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RRB-JEn
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SSC-JEn
Parsmal
Meghwal
(EE)
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Rank 8 Rank 39 Rank 45 Rank 46
Anil Bishnol Dharmendra Singh Rohit Gurjar Jaidev Solanki Ramavatar Lamba Manish Kumar
CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn CE: WRD-JEn
1. Energy ................................................................................................ 01 – 38
2. Ecosystem .......................................................................................... 39 – 78
3. Biodiversity....................................................................................... 79 – 133
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ENERGY
THEORY
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF ENERGY:
The word "energy" originates from Greek word "energeia" which means activity or operation. In physics
it is defined as the capacity to perform work. It cannot be created or destroyed; but can only be
converted from one form to another.
Forms of Energy :
In classical physics, forms of energy are often classified into two main categories: kinetic and potential.
Energy Resources
Lignite is the lowest rank of coal. It is a peat that has been transformed
Lignite into a rock, and that rock is a brown-black coal. It has a carbon content up
to 60% on a dry ash-free basic. It is known as "brown coal."
CHARCOAL:
Charcoal is artificially formed coal. Chunk obtained from incomplete burning of plant remains (mainly
wood), on complete burning wood would turn into ash.
COKING COAL:
Coal is naturally-found fossil fuel, where as coking Coal is a derivative product from coal after removing
impurities, such as coal-tar and coal-gas, at high temperatures in an oxygen-free furnace.
COAL TO LIQUIDS
Coal can also be converted into a liquid fuel like diesel or gasoline through direct or indirect liquefaction.
Liquid coal can become a petroleum substitute and be used in the transportation industry.
ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF COAL:
• The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use, waste management and
water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the use of its products.
• In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste
products annually including fly ash bottom ash and flue gas desulfurization sludge that contain mercury
uranium, thorium arsenic sulfur and other heavy metals miners expose to these pollutants results in
reduced life expectancy especially due to chronic and gas explosions.
OIL AND PETROLEUM PRODUCTS:
• Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons formed from plants and animals that lived millions years ago.
Crude oil is a fossil fuel and it exists in liquid form in underground pools or reservoirs, in tiny spaces within
sedimentary rocks and near the surface in tar (or oil) sands.
• Products made from crude oil
After crude oil is removed from the ground it is sent to a refinery where different parts of the crude
oil are separated into usable petroleum products these petroleum products.
Crude oil and other liquids produced from fossil fuels are refined into petroleum products that people
use for many different purposes.
Main petroleum products from crude oil includes Petrol/Gasoline, Diesel oil, Heating Oil/fuel oil,
Hydrocarbon gas liquids (HGL) like propane, ethane, butane and jet fuel etc.,
Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are also used as petroleum products by blending with petrol
and diesel fuel.
Hydrocarbon gas Hquids (HGL) are hydrocarbons that occur as gases at atmospheric pressure and
as liquids under higher pressures.
• Environmental Effects of petroleum Industry:
Crude oil is a mixture of many different kinds of organic compounds, many of which are highly toxic.
Incompletely burned compounds are created in addition to just water and carbon dioxide. The other
compounds are often toxic to life. Examples are carbon monoxide and methanol.
Oil spill is the release of hydrocarbons into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human
activity or, negligence it has adverse impacts. Oil is "acutely lethal" to fish.
Volatile organic compounds VOCs from petroleum are toxic and foul the air, and some like benzene
are extremely toxic, and cause DNA damage, benzene often makes up about 1% of crude oil and
gasoline. Benzene is present in automobile exhaust. Benzene is present in both crude oil and gasoline
and is known to cause leukemia in humans.
• Coal and its environmental impacts:
Coal is the world's single largest contributor of green house gases and is one of the most important
causes of global warming.
Many coal based power generation plants are not fitted with devices such as electrostatic precipitators
to reduce emissions of suspended particulate matter (SPM) which is a major contributor to air
pollution.
CNG LPG
It is lighter than air and disperses quickly in It is heavier than air and on leakage settles to
the event of spillage. Hence, risk of ignition ground and gets accumulated in lower layers.
is minimal Hence, risk of fire is more.
Unconventional Gases:
• Unconventional natural gas is trapped in deep underground rocks that are hard to reach, such as shale
rock or coal beds. Recent technological advances have made it possible to get these new sources of
energy out of the ground.
• Shale Gas is defined as a natural gas produced from shale. Shale has low permeability. So gas production
in commercial quantities requires fractures to provide permeability. Shale gas has been produced for
years from shale with natural fractures: the shale gas boom seen in the USA in recent years has been
due to new technology in hydraulic fracturing (especially directional drilling and frack fluids) to create
extensive artificial fractures around well bores.
• Shale oil: Fracking can be used not only to get gas out of the rock, but also oil known as shale oil.
• Tight gas is natural gas held in rocks with pores up to 20,000 times narrower than a human hair, such
that the gas will not flow freely into a well without fracturing.
• Coal Bed Methane(CBM), also sometimes known as sweet gas coal bed gas, or coal mine methane
(CMM), is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds, unlike shale, coal is frequently very porous
and permeable, and therefore often has high water content. It is often contaminated with all manner
of dissolved ingredients from the total beds and associated rocks.
• All the above types of gas extraction fall under the category of Unconventional Gas one way of
defining unconventional gas it that can only be produced economically to using hydraulic fracturing
horizontal drilling.
Atomic Energy:
• Atoms are the tiny particles in the molecules that make up gases liquids and solids atoms themselves are
made up of three particles called protons neutrons and electrons. An atom has a nucleus (or core)
containing protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. The bonds can be broken through
nuclear fission and this energy can be used produce electricity.
In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart which releases energy. All nuclear power plants use
nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use uranium atoms during nuclear fission a neutron
hits it uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and
radiation.
Nuclear energy can also be released in nuclear fusion, in which atoms are combined or fused
together to form a larger atom. This is the source of energy in the sun and stars. Nuclear fusion
is the subject of ongoing research as a source of energy for heat and electricity generation.
Nuclear fuel-uranium
• Uranium is the fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission, Uranium is considered to be
a non-renewable energy source even through it is a common metal found in rocks worldwide. Nuclear
power plants use a certain kind of uranium, referred to as U-235 for fuel because its atoms are easily
split apart. Although uranium is about 100 times more common then silver, U-235 is relatively rare.
• Once uranium is mined, the U-235 must be extracted and processed before it can be used as fuel.
Environment and Nuclear Energy:
• Nuclear power plants routinely emit low level radioactively with disposal of nuclear waste and hazardous
material.
• Mining of uranium contributes to water pollution and land degradation. The mining process results in both
the deliberate routine release and accidental spill of contaminated water, leading to the potential poisoning
of nearby waterways and threatening the local environment and human residents.
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8 Energy General Studies
• The solid high-level waste from nuclear power stations is hot and very radioactive, so must be isolated
from people and the environment indefinitely.
• The presence of some random around a uranium mining operation and some dust bearing radioactive
decay products as well as the hazards of inhaled coal dust in a coal mine are well understood in both
cases, using the best current practice, the health hazards to miners are very small and certainly less than
the risks of industrial accidents.
1.4 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
Renewable energy resources are those natural resources which are inexhaustible (i.e., which can be
replaced as we use them) and can be used to produce energy again and again. These are available in
unlimited amount in nature and develop in a relatively short period of time. These include solar, wind
water geothermal, ocean energy.
There are six main renewable energy sources:
1. Hydro energy
2. Wind energy
3. Geothermal energy
4. Ocean, wave and Tidal Energy
5. Solar energy
6. Biomass energy
1.4.1 Hydropower
Hydropower is the largest renewable energy source for electricity generation.
• This uses water flowing down a natural gradient to turn turbines to generate electricity known as
'hydroelectric power' by constructing dams across rivers.
• Hydroelectricity or hydropower is the fourth largest source of commercial energy production and
consumption globally.
(i) Merits:
1. Hydropower plants have a higher economic lifetime as the maintenance cost is small.
2. It can be considered as "clean" as no greenhouse gas is emitted directly and is also considered as
"regenerative" energy source as water can be used again and again.
(ii) Demerits:
1. Hydropower does not directly pollute the water or the air. However, hydropower facilities can have large
environment impacts by changing the environment and affecting land use, homes and natural habitats in
the dam area. It disturbs the natural ecological flow of the river.
2. Water accumulation can lead to thermal and chemical changes, in the depth of the reservoirs, Deposits,
sediment, reached bottom may encourage the development accumulation of aquatic flora (plankton,
algae) which under certain conditions can cause atrophy accumulation reducing the amount of oxygen
and death of wildlife.
1.4.2 Wind power
• About 2% of the sunlight striking the earth is converted into the kinetic energy of moving air called wind.
The uneven absorption of the soil radiation by the earth's surface causes differences of temperature
density and pressure which produce air movements at local, regional and global levers powered by wind
energy.
• The kinetic energy of the wind can be harnessed by converting it into mechanical energy or electrical
energy using suitable devices.
• Wind speed typically increases with altitude and increases over open areas without windbreaks. Good
sites for wind turbines include the tops of smooth, rounded hills open plains or shorelines, and mountain
gaps that funnel and intensity wind. Wind is concentrated in certain regions and is variable with time at
any given location.
• Five nations - USA, Germany, Denmark, Spain and India - account for 80% of the world's installed wind
energy capacity.
(i) Merits:
1. Free and readily available energy supply on a windy day
2. Technology fairly well developed
3. Very low environmental impact
4. Moderate net useful energy yield
(ii) Demerits:
1. Insufficient wind in many places.
2. Requires conventional backup electrical system or fairly expensive a storage system.
3. Production and installation costs are high (but should decrees with mass production)
4. Cannot be used to power vehicles unless electricity is used to produce hydrogen gas or to recharge
batteries.
1.4.3 Geothermal power:
• Geothermal energy produced by natural processes occurring within the earth. The major source of this
energy (in the form of heat) is molten underground rock or magma.
• Geothermal energy is extracted for heating and power generation from natural stream, hot water or dry
rocks in the Earth's crust. Water is pumped down through an injection well where it passes through joints
in the hot rocks and then water rises to the surface through a recovery well.
• Geothermal reservoirs are naturally occurring areas of hydrothermal resources. They are deep underground
and are largely undetectable above ground. Geothermal energy finds its way to the earth's surface in
three ways.
Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are released)
Hot springs.
Geysers.
• There are three main types of geothermal energy systems:
Direct use and district heating systems use hot water from springs or reservoirs located near the
surface of the earth.
Electricity generation power plants require water or stream at high temperatures (300° to 700°F).
Geothermal power plants are generally built where geothermal reservoirs are located within a mile
or two of the surface of the earth.
Geothermal heat pumps use stable ground or water temperature near the earth's surface to control
building temperatures above ground.
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Website: www.engineersacademy.org
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
10 Energy General Studies
Merits of Geothermal Energy
1. Geothermal energy is the most versatile and least polluting renewable energy resource.
2. Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive.
3. It is not subject to the same safety political price and operating cost uncertainties as imported oil, natural
gas or nuclear fuel use.
4. Geothermal power plants could be brought on line more quickly than most other energy sources in case
of an extended national emergency.
Demerits of Geothermal Energy
1. Geothermal hot spots are sparsely distributed and usually some distance away from the area needling
energy. Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.
2. The minimum temperature of steam required for the efficient production of electricity is about 100*c.
as a result, many reservoirs of hot water can be used only for direct heating (as in Iceland), because
thermal energy cannot be efficiently transported very far from the source.
3. Through geothermal energy as a whole can be treated as an inexhaustible resource, a single bore will
have a limited life of 10 years or so in economic terms.
4. Withdrawal of large amounts of steam or water from a geothermal source may result in surface
subsidence.
Positive environmental effects of geothermal energy:
1. The environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how geothermal energy is used or on how
it is converted to useful energy. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps have almost no
negative impact on the environment. Direct use applications and geothermal heat pumps can actually
have a positive effect because they may reduce the use of other types of energy that may have grater
negative impacts on the environment.
2. Geothermal power plants release less than 1% of the carbon dioxide emissions released by a fossil fuel
power plant. Geothermal power plants further limit air pollution through the use of scrubber systems that
remove hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is naturally found in the steam and in the hot water used to
generate geothermal power.
3. Geothermal plants emit 97% less acid rain-causing sulfur compounds than are emitted by fossil fuel
power plants. After the steam and water from a geothermal reservoir are used, they are injected back
into the earth.
1.4.4 Ocean Energy
Oceans are large water bodies covering 70.8% of the earth's total surface are and hold about 1445
million cubic km of saline water. Energy from ocean or sea can be obtained in many ways. These include:
(i) Ocean thermal energy Conversion (OTEC)
(ii) Tidal Energy
(iii) Wave Energy
(iv) Current Energy
(v) Salinity Gradient Energy
(vi) Ocean Wind Energy
(vii) Ocean Geothermal Energy
(viii) Bio Conversion Energy
Solar radiation
Process Heat
Space heating, food processing
and cooking,. distillation,
desallination, industrial
hot water
Algae
Sunlight
• Solar Hydrolysis involves usage of solar energy to split water into its component parts, thereby
allowing the solar energy to be stored as hydrogen fuel.
Producing hydrogen by splitting water using sunlight
Water
Sunlight
Sunlight is used
to split water into
Solar fuel hydrogen and oxygen
production
system
Sunlight
Oxygen
Water
Water Hydrogen
Recent developments and key conditions for faster deployment of low-carbon energy technologies
• Fuel cells are generally classified according to the nature of the electrolyte (except for direct methanol
fuel cells which are named for their ability to use methanol as a fuel) each type requiring particular
materials and fuel each fuel cell type also has its own operational characteristics offering advantages to
particular applications the his makes fuel cells a very versatile technology.
1.6 ENERGY SCENARIO AT WORLD
• Top ten countries in Energy Consumption (mtoe)
(1) China 3101
(2) USA 2196
(3) India 882
(4) Russia 718
(5) Japan 435
(6) Germany 305
(7) Brazil 299
(8) South Korea 280
(9) Canada 251
(10) France 246
(11) Iran 244
(12) Indonesia 227
1.6.1 ENERGY TRILEMMA INDEX
The energy Trilemma index ranks countries in term of their likely ability to provide sustainable. Energy
policies through the 3 dimensions of the energy trilemma:
• Energy security: the effective management of primary energy supply from domestic and external
sources, the reliability of energy infrastructure, and the ability of participating energy companies to meet
current and future demand.
• Energy equity: the accessibility and affordability of energy supply across the population.
• Environmental sustainability: the achievement of supply and demand side energy efficiencies and the
development of energy supply from renewable and the others low- carbon sources.
1.7 ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDIA
1.7.1 Coal
• India has the third-largest hard coal reserves in the world (roughly 12% of the world total), as well as
significant deposits of lignite. The estimated reserves of coal were 301.05 billion tons, 98% of India's coal
reserves belong to Gondwana coal. Yet the deposits are generally of low quality and India faces major
obstacles to the development of its coal resources in a way that keeps pace with burgeoning domestic
needs.
• Coal deposits are mainly confined to eastern and south central parts of the country. The states of
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra
account for more than 99% of the total coal reserves in the country. The State of Jharkhand had the
maximum share (26.81%) in the overall reserves of coal in the country as on 2014 followed by the State
of Odisha(24.94%).
• In 2015, India produced almost 650 million tonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce), but it also imported some
140 Mtce - roughly 12% of world coal imports (61% from Indonesia, 21% from Australia, 13% from
South Africa). With a view to limiting reliance on imports, the government intended to double the
country's coal production by 2020.
# 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Email: info@engineersacademy.org
Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33
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22 Energy General Studies
• At present, more than 90% of coal in India is produced by open cast mining. This method has relatively
low production costs and is less dangerous than deep mining, but has a large, adverse environmental
footprint in the form of land degradation, deforestation, erosion and acid water runoff.
Oil and oil products
• India is one the few countries in the world (alongside the United states and Korea) that rely on imports
of crude oild while also being significant net exporters of refined products. Domestic crude oil production
of just over 900 thousand barrels per day (kb/d) is far from enough to satisfy the needs of 4.4 mb/d of
refinery capacity. The output from the refinery sector, in turn, is more than enough to meet India's current
consumption of oil products, at around 3.8 mb/d (with the exception of LPG, for which imports about half
of domestic consumption).
• The estimated reserves of crude oil in India as in 2014 stood at 762.74 million tons(MT).
• India has relatively modest oil resources and most of the proven reserves (around 5.7 billion barrels) are
located in the western part of the country, notably in Rajasthan and in offshore areas near Gujarat and
Maharashtra. The Assam-Arakan basin in the northeast is also an oil-producing basin and contains nearly
a quarter of total reserves.
• The upstream of oil supply in india is still dominated by a few state-owned companies: about two-thirds
of crude oil is produced by the Oil Natural Gas Corporations Limited (ONGC) and Oil India Limited
(OIL) under a pre-liberalization nomination regime. Most of the remaining production comes from joint
ventures with the national oil and gas companies and from blocks awarded under successive licensing
rounds held under the New Exploration Licensing Policy introduced in 1999.
