Piping& Flanges

Chapter (3)
Piping&
flanges
3.1 Purpose of piping and their material
classification (metallic, non-metallic)
3.1.1Definition and Application of Piping
3.1.1.1Piping History
• Pipe or reasonable facsimiles to modern pipe
began to appear as people started to live in
towns.
• That move created the need to transfer water
from the source, usually a stream or spring, to
some central place in the town.
• Archaeologists have found earthenware pipes
with flanged ends dating to 2700 B.C.
• These flanges were joined with asphalt rather
than bolted, as are modern flanges.
3.1.1.1Piping History
• Evidence of the use of metal pipe goes as far
back as the 2400s B.C.
• This pipe was made from copper in Egypt.
• Many other archaeological finds confirm the
use of pipe to convey water from sources as
distant as several miles to the places of use.
3.1.1.2 What Is Piping?
• This question seems very basic, but it is
seemingly confusing to some. The prime
function of piping is to transport fluids from
one location to another.
• Pressure vessels, on the other hand, basically
store and process fluids.
• Can piping be used as pressure vessels? Yes,
it‘s done all the time; however, when piping is
used as stamped ASME vessels, it no longer
falls under the piping codes, but the vessel
codes (e.g., ASME Section 8 Div. 1).
• The allowable stresses in piping are

categorized differently than those for
vessels.
• In piping, for example, sustained stress
and expansion stress are used versus
primary and secondary stresses for
pressure vessels.
Piping overstressed for
- Expansion Load Case and
- Sustained (weight + pressure) Load Case
Primary and Secondary Stresses
A primary stress is related to mechanical
loading directly and satisfies force and
moment equilibrium. Primary stress that
exceeds the yield stress by some margin will
result in failure.
By contrast, secondary stresses are those
arising from geometric discontinuities or
stress concentrations.
• The word ―piping‖ generally refers to in-plant
piping—process piping, utility piping, etc.—
inside a plant facility.
• The word ―pipeline‖ refers to a long pipe
running over distances transporting liquids or
gases.
• Pipelines do often extend into process facilities
(e.g., process plants and refineries).
• Do not confuse piping with pipelines; they

have different design codes and different
functions.
• Each one has unique problems that do not exist

in the other.
Difference between pipe and tube
The main difference between pipe and tube is the
critical dimension used to describe the pipe size or
the tube size. For pipes, internal diameter (ID)
roughly corresponds to the nominal pipe size.
For tubes, the outer diameter (OD) roughly

corresponds to the tube size.
Difference between pipe and tube (cont.)
Sometimes when you are working on your
bachelor degree online this is the kind of topic you
will come across. It is good to be prepared.
This correspondence between the internal / outer

diameter and the nominal tube or pipe size is not
exact.
The pipe internal diameter is not exactly equal to
nominal pipe size but deviates from the nominal
diameter, depending on the schedule.
Similarly, the tube outer diameter is not exactly

equal to the tube size, depending on tube wall
thickness.
Pipe wall thickness is defined by the ‗pipe
schedule‘ and tube wall thickness is defined by the
‗Birmingham wire gauge‘ for tubes.
Other than the method and critical dimension used

for defining nominal sizes, there is no difference
between pipes and tubes.
Pipes and tubes can be made from the same range
of materials and can handle the same services.
The difference between pipes and tubes only

comes into picture for defining the standard
dimensions.
• Do not confuse piping with pipelines; they

have different design codes and different
functions.
• Each one has unique problems that do not exist

in the other.
3.1.2 Classification of pipe
3.1.2.1 Pipe classification selection
• Pipes are classified by DN-PN, i.e. nominal
diameter and nominal pressure.
• Selecting the proper pipe class entails

optimizing the benefits of each of these
parameters.
• Diameter
• Selection of diameter is based on expected
flow and acceptable head-loss.
• The expected flow depends on the service of

the pipeline, while the head-loss depends on
water velocity and the flow characteristics of
the pipe.
• Diameter
• For pressure pipes the acceptable head loss
depends on the price of energy.
• In most cases economical flow velocity is 1-3

m/s, and most pipelines are designed for that
range.
• Diameter
• However, the acceptable flow velocity for fiber
pipes may be as high as 6 m/s, or even higher
under certain conditions.
• Pressure class
The pressure class of pipes is determined by its
long-term performance, i.e. the pressure rating
is based on 50-year design strain, with
appropriate safety factor.
3.1.2.2 Manufacturing Methods
• There are four methods used to produce steel
pipe:
1. Fusion Weld,
2. Electric Resistance Weld,
3. Seamless and
4. Double Submerged Arc Weld.

• Fusion Weld
• One process for producing pipe is Fusion
Weld, sometimes called ―Continuous Weld‖
and is produced in sizes 1/8‖ to 4-1/2‖.
• Fusion Weld pipe begins as coiled steel of the

required width and thickness for the size and
weight of pipe to be made.
• Fusion Weld
• Successive coils of steel are welded end to end
to form a continuous ribbon of steel.
• The ribbon of steel is fed into a leveler and

then into a gas furnace where it is heated to the
required temperature for forming and fusing.
• Fusion Weld
• The forming rolls at the end of the furnace
shape the heated skelp into an oval.
• The edges of the skelp are then firmly pressed

together by rolls to obtain a forged weld.
• Fusion Weld
• The heat of the skelp, combined with the
pressure exerted by the rolls, form the weld.
• No metal is added into the operation. Final

sizing rolls bring the pipe into its required
dimensions.
• Seamless Pipe (SMLS)
• Seamless Pipe is made when steel in a solid, round
cylindrical shape, called a ―billet‖ or a ―tube round‖
is heated and then either pushed or pulled (while
being rapidly rotated)over a mandrel with a piercing
point positioned in the center of the billet. This
activity produces a hollow tube or ―shell‖.
• The tube is then further finished until it becomes
the size and wall thickness desired. (Because the
pipe is formed in a heated manner the pipe is
normalized and should have a consistent steel
cellular pattern throughout its circumference).
• Seamless pipe is made in sizes from 1/8‖ to
26‖ and is widely used in construction, oil
refining, chemical and petro-chemical
industries.
• It is available in heavy wall thicknesses and
exotic chemistries, and is suitable for coiling,
flanging and threading.
• It is, however, expensive, in short supply and

unavailable in long lengths.
• Electric Resistance Weld
• The processing of Electric Resistance Welded
(ERW) pipe begins as a coiled plate of steel
with appropriate thickness and specific width
to form a pipe that conforms to its relevant
specification. ERW pipe is cold formed.
• The ribbon is pulled through a series of rollers
that gradually form it into a cylindrical tube.
• As the edges of the now cylindrical plate come

together, an electric charge is applied at the
proper points to heat the edges so they can be
welded together.
• Electric Resistance Welded pipe is a high
speed production product that can be made in
continuous lengths up to115‘.
• It produces uniform wall thicknesses and

outside dimensions and is made in a wide
range of specifications.
• It does, however, require minimum tonnage to
set up on a specific size and sometimes has
long lead times.
• Spiral Weld
• Spiral weld pipe is a steel pipe having a
DSAW (Double Submerged Arc Weld) seam
the entire length of the pipe in a spiral form.
• The outside diameters determined by the angle

of the de-coiled steel against the forming head.
• Spiral Weld
• The production of large, hot rolled coils of
sufficient width and the development of
dependable non-destructive testing methods
has enabled this product to be placed in more
demanding service.
• Spiral Weld
• Spiral weld pipe can be rolled in exact lengths
up to 115 feet in either ID or OD dimensions
up to144 inches.
3.1.2.3 Weight and Size – Standards STD ,
Extra Strong XS , Double Extra Strong
XXS etc.
Permissible Variations in Outside Diameter
• NPS 1-1/2 and under ± 1/64‖
• NPS 2 ± 1/32‖
Permissible Variations in Weight per Foot
• Pipe shall not vary more than 10% over
and3.5% under the standard specified.
ASTM A 106 Seamless Pressure Pipe Grades A & B
ASTM A 106 Seamless Pressure Pipe Grades A & B
XXS etc.
Product Marking
• Each length of pipe is continuously stenciled
to show the manufacturer, specification
(A106),size (O.D. & wall), ―A & B‖ for
Grades A & B, length and heat number.
XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
• Checklist of information needed for orders and
inquiries.
• Any pipe order or inquiry should be
accompanied by as much of the following
information as possible:
XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
1. Specification – Type and Grade (i.e.: ASTM
A53Gr B, type E ERW).
2. Quantity (feet, meters, number of lengths, or

