile strength, 4-17
axial vs shape, 4-6 Tester impact, 5-2
rotational, 4-6 TFE, 4-13
Spencer and Boyer, 4-21 Thermal
Spiders, 24, 3-1,4-1,4-5 cooling, 4-21
design, 2-4 degradation, 4-17, 5-2
materials, 2-4 penetration thickness, 4-10, 4-19, 4-20
round, 2-4 Thermodynamic indexing machine, 3-1
square, 2-4 Thickness, thermal penetration, 4-10,
Spots, thin, 3-9 4-19,4-20
1-9
AMCP 706-312
INDEX (Cont'd)
Thin spots, 3-9 Vinyl resin, 2-15

Thin wall parts, 4-11 Viscosity, 6-5
Threads Newtonian, 4-14
buttress, 6-1 powder, 4-3
internal, 6-1 Voids, 6-5
round glass bottle, 6-1 air, 4-16
Throne Volumetric changes, 4-21
cooling rates, 4-18, 4-21
temperature profiles, 4-23 W
Time cycles, 3-9
Time-temperature profiles, 4-11, 4-12, Wall
4-13,4-14,4-17,5-2 common, inner, 6-4
Tooling, 8-1 thickness, mold, 1-2, 2-2, 4-9, 4-19,
Toys, 10-2 6-3,6-4,7-3,9-1
Transient heat thickness, part, 4-1, 4-3, 4-5, 4-11,
conduction equation, 4-18 5-4,6-4
transfer equation, 4-19 Warpage, 3-9, 4-18, 5-5, 6-1, 7-3, 8-1
Two-spindle machine, 3-3 Water spray, 4-18
Watermarks, 5-7
U Weighing systems, automatic, 3-7
Welding, 2-13
Undercuts, 6-1 Wenzel's equation, 4-15
Unloading, molds, automatic, 3-7 Wood
grain reproduction, 2-12
V mandrel, 2-12
Velocity profile, 4-15

Venting, mold, 4-17
Vents, 1-2,2-8 Zisman, critical surface tension, 4-15
design, 2-8
1-10
(AMCRD-TV) AMCP 706-312
FOR THE COMMANDER:
ROBERT L. KIRWAN
Brigadier General, USA
Chief of Staff
*•■
:AS
Colonel, GS
Chief, HQ Admin Mgt Ofc
DISTRIBUTION:
Special
ft U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1975 580-859/732JA

Engineering Design

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AMCP-706-312

AMC PAMPHLET AMCP 706-312

HEADQUARTERS, U S ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND APRIL 1975

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS viii

1-1 Definition 1-1

CHAPTER 2. ROTATIONAL MOLDS

2-1 General 2-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

2—3.8 Core Sections, Ribs, and Handles 2—7

3-1 Mold-handling Systems 3-1

CHAPTER 4. PROCESSING PARAMETERS

4-1 General 4-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

4-2.5 Pigmentation 4-5

CHAPTER 5. QUALITY CONTROL

5-1 General . . . 5-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

CHAPTER 6. PART DESIGN

7—1 Criteria for Selection 7—1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

7-5.3 Mold Release Agents 7-12

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

1-9 A Equipment 7-29

CHAPTER 8. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd»

9-1 General 9-1

CHAPTER 10. APPLICATIONS

10-1 General 10-1

Figure No. Title Page

2-1 Three Types of Flange Mating Surfaces

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Figure No. Title Page

4—7 Idealized Flow Configuration 4-10

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Cont'd)

Figure No. Title Page

7-10 Effect of Heating Time on Melt Index of

Table No. . Title Page

2—1 Thermal Conductivities of the Metals for

LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd)

Table No. Title Page

7—27 Typical Physical Properties of Microthene®

a =~~ particle radius, cm

b' = experimental constant

Bi = Biot number, hlkm, dimensionless

c = mold specific heat, Btu/lb-°F

cPs = polymer specific heat, Btu/lb-°F

g = acceleration due to gravity; ft/sec2, cm/sec2

h = heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft2-hr-°F

k = thermal conductivity, Btu/ft2-hK°F/ft)

ks = polymer thermal conductivity, Btu/ft2-hr-(°F/ft)

K{T) - function of temperature

T = instantaneous void radius, cm

r0 = initial void radius, cm

^ = characteristic dimension of powder, length

R'a = bulk rate of cooling

Rs = surface rate of cooling

r = time; sec, min, hr

te = total time powder is in contact with mold

LIST OF SYMBOLS (Cont'd)

= time of powder free fall, min

= time of initial powder contact with mold, min