1.7.2 Refineries in India
• Visakhapatnam, Tatipaka in A.P;
• Digboi, Bongaigaon, Guwahati, Numaligarh in Assam;
• Barauni in Bihar;
• Koyali, Jamnagar, Vadinar in Gujarath;
• Panipat in Harayan;
• Mangalore in Karnataka;
• Kochi in Kerala;
• Bina in M.P;
• Mumbai in M.H;
• Paradip in Orissa;
• Bathinda in Punjab;
• Chennai, Cauvery Basin in T.N;
• Mathura in U.P;
• Haldia in W.B.
Natural Gas has a relatively small share (6%) of the domestic energy mix. The main onshore producing
fields are in the states of Assam in the northeast, Gujarat in the west and Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh in the south. Some of the most promising areas are offshore, including the Krishna Godavari
basin off the east coast.
Production of conventional gas reached 34 bcm in 2013 and was supplemented by LNG imports via four
regasification terminals.
The majority state-owned gas company, GAIL is the largest player in the midstream and downstream gas
market. In addition to conventional potential, both from coalbed methane (CBM) and shale gas.
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Website: www.engineersacademy.org
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ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Energy & Environment Energy 23
4. Indian nuclear weapon programme aims to deter the possible use of such weapons by any other country.
5. Indian is ready to invoke measures to counter any threat to her peace and stability.
6. India will maintain effective surveillance and early warning capabilities.
7. India will not take any step to use nuclear weapon against any country except in case of any nuclear
attack on Indian by other countries. This tenet has popularly been known as the concept of 'no first use'.
8. India will follow the policy of credible minimum deterrence.
9. India's principles of nuclear deterrence are creditability, effectiveness and survivability.
10. Special focus is to be given to ensure nuclear safety.
11. With a view to improving communication network to develop effective surveillance and early warning
system, space science and other communication techniques will be strengthened.
12. India will strengthen her computing and intelligence system.
13. India will assure the dual capable delivery system.
14. India will assure improved research and development program to sustain technological advancements.
15. Arms control measure will be made a part of the national security policy.
1.9.3 INDIA'S NUCLEAR ENERGY PROGRAMME
• The importance of nuclear energy, as a sustainable energy resource for India was recognized at the very
inception of its atomic energy programme more than four decades ago. A three-stage nuclear power
porgramme, based on a closed nuclear fuel cycle, was then chalked out. The three stage are:
First Stage
Reactor Pressured Heavy Water Rector (PHWR)
Capacity 250MW
Fuel Natural Uranium
By-product Plutonium
Coolant Heavy Water
Second Stage
Rector Fast Breeder Rector
Capacity 500 MW
Fuel Plutonium obtained from the first stage
Along with the fuel, some Thorium will be kept inside the reactor and it will be converted into
U02333.
Third Stage
Rector Fast Breeder Reactor
Capacity 1000MW
Fuel U-233 obtained from the second stage
• India stared the indigenous development of nuclear power plants based on uranium cycle in PHWRs, in
the First Stage. At present India has twelve such reactors under operation, four are under construction,
and several others have been planned.
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26 Energy General Studies
India has become self sufficient in all aspects of the PHWR technology. The capacity factors of
operating PHWRs have been close to eighty percent during recent years, and excellent performance
even with respect to international standards.
• A large volume of R & D has been done in the past to provide support to PHWR programme. Such
support has encompassed construction, commissioning, operation and maintenance of these power plants.
Considering the limited size of India's nuclear power programme based on PHWRs, there does not seem
to be any necessity for seeking major changes in the already matured and standardized designs of its 220
and 500 MWe PHWRs. The required R & D support for currently operating and future PHWRs will,
however, continue although the range and volume of these activities to be carried out at BARC is likely
to progressively reduce.
• As a part of the Second Stage, India started the FBR programme with the Fast Breeder Test Rector
(FBTR), at IGCAR, Kalpakkam. This rector, operating with indigenously developed mixed (U+Pu)
carbide fuel, has already yielded a large volume of operating experience and a better understanding of
the technologies involved. This has enabled the country to design 500 MWe (Prototype) FBR that will
utilize plutonium and the depleted uranium from its PHWRs Construction of this reactor is due to begin
soon.
• With the experience gained from the first prototype, improvement and up-gradation in the technology will
of course, be an important part of the programme in the coming years. Implementation of further
evolutionary and innovative improvements in the reactor design and associated fuel cycle technologies
will follow next.
• India is now designing and developing advanced nuclear system, which will utilize the precious plutonium
resources in an optimum way to maximize conversion of thorium to 233U, extract power in-situ from the
thorium fuel, and recycle the bred 233U in future reactors.
• The Advanced heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) project provides a focal point for a time bound high
intensity development in the efficient utilizations of thorium. The work on AHWR will also help in
conserving and further enhancing the R & D expertise related to Heavy Water Reactors. Reprocessing
and re-fabrication of the fuel plays a major par in the utilization of resources to the full extent. R & D
work on the reprocessing and re-fabrication in the context of AHWR is an important step forward
towards large-scale thorium utilization.
• A very important and upcoming technology is accelerator Driven System (ADS), which is attracting
worldwide attention due to its superior safety characteristics and is potential for burning actinide and
fission product waste and energy production. A number of countries around the world have drawn up
roadmaps/programs for development of ADS.
• Indian interest in ADS has an additional dimension, which is related to the planned utilization of its large
thorium reserves for future nuclear energy generation. Thorium has the added advantage that is produces
much less quantities of long-lived radioactive actinide wastes as compared to uranium. However, as
discussed earlier thorium by itself is not fissile and must be first converted to fissile U-232 by neutron
irradiation. In ADS, the accelerator delivers additional neutrons over and above those coming from fission.
1.10 HYDROPOWER
• India has significant scope to expand its use of hydropower: Its current 45 GW of installed capacity (of
which over 90% is large hydro) represent a little under a third of the assessed resource. Much of the
remaining potential is in the north and northeast. A further 14 GW are under construction. If developed
prudently, hydropower can bring multiple benefits as a flexible source of clean electricity, and also as
a means of water management for flood control, irrigation and domestic uses, its can also enable variable
renewable to make greater contribution to the grid.
# 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Email: info@engineersacademy.org
Pratap Nagar, Tonk Road Jaipur-33
Website: www.engineersacademy.org
Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777
ENGINEERS ACADEMY
Energy & Environment Energy 27
However, its development has lagged well behind thermal generation capacity, leading to a consistent
decline in its share of total electricity output. High upfront costs, the need for long-term debt (Which is
quite limited in India's capital markets) and consequent difficulties with financing have been major
impediment to realizing India's hydropower potential.
• Some hydropower projects have faced very long environmental clearance and approval procedures, as
well as significant public opposition arising largely from resettlement issues and concern over the impact
on other water users. Some of these concerns can be reduced by undertaking small-scale project: India
has an estimated potential 20 GW of small hydro projects (up to 25 MW capacities). As of 2014, 2.8
GW of small hydro (less than 10MW) had been developed. Such projects are particularly well-suited to
meet power requirements in remote areas.
Other Renewable resources in India:
The total potential for renewable power generation in the country in 2014 is estimated at 147615 MW.
This includes wind power potential of 102772 MW (69.6%), SHP (small-hydro power) potential of 19749
MW (13.38%) Biomass power potential of 17,538 MW (11.88%) and 5000 MW (3.39%) from bagasse-
based cogeneration in sugar mills.
Sourcewise Estimated Potential of Renewable Power
in India as on 31.03.14
Cogeneration
bagasse
3% Waste to Energy
Biomass 2%
power
12%
2. Diversifying Sources:
• In respect of oil, for example, we can tap markets in Venezuela, Columbia, Brazil, Africa, countries of
the Middle East and South America. This will enable flexibility in acquisition. Similarly, sourcing of natural
gas and LNG needs to be from a host of source. This may include Qatar, Australia, Middle East, Iran,
Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan. Some of the pipeline from Iran and Turkmenistan may pass via Afghanistan
and Pakistan. We will have to find innovative ways to meet our security concerns.
• The exploration and production of shale gas in the United States (US) has been a game changer, making
the country self-sufficient in natural gas over the last few years. This has created considerable excitement
globally, particularly in Europe, India is also looking at exploring shale gas domestically to fill in the supply-
demand gap.
• The solar energy potential in India is immense due to its convenient location near the Equator. India
receives nearly 3000 hours of sunshine every year, which is equivalent to 5000 trillion kWh of energy
Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) has set the target of 100 GW by 2022. The target
will principally comprise of 40 GW Rooftop and 60 GW through Large and Medium Scale Grid Connected
Solar Power Project. As the nation is facing an increasing demand - supply gap in energy, it is important
to tap the solar potential to meet the energy needs.
3. Improving Storage Facilities
• Crude Oil:
The third policy initiative is the development of crude oil/gas storage capacities for meeting exigencies.
Also given the different nature of products and nature of government control on pricing of various oil
products, the possibility of cess and its realization in the overall costs may raise problems, Cess of this
magnitude should be adequate to meet the inventory costs of the oil for 90 days.
• Nuclear Fuel:
There is clearly a need for such reserves of nuclear fuel at atomic power plants. It may be possible to
develop extra stocks of uranium in the power plants to meet the eventuality of disruption in supplies. This
will add very marginally to the cost but will ensure continuity and uninterrupted power in generation.
While setting up new atomic power plants, this must be strategic part of our operation.
4. Maximizing domestic reserves :
• Oil & Gas Sector:
In the oil sector, India has adopted an aggressive policy to expand domestic production by developing a
transparent regime for award of oil blocks. Exploration of oil and gas are long term investments.
• Coal Sector:
To augment coal production, more coal blocks were awarded to private players. There have also been
problems with environment clearances. These issues will need to be addressed. Most countries of the
word exploit their coal reserves and the coal fields are thereafter developed and re-forested. We have
taken a very restrictive policy in the recent time. No country can afford to let its mineral resources go
unused and hope to grow economically. A policy permitting exploration and re-forestation of the areas
already mined would be necessary. This is an area of very serious concern.
• Nuclear Energy:
The domestic exploration of uranium mines has been confined, so far, primarily to Jharkhand and Andhra
Pradesh. The quality of uranium has been poor and the domestic production has not picked up significantly.
Exploration on this so far has not led to discovery of any major deposits. While deposits were discovered
in Meghalaya, there have been other issues which have clouded the development of mines.
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A more aggressive policy for discovering more uranium and mining it will be necessary to augment our
resources. India has the largest reverses of thorium in the world. Part of the requirements of energy may
be met by developing thorium based atomic plants.
5. Domestic Demand and its Management:
• Energy Intensity:
The primary concern of management of domestic demand is to develop and energy efficient economy
so that the energy intensity of the GDP goes down. In the context of climate change, so far this has
assumed major importance.
• A National Mission on Enhance Energy Efficiency has been a component of National Action Plan on
Climate Change. It envisages setting up to specific energy consumption goals for specific plants and
performance, achievement and trade (PAT) mechanism so that those who fail to achieve the target can
compensate their failure by buying the permits from those who do so.
• Energy efficiency in domestic lighting, municipal, agricultural and commercial building sectors. It is also
proposed to make energy efficiency standards mandatory for equipment and appliances used in domestic
sector, hotel equipment, office equipment, transport equipment, industrial products etc.
• It also mandates technology improvement programme. Energy conservation building code and disseminating
measures for generally creating a climate of energy efficiency. This is clearly a step in the right direction.
• One of the major component of the programmes is introduction of super critical boilers in power plants
and promoting energy efficiency in existing plants. The average energy efficiency of coal in the Indian
power plants is around 30%-33%. With the introduction of super critical technology, it is possible to
increase this to 40% or more.
• Around 80% of the coal is consumed in the power sector. If energy efficiency in this sector can be
improved substantially, the requirement of coal imports can be reduced drastically, thereby reducing
domestic demand.
• Similarly, IGCC (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle) technology and promoting energy efficiency in
existing plants, many of which are quite old, is important. Introduction of advanced super critical boilers,
which have energy efficiency higher than above, is another important step.
6. Reducing Transmission and Distribution Losses:
A Major initiative for improving energy efficiency can come from reduction in Transmission and Distribution
(T&D) losses. Efforts are being made to reduce losses through Accelerated Power Development and
Reforms Programme (APDRP) and activities by National Electricity Fund. Several states are also
undertaking privatization of distribution utilities or giving these utilities to a franchisee. Privatization has
helped in reducing losses to some extent but it needs more encouragement and incentives.
7. R&D in Hybrid Vehicles:
The major consumers of transport fuel are the cars, trucks and railway engines. There have been some
R&D initiatives like the use of hydrogen and electric cars. Unless energy efficiency in this sector, which
consumes about 30% of the total requirement, is improved, it will be difficult to manage the domestic
demand. This must be supplemented by a strong Public Transport System and fewer private cars per
thousand of population. This is another area where a strong policy intervention is required.
8. Social Equity:
Today, we have nearly 40% of the population below the poverty line based on estimates of the World
Bank. Large numbers of them do not have access to minimum energy. One of the guidelines in this
regard has been the government policy to provide minimum of 30 KWH of energy to every citizen. In
addition, a certain minimum facility for cooking of 6 kg LPG has also been suggested.
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Energy & Environment Energy 35
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of 6. The government of India has recently made it
sustainable energy why? mandatory for oil marketing companies to blend
1. They use living organisms as catalysts to 5% ethanol with petrol. Which of the following
generate electricity from certain substrates. is/are the likely consequence of the policy?
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as 1. Lowers India's dependence on the fossil oil
substrates. 2. Reduce fuel import bill
3. They can be installed in waste water (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
treatments plants to cleanse water and
(c) 1 and 2 both (d) Neither 1 nor 2
produce electricity.
Which of the following statements given above 7. With reference to two non conventional energy
is/are correct? sources called coal bed methane and shale gas
consider the following statement:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
1. Coal bed methane is the pure methane gas
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3
extracted from coal seams while shale gas
2. In the context of alternative sources of energy,
is a mixture of propane and butane only that
ethanol as a viable bio fuel cab ne obtained
can be extracted from fine grained
from
sedimentary rocks.
(a) Potato (b) Rice
2. In the India abundant coal bed methane
(c) Sugarcane (d) wheat sources exist but so far no shale gas sources
3. Considered the following statements: have been found
1. Maize can be used for the production of Which of the statements given above is/are
starch correct?
2. Oil extracted from maize can be a feedstock
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
for biodiesel.
(c) 1 and 2 both (d) neither 1 nor 2
3. Alcoholic beverages can be produced by
using maize. 8. With reference to the usefulness of the
byproducts of sugar industry which of the
Which of the statements given above is/are
following statements is/are correct?
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 1. bagasse can be used as biomass fuel for
the generation of energy.
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2, and 3
4. Which one of the following is not a constituent 2. Molasses can be used as one of the
of biogas? feedstock for the production of synthetics
chemical fertilizers.
(a) Methane (b) Carbon dioxide
3. Molasses can be used for the production of
(c) Hydrogen (d) Nitrogen dioxide
ethanol.
5. What does water gas comprise of ?
Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) Carbon monoxide and hydrogen
below.
(b) Carbon dioxide and hydrogen
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Carbon monoxide and methane
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Carbon dioxide and methane
ANSWER SHEET
1. Ans. (d) 7. Ans. (d)
6. Ans. (c)
ECOSYSTEM
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
The Earth is the only planet known to support life as we know it. It supplies us with all the resources,
the materials we use and the food that we eat or drink. All living organisms have a specific surrounding
or medium with which they continuously interact, from which they derive sustenance and to which they
are fully adapted. This surrounding is their environment.
CONCEPT OF THE ENVIRONMENT
Prior to 1950s, for most people the term environment meant the set of conditions at home or in their work
places. In the years that followed, with the publication of Rachel Carson’s landmark book “Silent
Springs” (1960) as well as the occurrence of major environmental events such as the spilling of oil
northern coast of France, the death of fish and other organisms in thousands in Swedish lakes due to
long range air pollution and the much publicized threats of extinction of many species, the concept of the
environment gained widespread acceptance.
At present there are three points on which there is general agreement with regards to the
environment:
1. The environment is a common concern for both industrial and developing countries although problems
resulting from poverty and affluence are different.
2. The solution of environmental problems can only be achieved through international cooperation.
3. Integration of economic growth and environmental protection must be done according to the sustainable
development approach.
• Thus we can define Environment as “The sum total of living and non-living components, influences
and events surrounding an organism”. The living components are called the biotic components while
the non-living are called abiotic or physical components.
Components of the environment
ABIOTIC BIOTIC
Light (Energy, Radiation) Microbes
Atmospheric gases and wind Plants
Temperature and heat flow Animals (including human beings)
Water
Gravity
Topography
Geological Substratum
Soil
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The physical components set the condition for the survival of the biotic components which in turn take
care of the maintenance of the environment. Thus linkages among components of the environment are
pathways for the flow of energy and cycling of materials.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS:
• Recall the definition of the environment, and consider a fish living in a natural pond. It’s external
environment will be the water in the pond which it primarily inhabits. The water would contain nutrients,
oxygen and other organisms that the fish requires to sustain its life. As opposed to the external environment,
the body cavity within the fish provides an internal environment quite separate from the outside
environment. The body surface acts as an exchange barrier between the internal and the external
environment of the fish. The internal environment is relatively stable as compared to the external
environment. However, illness and injury or even environmental stress can upset it. But when the cause
of the upset is removed, the internal environment comes back to its original condition. The pond which
the fish inhabits is a natural environment. Examples of such natural environments on land include forests,
grasslands, savannah, deserts, etc. In any of these natural environments the climate, physiological, edaphic
(soil-related) and biotic factors interact with each other and influence the life forms.