net tons).
XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
3. Dimensions or Size (if there are any alternates
or substitutes that can be used, please specify).
• a.
• b.
3-a. Nominal Pipe Size (NPS), wall thickness, nominal
or minimum wall thickness, outside diameter, weight
class or weight per foot, and/or schedule number.
Note: With Fence Pipe and Fence Tubing there is
always a chance for confusion between Nominal size,
Fence size, and O.D. (Outside Diameter) sizes.
Therefore, it is a good rule always to order fence pipe
in the O.D. size, specifying both the wall thickness
and the weight per foot.
3-b. Lengths; Specific or Random. Whenever possible ask for 21
ft., 40 ft., or 42ft. Uniform Lengths. A length tolerance should
be specified (for example, the normal foreign mill tolerance is
minus zero inch plus 2 inches). Single Random Lengths (SRL)
are usually 16 to 22 feet, with a minimum average of 17 ft. 6
inches. Double Random Lengths (DRL) are generally supplied
in lengths of 35 to 45 feet, with a minimum average of 35 feet
on the entire shipment. Try to avoid ordering SRL‘s or DRL‘s
to simplify accounting and shipping.
ASTM F1083 - 13
Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Hot-Dipped Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Welded, for
Fence Structures
XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
4. Specific Requirements: End Finish (Plain End,
Beveled, T&C), Type of Coating (Black,
Lacquered), etc.
5. Delivery Requirements (Time and Place).

XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
6. Packing (Pieces per Lift or Bundle) and
Marking Requirements.
XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
7. Mill Test Certificates or Inspection Reports, if
needed, stating that the material has been
manufactured, sampled, tested, and inspected
in accordance with the latest revision of the
specification.
XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
8. Specify the end use or any other information
that might be significant in producing or
supplying the ordered product (such as close
coiling, water-well, etc.).
3.1.2.3 Weight and Size – Standards STD , Extra
Strong XS , Double Extra Strong XXS etc.
Pipe Order Guide
9. Any special packaging or preservation
requirements.
10. Any special shipping instructions such as,

"Load cargo for Direct Discharge onto Barge,"
"Tarp Load," etc.
3.1.2.4 Applications or Uses
• Applications including:
1. Drainage systems
2. Sanitary and storm sewers
3. Potable water transmission and distribution
4. Process piping
5. Gravity sewers
6. Pressure water systems
7. Pipelines transporting gas or liquid over
long distances
3.1.2.5 Pressure Temperature Rating System
• Pipes and various pipe fittings are most
commonly classified based on their pressure
temperature rating.
• The most common way of specifying pipe
pressure temperature rating is given by ASME
16.5, using pound ratings (or lb ratings) – #150,
#300, #400, #600, #900, #1500 and #2500.
• The pressure rating or pound rating for a pipe is
determined using the design pressure and
design temperature for the pipe.
• Among other methods of classification by using
pressure temperature ratings is ‗Pressure
Nominal‘ or PN number method. This PN
number is a rough indicator of pressure rating
in bar.
• Pressure rating or pound rating of a pipe is
dependent on the pipe material and design
temperature.
• The pipe pressure rating for the same material

changes at different temperatures.
• For the same material and constant design
pressure, different pressure ratings are applicable
over different ranges of design temperatures.
• As the design temperature increases the pressure

rating requirement for the pipe also increases for
the same design pressure.
• It should be noted that the pound rating for the
whole piping system is equal to the pound
rating of the weakest part, having the lowest
pressure rating in the system.
• The weakest part may be any piping component
or fitting which contains the pressure in the
system and has the lowest pound rating due to
any possible reasons.
ANSI B16.5 -
Maximum Pressure
and Temperature
Ratings
Maximum allowable
non-shock pressure
(psig) and
temperature ratings
for steel pipe flanges
and flanged fittings
according the
American National
Standard ANSI
B16.5 – 1988
• Based on ASME B16.5

• Acceptable pressure/temperature
combinations
• Seven classes (150, 300, 400, 600, 900,
1,500, 2,500)
• Flange strength increases with class number
• Material and design temperature combinations
without pressure indicated not acceptable
Pressure - Temperature Ratings
Sample Problem 1
Flange Rating
• New piping system to be installed at
existing plant.
• Determine required flange class.
• Pipe Material: (1 ¼ Cr – ½ Mo )
• Design Temperature: 700°F
• Design Pressure: 500 psig

Sample Problem 1 Solution
• Determine Material Group Number
Group Number = 1.9
• Find allowable design pressure at intersection
of design temperature and Group
• No. Check Class 150.
– Allowable pressure = 110 psig < design
pressure
– Move to next higher class and repeat steps
• For Class 300, allowable pressure = 570 psig
• Required flange Class: 300
3.1.3 Piping Material Specifications –
ASME / ASTM
3.1.3 Piping Material Specifications – ASME / ASTM
3.1.3.1 American Society of Testing and Materials
• The American Society of Testing and Materials

specifications cover materials for many
industries, and they are not restricted to the
process sector and associated industries.
• Therefore, many ASTM specifications are not

relevant to this book and will never be referred
to by the piping engineer.
• We include passages from a number of the most

commonly used ASTM specifications.
• This gives the piping engineer an overview of

the specifications and scope in one book, rather
than several ASTM books, which carry
specifications a piping engineer will never use.
• It is essential that at the start of a project, the

latest copies of all the relevant codes and
standards are available to the piping engineer.
• All ASTM specification identifiers carry a prefix
followed by a sequential number and the year of issue;
for example, A105/A105M-02,Standard Specification
for Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping Applications,
breaks down as follows:
– A = prefix.
– 105 = sequential number.
– M means that this specification carries metric units.
– 02 = 2002, the year of the latest version.
– Official title Standard Specification for Carbon
Steel Forgings for Piping Applications.
• The complete range of ASTM prefixes are A, B,

C, D, E, F, G, PS, WK; however, the piping
requirements referenced in ASME B31.3, which
is considered our design ‗‗bible,‘‘ call for only
A, B, C, D, and E.
General ASTM Classifications
A: Ferrous Metals
B: Nonferrous Metals
C: Cementitious, Ceramic, Concrete, and
Masonry Materials
D: Miscellaneous Materials
E: Miscellaneous Subjects
F: Materials for Specific Applications
G: Corrosion, Deterioration, and Degradation of
Materials
H:Joint Committee and District Recipients
• The requirements of an ASTM specification
cover the following:
Chemical requirements (the significant
chemicals used in the production and the
volumes).
Mechanical requirements (yield, tensile

strength, elongation, hardness).
Method of manufacture.
Heat treatment.
Weld repairs.
Tolerances.
Certification.
Markings.
Supplementary notes.
• If a material satisfies an ASTM standard, then
the various characteristics of the material are
known and the piping engineer can confidently
use the material in a design, because the
allowable stresses and the strength of the
material can be predicted and its resistance
against the corrosion of the process is known.
3.1.3.2 Ferrous Material Specifications
• Ferrous metals
These are metals and alloys containing a

high proportion of the element iron.
They are the strongest materials available

and are used for applications where high
strength is required at relatively low cost and
where weight is not of primary importance.
• Ferrous metals
As an example of ferrous metals such as:

bridge building, the structure of large
buildings, railway lines, locomotives and
rolling stock and the bodies and highly
stressed engine parts of road vehicles.
• Ferrous metals
The ferrous metals themselves can also be

classified into ―families', and these are shown
in figure 4.
Figure 4- Classification of ferrous metals
• Ferrous metals
ASTM, A53, Standard Specification for Pipe,

Steel, Black and Hot- Dipped, Zinc-Coated,
Welded and Seamless.
□ This specification covers seamless and welded

black and hot-dipped galvanized steel pipe in
NPS 1⁄8 to NPS 26.
ASTM, A53
Chemical Requirements:
Type E Type F
(electric- (furnace-
Type S resistance welded) welded pipe)
(seamless)
Grade A Grade B Grade A Grade B Grade A
Carbon max. % 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.30 0.3

Manganese % 0.95 1.2 0.95 1.2 1.2
Phosphorous, max. % 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Sulfur, max. % 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045
Copper, max.% 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.4
Nickel, max. % 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.4
Chromium, max. % 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.4
Molybdenum, max. % 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Vanadium, max. % 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
ASTM, A53
Mechanical Requirements:
Grade Minimum Tensile Minimum Yield

Strength, ksi (MPa) Strength, ksi (MPa)
A 48.0 (330) 30.0 (205)

B 60.0 (415) 35.0 (240)
• Ferrous metals
ASTM, A106, Standard Specification for
Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-
Temperature Service
This specification covers seamless carbon steel
pipe for high temperature service in NPS 1⁄8 –
NPS 48 inclusive, with nominal (average) wall
thickness as given in ANSI B 36.10.
ASTM, A106
Chemical Requirements:
Grade A Grade B Grade C
Carbon max. % 0.25 0.30 0.35
Manganese % 0.27 to 0.93 0.29 to 1.06 0.29 to 1.06
Phosphorous, max. % 0.035 0.035 0.035
Sulfur, max. % 0.035 0.035 0.035
Silicon, min.% 0.10 0.10 0.10
Chrome, max. % 0.40 0.40 0.40
Copper, max. % 0.40 0.40 0.40
Molybdenum, max. % 0.15 0.15 0.15
Nickel, max. % 0.40 0.40 0.40
Vanadium, min.% 0.08 0.08 0.08
ASTM, A106
Grade Minimum Tensile Minimum Yield

Strength, ksi (MPa) Strength, ksi (MPa)
A 48.0 (330) 30.0 (205)
B 60.0 (415) 35.0 (240)
C 70.0 (485) 40.0 (275)

• Ferrous metals
Forged or Rolled Alloy-Steel Pipe
Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts
for High-Temperature Service
This specification covers forged low-alloy and
stainless steel piping components for use in
pressure systems. Included are flanges, fittings,
valves, and similar parts to specified
dimensions or dimensional standards.
ASTM, A182 Chemical Requirements:
ASTM, A182
ASTM, A182
ASTM, A182
• Ferrous metals
Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel
• Bolting Materials for High-Temperature Service
• This specification covers alloy and stainless
steel bolting material for pressure vessels and
flanges and fittings for high temperature
service.
• Ferrous metals
• The term bolting material, as used in the
specification, covers bars, bolts, screws, studs,
stud bolts, and wire. Bare and wire is hot
wrought. The material may be further processed
by center less grinding or cold drawing.
• Ferrous metals
• Austenitic stainless steel may be carbide treated
and strain hardened.
• Nuts for use with this bolting material are
covered in ASTM A194.
• Ferrous metals
Carbon and Alloy Nuts for Bolts for High-
Pressure or High-Temperature Service or Both
• This specification covers a variety of carbon,
alloy, and martensitic stainless steel nuts in the
range 1⁄4 in. through 4 in. (metricM6 through
M100 nominal).
• Ferrous metals
Carbon and Alloy Nuts for Bolts for High-
Pressure or High-Temperature Service or Both
• It also covers austenitic steel nuts in the size
range 1⁄4 in. (M6 nominal) and above.
• These nuts are intended for high-pressure or
high-temperature service or both.
3.1.3.3Non Ferrous Material Specifications
Non – ferrous metals
These materials refer to the remaining metals

known to mankind.
The pure metals are rarely used as structural

materials as they lack mechanical strength.
They are used where their special properties
such as corrosion resistance, electrical
conductivity and thermal conductivity are
required.
Copper and aluminum are used as electrical
conductors and, together with sheet zinc and
sheet lead, are use as roofing materials.
They are mainly used with other metals to

improve their strength.
Some widely used non-ferrous metals and

alloys are classified as shown in figure 5.
3.1.3 Piping Material Specifications – ASME
/ ASTM
Figure 5- Classification of non-ferrous metals and alloys

/ ASTM
/ ASTM
3.2 Flanges and gaskets
3.2.1Types of Flanges
3.2.1 Definition of Flange
• A flange is a method of connecting pipes,

valves, pumps and other equipment to form
a piping system. It also provides easy access for
cleaning, inspection or modification.
3.2.1 Definition of Flange
• Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged

joints are made by bolting together
two flanges with a gasket between them to
provide a seal.
3.2.2 Types of Flanges based on Face
and Application,-. Forged Steel and
Cast Iron Flanges
Types of Flange
Attachment and Facing
3.2.2 Types of Flanges based on Face and
Application,-. Forged Steel and Cast Iron Flanges
3.2.2.1 Flange Faces
• With flange Face the form and implementation of the
side of a flange are meant, where a sealing ring or
gasket will be placed. The most used types are:
1. Raised Face (RF)
2. Flat Face (FF)
3. Ring-Type Joint (RTJ)
4. Male-and-Female (M&F)
5. Tongue-and-Groove (T&G)
Flange Facing Types
Raised Face
Unconfined Gasket
• Mating face is flat, but the
area inside the bolt holes is
raised 1/16" or 1/4―
• Gasket is usually ring type,
entirely within bolts
• Flanges may be
disassembled easily
without springing the
flange
Flange Facing Types
Raised Face
Flange Facing Types
Flat Face
Unconfined Gasket
• Mating faces of both
flanges are flat.
• Gasket may be ring
type, or full face, which
covers the entire face
both inside and outside
the bolts.
Flange Facing Types
Flat Face
Flange Facing Types
Ring Joint
Also Called "API Joint“
• Both flange faces have
matching flat-bottomed grooves
with sides tapered from the
vertical at 23º
• Gasket seats on flat section of
flange between bore and ring
joint groove
• Garlock spiral wound gaskets
can replace solid metal ring
gaskets
Ring Joint
Flange Facing Types
Male-Female
• Depth of female (recessed) face
normally equal to or less than
height of male (raised) face, to
prevent metal-to-metal contact
during gasket compression
• Recessed O.D. normally is not
more than 1/16" larger than the
O.D. of the male face
• Joint must be pried apart for
disassembly
Flange Facing Types
Tongue and Groove
• Groove depth is equal to or less
than tongue height
• Groove usually not over 1/16"
wider than tongue
• Gasket dimensions will
match tongue dimensions
• Joint must be pried apart for
disassembly
Groove to Flat
Flange Facing Types
• One flange face is flat, the
other is recessed
• For applications requiring
accurate control of gasket
compression
• Only resilient gaskets are
recommended —spiral
wound, hollow metal O-ring,
pressure-actuated, and metal-
jacketed gaskets
3.2.3 Threaded Flanges , Slip-on Flanges, Socket-
Welded Flanges , Welded- Neck Flanges , Blind
Flanges
3.2.2.1 Flange Faces
Flanges
Weld neck flange
• A Weld Neck Flange is drilled with the wall

thickness of the Flange having equal
dimensions to the matching pipe.
• The lighter the pipe is the larger the bore is in

the Weld Neck Flange.
Flanges
Weld neck flange (cont.)
• And conversely the heavier the pipe is the

smaller the bore is in the Weld Neck Flange.
Weld Neck Flanges are usually used in high
pressure systems and are suitable for cold or hot
temperatures.
Flanges
Weld neck flange (cont.)
Flanges
Slip on flange
• A Slip on Flange is slightly larger than the outer

diameter of the pipe it is to be used with.
• The pipe is slipped into the Flange prior to

welding both inside and outside.
Flanges
Slip on flange
• High quality Slip on Flanges are ideal for lower

pressure applications.
• The Slip on Flange's ease of fitting and welding

also reduces fabrication costs.
Flanges
Slip on flange
Flanges
Socket weld flange
• A Socket Weld Flange is similar to a Slip On
Flange, however Socket Weld Flanges have an

internal recess on the inside diameter to allow
for a smoother flow of the process fluid.
Flanges
Socket weld flange
• This creates a smooth bore with the proper
welding and grinding. However a Socket Weld

Flange can be more expensive than a Slip on
Flange due to the more intricate machining.
Flanges
Socket weld flange
• Socket Weld Flanges were initially developed
for use on smaller sizes of pipe at higher

pressure ratings.
Flanges
Socket weld flange
Flanges
Lap joint flange
• A Lap Joint Flange is usually used in

conjunction with Lap Joint Stubs. Lap Joint
Flanges in carbon or low alloy steel piping
systems are best used when frequent dismantling
for inspection and cleaning is required.
Flanges
Lap joint flange
• The use of Lap Joint
Flanges at points where
severe bending stress
occurs should be avoided.