Air
(25%)
Minerals
(45%)
Water
(25%)
Organie
(5%)
Life in this zone depends on the Sun’s energy and on the circulation of heat and essential nutrients. The
only exceptions are the life forms found in the deep-sea hydrothermal vents that depend on the energy
from the Earth. This energy is used and given off as materials are recycled. Since living organisms need
essential elements for survival like air, water and land, the biosphere includes parts of the atmosphere,
hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Soils
The thin layer of disintegrated rock particles, organic matter, water and air that covers most of the land
surface is known as soil. It supports life but requires living organisms for its formation as well. All soils
are formed of four main ingredients. These are present in different proportions and that determines what
the particular soil is like and for what purpose it would be suitable.
Atmosphere
Plants absorb carbon
dioxide (the main climate-
altering gas) and produce
dro
animals burrow, to rivers, acting
helping the soil as a natural
hy
breathe flood control
e(
cl
e r cy
Wat
• The first concept was that plants and animals formed a natural association, each with distinctive
members.
• The second concept was the realization that organisms are linked, both directly and indirectly by means
of their feeding relationships.
Arising from these, the concept of the ecosystem was formulated. A system is a collection of interdependent
parts that function as a unit and involve inputs and outputs.
An ecosystem represents the sum of all natural organisms and the non-living life supporting substances
within an area. It was considered as an open system with a series of major inputs and outputs and these
effectively “drive” the internal dynamics of the system. The ability to recognize distinctive ecosystems
in the biosphere gave ecologists a convenient scale with which to consider plants and animals and their
interaction. This is because it is more localized and thus more specific than the whole biosphere.
WHY SHOULD WE BE CONCERNED ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT
However, broadly there are three prevailing viewpoints regarding the environmental concerns:
1. The environmental concern is a conspiracy of the developed First World against progress in the Third
World and that environment will become an issue of importance only when the underdeveloped countries
reach the levels of production and consumption of the industrialized nations.
2. The second viewpoint argues strongly that the emphasis on preserving for instance, the tiger and the
aesthetic beauty of green belts is diverting the attention from the problems of the poor and that environment
has nothing to do with providing a better deal to the large and ever-growing population.
3. The third, in a paradoxical turn, holds this very same, large and ever growing population responsible for
the environmental crisis, maintaining that there is too little of everything except people.
Environmental levels of organization
• Let us start at the level of the whole organism, such as a plant or an animal. This is called organismal
level. Take an example of a human being as an organism. All human beings of your family, locality, city,
state, country and the world form one kind of individuals, they can potentially interbreed and produce
fertile young ones, thus they are one species. Individuals of a species occupying a definite space or area
at a given time constitute population. Thus there can be a population of frogs in a pond, population of
squirrels in a garden, or population of peepal trees in a forest, etc.
• Any population of individuals cannot live independently. Can we live without domestic animals, crops or
plants?
• When you look in a pond, you may see plants like lotus, hydrilla and algae. You may also see frogs, fish,
water fleas and some other insects. There are different kinds of organisms (populations) in that area.
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All these organisms are interdependent and live together forming a community. A community of living
organisms is called biotic community. We have learnt earlier that no biotic community can exist in the
absence of abiotic factors (water, air and light). The interdependence of the two types of factors occurs
in an ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM:
Biomes are functional units of the biosphere. They provide an optimum framework for understanding and
examining the complex interactions in the living world, with its myriads of species, and the physical
environment, for it is easier to understand and interpret these relationships in a smaller component of the
biosphere.
Concept of Ecosystem:
• The word ecosystem is derived from the greek word “oikos meaning home and system a meaning
system”. Eco means the habitat and “system” means a complex set of interconnected components or
processes forming a whole. The word system also indicates a functional property and hence an ecosystem
is considered as a functional unit of nature. Sir Arthur Tansely in 1935 was the first ecologist who used
the term ecosystem to explain the tangible relationships that exist between organisms in the biological world.
• Ecosystems are found throughout the biosphere, which is the zone where life exists. Within the biosphere,
ecosystems exist, on a spatial scale from a crack in a rock to rainforest or oceanic systems covering
areas of thousands of kilometres on the surface of the earth.
ENVIRONMENT – BIOME –
ECOSYSTEM –ECOLOGY:
Difference?
• Environment – All Factors that surround and
affect an individual or population.
• Ecology – It is the science of study of
interrelationships between individual
organisms and between organisms and their
Biotic and Abiotic environments.
• Ecosystem – A self sustaining, self regulating
and fundamental unit of organisms
interacting with one another and with the
surrounding environment.
• Biome – An ecosystem becomes Biome when
all plants, animals and soils studied
collectively. It is generally considered as
biotic component of Ecosystem.
• Ecosystems can be broadly divided into two main categories as Terrestrial and Aquatic ecosystems. The
biosphere’s major terrestrial or land ecosystems such as grasslands, forests and deserts are called biomes.
• Major ecosystems that are associated with water such as ponds, lakes, rivers, estuaries, oceans, coastal
and inland wetlands etc., are collectively termed aquatic ecosystems.
• Individual ecosystems such as lakes, forests etc., do not exist in isolation. They continuously exchange
both living organisms and non-living matter such as nutrients with their neighboring ecosystems. A stream
ecosystem, for example, is strongly influenced by the terrestrial ecosystems through which the stream flows.
• The exchange of materials between ecosystems can take two pathways.
(a) Exchanges from the surrounding environment into the ecosystem, which are termed as inputs.
(b) Exchanges from inside the ecosystem to the surrounding environment, which are termed as outputs.
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Energy & Environment Ecosystem 43
Radiant energy of the sun, gaseous substances like carbon dioxide, oxygen, water and nutrients are the
inputs into ecosystems. In addition there will also be living organisms moving into ecosystems form
neighbouring ecosystems even dead and decaying organic material may come from neighbouring
ecosystems. The outputs from ecosystems include nutrients, gaseous substances, water and living organisms
and release of heat in cellular respiration, or heat of respiration.
wave
Long tion Space
Sun Solar
r adiatio radia
n
ECOSYSTEM Environment
Plants Dispe
rsal Heat
Wind Minerals
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
Temperature Topography Consumers Consumers Consumers Consumers
or or or or
Herbivores Primary Large Omnivores
Carnivores Carnivores
Schematic Representation of the Structure of an Ecosystem
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Abiotic Components:
• The abiotic components that form the physical environment of an ecosystem include factors such as
energy, elements, inorganic compounds, dead organic matter and climate, natural ecosystems are fuelled
by the energy of the sun, which includes both heat and light. The energy of the sun is the driving force
for all the processes within the ecosystem.
• The inorganic elements and compounds found in the ecosystem consist of all nutrients such as nitrates,
phosphates and sulphates, water, carbon dioxide and oxygen etc. Some of these are macronutrients,
which the plants need, in relatively large amounts and others are micronutrients that are required in trace
amounts. There are macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (the three elements found in all organic
compounds), and nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulphur. Some examples of
micronutrients are: iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum and boron.
• The organic compounds that form a part of the abiotic components are largely the by products resulting
from the different activities of organisms or their death and decay. All inactive or dead organic matter
and dissolved organic matter are derived either from plants or animals. Such dead organic matter is
critical to the internal cycling of nutrients in an ecosystem.
Decomposing organic matter releases nutrients along with the formation of humus, which is important for
the fertility of soil. New humus is added as old humus gets converted into mineral elements. Now it
should be clear to you that it is in this abiotic background taht organisms interact in, forming a single
interactive system.
Biotic Components
• The biotic components of ecosystems include the plants, animals and microbes i.e., total living community.
They can be classified into two main groups of organisms the Autotrophs (producers) and the Heterotrophs
(consumers) Autotrophs.
• They can be classified into two groups Photo Autotrophs (Mostly) & Chemo Autotrophs (very very less).
• Photo Autotrophs are mainly the green plants. They all have the ability to synthesize their own food from
simple inorganic compounds like CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight, through the process of
photosynthesis and oxygen is given off as a byproduct. During photosynthesis radiant energy of sunlight
is converted into chemical energy and is stored in the chemical bonds of the compounds made by the
plants. Hence the autotrophs are also called producers and they form the energy-capturing base of the
ecosystem.
6CO2 + 12H2O + energy from sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
• In addition to plants, certain bacteria and algae are also included in autotrophs.
Ex: cyanobacteria
Chemo Autotrophs
Chemosynthetic bacteria synthesize organic molecules from inorganic materials using chemical energy.
They obtain energy by oxidation of inorganic substances such as sulphur compounds, ammonium ions and
iron.
Examples:
• sulphur-oxidizing bacteria can convert sulphur compounds to sulphuric acid. They are important in agriculture,
since the soil pH is reduced by them.
• nitrifying bacteria present in soil are another example (Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrobactor)
Heterotrophs
They feed on the organic materials already prepared by the autotrophs. Such organisms include all
animals and fungi, most bacteria and protoctists, and even a few plants.
Detritivore Decomposer
Detritivore is an Decomposer is an
organism that breaks organism, which does
down the detritus into enzymatic degradation
smaller particles, i.e., of detritus into simpler
fragments. inorganic substances.
Eg. Earthworm Eg. Some bacteria and
some fungi.
Fungi 3%
Most common species of
Algae 0.2% Actinomycetes bacteria are those of
Aerobic 13%
bacteria Bacillus,Clostridium,
68.8% Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas,
Anaerobic bacteria Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
14% Nitrobacter
• Bacteria are the most abundant group of organisms in soils. Bacteria tend to grow as individuals or
microcolonies on the surfaces of soil particles and roots. They are of great importance in various soil
processes such as cycling and transformation of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and other minerals. They are
also responsible for much of the decomposition of cellulose, protein etc. Some of them are harmful either
competing with plants for nutrients or causing diseases of plants and other soil organisms. Many bacteria
are rod shaped.
• Most bacteria are heterotrophs including those which can use many organic compounds such as sugars,
cellulose, chitin, organic acids, alcohols and hydrocarbons. Some are autotrophs which include nitrifiers,
sulphur oxidisers and iron bacteria. Many are aerobes and some are anaerobes.
• Cyanobacteria are often primary colonisers and play a key role in the transformation of bare rocks to
soil. This group is of special interest because many of them are nitrogen fixers and thereby contribute
to soil fertility.
• Actlnomycetes arc present in surface soil and also in the lower horizons to considerable depths. In
abundance, they are second only to bacteria Actinomycetes are abundant in neutral or alkaline soilds but
they cannot toelrate acid conditions.
Actinomycetes include
specides of Nocardia,
Streptomyces and
Micromonospora
• Fungi: They usually tolerate acid conditions better than bacteria and for this reason are more important
than bacteria in acid soils. Most soil fungi contribute to the essential processes of decomposing complex
organic constituents of plant tissue in soil such as cellulose, lignin and pectin. Best known macrofungi
are the basidiomycetes which include mushrooms, toadstools, puff balls, stinkhoms, birdsnest fungi and
others. Most of them are saprophytes playing an important role in litter and wood decay.
• Algae are found most abundantly either on the soil surface or just below the surface, provided that the
soil is sufficiently moist. In desert, denuded and other barren soils algae contribute to the accumulation
of organic matter in the soil. They also have the ability to corrode and weather rocks. One of the major
algal functions is the generation of organic matter from inorganic substances They bind together soil
particles and by forming surface bloom reduce erosion losses. Viruses do not ‘live’ or multiply in soils.
They only survive by some means in the soil. Some of the more stable plant viruses, e.g., tobacco mosaic
virus may remain infective in the soil for several months or longer. Root-infecting plant viruses are
actively transmitted through the soil by vectors organisms such as nematodes and fungi (e.g., tobacco
rattle virus by nematodes and tobacco necrosis by fungi).
• Protozoa do not constitute a large portion of the biomass of the microbial community. They are found
in greatest abundance near the surface of the soil. The vast majority of these protozoa are phagotrophic
i.e., they directly feed upon microbial cells or other particulate matter.
SUN
Eaten by Eaten by
on
on
ati
ati
ati
pir
pir
pir
gy
gy
gy
res
res
res
ner
ner
ner
in
in
in
de
de
de
ost
ost
ost
lise
lise
lise
yl
yl
yl
uti
uti
uti
erg
erg
erg
Un
Un
Un
En
En
En
Incoming
Solar Autotrophs Herbivore Carnivore
Energy
De
De
De
com
com
com
po
po
po
siti
siti
siti
on
on
on
Secondary rat
Consumer
Tertiary
snake seal
Consumer
Quaternary racoon
hawk white shark
Consumer
2. Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter generated at each level of grazing food chain.
This dead matter (detritus) is rich in energy and nutrients. This detritus is eaten by animals which
in turn are eaten by other animals in the soil. A large amount of energy flows through the detritus food
chain.
Ultimately the organic matter is decomposed.
1. The chain begins with detritivores (decomposers) at the first trophic level
2. Energy for this food chain comes from remains of detritus
3. This food chain take up energy from the detritus, ensuring maximum utilization and minimum wastage
4. The food chain helps in fixing inorganic nutrients
5. It consists of sub soil organisms.
Examples for Detritus Food Chain:
1. Litter Earthworms Chicken Hawk
2. Detritus Decomposers Detritus Feeders carnivores @ grazing food chain
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• Detritus Food chain is instrumental in completing the mineral cycles
• The distinction between these two food chains is the source of energy for the first level consumers. In
the gazing food chain the primary source of energy is living plant biomass while in the detritus food chain
the source of energy is dead organic matter or detritus.
• The two food chains are linked. The initial energy source for detritus food chain is the waste materials
and dead organic matter from the grazing food chain.
Food Web:
• A food chain describes how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. Food chain is a linear
feeding relationship. But rarely species eat just one type of food. Similarly a organism at one level may
be a food for more than one species. For example, grasses may serve food for rabbit or grasshopper
or goat or cow. Similarly a herbivore may be food Source for many different carnivorous species.
• Also food availability and preferences of food of the organisms may shift seasonally eg. we eat watermelon
in summer and peaches in the winter. Thus there are interconnected networks off feeding relationships
that take the form of food webs.
• Food web is a complex network of Food chains in an ecosystem. A food web illustrates, all possible
transfers of energy and nutrients among the organisms in an ecosystem, whereas as food chain traces
only one pathway of the food.
Quaternary
Carnivore Carnivore
consumers
Tertiary
Carnivore Carnivore
consumers
Secondary
Carnivore Carnivore
consumers
Primary Zooplankton
Herbivore
consumers
Primary
Plant Phytoplankton
producers
First
Producer Grass
trophic
level
Top
carnivore Hyperparasities
Secondary Parasites
carnivore
Primary Herviores
carnivore
Herbivores
Producers
Producers
A B
Inverted pyramid of number
Upright Pyramids of Numbers (A) In a Grass Land
(B) In a Pond Parasitic Food Chain
Carnivore
Herbivores
Producers
Carnivore 2
12 gm/m
Herviores 2
8 gm/m
2
Producers 4 gm/m
10 Joules 1 Joules
Energy Energy
Advantages
Overall Picture of the functional role of communities
Easy to compare different ecosystem (Intake, Metabolism, waste, conversions)
Always Upright
Drawbacks
Difficult to measure and represent
Energy consumption pattern varies with the time esp. due to interactions between organisms
Not all the Energy fixed by Producers is available to Consumers. WHY??
Plant’s own needs: metabolic activities through
Respiration (Reverse of Photosynthesis)
Similarly energy is transferred to the organisms in the Food chains/ Food Webs
Finally energy is transferred to decomposers where chemical energy is converted into heat.
Energy flow in any ecosystem is Unidirectional & Non-Cyclic(Not for Reuse)
Energy Flow in the Ec osystem
1. The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun.
2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.
3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain as one organism eats
another.
4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5. Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not.
Pyramid of Numbers
Shows the relative
Pyramid of Energy number of individual
Shows the relative amount of organisms at each
energy available at each trophic trophic level.
level. organisms use about 10
per cent of this 0.1% Third-level consumers
energy for 1% Second level consumers
life processes. 10% First level consumers
The rest is lost 100% Producers
as heat.
50 grams of
Pyramid of Biomass human tissue
Represents the amount of 500 grams
living organic matter at each of chicken
trophic level. Tyipically, the 1500 grans
greatest biomass is at the of gain
base of the pyramid.
Ecosystem Productivity
• It is the amount of organic matter accumulated in any unit time.
• There are two types of Ecosystem Productivity.
1. Primary productivity (By Autotrophs):
It is the rate at which energy is stored or trapped by the producers in the form of organic matter
from solar energy.
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) Total Intake by Green Plants (~0.2% Insolation)
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) Amount of energy converted into organic matter, which is food
for Heterotrophs, the next trophic level species. (~20-50% of GPP)
NPP = GPP – Respiration by the plants.
Productivity of different Ecosystems:
1. Deserts : <1-2%
2. Deep Oceans: < 4%
3. Grass Lands, Deep Lakes, Mt Forests & Agri: 2-12%
4. Continental Shelf Waters: 2-12%
5. Moist Forests, Moist Grass Lands, Agro Lands, Shallow Lakes: 12-40%
6. Estuaries, Springs, Corral Reefs:50-100%
Highest levels of Ecosystem Productivity is found at the Boundaries between different types of
Ecosystems. Ex: Boundaries of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems like Alluvial Plains, Estuaries &
Corral Reefs has highest levels of Productivity.
2. Secondary productivity (By Heterotrophs)
It is the Rate of Production of animal Tissue by the consumers per unit area per time
20 Productivity in Consumers = Food Consumed from Autotrophs – {Excreta + respiration} elements
of the soil, atmosphere, etc. of a region are converted into the organic substances of animals or
plants and released back into the environment.”
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II. BIOGEO CHEMICAL CYCLES (Material Flow: Cyclic)
• However, transfer of nutrients along with chemical energy does not indicate loss of nutrients like that
of energy. This is because the fecal matter, excretory products and dead bodies of all plants and animals
are broken down into inorganic materials by decomposers and eventually returned to the ecosystem for
reuse by the Autotrophs.
• An ecosystem is, therefore, a system, of regularly interacting and interdependent components forming a
unified whole. The interaction of its components involves the flow of energy and cycling of materials
• The movement of these nutrients in a cyclic manner in the environment constitutes the biogeochemical
cycles. Thus, a “biogeochemical cycle is the cycle in which nitrogen, carbon, and other inorganic elements
of the soil, atmosphere, etc. of a region are converted into the organic substances of animals or plants
and released back into the environment.”
• Energy flows through ecosystem enabling the organisms to perform various kinds of work and this energy
is ultimately lost as heat forever in terms of the usefulness of the system. On the other hand, nutrients
of food matter never get used up. They can be recycled again and again indefinitely.
• The complete path a chemical takes through the four major components – or reservoirs – of Earth’s
systems
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
• Based on the nature of the reservoir, there are two types of cycles namely Gaseous and sedimentary
cycle.
Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere or the hydrosphere(water, carbon and
nitrogen Cycles)
Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth’s crust.
Water Cycle:
Water as an important ecological factor determines the structure and function of the ecosystem. Cycling
of all other nutrients is also dependent upon water as it provides their transportation during the various
steps. It acts as solvent medium for their uptake of nutrients by organisms.
• The hydrologic cycle is the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system which is
driven by solar energy. Water on our planet is stored in major reservoirs like atmosphere, oceans, lakes,
rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir to another by the
processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration and
groundwater flow.
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Condensation
Precipitation
Transpiration Evaporation
Percolation
The Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is minor constituent of the atmosphere as compared to oxygen and nitrogen. However, without
carbon dioxide life could not exist, because it is vital for the production of carbohydrates through
photosynthesis by plants. It is the element that anchors all organic substances from coal and oil to DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid; the compound that carries genetic information)
• Carbon is present in the atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon cycle involves
a continuous exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and organisms. Carbon from the atmosphere
moves to green plants by the process of photosynthesis, and then to animals. By process of respiration
and decomposition of dead organic matter it returns back to atmosphere. It is usually a short term cycle.
• Some carbon also enters a long term cycle. It accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in the peaty
layers of marshy soil or as insoluble carbonates in bottom sediments of aquatic systems which take a
long time to be released.
• In deep oceans such carbon can remained buried for millions of years till geological movements may lift
these rocks above sea level. These rocks may be exposed to erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide,
carbonates and bicarbonates into streams and rivers.
ss ATMOSPHERE
ma
d bio Volcanic emissions
an
tat ion ing Atmosphere
s n
ore bur
Def on Carbon dioxide
p irati (CO2)
res Dec
ls ion om
rat p
a
i
im
sp
os
An
iti
re
on
nt
Fossil fuel
Pla
burning
CO2 fixation Direct
Tree (by aquatic plants) absoption
LITHOSPHERE
Carbonates, CO2
Dead organic
matter CO2 release
Hydrosphere
(organic
carbon) Microbial
action
A Carbon Cycle
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• Fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are organic compounds that were buried before they
could be decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time and geological processes into fossil
fuels when they are burned the carbon stored in them is released back into the atmosphere as carbon-
dioxide.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein and is a basic building block of all living tissue. It constitutes
nearly 16% by weight of all the proteins.
There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmosphere but the elemental form cannot be used
by most of the living organisms.
Nitrogen needs to be ‘fixed’, that is, converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before it can be taken
up by plants.
There are five main processes which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below.
1. Nitrogen fixation:
• This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by
plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by the following three methods:
(i) Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic activity help in the fixation of nitrogen.
(ii) Industrial fixation: At high temperature (400°C) and high pressure (200 atm.), molecular nitrogen
is broken into atomic nitrogen which then combines with hydrogen to form ammonia.
(iii) Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria:
(i) Symbiotic Bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants.
e.g. Rhizobium
(ii) Freeliving Bacteria can combine atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen with hydrogen to form
ammonia, e.g.
1. Nostoc
2. Azobacter
3. Cyanobacteria
2. Nitrification:
• It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus
bacteria respectively. Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can covert nitrate into nitrite.
3. Assimilation:
• In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA
etc. These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.
4. Ammonification:
• Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric acid.. These waste products
as well as dead remains of organisms are converted back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This
process is called ammonification. Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.
5. Denitrification:
• Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria like
Paracoccus live deep in soil near the water table as they like to live in oxygen free medium. Denitrification
is reverse of nitrogen fixation.
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Nitrogen cycle
N2
Nitrate Bacteria
+
NH4 Decomposers
Azotobacter
Nitrogen gas Ammonia (NH3)
Bacteria
Decomposition
Bacteria
PO4
(b) Sulphur Cycle
Whatever the source, sulphur in the form of sulphates is take up by plants and incorporated through a
series of metabolic processes into sulphur bearing amino acid which is incorporated in the proteins of
autotroph tissues. It then passes trough the grazing food chain.
Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas
through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
Wasterwater
Erosion run-off Oceans
Sediments Land and
S4 SO SO42–
Biosphere
SO2
Sedimentary cycle
Hydrologic cycle
The Bio-geochemical cycles discussed here are only a few of the many cycle present in the ecosystem.
These cycles usually do not operate independently but interact with each other at some point or the other.
II. Ecological Regulation and Development (changes in components of an Ecosystem)
• Biotic and Abiotic components in any Ecosystem are not constant forever. They change over a period
of time. Ecosystem is a self sustaining entity that undergoes certain changes.
• It. can be understood by the following concepts:
Ecological Interactions
Ecosystem Stability
Ecological Succession
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(2) Predators can bring down the intensity of interspecific competition in a community by selectively preying
on the competitively superior species and keep their densities low. This permits the weaker species to
persist in the habitat.
(3) Predators also ap@ar to be responsible for maintaining a high species diversity in many biological
communities. Experimental removal of all predators from a community has been known to lead to the
elimination of some species and a general decline in species diversity.
(4) Predators in some cases can regulate the population densities of their prey. Predation is obviously not
beneficial to the individual organism that is killed and eaten as food, but to the prey population as a whole,
the predator could be very beneficial. In an ideal situation, the prey and predator populations show what
are called ‘coupled oscillations’ over a period of time.
• What makes a good predator more effective?
Speed
heightened senses like hearing, vision
Claws or teeth for grabbing and shredding
Camouflage (to sneak up on prey)
Revenge of the prey - how do they survive?
Prey animals may develop speed, heightened awareness, colonial living, camouflage or mimicry
Plants can’t run and hide, so how do they protect themselves?
• Plants can have physical defenses like thorns, needles, tough leaves. They can also have chemical
defenses that are poisonous, irritating or bad-tasting.
(c) Symbiosis
• Symbiotic relationships are those in which two different species of organisms live together in close
association. All symbiotic relationships provide the potential for coevolution between organisms.
• Here co-evolution is the key basis for symbiosis.
• Major types of Symbiosis:
1. Commensalism: One species benefits and the other species neitherbenefits nor is harmed.
2. Mutualism: Both participating species benefit.
3. Parasitism: One species benefits but the other (the host) is harmed.
Commensalism
• Many examples of the one sided relationship of commensalisms exist in nature. Often the individuals
deriving benefit are physically attached to the other species in the Relationship plants called epiphytes
grow on the branches of other plants. The epiphytes derive their nourishment from the air and rain not
from the plants to which they attach for support. Epiphytic orchid plant growing on the branches of a
mango tree is a common example of commensalisms.
• Yet another example is the relationship between certain small tropical fish, the clown fish and the sea
anemone, marine animals that have stinging tentacles. The fish have developed an adaptation that allows
them to live among the deadly tentacles of the anemones. These tentacles quickly paralyze other species
of fish, protecting the clown fish against predators scavengers who feed on dead things (Is it a true ex
of commensalisms?)
Mutualism
• Mutualism occurs when both species benefit from the close relationship between two organisms.
• Most familiar example of mutualism is pollination in which the plant benefits by getting cross pollination
accomplished by the bee and the bee benefits from the nectar that the plant offers in return.
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• A striking example of mutualism is found in the association between the stinging ants and the Latin
American plant genus Acacia. The modified leaves of Acacia plant appear as paired hollowed thorns.
These thorns provide a home for the ants, protecting themand their larvae. In addition the ants eat the
nectar which the plants produce. In turn, the ants attack any herbivore that lands on the branches or
leaves of the acacia and clear away vegetation that comes in contact with their host shrub, increasing
the plant’s ability to survive.
Proto Co-operation: Both are mutually benefited & can live independently.
Ex:
Birds and Cattle Birds feed on ticks and Lice present on the body surface of the Cattle.
Cattle get rid of Ectoparasites and Birds get food.
Birds and crocodiles Plover birds enter into the mouth of Crocodile and feeds on the parasitic leeches
and intum crocodile get rid of blood sucking parasites.
Is Mutualism = Proto Co-operation??
Though Both species mutually benefitted, In Mutualism, They cannot live separately; but in Pro cooperation,
they can live independently.
Parasitism
• Parasitism is sometimes considered a form of predation. However, unlike a true predator, the successful
parasite does not kill its host but evolves a mutual tolerance, although parasites may regulate some host
populations, lower their reproductive success and modify their behavior.
• Parasites include viruses, many bacteria, fungi and an array of invertebrates. A different species of
organism, larger than the parasite itself, is home for a parasite.
• During the intimate relationship between the parasite and the host, the parasite derives nourishment and
the host is harmed.
• A well-known parasitic example is the intestinal hookworm of man. A person is infected when walking
barefoot in soil containing hookworm larvae. These larvae are able to penetrate the skin entering the
blood stream. The blood carries the larvae to the lungs. From there they are able to migrate up the
windpipe into the oesophagus. The larvae are then swallowed and reach the intestines. After growing
into adult worms, they attach to the inner lining of the intestines. They remain attached here, feeding on
the blood of the host.
• An example of plant parasitism is that of the dodder plant. It has lost its chlorophyll and leaves in the
course of its evolution and is unable to manufacture food. Instead, it obtains food from the host plants
on which it grows.
• Kinds of interaction possible by designating ‘±’ for beneficial, ‘’ for harmful and ‘O’ for neutral.
These are:
• Runners: deer and antelopes
• Climbers: monkeys and squirrels
• Burrowers: rats, moles and snakes
• Fliers: bats and birds
All vertebrate terrestrial animals breathe through lungs.
Xerophytic adaptations in organisms: Animals found in the xeric (dry) conditions show certain special
types of adaptations.
Extreme heat and scarcity of water: These animals have very scaly skin, resistant to drying and show
many adaptations to conserve water.
Examples: camel, snakes, spiders and scorpions.
Extreme cold and scarcity of water: These animals have oily hairs that provide thick winter coat.
Examples: polar bear, reindeer.
Aerial adaptations in organisms
Besides insects, organisms, such as birds, mainly use air as a medium to fly. Birds show the following
adaptive features that help them to fly: streamlined body to steer through the air, wings that help to
fly are modified forelimbs, strong flight muscles, body covered with feathers, which trap air to keep
the body warm and help the bird to fly, and light weight because of hollow bones along with reduction
in the number of bones.
Fragile Ecosystems
Mangroves
• Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines.
• Mangroves are plants that survive high salinity, tidal regimes, strong wind velocity, high temperature and
muddy anaerobic soil-a combination of conditions hostile for other plants. The mangrove ecosystems
constitute a symbiotic link or bridge between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. They are found in the
inter-tidal zones of sheltered shores, estuaries, creeks, backwaters, lagoons, marshes and mud-flats.
• They require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from saline/brackish water.
It produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions.
Pneumatophores help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment, stabilize the
coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes.
• Leaves are thick and have salt secreting glands.
• Mangroves enhance natural recycling of nutrients, prevents coastal soil erosion, protects coastal lands
from tsunami, tidal storms and floods etc.
• The mangrove cover in the country is 4740 km2. India is home to some of the best mangroves in the
world. West Bengal has the maximum mangrove cover in the country.
Top five states with maximum Mangrove cover are as follows:
1. West Bengal (2106)
2. Gujarat (1107)
3. Andaman & Nicobar Island (617)
4. Andhra Pradesh (367)
5. Odisha (231)
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List of Mangroves in India
They are destroyed for conversion of area for agricultural purpose, fuel, fodder and, salinization, mining,
oil spills, aqua cultural, use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, industrial purposes.
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Coral Reef
• Coral reefs are the skeletons of stony coral polyps cemented together. They occur in shallow tropical
areas where the sea water is clean, clear and warm. Reef building corals are a symbiotic association
of polyps (coral animals) and zooxanthellae (microscopic algae).
• There are two types of corals: hard corals and soft corals. Only hard corals build reefs. In coral reef
ecosystem, many invertebrates, vertebrates, and plants live in close association to the corals, with tight
resource coupling and recycling, allowing coral reefs to have extremely high productivity and biodiversity,
such that they are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans’. Coral reef forms the most
dynamic ecosystem, providing shelter and nourishment to marine flora and fauna. They act as natural
protective barriers against erosion and storm surge.
The four major coral reefs areas identified for intensive conservation & management in India are:
(i) Gulf of Mannar;
(ii) Gulf of Kachchh;
(iii) Lakshadweep; and
(iv) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
• Coral reef ecosystems world-wide have been subject to unprecedented degradation over the past few
decades. Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural events. Recent accelerated
coral reef decline seems to be related mostly to anthropogenic impacts (overexploitation, overfishing,
increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading. Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral
reefs include violent storms, flooding, high and low temperature extremes, EI Nino southern Oscillation
(ENSO) events, subaerial exposures.
Coral Bleaching:
Bleaching, or the paling of coral colour occurs when
(i) The densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or
(ii) The concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae fall.
Ecological causes of coral bleaching:
(i) Temperature: Bleaching is much more frequently reported from elevated sea water temperature.
(ii) Solar Irradiance: Bleaching during the summer months, during seasonal temperature and irradiance
maxima often occurs disproportionately in shallow-living corals and on the exposed summits of colonies.
(iii) Sub aerial exposure: Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as
extreme low tides or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
(iv) Sedimentation: Relatively few instances of coral bleaching have been linked solely to sedimentation.
(v) Fresh Water Dilution: Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm generated precipitation and runoff has
been demonstrated to cause coral reef bleaching.
(vi) Inorganic Nutrients: Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an increase in ambient elemental nutrient
concentrations (e.g. ammonia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae densities 2-3 times.
(vii) Xenobiotics: Zooxanthellae loss occurs during exposure of coral to elevated concentrations of various
chemical contaminants, such as Cu, herbicides and oil.
(viii) Epizootics: Pathogens can also induce bleaching, which is different from other forms of bleaching as the
diseases cause patchy or whole colony death resulting in a white skeleton.
• Changes in the food web not only threaten life in the Arctic region, they also could have impacts on
Earth’s climate. Populations of Arctic plankton for example, not only provide food at the base of the food
web, they also convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into organic matter that eventually sinks to
the ocean bottom-effectively extracting a heat-trapping greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.
ANTARCTIC ECOSYSTEM
The Antarctic ecosystem is among the worlds most fragile. Both on land and at sea, the ecosystem in
the frozen south is highly simplified and intensely susceptible to perturbation. The primitive nature of life
on the continent, coupled with the simple character of the food chain in circumpolar waters, make the
Antarctic ecosystem especially vulnerable to intensive ecological disruptions.
The main threats facing Antarctica:
1. Climate change / Global warming, resulting in a warming of the sea and loss of sea ice and land-based
ice, this is greatest long-term threat to the region. Already some ice shelves have collapsed and ice slopes
and glaciers have retreated. Oceanic acidification (from extra dissolved carbon dioxide) is already leading
to the loss of some marine snails thought to have a significant part to play in the oceanic carbon cycle.
The breeding populations and ranges of some penguin species have been altered.
2. Fishing, both legal and illegal. Much of the world’s oceans are over-fished, the chances are that if
investments into the kinds of boats and fishing gear needed for Antarctica are made, then it too will suffer
this same fate. Fishing for krill most abundant fish in Antarctica) could be particularly significant as these
are at the bottom of many Antarctic food chains. There are already illegal fishing boats that ignore
current regulations.