Flanges
Threaded flange
• A Threaded Flange is usually confined to a
special application.
• The main benefit of a Threaded Flange is that it

can be assembled without welding which makes
it perfect for extremely high pressure services.
Flanges
Threaded flange
• Sometimes a seal weld is also used in
conjunction with the threaded connection of the

Flange.
Flanges
Threaded flange
• A Threaded Flange is unsuited for conditions
involving temperature or bending stresses of

any magnitude.
Flanges
Threaded flange
• Particularly under cyclic conditions where
leakage through the threads may occur in

relatively few cycles of heating or stress.
Flanges
Threaded flange
Flanges
Blind flange
• A Blind Flange is a Flange which has no bore

hole and consequently it is used to close the end
of a piping system.
Flanges
Blind flange
• The Blind Flange is sometimes machined to

accept a pipe of the nominal size to which
reduction is being made.
• The Blind Flange reduction can be either

threaded or welded.
Flanges
Blind flange
• A Blind Flange also allows easy access to a line

once it has been sealed
3.2.4 Gaskets – Types& Thickness
3.2.4.1 Gaskets
• A gasket (correct terminology is a "joint" made

from "jointing material") is a mechanical
seal which fills the space between two or more
mating surfaces, generally to prevent leakage
from or into the joined objects while
under compression.
3.2.4.1 Gaskets
• The function of a gasket is to conform to the

irregularities of the flange faces to affect a seal,
preventing the inside fluid from leaking out.
• The leak performance of the gasket is dependent

on the stress on the gasket during operation.
3.2.4.1 Gaskets
• Each different type of gasket has its own

inherent leak-tightness capabilities.
• The higher the gasket stress, the higher the

leak-tightness capability.
3.2.4.1 Gaskets
3.2.4.1 Gaskets
• The ideal gasket is comprised of a body with

good load-bearing and recovery
characteristics, with a soft conformable surface
layer.
• Gaskets have a combination of elastic and

plastic characteristics.
3.2.4.1 Gaskets
• Ideal gaskets should have the following
properties:
1. Compressibility—Gaskets that have sufficient
compressibility to suit the style and surface
finish of the flange, ensuring that all the
imperfections will be filled with the gasket
material.
3.2.4.1 Gaskets
• Ideal gaskets should have the following
properties:
2. Resilience—Gaskets that have high
resilience will enable the gasket to move
with the dynamic loadings of the flange to
maintain its seating stress.
3.2.4.2 Selection of Gasket Material
• Assuming the mating flanges are in existence,

the selection of the correct gasket material
involves a logical series of considerations and
these are considered in turn.
• Proper gasket selection is essential for the

optimum performance.
• The variety of different gasket types, material

combinations and standards can make the
choice bewildering and can result in selection
based on what was previously installed rather
than what is best for that particular application.
• Deciding on the best gasket for an application depends
on several factors:
□ Performance – Temperature, pressure, Media
□ Application – Flange type, geometry, bolts
□ Standards - Environmental or regulatory

requirements
□ People – Installation criteria, Competency

• The basic principles ensure that:
1. The gasket is fit for purpose.
2. The flanges are clean and in an acceptable

surface condition.
3. The studs (or bolts), nuts and washers are fit

for purpose.
• The basic principles ensure that:
4. The installation procedure is controlled i.e. a

defined bolt tightening sequence, correct
lubrication, defined torque or tensioning levels
and checking procedures.
5. Management and recording of joint information.

• Gasket selection does not have to be difficult

and by appropriate consideration to the key
criteria of performance, application, standards
and people, sealing performance can be
optimized, minimizing the probability of seal
failure and associated costs.
3.2.4.3 Fugitive Emissions
• Heightened awareness with regard to Health

and the Environment is leading to new and
more stringent standard procedures and
legislation.
• The goal is to reduce emissions to target levels

currently based on the best available
technology.
• These targets will inevitably become tighter in

the future.
• Large companies have been aware of the issues

for a number of years and will have a major
part to play in the future standards and
legislation.
• As early as 1994, Fugitive Emissions had a

major impact on meeting the challenge set by
major petrochemicals companies.
• Some companies set their own high standards

ahead of incumbent legislation.
Fugitive Emission Sources (Fluid Sealing Association)

PVRC (Pressure Vessel Research Committee)

2.3.4.4 Compatibility with Fluid
• The gasket should obviously not be affected by

fluid being sealed over the whole range of
operating conditions.
• The chemical resistance chart shows the

resistance of many common jointing materials
to a variety of chemicals.
2.3.4.4 Compatibility with Fluid
• This is a guide only and should any doubt exist,

then the gasket manufacturer should be
consulted.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• The gasket selected should have reasonable life

expectancy at the maximum temperature
encountered (or the minimum temperature if for
a low temperature application).
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• A broad indication of the temperature pressure

ratings of the common gasket materials is
shown in the figure below.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• Gasket materials are designed to compress

under load to achieve the initial seal.
• However, to retain that seal, the gasket should

be able to resist flow (or creep) to prevent loss
of surface stress by bolt reduction.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• This property is very important and is the one

that most readily separates high quality from
low quality gaskets.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• Under ambient temperature conditions, most

gasket materials do not creep significantly, but
as the temperature rises beyond 100°C, creep
becomes a serious consideration.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
Temperature/Pressure Guidelines for Common Gasket Materials

2.3.4.5 Temperature
• For all applications but particularly for low
temperature applications, the following points
should be observed:
– The gasket should be completely dry when
installed (gaskets for such applications
should be stored in a dry atmosphere).
– The required flange loading should be
applied at ambient temperature.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• Notes:
1. The above information is intended as a guide
to the maximum possible ratings of each
class of jointing. It does not imply that all the
gaskets within each generic type are suitable
for the temperatures and pressures shown.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• Notes:
2. Even if the material chosen is theoretically
suitable for the temperature and pressure,
other factors should be considered such as
available bolting, flange facing type, shock
loadings, etc.
2.3.4.5 Temperature
• Notes:
3. Consultation with gasket experts should take
place at the design stage to ensure that the
gasket selected is suitable for all conditions
of the application.
2.3.4.6 Internal Pressure
• The gasket has to be suitable for the maximum

internal pressure experienced; this is often the
test pressure, which can be > 2 times the flange
rating at ambient temperature.
2.3.4.6 Internal Pressure
• Vacuum conditions need special considerations but as
a guide:
□For coarse vacuum (760 torr to 1 torr): flat
rubber or compressed asbestos fibre gaskets.
□For high vacuum (1 torr to 1x10-7 torr):
rubber ‗O‘ rings or moulded rectangular
seals.
□For very high vacuum (below 1x10-7 torr):
specialized seals required.
2.3.4.7 Special Considerations
• There are many factors apart from those already

considered that affect the selection of the
correct gasket material and type.
• Cycling conditions
• If the service conditions include frequent

thermal or pressure cycles, then the gasket has
to be resilient enough to allow for the flange
movements and strong enough to resist the
mechanical loading.
a) Vibration
• If the pipeline is subjected to undue vibration,

then the gasket has to withstand the mechanical
effects involved.
b) Erosive Media
• Certain media (e.g. solids suspended in liquids)

can slowly erode gaskets leading to a much
shorter life than expected. In such cases, choice
of gasket material and selection of gasket
dimensions are critical.
c) Risk of Contaminating the Fluid
• Sometimes the effect of contaminating the fluid

by leaching chemicals from the gasket should
be considered. Typical examples are in the
sealing of potable water, blood plasma,
pharmaceutical chemicals, food, beer, etc.
d) Corrosion of Flanges
• Some flange metals are prone to stress

corrosion cracking (e.g. austenitic stainless
steel).
d) Corrosion of Flanges (cont.)
• When using these; care should be taken to

ensure that the gasket material does not contain
an unacceptable level of leachable impurities
which may induce corrosion.
• Such impurities include chloride ions.

e) Integrity
• When integrity of a gasket is of prime importance

(e.g. when sealing a highly toxic chemical), the
choice of gasket may be influenced by the
requirement for a larger safety margin.
e) Integrity
• As an example, a spirally wound gasket with an

outer retaining ring may be selected in place of
a compressed asbestos fibre gasket.
f) Economy
• Although a gasket is a relatively low priced

item, the consequential expense of leakage or
failure should be considered when deciding on
quality, type and material of the gaskets.
2.3.4.8 RTJ (Ring Type Joint) Gaskets
• RTJ gaskets are forged rings that fit into the

machined groove of an RTJ flange.
• RTJ gaskets are generally used for high

pressure applications. Sealing is by metal-to-
metal contact between gasket and flange.
• Solid metal joint rings have excellent tightness

and tolerance to temperature and pressure
changes once correctly bolted up.
• Very close attention must be given to their

bolting up. Rings and groove faces must be free
of imperfections.
• There are three different types of ring

commonly available: Types R, RX and BX.
• The most commonly used is Type R.

R Type
• These are either oval or octagonal in cross-

section. The oval RTJ is the original design.
• The octagonal RTJ is a modification to the oval

design and provides better sealing.
R Type
• R type rings may be specified for Class 150 to

2500 flanges though are typically found on
Class 1500 flanges and often Class 900.
• The piping specification will state whether an

octagonal or an oval joint is to be used.
R Type
• R type rings may be used on either flat face or

raised fact RTJ flanges.
R Type
RX Type
• RX gaskets fit and seal into the same groove

sizes as do R type gaskets.
• Note that the RX gasket is wider than the R

type gasket and the flange face-to-face
separation will therefore be greater.
RX Type
• RX gaskets are normally specified up to Class 5000
API 6A Type B flanges.
• They are used when a more effective seal is required

which is resistant to vibrations, shock loadings, etc.,
for example, on wellheads and Christmas trees.
RX Type
• The asymmetric cross-section makes the gasket self-
energizing.
• The outside bevel of the ring makes the initial contact

with the grooves of the flange and thus preloads the
gasket against the groove outer surface.
RX Type
BX Type
• These are only used on API 6A Type BX flanges and
are rated from Class 5000 to 15000.
• The pitch diameter of the ring is slightly greater than

the pitch diameter of the flange groove.
• This preloads the gasket and creates a pressure

energized sea.
BX Type
• Type BX gaskets are NOT inter-changeable

with R or RX gaskets. The groove on a flange
which accommodates a BX gasket is
dimensionally different to that for R and RX
gaskets.
BX Type
• When correctly fitted, the flange face-to-face

separation using a BX gasket is zero.
BX Type
BX Type
• Note: It is particularly important to check the
flange face-to-face separation which must be
uniform around the entire circumference of the
flange. RTJ flanged joints are particularly
susceptible to uneven bolt tensioning and
misalignment of the ring within the groove.
• RTJ Gasket Identification and Specification
a) Type: Whether R, RX or BX. If R, state
whether octagonal or oval. The type of ring
to be used will be specified in the piping
specification.
b) Ring Number: For example R46 will fit a 6
inch NB Class 1500 RTJ flange.
c) Material: A variety of materials is available.
Again check with the piping specification for
the correct material. The material grade will
have an identifying code. For example:
Soft Iron: D
Stainless Steel 316 : S316
d) Standard: Either ANSI B16.20 or API 6A; as
specified in the piping specification (these
two standards are equivalent and
interchangeable).
e) Identification: The type, ring number and
material will always be marked on the side of
the ring.
2.3.4.9 Spiral Wound Gaskets
• The standard of SW gaskets can vary
considerably between manufacturers, and they
should be obtained only from reputable
suppliers.
• Most Spiral Wound Gaskets now being used are
Spiral Wound 316 st/st Windings and Graphite
Filler.
• These gaskets have a 316 st/st inner ring and
coated carbon steel outer guide ring, but on
some occasions the outer ring could be stainless
steel to provide corrosion resistance to the
external environment.
• These gaskets are fitted with an internal guide
ring which:
– Provides an additional compression stop.
– Restricts the lateral flow of the gaskets
toward the bore.
– Acts as a heat and corrosion barrier
protecting the gasket and flange.
• By filling the annular space between the gasket

and flange, it reduces turbulent flow of the fluid
or the possibility of the accumulation of solids,
and possible corrosion.
Spiral Wound Gaskets that may be present in
flanges:
• Spiral wound gaskets are typically used on
intermediate pressure systems and will be found
on Class 300 flanges, Class 600 and Class 900
flanges.
flanges:
• SW gaskets are used on RF flanges with a
smooth surface finish, as quoted in ―Surface
Finish Values for Flange Facings for Class 150
to 2500 Flanges‖.
flanges:
• Where SW gaskets are used with standard Class
150 flanges and smaller sizes of standard Class
300 flanges, the higher seating load
requirements and low bolting availability
necessitates use of high strength bolting and
proper bolting up procedures.
flanges:
• The use of gaskets with inner rings also
increases the required bolting load.
2.3.4.9.1 Spiral Wound Section
• This part of the gasket creates the seal between
the flange faces.
• It is manufactured by spirally winding a

preformed metal strip and a filler material
around a metal mandrel.
• Normally the outside and inside diameters are
reinforced by several additional metal windings
with no filler.
• When compressed, the combined effect of the
metal winding and the filler material will make
the seal.
• The filler material will flow into the grooves on
the flange face and the metal winding will then
strengthen and support the filler against the
flange face.
2.3.4.9.2 Inner Metal Ring
• The inner metal ring provides inner
confinement to the gasket.
• Being of a specified thickness smaller than that of the
uncompressed spiral windings, it acts as a compression
stop, i.e. it prevents the windings from being over-
compressed say due to over tensioning of the stud
bolts or thermal growth of the pipe work when in
operation.
• The inner ring also fills the annular space
between the flange bore and the ID of the spiral
wound section and therefore minimizes
turbulence of the process fluids at that location
and prevents erosion of the flange faces.
• Note that the spiral windings should never be
exposed to the flow of the process fluids.
• The ID of the inner ring should be flush with

the bore of the flange and this should be
checked prior to bolting up.
2.3.4.9.3 Outer Metal Ring
• The outer metal ring acts as a compression stop
and an antblowout device. It also centers the
gasket on the flange face.
2.3.4.9.3 Outer Metal Ring
• The spiral wound gasket should be centered on
the flange with the outer ring resting against the
stud bolts. If this is not the case, the incorrect
gasket has been chosen and should be changed.
2.3.4.9.4 Filler Material
• For most applications in the petro-chemical
industry, asbestos filler was usually specified.
• Asbestos is hazardous to health and even

though trapped within the spiral winding, SW
gaskets should be handled with care.
• Full procedures are available and should be
consulted. Piping specifications now quote a
nonasbestos filler instead of asbestos.
• Graphite filler has now taken over as being the
preferred filler material.
• For special applications other materials are

available, such as graphite and ceramic fillers.
2.3.4.9.5 Spiral Wound Gasket Specification and
Identification
• Spiral wound gaskets are supplied and
identified as follows:
a) NPS and Flange Pressure Class: A class and
nominal pipe size must be specified and
must match that of the flange concerned.
The class and size of the gasket will always
be stamped on the outer ring.
Identification
b) Flange Type: Spiral wound gaskets are
normally used on RFWN flanges. If used on
SO flanges, this should be stated as special
gasket sizes will be required for NPS up to
11/2 inches.
Identification
c) Filler Material: A variety of materials is available.
Normally asbestos was used but now graphite,
PTFE, ceramic fillers, etc. are used predominantly.
The filler material will be specified in the piping
specification. Identification is by way of a colour
code on the spiral wound section.
Identification
d) Winding Material: Winding material is important as
it should be resistant to the process conditions. The
winding material will be specified in the piping
specification and is typically stainless steel.
Identification is by a colour code on the outer ring.
Identification
e) Inner Ring: The inner ring will normally be
the same material grade as the metal winding
as it must equally resist the process
conditions. Material grade will be specified
in the piping specification.
Identification
f) Outer Ring: Not such a critical parameter as
the inner ring as it does not come into contact
with process fluids. It is normally carbon
steel and again will be specified in the piping
specification.
Identification
g) Standard: Usually ASME B16.20, BS 3381
or API 601.
2.3.4.9.6 Spiral Wound Gasket Colour Code
Reference Chart
2.3.4.9.6.1 Winding Material Colour Code
• The outer ring of the SW gasket will be

coloured to identify the winding material. The
ring may be only coloured on the outer edge.
Carbon Steel Silver
304SS Yellow
316SS Green
347SS Blue
321SS Turquoise
Monel Orange
Nickel 200 Red
Titanium Purple
Alloy 20 Black
Hastalloy B Brown
Hastalloy C Beige
Winding Material Inc 600 Gold
Color Code Incoloy White

Reference Chart
2.3.4.9.6.2 Filler Material Colour Code
• The spiral wound section of the SW gasket will

be coloured to identify the filler material, with
flashes around the outer ring of the relevant
colour.
Reference Chart
2.3.4.9.6.2 Filler Material Colour Code
Non-Asbestos Pink
Graphite Grey
Asbestos None
PTFE White
Ceramic Light Green
Note that the above colour coding is based on API 601.
2.3.4.9.7 Spiral Wound Gasket in its Uncompressed
State
Joint in its
Uncompressed
State
2.3.4.9.7 Spiral Wound Gasket in its Uncompressed
State
Cross-Section through a Gasket

2.3.4.10 Sheet Gaskets
• Non-Asbestos Fibre (NAF) gaskets have now

replaced Compressed Asbestos Fibre (CAF)
gaskets.
• They are used for low pressure applications and

are typically found on Class 150 and Class 300
flanges.
• They are normally used on Raised Face flanges