3. Invasive species. Organisms that are not native to Antarctica are being taken there on ships, attached
as seeds to boots and clothing. Some of these that are able to now survive there as a consequence of
global warming. Rats in particular are a threat to Antarctica’s ground nesting birds which are particularly
vulnerable as there are no native ground based predators for them to be experienced in defending
themselves against.
4. Tourism, with the accompanying pollutants that accompany ships and aircraft, the possibility of oil spills
and the effects of lots of people and infrastructure on wildlife and the wider environment.
5. Pollution, CFC’s and other ozone depletors are responsible for the ozone hole that has appeared over
Antarctica for over 30 years, chemicals produced thousands of miles away are found in Antarctic ice
and in the bodies of wildlife. Discarded equipment, chemicals and oil can degrade the landscape. Fishing
nets, plastic, lines, hooks etc. carried by the sea can result in great suffering or loss of life by birds, fish
and marine mammals.
7. Exploration and exploitation of mineral reserves, oil and gas. Not currently economically viable, but as
the need becomes greater and as technology advances, this will become an increasing threat. The
Antarctic Treaty bans all mining and mineral exploitation indefinitely, though this comes up for review in
2048 (in other words, it isn't really banned indefinitely at all).
8. Direct impacts associated with the development of infrastructure for scientific bases and programmes.
The construction of buildings and related facilities such as roads, fuel storage, runways etc.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people
obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called
supporting services are regarded as the basis for the services of the other three categories. The following
lists represent the definition and samples of each according to the MA:
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which one of the following is the best description 5. Which one of the following is the correct
of the term “ecosystem”? sequence of ecosystems in the order of
(a) A community of organisms interacting with decreasing productivity?
one another (a) Oceans, lakes, grasslands, mangroves
(b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by (b) Mangroves, oceans, grasslands, lakes
living organisms (c) Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
(c) A community of organisms together with the (d) Oceans, mangroves, lakes, grasslands
environment in which they live. 6. With reference to the food chains in Ecosystems
(d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area. which of the following kinds of organism is/are
known as decomposer organism/ organisms?
2. Which one of the following is the process
involved in photosynthesis ? 1. Virus
(a) Potential energy is released to form free 2. Fungi
energy 3. Bacteria
(b) Free energy is converted into potential Select the correct answer using the codes given
energy and stored below.
(c) Food is oxidized to release carbon dioxide (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
and water (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and 7. Which one of the following sets of elements
water vapour are given out was primarily responsible for the origin of life
on the Earth?
3. Which of the statements given above is/are
correct? (a) Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium
(b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
1. With reference to food chains in ecosystems,
consider the following statements. (c) Oxygen, Calcium, Phosphorus
2. A food chain illustrates the order in which a (d) Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium
chain of organisms feed upon each other. 8. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes
the following major categories of ecosystem
3. Food chains are found within the population
services-provisioning, supporting, regulating,
of a species.
preserving and cultural. Which one of the
4. A food chain illustrates the numbers of each following is supporting service?
organism which are eaten by others.
(a) Production of food and water
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(b) Control of climate and disease
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
(c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination
4. In the grasslands, trees do not replace the grasses (d) Maintenance of diversity
as a part of an ecological succession because of
9. Among living organisms, which one of the
_____?
following is the most responsible factor for
(a) Insects and fungi bringing about the origin of a new species?
(b) Limited sunlight and paucity of nutrients (a) Isolation (b) Mutation
(c) Water limits and fire (c) Natural Selection (d) Sexual Reproduction
(d) None
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10. Which of the following pairs is incorrect ? 17. In the bioaccumulation of DDT in the aquatic
(a) Kiwi — Bird (b) Alligator — Crocodile food chain_of Plankton Clams Fish
Fish-eating birds, which group of organisms
(c) Bat — Mammal (d) Fish — Pisces
exhibits highest concentration of DDT (in their
11. Lichens is an association of two types of bodies)?
organisms. They are
(a) Plankton (b) Clams
(a) Algae and fungi (b) Algae and virus (c) Fish (d) Fish-eating birds
(c) Fungi and virus (d) Virus and bacteria 18. A transition zone or region separating two biomes
12. When a person moves from poles to the equator, is known as
the population of plants and animals will (a) ecocline (b) ecological niche
(a) Increase (c) ecotone (d) ecotype
(b) Decrease 19. “Ecological niche” refers to the
(c) Remain unchanged (a) amount of autotrophs available for
consumption of the grazing population.
(d) Not show any consistent behavior
(b) relationship of an animal with the surrounding
13. Which one among the following is the correct
animals.
order of living organisms from producer to
(c) position of an animal with reference to its
tertiary consumers?
species composition.
(a) Grass—Grasshopper-Hawk—Lizard
(d) positional and functional relationship of an
(b) Grass-Hawk-Grasshopper—Lizard organism in an ecosystem.
(c) Grass—Lizard—Grasshopper—Hawk 20. Which of the following National Parks is unique
(d) Grass—Grasshopper—Lizard—Hawk in being a swamp with floating vegetation that
14. A camel adapts easily in a desert due to supports a rich biodiversity?
(a) Bhitarkanika National Park
(a) hump with stored food as fats.
(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
(b) water cells in stomach to store metabolic water.
(c) Keoladeo Ghana National park
(c) nucleated Red Blood Cells.
(d) Sultanpur National park
(d) hair growth near eyes and nostrils.
21. The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that
15. Statement I: Autotroph plants contain the mangroves can serve as a reliable safety hedge
pigment chlorophyll for meeting their requirement against coastal calamities. How do mangroves
of carbon and energy. function as a safety hedge ?
Statement II: Photosynthesis is the process of (a) The mangrove swamps separate the human
coverting water into food using sunlight and settlements from the sea by a wide zone in
oxygen. which people neither live nor venture out
(a) I is true, II is false (b) The mangroves provide both food and
(b) I is false II is true medicines which people are in need of after
any natural disaster.
(c) I & II are true
(c) The mangrove trees are tall with dense
(d) I & II are false canopies and serve as an excellent shelter
16. Which of the following is not a micronutrient for during a cyclone or Tsunami.
a plant? (d) The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by
(a) Iron (b) Magnesium storms and tides because of their extensive
(c) Molybdenum (d) Manganese roots.
22. Higher plants take up Nitrogen as (a) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is the correct
(a) Nitrites only explanation of (A)
(b) Nitrates only (b) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is not the correct
explanation of (A)
(c) Nitrates and ammonia
(c) (A) is true and (R) is false
(d) Urea
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true
23. Which one of the following organisms has a role
in converting ammonia into nitrates? 26. The pyramid of numbers is inverted in the case
of
(a) Rhizobium (b) Nitrobacter
(a) parasitic food chain
(c) Nitrosomanas (d) Pseudomonas
(b) Grassland ecosystem
24. Which one among the following groups is the
most abundant in terms of number of species (c) Forest ecosystem
identified? (d) lake ecosystem
(a) Fungi (b) Green plants 27. The pyramid of ener gy in terrestrial
(c) Bacteria (d) Insects ecosystem is
25. Assertion (A): Carbon dioxide in air is (a) upright
necessary for sustaining life. (b) inverted
Reason (R): Carbon dioxide is assimilated in (c) spindle shaped
carbohydrates in photosynthesis (d) irregular
ANSWERS SHEET
1. Ans. (c) 9. Ans. (b) 17. Ans. (d) 25. Ans. (b)
2. Ans. (b) 10. Ans. (b) 18. Ans. (c) 26. Ans. (a)
3. Ans. (a) 11. Ans. (a) 19. Ans. (d) 27. Ans. (a)
BIODIVERSITY
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
Biological diversity or biodiversity in short, is the sum of all the different species of microorganisms, fungi,
plants and animals living on Earth and the variety of habitats in which they live. Since the natural
ecosystems vary horizontally i.e., from equator towards the poles and vertically i.e., from sea levels
upward and from sea level downward and hence different biomes have developed having distinct physical
and biological characteristics. Thus the number of varieties of species plants and animals is very significant
indicator of the health and wealth of a nation. This biological variety forms the basis of biological diversity
or simply biodiversity.
The role of man in accelerating the loss of biodiversity is now well established, and it has prompted the
world community to take serious steps towards conserving the rich living resource on Earth consequently,
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has been adapted by 169 countries. The study of biodiversity
includes the following aspects :
Meaning and concepts of biodiversity,
Types of biodiversity,
Benefits of biodiversity,
Causes of the loss of biodiversity, and
Conversion of biodiversity
BIODIVERSITY : MEANING AND DEFINITIONS
Biodiversity or biological diversity is derived from the words bio and diversity. It is the diversity of and
in living nature.
Diversity, at its heart, implies the number of different kinds of objects, such as species. However, defining
biodiversity or measures of biodiversity, is not so simple.
The term biological diversity, was coined by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980, while the word biodiversity itself,
was coined by the entomologist E.O. Wilson in 1986.
There are many different definitions of biodiversity among which the one used under the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) is one of the most frequently cited :
"Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems."
ELEMENTS AND TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
There are three levels of diversity viz. genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. In effect, these levels
cannot be separated. Each is important, interacting with and influencing the others. A change at one level can
cause changes at the other levels.
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1. Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is the "fundamental currency of diversity" that is responsible for variation. This is
the diversity of basic units of hereditary information which are passed down to generations found
within a species (e.g. different varieties of the same species). Genetic diversity underlies the
variability (differences) among individuals of a given species.
For example no two individuals even in the same family are identical, unless of course they are
identical twins with the same genome (i.e. complete genetic makeup).
The differences in the genetic makeup of organisms also form the basis for variation within a
population, or between populations, of that species. Thus, genetic diversity within a species will
increase with the number of individuals of a given species.
It is genetic diversity that allows a species to adapt to changing environmental conditions such as
a lower rainfall, a higher temperature year round, etc. Genetic diversity is, thus, important for the
preservation of species diversity, and hence biological diversity.
Knowledge of the variability of genes also allows us to understand how closely individuals or species
are related to each other. Genetic diversity between species becomes greater with increasing
distance in the relationship of species. Isolated population such as those on ocean: islands or in small
patches of habitats cut off from the surrounding environment tend to have less genetic variation,
hence more susceptible to extinction.
2. Species Diversity
Species diversity means the differences between species (both domesticated and wild). It is the
most visible component of biodiversity. It denotes the variety of species in different habitats on
Earth, and it represents the range of evolutionary and ecological adaptations of species to particular
environments.
The distinct ecological importance of species supports functional diversity and has a direct bearing
on the species composition of the site, and therefore on overall biodiversity. For example a keystone
species will be more important than other species for conserving overall biodiversity.
3. Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem diversity means the variation between different types of ecosystems. Different species
of animals, plants and micro-organisms interact with each other and their physical environment
(such as water or minerals).
These systems help maintain life processes vital for organisms to survive on earth. Different
combinations of species and physical conditions (such a sunlight, climate, soil and water) and their
varied interactions give rise to variation among ecosystems.
For example, the physical conditions in a coral reef are very different to those in a tropical forest.
Accordingly, the species in a coral reef differ from the species in a tropical forest.
It is believed that there is a positive relationship between species diversity and an ecosystem's
stability and resilience (i.e. ability to resist disturbances).
An ecosystem having higher diversity means the number of species and interactions between them which
constitute the food web, is large. In such a situation, the elimination of one species would have little effect on
ecosystem balance. In sharp contrast, the number of species in the food web of a simple ecosystem is small.
So loss of any one species has far more serious repercussions for the integrity of the ecosystem.
Grasslands often fade away into deserts. Annual rainfall in areas dominated by grasslands is between 25-
100 cm depending on temperature and seasonal distribution - (grasslands occur where rainfall is less to
support forest and more than desert).
Another factor that prevents penetration of forests into grasslands is the frequent occurrence of natural
fires. Grasslands provide natural pastures for grazing animals. The soils under grasslands are rich fertile.
Deserts
Deserts bring up the image of inhospitable places but actually they are quite varied. The world's largest
desert is the Sahara followed by the Great Australian desert.
These have the driest environment with less than 30 cm rainfall (sometimes higher but, unevenly distributed).
In deserts day temperatures are high, rainfall and humidity is low, but there are cool northern deserts too
where winter snows are common e.g. Tibet and Bolinia. However, all deserts exhibit dramatic day and
night temperature variation. The soil is sand or salty.
Three plants life forms are most adapted to the desert environment.
i) Annuals that avoid drought and grow when there is adequate moisture.
ii) Succulents - (e.g. cactus), that have adaptation for water storage and avoid water loss.
iii) Hardy desert shrubs - having short stem, number of branches and thick leaves.
The animals of deserts are primarily arthropods, reptiles, birds and mammals. Large animals are uncommon.
Small rodents are the most common mammals, along with small foxes. Among the herbivores, insects are
dominant. A number of insectivorous lizards are very common. However, most animals restrict their
activity to early morning or after sunset.
Desert soils are rich in nutrients but water is a serious limiting factor. If water is supplied or made
available to desert biomes, they can attain very good production because sunlight is abundant.
Tropical Savannas
It is a combination of grassland with scattered or clumped trees. These special kinds of grasslands often
border tropical rain forests. The climate is warm having 100-150 cm annual rainfall, with prolonged dry
season in which fires are common. The rains are erratic.
These grasslands have scattered trees that do not form canopy in any part of savanna. Trees are up to
20cm height, which thick, deciduous or evergreen leaves. Grasses may attained height of 1-1.5m and
support a great variety of grazing animals.
The largest savanna is found in the African continent. They also occur in Australia and South America
and cover nearly 8 percent of the earth's land. The most prominent animals of this biome are large grazing
animals such as giraffes, antelopes, elephants, buffalo and predators such as lions and cheetahs.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
These are also known as monsoon forests found in South East Asia, in Central and South America,
Northern Australia, Western Africa and the Pacific.
Rainfall is high, sometimes higher than tropical rain forests but seasonal. There are pronounced wet and
dry periods, and so are winter and summer seasons. The soils are brown in colour and rich in nutrients.
Vertical stratification in the vegetation is somewhat simple with a single under storey tree layer. The trees
lose leaves in one season but ground vegetation remains evergreen.
'Teak' and 'sal' forests are good examples of this type of biome. Trees are of 20-30m height, sometimes
reaching a height over 40 m in this biome. Bamboo is also one of the climax shrubs in these areas.
Pond as an ecosystem
A pond is an example of a complete, closed and an independent ecosystem. It works on solar energy and
maintains its biotic community in equilibrium. Following components are found in a pond ecosystem.
(a) A biotic components
(i) Light : Solar radiation provides energy that controls the entire system. Penetration of light depends on
transparency of water, amount of dissolved or suspended particles in water and the number of plankton.
On the basis of extent of penetration of light a pond can be divided into euphotic (eu = true, photic = light),
mesophotic and aphotic zones. Plenty of light is available to plants and animals in euphotic zone. No light
is available in the aphotic zone.
(ii) Inorganic substances : These are water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and a few other elements
like sulphur depending on the location of the pond. The inorganic substances like O2 and CO2 are in
dissolved state in water. All plants and animals depend on water for their food and exchange of gases
- nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other inorganic salts are held in reserve in bottom sediment and inside
the living organisms. A very small fraction may be in the dissolved state.
(iii) Organic compounds : The commonly found organic matter in the pond is amino acids and humic acids
and the breakdown products of dead animals and plants. They are partly dissolved in water and partly
suspended in water.
(b) Biotic components
(i) Producers or autotrophs : Synthesize food for all the heterotrophs of the pond. They can be categorized
into two groups :
(a) Floating microorganisms (green) and plants are called phytoplankton ("phyto" - plants, "plankton"
- floating). They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes they are so abundant in pond that they
make it look green in colour. E.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox.
(b) Rooted plants : These are arranged in concentric zones from periphery to the deeper layers. Three
distinct zones of aquatic plants can be seen with increasing depth of water in the following order:
Zone of emergent vegetation : e.g. Typha, Bulrushes and Sagittaria
Zone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves. E.g. Nymphaea
Zone of submergent vegetation : e.g. All pond weeds like Hydrilla, Rupia, musk grass etc.
(ii) Consumers/Heterotrophs are animals which feed directly or indirectly on autotrophs. E.g. Tadpole,
snails, sunfish, bass etc.
Pond animals can be classified into the following groups
(a) Zooplanktons are floating animals.
Cyclops, Cypris
(b) Nektons are the animals that can swim and navigate at will e.g. fishes
(c) Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers : beetle, mites, mollusks and some crustaceans.
(iii) Decomposers : They are distributed throughout the entire in the whole pond but in the sediment most
abundant. There are bacteria and fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium, Curvularia, Cladosporium) found at the
bottom of the pond.
2) Marine Biomes
The marine biomes consist of the earth's oceans and its associated areas like the shorelines, islands, coral
reefs and estuaries. The marine waters contain about 3.5 percent salt, mostly sodium chloride and the
organisms inhabiting these waters are profoundly adapted to these salty conditions.
Nearctic realm - includes North America and extends southwards covering half of Mexico. It includes
Greenland in the east. It is separated from all other regions by sea, except for the narrow strip of land
connection it has with the Neotropic region.