(self-centering flat ring type gasket), but are
also used on Flat Face flanges (full face type
gaskets are required).
2.3.4.10.1 Tanged Graphite Gaskets
• Previously the predominant gasket used in BP

Amoco has been Compressed Asbestos Fibre
(CAF).
• This material covers a wide range of

applications, but has a known health risk.
• The replacement gasket material which contains no
asbestos has a stainless steel insert sandwiched
between two layers of graphite. If not handled
correctly, the insert may cut personnel. This type of
gasket is known as a ― tanged gasket‖. The gaskets are
non-stick, especially on stainless steel faces.
• The stainless reinforcement increases the tensile
strength of the material, its load bearing
capacity and handling characteristics.
• It also improves its blow-out resistance under
cycling conditions.
• For larger type gaskets, two stainless inserts
may be used for greater rigidity and ease of
handling.
When handling this type of gasket, always use gloves.
• The use of plain graphite gaskets is not recommended
in oxygenated seawater handling systems. For such
duties, a nonasbestos utility gasket should be used.
• The piping specifications for each individual plant

should be changed to accommodate the new gaskets.
2.3.4.10.2 Utility Gaskets
• In utility non-hydrocarbon services up to Class 300,
where the temperature is below 100oC, and in
equipment blinding applications, high performance
nitrile rubber based reinforced sheet containing non-
respirable glass fibres should be used.
2.3.4.10.3 Flat Rubber Gaskets
• Flat rubber gaskets are normally found in the least
hazardous and aggressive of conditions such as low
pressure water services. Rubber gaskets are limited in
use by temperature, pressure and chemical resistance.
They are also liable to creep, e.g. if subjected to
excessive bolt loading or repeated hydrotest.
• Rubber gaskets are usually full face and are used on
flat face flanges.
• Of the variety of rubbers available, that most

commonly used as a gasket is neoprene. Other rubber
materials include natural rubber, Viton and Nitrile.
• Rubber Gasket Specification and Identification
a) NPS and Flange Pressure Class: Always to be quoted. It
should be marked on the gasket. If not, check the correct fit
of the gasket on the flange.
Alternatively, the gasket may be cut from rubber sheet. The
bore of the pipe must not be restricted by the gasket and the
entire face of the flange must be covered.
Check the thickness of the gasket by reference to the piping
specification.
• Rubber Gasket Specification and Identification
b) Material: Whether neoprene, nitrile, etc., refer to the piping
specification.
2.3.4.11 Compressed Asbestos Fibre Gasket (CAF)
• NOW NOT IN USE (FOR INFORMATION
ONLY)
• CAF gaskets were used for low pressure applications
and were typically found on Class 150 and Class 300
flanges, and will probably still be in many flange
applications.
ONLY)
• CAF gaskets were normally used on Raised Face
flanges (self-centering flat ring type gasket), but may
also have been used on Flat Face flanges (full face
type gaskets are required).
ONLY)
• Though of apparently simple design, the CAF gasket
should be treated with equal respect as with all gaskets
to ensure effective sealing.
ONLY)
• CAF gaskets are manufactured from asbestos fibres
bonded in a nitrile rubber compound. Sealing is by a
similar mechanism to the spiral wound gaskets where
the gasket material is soft enough to flow into the
phonographic groove on the flange face when
compressed. Correct gasket thickness is therefore
important.
ONLY)
• The surface finish on RF flanges used with CAF
gaskets will be relatively coarse compared to that for
SW gaskets. The required surface finish will be as
stated in the relevant section on Class 150 flanges.
ONLY)
• The gasket may or may not be coated with graphite.
The graphite has non-stick properties and enables the
easy removal of the gasket when a flange is split.
ONLY)
• Graphite coated CAF gaskets SHOULD NOT be used
in the following instances:
a) Austenitic stainless steel flanges on water duties.
b) Aggressive water duty (e.g. cement lined pipe
work).
c) Duties where temperatures exceed 450 degrees C.
ONLY)
• Graphite coated CAF gaskets SHOULD NOT be used
in the following instances:
a) Austenitic stainless steel flanges on water duties.
b) Aggressive water duty (e.g. cement lined pipe
work).
c) Duties where temperatures exceed 450 degrees C.
3.3 Pump piping
3.3.1- Introduction
• There are many factors that affect the
operation of a pump.
• Important factors are total head, speed,
liquid properties, and physical
arrangement/system connection.
• Included in the category of arrangement
and connection are the suction conditions.
• Excessive suction lift, shallow inlet
submergence, or insufficient Net Positive
Suction Head available (NPSHA), all
spell serious trouble from vibration,
cavitation, lowered capacity, and reduced
efficiency.
• While the Engineer may not have large
control over some of the inherent process
factors, with planning and foresight many
times the pump suction conditions can
be optimized in the design stage.
• This course offers ideas and summarizes

generally accepted guidelines of
practical consideration in pump
suction arrangements.
3.3.2- Piping
• Pumps are not
constructed as pipe
anchors.
• Make sure that the
piping to the pumps is
in exact alignment with
the pump flanges and
imposes no
uncontrolled stress on
the pump unit.
3.3.2.1-General
• 1.Both suction and discharge pipe must be
supported independently from the pump unit.
• 2.Allowable forces and moments according to
standards must be considered.
• 3.No uncontrolled forces must occur when
handling hot liquids.
• 4.Connections must be provided for draining and
flushing the pump before disassembling. Consider
possible problems when draining jacketed pumps.
• 5.Flange gaskets must be resistant to the pumped
liquid.
3.3.3- A few things you should
know about your pump's piping
system
 1- There should be at least 10 diameters of
pipe between the suction of the pump and
the first elbow.
 This is especially critical in double-ended
pump designs as the turbulent inlet flow can
cause shaft thrusting, and subsequent bearing
problems.
 If an elbow must be installed be sure it is in a
plane at right angles to the pump shaft to
prevent an uneven flow to both sides of a
double suction impeller.
• 2- Pipe from the pump suction flange to
the pipe rack, not the other way around.
• 3- Make sure eccentric reducers are not
installed upside down at the pump
suction. The top of the reducer should go
straight into the suction flange.
• 4- Piping should be arranged with as few
bends as possible. If bends are necessary
use a long radius when ever possible .
 5- If an expansion joint is installed in the piping
between the pump and the nearest point of anchor
in the piping, It should be noted that a force equal
to the area of the expansion joint (which could be
a lot larger than the normal piping size) times the
pressure in the piping will be transmitted to the
pump proper. Pipe couplings that do not provide
an axially rigid connection have the same affect.
If an expansion joint or non-rigid coupling
must be used, it is recommended that a pipe
anchor be installed between it and the pump.
• 6- Be aware that radial forces are being
generated in the pump housing from the
pressure in the piping system acting on the
volute area. The magnitude and direction
of the forces is dependent upon the piping
arrangement along with the areas and
pressures involved.
• 7- It is always a good idea to increase the
size of the suction and discharge pipes at
the pump nozzle in order to decrease the
head loss from pipe friction.
• 8- Suction piping should be at least one
size larger than the suction flange at
the pump.
• 9- If increasers are used on the discharge
side to increase the size of discharge
piping, they should be installed between
the check valve and the pump.
 10- Both a check and gate valve should be
installed in the discharge piping with the
check valve placed between the pump and
the stop valve to protect the pump from
reverse flow and excessive back pressure.
Manually operated discharge valves that
are hard to reach should have some facility
for quick closing. A sprocket rim wheel
and chain or a remotely operated motor
are two alternatives you might consider.
• 11- Suction piping must be kept free of
air leaks.
• 12- The installation of check valves
should be avoided in the suction piping
although they are often used to reduce the
number of valves that have to be operated
in switching between series and parallel
pump operation.
• 13- A foot valve is often installed in the
suction piping to aid priming. Do not
install them if the pump is operating
against a high static head because failure
of the driver would allow liquid to rush
back suddenly causing water hammer.
This is especially true for vertical turbine
and submersible pumps that are not
designed for use with a foot valve.
• 14- Foot valves should be of the low loss
flap type rather than the multiple spring
variety and have a clear passage for the
liquid at least the same area as the suction
piping.
A close-up of foot valve:
spring is visible.
Inside view of foot valve:

plate rests on the seat of
valve due to force exerted by
spring
• 15- A horizontal suction line should have a
gradual rise or slope to the pump suction.
• 16- Cast iron pumps should never be provided

with raised face flanges. If steel suction or
discharge piping is used, the pipe flanges should
be of the flat face type and not the raised face
type. Full-faced gaskets must be used with cast
iron flanges.
• 17- The optimum control valve location is within

five feet (1,5 meters) of the pump discharge to
prevent too much surging of fluid in the system
when the discharge is throttled.
• 18- The optimum pipe size will consider the
installed cost of the pipe (the cost increases with
size) and the pump power requirements (the
power required increases with pipe friction)
– Try to limit the friction loss at design flow to
2-5 feet for each 100 feet (1-2 meters for each
30 meters) of pipe).
– To prevent the settling of solids you need a
minimum velocity of about 4 to 7 feet per
second (1.5 to 2.5 meters per second)
– Velocities of no more than 10 feet (3 meters)
per second are recommended in the suction
side piping to prevent abrasive wear.
3.3.4- Pitfalls of Pump Piping
• There are three major problems
associated with poor pump piping.
1. There is a scarcity of accessible
information available on the topic.
2. No one pays any attention to it when
installing a pump.
3. It can remain undetected and cause
repetitive pump failures for many
years.
• As a consequence of 1 and 2 above, most
pumps are piped up incorrectly.
• In fact when we look at the way many
pumps have been installed, it resembles a
―plumbers nightmare.‖
• Many pumps appear as if they‘ve been
squeezed into a corner out of the way,
and the pipes threaded in and out, without
any consideration for fluid flow patterns.
• There will be many who read this column
and realize, to their horror, that some of
the most problematic pumps in their plant
don‘t follow any of the basic rules of
pump piping. Why?
• Let‘s Get Practical! If you were installing
a new pump in a new system, where
would you go for information on how the
pump piping should be arranged?
• Most of us would refer to the pump‘s
Installation, Operation and Maintenance
(IOM) Manual.
• Unfortunately, that won‘t provide a lot of
information, as most of the pump
companies used to subscribe to an
attitude of limiting their responsibility
within the confines of the suction and
discharge nozzles of the pump.
• Although this attitude is fast
disappearing, the change has not yet
reached most of the IOM Manuals.
• As a consequence, accurate and complete
information is still severely limited, and a
high proportion of the pumps inmost
industries are installed with
inappropriate piping arrangements
that result in premature failure.
• The major problem with this condition is
that it positions the root cause of the
pump failure outside the physical
confines of the pump itself, thus making
it difficult to source for the unwary and
inexperienced.
• The ―pitfalls of pump piping‖ easily can
be avoided by following a few
straightforward rules.
Rule No. 1
• Provide the suction side with a straight run of
pipe, in a length equivalent to 5 to 10 times the
diameter of that pipe, between the suction
reducer and the first obstruction in the line
(Fig. 1).
• This will ensure the delivery of a uniform flow
of liquid to the eye of the impeller, which is
essential for an optimum suction condition.
• (The experienced engineer will note that this
contradicts the information given in most IOM
Manuals, where it states that the suction piping
should be ―as short as possible.‖)
Rule No. 1
Rule No. 2
• The pipe diameter on both the inlet and the
outlet sides of the pump should be at least one
size larger than the nozzle itself.
• On the horizontal inlet side, an eccentric
reducer is required to reduce the size of the
pipe from the suction line to the inlet nozzle.
• By positioning the reducer with the flat side on
top as shown in Fig. 1, it eliminates the
potential problem of an air pocket in a high
point in the suction line.
• A concentric increaser can be used on the
vertical discharge.
Rule No. 3
• Eliminate elbows mounted on, or close to, the
inlet nozzle of the pump.
• Much discussion has taken place over the
acceptable configuration of an elbow on the
suction flange of a pump. Let‘s simplify it.
There isn‘t one!
• There is always an uneven flow in an elbow,
and when one is installed on the suction of any
pump, it introduces that uneven flow into the
eye of the impeller.
Rule No. 3
• This can create turbulence and air entrainment,
which can result in impeller damage and
vibration.
• The problem is even greater when the elbow is
installed in a horizontal plane on the inlet of a
horizontal double suction pump as shown in
Fig. 2.
• This configuration introduces uneven flows
into the opposing eyes of the impeller, and
essentially destroys the hydraulic balance of
the rotating element.
Rule No. 3
Rule No. 3
Effect of Elbow
Directly on Suction
Unbalanced loading of a double suction impeller due
to uneven flow around on elbow adjacent to the
pump.
Rule No. 3
• Under these conditions, the overloaded bearing
will fail prematurely and regularly if the pump
is packed.
• If the pump is fitted with mechanical seals, the
seal will usually fail instead of the bearing--but
just as regularly and often more frequently.
Rule No. 3
• When it is absolutely essential to position an
elbow on the inlet of a double suction pump, it
must be located at right angles to the shaft.
• The only thing worse than one elbow on the
suction of a pump is two elbows on the suction
of a pump-- particularly if they are positioned
close together, in planes at right angles to each
other.
• This creates a spinning effect in the liquid that
is carried into the impeller and causes
turbulence, inefficiency and vibration.
Rule No. 4
• Eliminate the potential for vortices or air
entrainment in the suction source.
• If a pump is taking its suction from a sump or
tank, the formation of vortices can draw air
into the suction line.
• This usually can be prevented by providing
sufficient submergence of liquid over the
suction opening.
• A bell-mouth design on the opening will
reduce the amount of submergence required.
• This submergence is completely independent
of the NPSH required by the pump.
Rule No. 4
• Great care should be taken in the design
of a sump to ensure that any liquid
emptying into the sump does so in such a
manner that air entrained in the inflow
does not pass into the suction opening.
• Any problem of this nature may
require a change in the relative
positions of the inflow and outlet if the
sump is large enough, or the use of
baffles.
Rule No. 5
• Arrange the piping in such away that there
is no strain imposed on the pump casing.
• Piping flanges must be accurately aligned
before the bolts are tightened and all piping,
valves and associated fittings should be
independently supported without any strain
being imposed on the pump.
• Any stresses imposed on the pump casing
by the piping reduces the probability of
satisfactory reliability and performance.
Rule No. 5
• As there is an exception to almost every
rule, the A.P.I. 610 Specification identifies a
maximum level of forces and moments that
may be imposed on the pump flanges.
• These must be acceptable to any pump
being sold into the petroleum industry, or
any related industry, using that
specification.
• As a consequence, all API. pumps are of a
much more robust and heavier design than
their ANSI size equivalents.
Conclusion
• Piping design is one area where the basic
principles involved are frequently ignored,
resulting in problems such as hydraulic
instabilities in the impeller, which translate
into additional shaft loading, higher vibration
levels and premature failure of the seal or
bearings.
• As there are many other reasons why pumps
could vibrate, and why seals and bearings fail,
the trouble is rarely traced to incorrect piping.
Conclusion
• It has been argued that because many pumps
are piped incorrectly, yet are operating quite
satisfactorily, piping procedure is not
important.
• That doesn't make a questionable piping
practice correct, it merely makes it lucky.
Conclusion
• Any piping mistakes that are made on the
discharge side of a pump, frequently can be
accommodated by increasing the
performance of that pump.
• Problems on the suction side however, can be
the source of repetitive failures, which may
never be traced back to that area and could
continue undetected for many years to come.
3.3.5- PUMP PIPING
Suction Piping for Horizontal Pumps :-
Line Size :
• Suction piping is one or two line sizes larger
than the pump suction nozzle size.
Flexibility of Suction Lines :
 Piping flexibility affects pump location.
 Pump suction lines should be as short as
possible, but with enough flexibility.
 If possible , do not overlap the pump and
pipe support foundations, as it causes
structural design problems in combining
foundations.
Suction Line Fittings :
• Reducers should be as close as
possible to the pump suction nozzle so
that pump suction will not starved.
• Use Eccentric reducer with
Flat Surface up. (FSU)
• Always use long radius
elbow.
Air pocket formed along upper side of pipe by

concentric reducer.
3.3.5.1- Strainers
Strainers :-
Strainers will be located between pump suction block valve and pump.
Type of strainer
1) Temporary strainer
2) Permanent strainer
Conical strainers are longer than the basket type.
These are used on suction lines 2‖ and larger.
For basket and conical types a removable spool

piece must be provided downstream of suction
block valve
Flat strainers use with very short suction

lines where no debris is expected
Strainers :-
Bathtub or tee type strainers as most

expensive , it does not require unbolting and
removing spool piece to remove the strainer.
Y- type strainer to permit servicing of the

strainer. Also, a blow-off connection may be
provided in the end cap to flush the strainer.
Strainers :-
3.3.5.2- Suction Piping
Arrangement
Figure 1. End suction piping
Or inserts rectifying plate
(eccentric suction : 2D
and over)
Figure 2-1. Side suction piping
Consideration of
straight pipe at
suction side is not Figure 2-2. Side suction piping
necessary for
straight-up or
straight down.
Single
Single suction
: 2D and over
Double suction
: 10D and over
Figure 3. Top suction piping