Neotropical realm - It covers the whole of South America, most Mexico and the West Indies. It is
connected with the nearctic by the Central America.
Palearctic realm - This relam includes the northern part of the old World. It covers the whole of the
Europe, the erstwhile USSR to the Pacific coast, Northern China and Japan. In the South, it includes the
Mediterranean Sea coastal strip of Africa and part of the North of Arabia.
Ethiopian realm - The whole of the continent of Africa, South of the Atlas Mountains and Sahara, including
the southern coverner of Arabia, makes the Ethiopian region.
Oriental realm - The oriental region covers India, Indochina, South China, the whole of south-east Asia,
the greater part of the Indonesian archipelago and the Philippines. It is bounded by the Himalayas and
the Tsinling Shan in the north and to the south and east by the Indian and Pacific oceans.
Australian realm - This region includes Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea and the easternmost islands of
the Malay Archipelago, as demarcated by Weber's/Wallace's lines. This region is unique in not having land
connection with any other region.
Boundaries between biogeographic regions are called 'biogeographic lines'.
Examples are :
Wallace's line between Southeast Asia and Australia - This line runs between the Philippines and the
Moluccas in the north, between Borneo and Celebes in the south west and between Bali and Lombok
in the South.
Weber's line - It is based mainly on the distribution of molluscan and mammalian fauna of the area.
Weber's line runs between the Moluccas and Celebs and between Kei islands and Timor. The islands
failing between the oriental and Australian regions and is referred to as Wallacea.
Kangar-Pattini line between India and Myanmar.
Though, Diversity is also greater in areas of high rainfall compared with drier areas. In terrestrial
ecosystems diversity generally decreases with increasing altitude although in some tropical forests, diversity
is higher at mid-altitudes-giving rise to what is called as "mid-altitude bulge". In coastal aquatic environments
biodiversity declines when salinity declines from normal sea water (i.e. salinity 35 ppt). In contrast,
biodiversity declines in fresh water habitats when salinity levels are > 2 ppt (parts per thousand).
In addition to these herbivores, there is an equally distinctive set of carnivores including Snow Leopard,
Indian Wolf, Pallas's Cat, Fox and smaller animals like Marbled Pole Cat, Pika and Marmot. Of these
the Pallas's Cat is endemic to this area. The lakes and marshes too, have a distinctive avifauna including
the spectacular Black-necked Crane, which is a migratory bird. Avifauna refers to the birds of an area
collectively.
Zone 2 : The Himalayas
The Himalayan mountain ranges in India stretch for over 2,000 km. The environment here is extremely
harsh, as there are steep slopes, unconsolidated soils and intense slopes, unconsolidated soils and intense
rainfall. Moreover, the pressures of human habitation, and the demand for timber, firewood and food are
intense. All these factors have led to rapid degradation of this ecosystem that has taken toll of the
biological resources occurring here. There are more endangered species in the Himalayas than anywhere
else in India.
The Himalayan zone is one of the richest areas of India in terms of habitat and species diversity. It shares
its boundaries with many other ecosystems (EDGE Zone). The wildlife is so diverse that we need to look
at it along its altitudinal and longitudinal ranges, and also along is east-west axis.
First let us look at the wildlife within the altitudinal range of Himalayas. These are :
(i) The lower sub-tropical foot-hills. These have typical mixed deciduous community merging into
Chir Pine and then Ban Oak. The fauna consists largely of Sambar, Muntjac, Wild Boar, Black Bear,
Goral and Kalij Pheasants. Deciduous community refers to plants that shed their leaves seasonally.
(ii) The temperate areas : These lie below 3,500m. This zone has a complex mixture of vegetation
types with forests of Maples and Valnuts, Moru and Oak a variety of confiers such as the Blue
Pine, Fir and Spruce. All these grow in an altitudinal sequence. The fauna consists of Musk Deer,
serow, Koklas and Monal pheasants. In winters, the high altitude fauna such as Tahr move to these
areas.
(iii) The sub-alpine area : This area has forest and scrub vegetation of Birch and Rhododendrons
interspersed with grasslands with several kinds of herbs. These communities merge into the alpine
communities, with sparser cover to over 5,000m, where only rocks and snow dominate. Here, Musk
Deer, Serow and Tahr share the lower ranges with Bharal, and in the west lbex are more common
at higher levels. Along with altitude, the Pheasants of wooded areas give way to the Snowcock.
The panther gives way to the Snow Leopard and Wolf. The Black Bear is replaced by Brown Bear.
On moving along the east-west axis characteristic communities can be seen as well. We divide this axis
in three sub zones, i.e., the western, central and the eastern zones.
(i) The Western Zone : This is a comparatively drier area with Deodars and Blue Pines. In addition,
there are vast expanses of grassy meadows. Several species of bovids are typical of this area.
These include the Bharal, Ibex, Markhor, Goral, Serow and Tahr. The Tahr is now missing from
Kashmir. The Hangul which is a sub-species of Red Deer is restricted to this area.
(ii) The Central Zone : There is a poor representation of large herbivores. The Ibex, Markhor and
Hangul populations have dwindled to nil. The Sikkim Stag is now thought to be extinct in the Indian
territory.
(iii) The Eastern Zone: The Brown Bear, Bharal and Tahr found in other areas are absent here.
Mishmi Takin a herbivore, is found here. This areas has a higher tree line, and supports arboreal
forest animal at higher altitudes. The Binturong, Red Panda and Lesser Cats are the characteristic
eastern faunal elements found here. The Orchids are profuse and the alpine areas have an abundance
of dwarf Rhododendrons that are shrubby.
Carnivores - Malabar Civet is southern evergreen forests, Rusty spotted Cat in northern deciduous
forests.
Ungulates - Nilgiri Tahr in Nilgiris to Agastyamalai montane grassland.
Hornbills - Malabar Grey Hornbill.
In addition to the above endemic species, the other species found are: Tiger, Leopard, Dhole, Sloth Bear,
Indian Elephant and Gaur.
Zone 6: The Deccan Peninsula
This zone covers the largest area in India that amounts to about 43% of the total land mass. This zone
has deciduous forest, thorn forests and degraded shrublands. There are small areas of semi-evergreen
forests in the Eastern Ghats and, dry evergreen forests or thorn scrub on the coastal side of the plains
of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
The Northern zone has forest dominated by the trees like Sal, espcially in the Northeast, Teak, and
miscellaneous species - (Terminalia - Anogeissus - Chloroxylon). The Sourthern half of the zone has dry,
thorn forests having Acaci - Albizzia amara and Hardwickia associations. The natural grasslands are rare.
The faunal species are widespread throughout the whole zone, e.g., Chital, Sambar, Nilgai, Chowsingha,
Barking Deer, and Gaur. Some species such as the Blackbuck are restricted to dry open area. Small, relict
populations of species also exist e.g., Elephant (Bihar-Orissa and Karnataka-Tamil Nadu) and Wild
Buffalo (in a small area at the junction of Orissa, M.P. and Mahrashtra). The Hard Ground Swamp Deer
is now restricted to a single locality in M.P.
The Gharial is restrictedto a few rivers flowing to the Ganges and one area in the Mahanadi river.
Amongst the carnivores, the Rusty Spotted Cat has few small populations in Central India. Low density
populations of Wolf are seen in the drier areas. The Tiger, Leopard, Sloth Bear, Gaur, Sambar, Chital,
Chowsingha, and Boar are present in sufficiently high densities, particularly in the deciduous areas.
The valuable, endemic plant resources such as the Red Sanders and Sandalwood are of immediate
conservation concern. Similarly, there is also a need for conservation concern. Smilarly, there is also a
need for conservation measures for the species - Moist Teak, Southern and Coastal Sal, Umbrella Thorn,
and especially Orissa semi evergreen communities and dry evergreen forest.
Zone 7: The Gangetic Plain
This zone has one of the most fertile areas in the world, and it supports a dense and growing human
population. The original vegetation found in most of the area is no longer here, as a major portion of this
area has been brought under cultivation. This zone is topographically homogeneous for hundreds of
kilometers. The natural vegetation and wildlife is found in the northern hilly and Tarai wet Belt. This zone
has a larger number of lakes and seasonal swamps. These have usually escaped drainage. This area is
the habitat for migrating waterfowl.
Small relict populations of Nilgai, Blackbuck anand Chinkara, interspersed with dense cultivation peresently
exist in the western areas. Th northern Terai grasslands have populations of Swamp and Hog Deer in
a few places. The Rhinoceros, Bengal Florican, and Hispid Hare are found in low numbers in the Eastern
Terai of Duras. The Sambar-Chital community if found in the Bhabar forests, with Goral in the areas with
steeper slopes.
The wetlands and rivers also contain Crocodile - Mugger and Gharial populations, reflict populations of
Gangetic Dolphin and a rich, fresh-water turtle community having over 20 species.
The avifauna consists of peculiar examples include a mound building bird found in low densities around
sandy shores and littoral forests, and the Micobar Megapode. It is highly endangered.
Another interesting endemic avi-species is the Narcondum Hornbill that is restricted to 7 sq km volcanic
isaldn 'Narcondum' to the east of the Andamans. The Serpent Eagle, and the 'Andamans' or 'Grey Teal'
- a gregarious Duck of brackish and fresh water forest pools, is again restricted to Andamans and is highly
endangered. It has been seen that many endemic species are restricted to 'dense evergreen forests' like
the Nicobar Pigeon, Andaman Wood Pigeon, Nicobar Parakeet and the Nicobar Crested Serpent Eagle.
The conservation of these endemic species calls for immediate preservation of their original habitats.
The islands have 4 species of Marine Turtle - Green, Ridley, Hawks Bill and Leathery. Of these, the only
nesting beach for Leathery Turtle over half of the Green Turtle nesting area is in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. The small population of Asiatic Box Turtle - a fresh water turtle, is a cause of concern.
These waters are said to have the richest fish and coral communities in India. Several species of Dolphins
are present an Whale sightings are frequent.
The Lakshadweep islands comprise of some 25 islets, forming three main groups: Amindivi islands in the
north; Laccadive or Cannanore islands are of coral origin and have a typical reef lagoon system. These
islands are of coral origin.
The reefs have excellent examples of tropical inshore marine ecosystems needing immediate protection.
The shallow sea laggons have marine angiosperm pastures that are Dugong's feeding grounds. These
islands are also major feeding grounds for Trutles and there are some Green Turtle nesting sites also.
Several oceanic bird species have resting sites on uninhabited islets. Some sea birds are so peculiar that
they have chosen only two islets as their nesting sites. These are Pitti and Baliapani.
Zone 10: The Coasts
Indian has a vast coastal stretch of about 5689 km. On the west, the Arabian Sea washes the shores of
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala States. On the east, the Bay of Bengal washes the
coasts of Sunderbans in West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states. The southern
promontory of Indian Peninsula is bathed by the Gulf of Mannar and Indian Ocean, along the coasts of
southern portions of Tamil Nadu.
Some of the interesting coastal wildlife species include; Dugong; Hump-back Dolphin of estuarine turbid
waters; Estuarine or salt-water Crocodile; Olive Ridley, Green, Hawksbill, Leather and Loggerhead sea
Turtles; the Estuarine Turtle - Batagur basker of Sunderbans and the huge Soft-shell Estuarine Turtle;
Pelochelys birbornii off the Utkal-bengal Coast fish - mud skippers or semi-terrestrial Gobies, small Crabs
in association with Anemones; avifaunal communities of mangrove, must flats and lagoons. In the higher
regions of mangroves, there are Spotted Deer, Pigs, Monitor Lizards, Monkeys, and the Sunderban Tiger.
Forestry in India
Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and
scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources (Anon, 1966). It includes all thinking
and all actions pertaining to creation and management of forests, including harvesting, marketing and
utilization of all forest products and services. It includes not only management of existing forests but also
the creation of new forests.
Different types of forests:
India has a diverse range of forests: from the rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures
of Ladakh in the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the evergreen forests in the
north-east Climate, soil type, topography, and elevation are the main factors that determine the type
of forest. Forests are classified according to their nature and composition, the type of climate in
which they thrive, and its relationship with the surrounding environment.
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Ph.: 0141-6540911, +91-8094441777
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96 Biodiversity General Studies
Forests can be divided into six board types, with a number of sub types.
(A) Moist tropical (D) Montane sub
tropical
1. Wet evergreen 9. Broad leaved
2. Semi-evergreen 10. Pine
3. Moist deciduous 11. Dry evergreen
4. Littoral and swamp
(B) Dry Tropical (E) Montane
temperate forests
5. Dry deciduous 12. Wet
6. Thorn 13. Moist
7. Dry evergreen 14. Dry
(C) Sub alpine (F) Alpine
15. Moist
16. Dry
(A) Moist tropical forests
(1) Wet evergreen
Wet evergreen forests are found in the south along the Western Ghats and the Nicobar and Andaman
Islands and all along the north-eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees that have
a buttressed trunk or root on three sides like a tripod that helps to keep a tree upright during a storm.
These trees often rise to a great height before they open out like a cauliflower. The more common trees
that are found here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango and hillock.
The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to the ground, flowed by the
short structured trees and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various colours and different varieties
of orchids grow on the trunks of the trees.
(2) Semi-evergreen
Semi-evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghtas, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern
Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and the moist deciduous tress. The
forest is dense and is filled with a large variety of trees of both types.
(3) Moist deciduous
Moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except in the western and the north-western regions.
The trees have broad trunks, are tall and have branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the
ground.
Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and
evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth. These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with bamboo,
and rosewood.
(4) Littoral and Swamp
Littoral and swamp forests are found along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
It consists mainly of whistling pines, mangrove dates, palms and bulletwood. They have roots that consist
of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe in the water.
(i) Commercial Forestry: Commercial forestry aims to get maximum production of timber, fuel wood
and other forest products as a business enterprise.
(ii) Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry aims at producing raw material required for industry. In
Production forestry, there is a greater concern for the production and economic returns.
(iii) Mixed Quality Forests
(iv) Valuable Forests
(v) Inaccessible Forests
C. Social Forests :
Social Forestry is the practice of forestry which aims at meeting the requirement of rural and urban
population. The object of social forestry is to meet the basic needs of community aiming at bettering the
conditions of living through:
(i) Meeting the fuel wood, fodder and small timber requirements
(ii) Protection of agricultural fields against wind
(iii) Meeting recreational needs and
(iv) Maximizing production and increasing farm returns
Various forms of Social forestry are:
(a) Community Forestry : The practice of forestry of lands outside the conventional forest area for
the benefit of local population has been called community forestry, community forestry seeks the
involvement of community in the creation and management of such forests.
(b) Farm Forestry: Farm forestry is defined as the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farms of
village lands generally integrated with other farm operations.
(c) Extension Forestry: Extension forestry which includes the activity of raising trees on farm lands,
villages wastelands and community forest areas and on lands along the sides of roads, areas and
on lands along the sides of roads, canal banks and railway lines (Anon., 1976). More recently, there
has been emphasis on dynamic land use planning and efforts are made to maximize production on
farmlands under agro forestry.
(d) Agro-Forestry : Agro-forestry has been defined as a sustainable land management system which
increases the yield of the land, combines the production of crops and forest plants and/or animals
simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land and applies management practices that are
compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.
(e) Recreational Forestry : More recently, there has been considerable demand for Recreational
forestry, which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of developing and maintaining
forests of high scenic value. Recreational forests are being developed near towns and cities. The
areas are being planted with flowering trees, shrubs and creepers to provide forest atmosphere near
towns and cities.
Conservation of forests
Conservation of resources, including forest resources aims at their rational and cautious use, so that they will
remain available for future generations. Forest conservation is intimately linked with the conservation of biodiversity
and wildlife. Thus, an integrated approach needs to be developed to obtain optimum results.
Forest Policy in India
India boasts of a forest policy dating back to 1894. This was revised in 1952 and agbain amended in 1988. The
National Forest Policy of 1988 emphasizes the concepts of protection, conservation and development of forests.
Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a collective name for all land use systems and practices in which woody perennials are
deliberately grown on the same land management unit as crops and/or livestock with the aim of obtaining
output on a sustainable basis. It is a land-use approach that yields both wood products and crops, as it
integrates tree growing into farming systems. The main premise in its practice is that woody perennials
in the landscape can enhance the productivity and sustainability of agricultural practice.
Forest Report 2015
State of Forests Report is published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) on a biennial basis since 1987.
Forest cover of the country is mapped through indigenous RESOURCESAT -2 satellite data with a LISS
III sensor.
Canopy and Canopy Density
The cover of branches and Foliage formed by the crown of trees is called Canopy. The percentage area
of land covered by the canopy of trees is called Canopy density.
Forest Cover
All lands which are more than 1 hectare in area and with a Canopy density of more than 10% irrespective
of the ownership and legal status is called Forest Cover. Also it does not make any distinction whether
the forest is natural or manmade forest, government or private, recorded or not recorded. It includes
bamboo, orchards, palm etc.
Recorded Forest Area and Forest Blank
The area recorded as "forests" in the Government records is called Forest Area or Recorded Forest Area.
The patches within the forest area which have little or no trees are called "Forest Blank".
The recorded Forest Area denotes the legal status of the land. It is defined as the geographic area
recorded as forest in government records, state law or any local law. It is different from the forest cover
as forest area may include areas with less than 10% of tree canopy density and may exclude areas more
than 10% of tree canopy density.