3.3.5.3- Consideration of air
pocket on suction line
1) Allow approximately 1/20~1/50 of
slope on suction line toward suction
resource if suction resource is lower
than pump suction nozzle.
2) Allow 1/20 and over of slope on suction
line toward pump at vacuum tower.
1/20 and over

3 ) If gate valve is to be installed on the line
whose suction resource is located lower than the
pump suction nozzle, valve stem shall be
horizontal.
Suction piping on tower or vessel :
Vortex breaker is installed on tower or
vessel nozzle connected to pump
nozzle.
3.3.5.4- Typical Arrangement
Drawing
Pumps in Parallel Arrangement
1. PUMP SUCTION LINE
Horizontal
1. PUMP SUCTION LINE
Vertical
3.3.5.5- Following diagrams indicate correct and
incorrect methods of attaching suction piping.
A) Horizontal ell directly into pump suction results in an unbalanced thrust on

pump bearings.
(B) Use spool piece 3 pipe diameters long or long radius ell with center vertical
vane.
(C) May be installed with or without spool piece but 2 pipe diameters spool is
preferred.
- Flexibility of pipe for pump alignment after piping
Shows proper method of connecting pump

suction to a suction header in order to avoid air
pockets
Represents a common error made suction

piping to a centrifugal pump by placing piping
over an embankment of a reservoir, or other
obstruction.
incorrect methods of attaching suction pipin
Always use an eccentric reducer at the pump suction when

a pipe size transition is required. Put the flat on top when
the fluid is coming from below or straight and the flat on
the bottom when the fluid is coming from the top. This will
avoid an air pocket at the pump suction and allow air to be
evacuated
3.3.5.6- Discharge Piping for Horizontal Pumps :-
• Line Size :
Discharge nozzle size is normally smaller than the suction
nozzle size.
• Discharge Line Fittings :
Normally we use concentric reducers in the discharge.
But if a clearance problem comes up between the suction and
discharge piping , then we use o eccentric reducer
• A pressure gauge is located in the discharge line, and
should be upstream of the check and gate valves
• Check Valve is used in a pump discharge line to
prevent backflow in to the pump causing the impeller to
turn backwards and possible ruining the bearings.
3.3.5.6- Discharge Piping for Horizontal Pumps :-
• Check Valve is used in a pump discharge line to

prevent backflow in to the pump causing the impeller to
turn backwards and possible ruining the bearings.
• Block valve Isolate the pump from piping to provide

maximum access for both in place for maintenance or
removal.
Pump Discharge Line
1) 1 1/2 NB and Under
Use Swing / Ball Type Check valve

Pump Discharge Line
2) 2 NB and Larger
Use Hinged flapper Check valve

Pump Discharge Line
3)
Pump Discharge Line
4)
Pump Discharge Line
5)
Pump Discharge Line
3.3.5.7- Pumps in the Tankage Area
• For location of pumps in the tank farm

area:
1. Group together if economical

2. Make accessible for maintenance and
operation
3. Locate outside of dyke area
• In the routing of the suction lines, the preferred

method would be to drop from the tank to the
pumps.
• Avoid a direct run from the tank into the
suction nozzle.
• This can cause problems in overstress of the
pump connection.
• Support of Piping In the tankage area, the

supporting of piping is normally by:
– Pipe sleepers
– Field supports
3.3.5.8- Pump Surroundings Support
• Support regarding of eccentricity of pump :
(1) Support shall be installed so that pipe and valve
may not load on the pump nozzle.
(*) Support nozzle surroundings. (But, do not exceed 1m.)

(2) Suction line and discharge line shall be
supported respectively.
(3) If support is installed right close to suction or
discharge nozzle, it shall be minutely adjustable
type so that centering can be convenient.
(4) A support installed

around suction or
discharge nozzle shall
be such a type that
piping can be removed
and pump can be
dismantled easily.
• Un-necessary support with respect to the
load on pump nozzle :-
• Although support would not seem to be

necessary with respect to the load on pump
nozzle, indicate it on the drawing considering
the temporary support of piping during the
time of pump maintenance.
3.4 Losses of flow in piping
• It is often necessary to determine the head
loss, hL,that occurs in a pipe flow so that the
energy equation, can be used in the analysis of
pipe flow problems.
• The overall head loss for the pipe system
consists of the head loss due to viscous effects
in the straight pipes, termed the major loss and
denoted hL-major.
• The head loss in various pipe components
termed the minor loss and denoted hL-minor.
• That is;
hL = hL-major + hL-minor
• The head loss designations of ―major‖ and
―minor‖ do not necessarily reflect the relative
importance of each type of loss.
• For a pipe system that contains many
components and a relatively short length of
pipe, the minor loss may actually be larger
than the major loss.
• Major Losses
• The head loss, hL-major is given as;
• Where: f is friction factor.

• Above mention equation is called the Darcy-
Weisbach equation. It is valid for any fully
developed, steady, incompressible pipe flow,
whether the pipe is horizontal or on hill.
• Major Losses
• Friction factor for laminar flow is;
• Friction factor for turbulent flow is based on

Moody chart.
• It is because, in turbulent flow, Reynolds
number and relative roughness influence the
friction.
• Major Losses
• Reynolds number,
(Relative roughness is not present in the laminar

flow)
The Moody chart is universally valid for all steady,
fully developed, incompressible pipe flows.
• Minor Losses
• The additional components such as valves and
bend add to the overall head loss of the system,
which is turn alters the losses associated with
the flow through the valves.
• Minor losses termed as;
• Where: KL is the loss coefficient.

• Each geometry of pipe entrance has an
associated loss coefficient.
Entrance flow conditions and loss coefficient:
Exit flow conditions and loss coefficient:
Losses also occur because of a change in pipe diameter
For sudden contraction:
Losses also occur because of a change in pipe diameter
For sudden expansion
End
of
Article

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Chapter (3)

• The allowable stresses in piping are

• Do not confuse piping with pipelines; they

• Each one has unique problems that do not exist

For tubes, the outer diameter (OD) roughly

This correspondence between the internal / outer

Similarly, the tube outer diameter is not exactly

Other than the method and critical dimension used

The difference between pipes and tubes only

• Do not confuse piping with pipelines; they

• Each one has unique problems that do not exist

• Selecting the proper pipe class entails

• The expected flow depends on the service of

• In most cases economical flow velocity is 1-3

2. Electric Resistance Weld,

4. Double Submerged Arc Weld.

• Fusion Weld pipe begins as coiled steel of the

• The ribbon of steel is fed into a leveler and

• The edges of the skelp are then ﬁrmly pressed

• No metal is added into the operation. Final

• It is, however, expensive, in short supply and

• As the edges of the now cylindrical plate come

• It produces uniform wall thicknesses and

• The outside diameters determined by the angle

2. Quantity (feet, meters, number of lengths, or

5. Delivery Requirements (Time and Place).

10. Any special shipping instructions such as,

• The pipe pressure rating for the same material

• As the design temperature increases the pressure

• Based on ASME B16.5

• Determine required flange class.

• Design Temperature: 700°F

• Design Pressure: 500 psig

• The American Society of Testing and Materials

• Therefore, many ASTM specifications are not

• We include passages from a number of the most

• This gives the piping engineer an overview of

• It is essential that at the start of a project, the

• The complete range of ASTM prefixes are A, B,

Mechanical requirements (yield, tensile

These are metals and alloys containing a

They are the strongest materials available

As an example of ferrous metals such as:

The ferrous metals themselves can also be

ASTM, A53, Standard Specification for Pipe,

□ This specification covers seamless and welded

Carbon max. % 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.30 0.3

Grade Minimum Tensile Minimum Yield

A 48.0 (330) 30.0 (205)

Grade Minimum Tensile Minimum Yield

A 48.0 (330) 30.0 (205)

B 60.0 (415) 35.0 (240)

C 70.0 (485) 40.0 (275)

These materials refer to the remaining metals

The pure metals are rarely used as structural

They are mainly used with other metals to

Some widely used non-ferrous metals and

Figure 5- Classification of non-ferrous metals and alloys

• A flange is a method of connecting pipes,

• Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged

• A Weld Neck Flange is drilled with the wall

• The lighter the pipe is the larger the bore is in

• And conversely the heavier the pipe is the

• A Slip on Flange is slightly larger than the outer

Piping& Flanges

Piping& Flanges