E-Watch
It is a web based GIS application developed for monitoring various activities funded under CAMPA
(Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) CAMPA is meant to promote
afforestation activities in order to compensate for forest land diverted to non-forest uses).
Carbon Stock
It is defined as the amount of carbon stored in the ecosystem of the forest especially in living biomass
and soil.
Types of Forest Covers
The degraded forest lands which have a Canopy density of less than 10% are called Scrubs. The Lands
with Canopy density of 10-40% are called Open Forests. The Land with forest cover having a canopy
density of 40-70% is called the Moderately Dense Forest (MDF). The Lands with forest cover having
a canopy density of 70% and more are called Very Dense Forests (VDF).
Key findings:
Total forest cover in India: 7,01,673sq km (increase of 3775 sqkm)
Total forest cover as percentage of geographical area: 21.34 per cent
Total tree cover in India: 92,572 sq km (increase of 1306 sq km)
Total tree cover as percentage of geographical area : 2.82 per cent
State with largest total forest cover: Madhya Pradesh having 77, 462 sq km
State having highest forest cover as % of its area: Mizoram (88.93 per cent)
Increase in carbon sink:103 million tonnes CO2 equivalent
Forests are nature's protective shield, but this shield is being eroded by human folly and greed. Indiscriminate
cutting of trees leads to the following situation, viz.
disturbs the ecological balance
causes environmental pollution,
soil erosion and landslides,
floods,
water sources may get dried,
Climatic changes.
Present scenario in India
Due to deforestation, the forest cover of India has fallen below the minimum recommended level.
According to experts, forests should cover about one-third of the total area of country. But in India forests
covers around 24% of the total area.
Although the total forest cover has seen an increase, around 2,510 square kilometre of very dense and
mid-dense forests have been wiped out since 2013
States of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Kerala, Arunachal Pradesh, Karnataka and
Telangana have suffered huge loss of forest cover
Around 2,254 square kilometre of mid-dense forest cover has turned into non-forest lands in the past two
years.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Understanding the value of biological diversity is vital to maintain the enormous range of genes, species
and ecosystems that the earth supports. This can be looked at in many ways. One way would be to
understand the "resource" or "use" value of various components of biodiversity which are used by humans.
Biodiversity has also; however, great "non-resource" or "non-use" value such as maintaining ecosystem
functions. Biodiversity can also be viewed in terms of economic and non-economic values. The economic
value of a biological resource may be broken down into a range of use and non-use values that are of
direct or indirect benefit of humans.
Categories of values of biodiversity
Direct Use Value (Goods) Indirect Use Value (Services) Non-Use Value
Food, medicine, building Atmospheric and climate Potential (or Option Value) : Future
material, fibre, fuel regulation, pollination, nutrient value either as a good or a service
recycling
Cultural, Spiritual and Aesthetic Existence Value : Value of knowing
something exists
Bequest Value : Value of knowing
that something will be there for future
generations
Biodiversity produces goods and services for the most fundamental of our needs - clean air, fresh water,
food, medicines and shelter. It also provides people with recreational, psychological, emotional and spiritual
enjoyment. Some people belive we should protect and restore biodiversity because of its benefits to us.
Others believe that we have a moral responsibility to protect biodiversity simply because all organisms
have value, whether or not we understand their benefits to us.
The pink pages in this publication include the critically endangered species. As the status of animals
changes, new pages are sent to the subscribers. Green pages are used for those species that were
formerly endangered, but have now recovered to a point where they are no longer threatened. With
passing time, the number of pink pages continues to increase.
The categories of threatened species (IUCN) Extinct (EX)
A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed
extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal,
annual), and throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a
time frame appropriate to the taxon' s life cycle and life form.
Extinct in the Wild (ENV)
A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized
population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when
exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual),
throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame
appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.
Critically Endangered (CR)
A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the
criteria for Critically Endangered, i.e. reduction in population (> 90% over the last 10 years), population
size (number less than 50 mature individuals), quantitative analysis showing the probability in wild in at
least 50% in their 10 years) and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction
in the wild.
Endangered (EN)
A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for
Endangered, i.e. reduction in population size (70% over the last 10 years), population size estimated to
number fewer than 250 mature individuals, quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in
wild in at least 20% within 20 years and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild.
Vulnerable (VU)
A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for
Vulnerable i.e. reduction in population (> 50% over the last 10 years) population size estimated to number
fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, probability of extinction in wild is at least 10% within 100 years,
and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Near Threatened (NT)
A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for
Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify
for a threatened category in the near future.
Least Concern (LC)
A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically
Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in
this category.
Data Deficient (DD)
A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment
of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be
well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking.
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Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more
information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened
classification is appropriate.
Not Evaluated (NE)
A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. Add India specific
critically Endangered, Native species of India.
CAUSES OF SPECIES EXTINCTION
Extinction is caused through various processes:
Deterministic processes that have a cause and effect - e.g. glaciations, human interference such as
deforestation.
Stochastic processes (chance and random events) that effect the survival and reproduction of individuals
- e.g. unexpected changes of weather patterns, decreased food supply, disease, increase of competitors,
predators or parasites, etc. that may act independently or add to deterministic effects.
Natural Extinction
Over geological time, all species have a finite span of existence. The average life span of a species
derived from the fossil record is 4 million years.
Natural extinction patterns are usually based on the study of the earth's fossil record in geological time.
The available information indicates that overall extinction rates have not been constant over time, and that
around 60% of the species extinctions have happened in relatively short episodes or spasms.
Extinction in vascular plants has been more gradual compared with the loss of animals. It is believed that
extinction among this group was due more to competitive displacement by more advanced plant forms,
or due to a gradual climate change, than due to any sudden catastrophic event.
Artificial Extinction
Even though species extinction is a natural process which can happen without the intervention of humans,
extinctions caused by humans is now happening over and above the reasonable estimate of natural
extinction rates. Species are threatened with extinction by the intervention of humans due to:
Direct causes - such as hunting, collection or capture and persecution
Indirect causes - such as habitat loss, modification and fragmentation and the introduction of invasive
species.
MAJOR IMPACTS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS
The continued loss of biodiversity will greatly impact human society as well as ecosystem and their
valuable services. It is difficult to quantify these impacts. But looking at all the products and services
biodiversity provides -and the difficulty of their replacement - gives us an idea of the magnitude of the
consequences we face if we do not conserve the biodiversity:
There are several perceptible effects of biodiversity loss at both global and national levels. Some major
effects are listed as follows:
(i) A steady increase in atmospheric CO2 level due to disruption of the carbon cycle in nature is one of the
most obvious of global climate changes in recent years. Clearing and destruction of tropical moist forest
is expected to increase the atmospheric CO2 and decrease the carbon-fixing potential of the biosphere.
(ii) Adverse effects on local climate and water flow due to loss of tropical forests
(iii) Decrease of overall population size of species and loss of geographic range
(iv) Extinction of species which is the irreversible loss of biodiversity. The majority of the world's species,
especially tropical invertebrates, have not been scientifically named or identified.
(v) Increased coastal erosion and loss of fishery productivity as a result of the loss or degradation of coastal
areas such as mangrove habitats and coral reefs.
(vi) Reduction of genetic diversity of crop species due to replacement of traditional crop varieties and livestock
by the use of high yielding, but less resistant and genetically uniform, varieties/species.
(vii) Loss of traditional knowledge and cultural practices associated with the cultivation of traditional varieties
that are lost.
(viii) Loss of livelihoods a large proportion of the people in the world depends on bioresources for subsistence
use or their livelihood. This is seriously jeopardized due to loss of biodiversity.
There is no way, of course, to estimate losses of psychological, emotional and spiritual well being that will result
from ruined forests, beaches, lakes and other places people rely on for rejuvenation.
CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY
Biotic diversity - the richness of life on earth - is like a common property resource, belongs to the whole
human race and therefore biodiversity conservation is a major concern worldwide. Conservationists are
involve in global efforts to protect biodiversity, the present rests on the past, but leads into the future, and
we must strive to improve the attitudes and institutions that now exist. We should conserve the rich
biodiversity of the earth for the posterity so they can enjoy the richness of earth.
Protection, conservation and proliferation are major strategies of the plan. In this unit the two mechanisms
for protection of biological diversity have been given special emphasis.
Basically, there are two ways of conservation of biodiversity as follows:
(1) In-situ conservation:
The conservation of species of plants and animals in their natural habitats i.e, wild areas is called `in-situ'
or 'on-site conservation'. In this method of conservation of biodiversity species of plants and animals are
protected in specially demarcated natural habitats such as 'nature reserve' or `biosphere reserve', natural
parks, sanctuaries etc.
(2) Ex-situ conservation:
The method of ex-situ conservation of biodiversity simply means protection and conservation of plants and
animals outside their natural native places. Such conservation is called `off-site conservation'. Ex: In order
to restore genetic diversity of plants and animals the seeds and germplasms of rare and endangered
species are stored in 'seed banks' or `germplasm banks' to conserve genes of such species. Such storage
centers are also called as 'gene banks'. Initiatives to conserve biodiversity can be focused at all the three
levels i.e. the ecosystem level, species level, and genetic level. While these litiatives will be closely linked,
they will not be substitute for one another.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PROTECTED AREAS
Protected areas are geographically defined areas that are designated or regulated, and managed for
purposes of conservation. As such, these areas play a valuable role in the protection of areas of high
species diversity (encompassing habitat conservation), threatened species, traditional crops and wild relatives
of crops and genetic diversity.
The term "Protected Area" covers areas that are legally designated at the national level or at the
international level. There are many ways in which Protected Areas are classified at the national level.
IUCN' s World Commission on Protected Areas has introduced a standardised means of classification by
introducing eight categories of nationally designated and two internationally designated protected areas.
IUCN classification of Protected Areas at the national level / Protected Area Network:
National parks in India are IUCN category Ii protected areas. India's first national park (reference needed as
kaziranga is established in 1905) was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett
National Park, Uttarakhand. As of July 2015, there were 103 national parks encompassing as area of 40,500
km2 (15,600 sq mt), comprising 1.23% of India's total surface area.
Core area
Each biosphere reserve includes one or several core areas that are strictly protected according to well
defined conservation objective and consists of typical samples of natural or minimally disturbed ecosystems.
Core areas may be much larger in sparsely populated areas and relatively small in densely inhabited areas.
Core areas may correspond to strict nature reserve or wild areas or national park or to other types of
strictly protected areas. Strict protection of core areas does not necessarily mean 'non-intervention' : they
can be submitted to different types of protective management, depending on their specific conservation
objectives and on the character and history of landscape.
Core areas naturally exclude the presence of significant human settlements. Besides non-destructive
research, the other significant function of the core area is the environmental observation and monitoring.
Buffer zone
The buffer zone must have a clearly established legal or administrative status even when several
administrative authorities are involved in its management.
Only activities compatible with the protection of the core areas may take place. This includes in particular
research, environmental education and training, as well as tourism and recreation or other uses carried
out in accordance with the management requirements and regulations.
Transition area
The transition area surrounding the buffer zone plays mainly development role such as cooperative
activities between researches, managers and local populations so as to ensure appropriate physical planning
and sustainable resource development.
Thus the transition zone works for the association of environment and development. This zone is bio
geographic in character rather than administrative unit, so it covers larger and open areas.
Protected Areas
National Park Sanctuary Biosphere Reserves
1. Hitched to the habitat for 1. Generally species-oriented 1. Not hitched to anyone,
particular wild animal as citrus, pitcher plant, two or more species, but
species like tiger, lion, Great Indian Bustard. to the whole ecosystem
hangul, rhino etc. i.e., totally of all forms of
life i.e., ecosystem-
oriented.
2. In India, the size range is 2. Size range is 0.61 to 7818 2. Size range over 5670
0.04 to 3162 sq.km. Most sq.km. Most common (in sq.km.
common (in about 40%) is about 40%) is 100 to 500
100 to 500 sq.km. In 15% is sq.km. In 25% is 500 to
500 to 1000 sq.km. 1000 sq.km.
3. Boundaries circumscribed 3. Boundaries not sacrosanct. 3. Boundaries circumscribed
by legislation. by legislation.
4. Except the buffer zone, no 4. Limited biotic interference. 4. Except the buffer zone,
biotic interference. no biotic interference.
5. Tourism permissible. 5. Tourism per missible. 5. Tourism normally not
permissible.
6. Research and scientific 6. Lacking. 6. Managed.
management lacking.
7. So far no attention to 7. So far no attention 7. Attention given.
genpools and conservation.
State
Kaziranga National Park Assam
Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan
Manas National Park Assam
Sunderbans National Park West Bengal
Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand
Western Ghats Keral, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu
The Great Himalayan National Himachal Pradesh
Park
23. Dibru Saikhowa Wildlife Assam The park is Feral horses, Tiger, Water
Sanctuary surrounded by the Buffalo, Elephant, Flying
Brahmaputra, Lohit Squirrel, King Cobra, River
and the Dibru River. Dolphin and Slow Loris etc.
24. National Chambal Sanctuary Rajasthan The Indian Gharial, the
Ganges Dolphin, Indian
Wolf, Striped Hyena,
Monitor Lizard, Indian
Flying fox, Porcupine and
Hedgehog etc.
25. Orang National Park Located on the Indian Rhinoceros, Tiger,
Northern shores of Asiatic Elephants, Pygmy
the Brahmaputra Hog, Pangolin, Leopard Cat
River and King Cobra.
26. Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh Located on the Tiger, Leopard, Clouded
Burma border leopard, Snow Leopards,
Asiatic Black bears, Dholes,
Red Pandas and Slow Loris
etc.
27. Gulf of Kutch National Park Gujarat First marine national Several species of coral,
park in India and is Dolphins, whales and the
located on an island massive whale sharks.
in the Arabian sea
28. Silent Valley National park Kerala Western Ghats Lion-tailed Macaque, Tiger,
Leopard, Jungle Cat,
Leopard Cat, Sloth bear,
otter, Travancore flying
squirrel, Porcupine and
Elephant etc.
29. Desert National Park Rajasthan Desert Fox, Bengal Fox,
Spiny Tail lizard, Monitor
lizard, Russell's viper, Desert
cat, Saw-scaled viper andthe
great Indian bustard
30. Harike Wetland Punjab Confluence of the Endangered Indus dolphin
Beas and the
Sutlej rivers
31. Eturnagaram Wildlife Telangana Tiger, Leopard, Wolf, Dhole,
Sanctuary Jackals, Sloth bear, Mugger
crocodiles, Cobra and
Chinkara etc.
32. Great Himalayan Himachal Pradesh Blue sheep, snow leopard,
National Park Himalayan brown bear,
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Vultures which used to be very common in Indian 6. Which one of the following is not a site for in-
countryside some years ago are rarely seen situ method of conservation of flora?
onwadays. This is attributed to : (a) Biosphere reserve(b) Botanical garden
(a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new (c) National Park (d) Wildlife sanctuary
invasive species 7. If a tropical rain forest is removed, it does not
(b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical
their diseased cattle deciduous forest. This is because ?
(c) scarcity of food available to them (a) The soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients
(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease (b) Propagules of the trees in a rain forest have
among them poor viability
2. Which one of the following beaches is visited by (c) The rain forest species are slow-growing
Olive Ridley turtles annually for mass nesting ? (d) Exotic species invad the fertile soil of rain
(a) Chandipur (b) Gahirmatha forest
8. India is a party to the Ramsar Convention and
(c) Gopalpur (d) Paradwip
has declared many areas as Ramsar Sites. Which
3. In which of the following states is lion-tailed
of the following statements best describes as to
macaque found is its natural Habitat?
how we should maintain these sites in the context
1. Tamil Nadu of this Convention?
2. Kerala (a) Keep all the sties completely inaccessible to
3. Karnataka man so that they will not be exploited.
4. Andhra Pradesh (b) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem
Select the correct answer using the codes given approach and permit tourism and recreation
below. only.
(c) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
approach for a period without any
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 exploitation, with specific criteria and specific
4. Consider the following protected areas : period for each site, and then allow
1. Bandipur 2. Bhitarkanika sustainable use of them by future generations.
3. Manas 4. Sunderbans (d) Conserve all the sites through ecosystem
Which of the above are declared Tiger Reserves? approach and allow their simultaneous
sustainable use.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
9. Consider the following statements :
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. Biodiversity hotspots are located only in
5. In which one among the following categories of tropical regions.
protected areas in India are local people are not
2. India has four bio-diversity hotspots i.e.
allowed to collect and use the biomass ?
Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas,
(a) Biosphere Reserves Western Ghats and Andaman and Nicobar
(b) National Parks Islands.
(c) Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(d) Wildlife Sanctuaries (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
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10. Out of all the Biosphere Reserves in India. Four 15. Deforestation results in
have recognized on the World Network by 1. Flora destruction
UNESCO. Which one of the following is not 2. Fauna destruction
one of them ?
3. Ecological disbalance
(a) Gulf of Mannar (b) Kangchenjunga
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2
(c) Nanda Devi (d) Sunderbans
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3
11. Matach List-I (Biosphere Reserves) with List-II
16. Massive deforestation causes
(States) and select the correct answer using the
(a) Soil erosion (b) Famine
codes given below the Lists :
(c) Floods (d) None of these
List-I List-II
17. Match List-I with List-II.
(Biosphere Reserves) (States)
List-I (National Park/Sanctuary)
A. Similipal 1. Sikkim
A. Kaziranga National Park
B. Dihang-Dibang 2. Uttaranchal
B. Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary
C. Nokrek 3. Arunachal Pradesh
C. Jim Corbett National Park
D. Kanchenjunga 4. Orissa
D. Mudumalai Sanctuary
5. Meghalaya
List-II (Important protected species)
Codes: A B C D
1. Tiger
(a) 1 3 5 4
2. One-horned rhinoceros
(b) 4 5 2 1
3. Hangul
(c) 1 5 2 4
4. Elephant
(d) 4 3 5 1
Codes: A B C D
12. Consider the following animals of India :
(a) 2 3 1 4
1. Crocodile (b) 4 1 3 2
2. Elephant (c) 4 3 1 2
Which of these is/are endangered species ? (d) 2 1 3 4
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 18. Which one of the following is not a Tiger
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Reserve?
13. The Vallace's Line distinguishes or separates the (a) Sariska (b) Bandipur
flora and fauna between (c) Manas (d) Sultanpur
(a) Canada and USA 19. The 'Red Data Book' containing information on
(b) Taiga region and Tundra region all wild plants and animals in danger of extinction
(c) Mexico and Central America has been published by which one of the following?
(d) South-East Asia and Australasia (a) International Union for Conservation of
14. Which of the following strongly threatens Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
biodivesity ? (b) World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
(a) Fragile ecosystems such as mangroves and (c) World Conservation Union (WCU)
wetlands (d) United Nations Environment Programme
(b) Inaccessible habitats in Himalayas (UNEP)
(c) Destruction of natural habitats and vegetation 20. Biodiversity is richer in
and shifting cultivation (a) tropical regions (b) polar regions
(d) Creation of biosphere reserves (c) temperate regions (d) oceans
ANSWERS SHEET
1. Ans. (b) 11. Ans. (d)
CLIMATE CHANGE
THEORY
• Climate change is defined as variations and shifts in weather conditions over space and time resulting
into change of climatic type for example, from warm and moist climate to warm and dry climate, from
warm and moist climate to cool and moist climate.
• Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by
Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions etc.
Introduction:
• The parameters like Temperature, Pressure, Wind, Humidity and Precipitation, interact with each other.
They influence the atmospheric conditions like the direction and velocity of wind, amount of Insolation,
cloud-cover and the amount of precipitation. These are known as the elements of both weather and
climate.
• Weather is the atmospheric condition of any place for a short period of time with respect to its one or
more elements such as temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover etc.
• Climate is the study of the average weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a larger
area.
• Climate is a very long term phenomenon unlike weather which is a short term in its essence.
• Global climate depends on the amount of energy received by the Sun and the amount of energy that is
trapped in the system.
Climate change may be either global warming or global cooling for whatever reason either due to natural
or anthropogenic
Manifestations of Climate change:
• Extreme weather events
• Global warming
• Glacial Melting and Glacial Retreat
• Rise in sea level
• Ocean Warming and Acidification
Impacts of Climate Change:
• Varied Agricultural Production
• Inundation of coastal areas
• Northern spread of Tropical features
• Loss of Biodiversity
• Intensified Droughts and Cyclones
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Energy & Environment Climate Change 135
Causes of CC:
The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories: Natural causes and Anthropogenic
Causes.
Natural causes:
There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some of the more prominent ones
are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents, the earth’s tilt, and comets and meteorites.
Continental drift
The continents that we are familiar with today were formed when the landmass began gradually drifting
apart, millions of years back. This drift also had an impact on the climate because it changed the physical
features of the landmass, their position and the position of water bodies. The separation of the landmasses
changed the flow of ocean currents and winds, which affected the climate.
Volcanoes
When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and ash
into the atmosphere and can reach even the stratosphere. The gases and dust particles partially block
the incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling. Sulphur dioxide combines with water to form tiny droplets
of sulphuric acid.
The earth’s tilt
• If there was no tilt we would not have experienced seasons. Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect
the severity of the seasons -more tilt means warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler
summers and milder winters.
• The earth’s axis moves at the rate of a little more than a half-degree each century. This gradual change
in the direction of the earth's axis, called precession is responsible for changes in the climate.
Ocean currents
They cover about 71% of the Earth and absorb about twice as much of the sun's radiation as the
atmosphere or the land surface. Ocean currents have been known to change direction or slow down.
Much of the heat that escapes from the oceans is in the form of water vapour, the most abundant
greenhouse gas on Earth.
Human causes
Excess emission of Green House Gases that intensify climate change into the atmosphere caused by
• Population pressure
• Deforestation
• Urbanisation
• Industrial Revolution
• Ever increasing Demand for Energy
• Transportation
All this has contributed to a rise in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal
and natural gas supply most of the energy needed to run vehicles generate electricity for industries,
3 5
households, etc. The energy sector is responsible for about th of the carbon dioxide emissions, th
4 4
of the methane emissions and a large quantity of nitrous oxide.
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136 Climate Change General Studies
Green House Effect and Global Warming
The temperature surrounding the earth has been rising during the recent past. This is due to the ‘green
house effect’. The green-house effect is a natural phenomenon and has been occurring for millions of
years on the earth. Life on the earth has been possible because of this natural green house effect which
is due to water vapour and small particles of water present in the atmosphere. Together, these produce
more than 95 percent of total green-house warming. An average global temperature is maintained at
about 15°C due to natural green house effect. Without this phenomenon, average global temperatures
might have been around –17°C and at such low temperature life would not be able to exist.
Solar radiation
reflected by earth Absorbed radiation
re-emitted by green
house gases
Green house
gases
Trapped solar
radiation
Global warming
Collectively these gases, known as green house gases, act somewhat like glass planes of a green house.
They allow light, infrared radiation, and some ultraviolet radiation from the sun to pass through the
troposphere. Earth’s surface absorbs much of this solar energy and degrades it to longer wave, infrared
radiation-that is heat-which then rises into the troposphere. Some of this heat escapes into space; some
is absorbed by molecules of green house gases, warming the air and some radiated back toward earth’s
surface. This natural trapping of heat in the troposphere is called the Green house effect.
Greenhouse gases and their sources
Water vapour: It is the most abundant greenhouse gas (GHG). However it has a low residence time
in the atmosphere and therefore is not considered the most important GHG.
Carbon dioxide (CO 2):
• CO2 is released naturally into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions and animal respiration but it is
also released through human activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels for energy.
CO2 also spends a long time in the atmosphere increasing its impact.
• Since the industrial revolution, humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by 30%. Atmospheric
CO2 concentrations have increased by more than 40% since preindustrial times, from approximately 280
parts per million by volume (ppmv) in the 18th century to 400 ppmv in 2014 surpassing purported limit
of 350ppmv.
Methane:
• The second most important GHG, is produced both naturally and through human activities. The most
significant sources of Methane come from the decomposition of organic matter e.g. in landfills and in
agriculture, especially when rice or paddy fields that are flooded during the sowing and maturing periods.
Another large source is from the belching of ruminants (cows, goats etc).
• When soil is covered with water it becomes anaerobic or lacking in oxygen. Under such conditions,
methane-producing bacteria and other organisms decompose organic matter in the soil to form methane.
• Methane is also emitted during the process of oil drilling, coal mining and also from leaking gas pipelines
(due to accidents and poor maintenance of sites). Methane is a stronger GHG than CO2 because it can
absorb more heat; however it is much less abundant in the atmosphere.
Nitrous oxide: A very powerful greenhouse gas which is heavily produced in the agriculture sector with
the application of fertilizer, specifically in the production and use of organic fertilizers. It is also produced
when burning fossil fuels.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): These man-made compounds were produced for industrial use, mainly in
refrigerants and air conditioners. They are now regulated under the Montreal Protocol due to their
adverse affect on the Ozone Layer.
Atmospheric aerosols:
• They scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation.
• They may change the microphysical and chemical properties of clouds and possibly their lifetime and
extent.
• The scattering of solar radiation cools the planet, while absorption of solar radiation by aerosols
warms the air directly instead of allowing sunlight to be absorbed by the surface of the Earth.
The Global Warming Potential (GWP)
• The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a gas is a measure of the total energy that a gas absorbs over
a particular period of time (usually 100 years), compared to carbon dioxide (CO2). The larger the GWP,
the more warming the gas causes. For example, methane’s (CH4) 100-year GWP is 21, which means
that CH4 will cause 21 times as much warming as an equivalent mass of CO2 over a 100-year time
period.
• Carbon dioxide is assigned a GWP of 1 to serve as a baseline for other GWP values. Carbon dioxide
emissions cause changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations that persist for thousands of years. CH4
absorbs more energy than CO2, making its GWP higher.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) has a GWP 300 times that of CO2 for a 100-year timescale. Nitrous oxide emitted
today remains in the atmosphere for more than 100 years, on average.
• Chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs), hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluoro carbons (HCFCs), perfluoro
carbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are sometimes called high-GWP gases because, for a
given amount of mass, they trap substantially more heat than CO2. Some HFCs remain in the atmosphere
for only a few years, while SF6 can remain in the atmosphere for thousands of years.
Urban Heat Islands
They are significantly warmer urban areas than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities. Urban
heat island is a major problem associated with rapid urbanization. The temperature increase is attributed
to deforestation and the construction materials adopted for city building. Usually, under the urban heat
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138 Climate Change General Studies
island phenomenon, the central regions of urban centres exhibit higher mean temperatures than the
surrounding areas. The heat island effect has corresponding ecological consequences on resident species.
Impacts of Global Warming
Since climate influences the location and composition of plants and animals in the natural environment,
changes in climate have numerous consequences on ecological systems. Shifts in forests in geographic
range and composition are likely to occur.
Ecological impact:
• Increased extinction of many species; growth or losses in freshwater fish populations depending on
geographic location.
• Sea level rise causes increased losses of coastal wetlands, inundation of coastal lowlands, increased
erosion of beaches, and increased salinity in estuaries.
Impact on Water resources:
The main consequence of climatic changes to inland waters includes the following;
• Changes in the global amount of water resources and in the spatial and temporal distribution of these
resources
• a Changes in soil moisture
• Changes in extreme phenomena related to water resource, i.e, floods and droughts
• Changes in water quality
• Changes in sedimentation processes
• Changes in water demand
Impact on Agriculture:
Global warming exhibits direct and indirect geographical effects on agricultural productivity. Direct
effects occur through changes in the length of the growing season, the frequency of heat waves, and
altered patterns of rainfall, while indirect effects result from changes in topsoil management practices.
Impact on Oceans:
• The role of the oceans in global warming is complex. The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide,
taking up much that would otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but increased levels of CO2 have led
to ocean acidification.
• Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. An estimated 30-40% of the carbon dioxide from human
activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers and lakes.
• To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid. Increasing
acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms, such as
depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms, and causing “Coral Bleaching”.
• Other chemical reactions are triggered which result in a net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions
available. This makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms, such as coral and some plankton,
to form biogenic calcium carbonate, and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution.
• Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans. Ocean acidification
has been called the “evil twin of global warming”.
• Furthermore, as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess CO2.
The oceans have also acted as a sink in absorbing extra heat from the atmosphere.
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Energy & Environment Climate Change 139
PSCs, combined with the relative isolation of polar stratospheric air, allow Cl and Br reactions to produce
the ozone hole in Antarctic springtime.
Antarctica is colder than the Arctic Circle because the ratio of land to water is higher. Therefore, Ozone
depletion over the South pole is greater than the ozone depletion over the North pole.
Causes of ozone layer depletion:
Ozone (O3) layer can be destroyed both by natural and man-made causes.
Natural causes:
• A number of naturally occurring substances destroy stratospheric ozone. Most important of these compounds
are:
• Hydrogen oxide (HOx), Methane (CH4), Hydrogen gas (H2), Nitrogen oxides (NOx). Chlorine monoxide
(CIO); during volcanic eruptions, significant amount of chlorine may be released in the stratosphere. Tiny
particulate matter in the stratosphere, known as stratospheric aerosols, may also lead to ozone destruction.
Anthropogenic causes:
• The three important areas, where human activity can influence the ozone cycle, have been the direct
emission of NOx by supersonic transport flying above the tropopause, additional transport of nitrous oxide
as a result of increased use of nitrogenous fertilizers, and the formation of atomic chlorine in the
stratosphere from chloro-fluoro carbons (used as refrigerant, aerosol propellant and industrial solvent)
released in the troposphere.
• Another class of compounds, halons, is also ozone depleting compounds. Halons are bromo-chloro-
fluorocarbons or bromo-fluorocarbons that are widely used in fire extinguishers. Although the emissions
of halons and thus their atmospheric concentrations are much lower than the most common chloro-
fluorocarbons, they are 3 to 10 times more destructive than the CFCs.
Effect of ozone depletion
A small amount of UV-radiation is necessary for well-being of human beings and other organisms, such
as UV-B promote synthesis of vitamin-D.
UV-radiation also acts as a germicide to control microorganisms. However, increased UV dose is highly
dangerous to living organisms.
Agriculture and • Seasonal water scarcity, rising • Crop diversification, more efficient
food security temperatures, and intrusion of sea water use, and improved soil
water would threaten crop yields, management practices, together
jeopardizing the country’s food with the development of drought-
security. resistant crops can help reduce
• Should current trends persist, some of the negative impacts.
substantial yield reductions in both rice
and wheat can be expected in the near
and medium term.
• Under 2°C warming by the 2050s, the
country may need to import more than
twice the amount of food-grain than
would be required without climate
change.
Water Security • An increase in variability of monsoon • Improvements in irrigation
rainfall is expected to increase water systems, water harvesting
shortages in some areas. techniques, and more-efficient
• Studies have found that the threat to agricultural water management can
water security is very high over central offset some of these risks.
India, along the mountain ranges of the
Western Ghats, and in India’s
northeastern states.
Health • Health systems will need to be • Improvements in
strengthened in identified hotspots. hydrometeorological systems for
weather forecasting and the
installation of flood warning
systems can help people move out
of harm’s way before a weather-
related disaster strikes.
• Building codes will need to be
enforced to ensure that homes and
infrastructure are not at risk.
Migration and • Climate change impacts on agriculture • Regional cooperation on water
conflict and livelihoods can increase the issues will be needed.
number of climate refugees.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide 1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not
to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? sufficiently available.
1. Volcanic action 2. India can not invest huge funds in research
2. Respiration and development.
3. Photosynthesis 3. Many developed countries have already set
up their polluting industries in India.
4. Decay of organic matter
(a) 1 and 2 only
Select the correct answer using the code given
below (b) 2 only
(a) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only 5. Due to their extensive rice cultivation, some
regions may be contributing to global warming.
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
To what possible reason / reasons is this
2. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the
attributable?
air is slowly raising the temperature of the
1. The anaerobic conditions associated with
atmosphere, because it absorbs
rice cultivation cause the emission of methane.
(a) the water vapour of the air and retains its
2. When nitrogen based fertilizers are used,
heat
nitrous oxide is emitted from the cultivated soil.
(b) the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation
Which of the statements given above is/are
(c) all the solar radiations
correct?
(d) Infrared part of solar radiation
(a) 1 only
3. The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic
(b) 2 only
region has been a cause of concern. What could
(c) Both 1 and 2
be the reason for the formation of this hole?
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Presence of prominent tropo-spheric
turbulence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons. 6. Assertion (A): Coal-based thermal power
stations contribute to acid-rain.
(b) Presence of prominent polar front and
stratospher ic clouds; and inflow of Reason (R): Oxides of carbon are emitted when
chlorofluorocarbons. the coal bums.
(c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric (a) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is the correct
clouds; and inflow of methane and explanation of (A)
chlorofluorocarbons. (b) (A) & (R) are true and (R) is not the
(d) Increased temperature at polar region due correct explanation of (A)
to global warming. (c) (A) is true and (R) is false
4. What are the possible limitations of India in (d) (A) is false and (R) is true
mitigating the global warming at present and in 7. Which one of the following chemicals is
the immediate future? responsible for the depletion of ozone layer in
the atmosphere?
Adverse
Impact (without project)
Time
Figure (a) Anticipated environmental impact of developmental project
Environment components
Time
(b) Environmental impact rectification after EIA
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150 Environmental Impact Assessment General Studies
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for ensuring optimal use of
natural resources for sustainable development, and was introduced in India initially for River Valley
Projects in 1978-79. The scope of the EIA has been enhanced to cover other developmental sectors such
as industries, mining schemes, energy, etc.
Purpose
1. The purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is to identify and evaluate the potential impacts
(beneficial and adverse) of development and projects on the environment system.
It is a useful aid for decision making based on understanding of the environment implications including
social, cultural and aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with the analysis of the project costs
and benefits. This exercise should be undertaken early enough in the planning stage of projects for
selection of environmentally compatible sites, process technologies and such other environmental safeguards.
2 While all industrial projects may have some environmental impacts all of them may not be significant
enough to warrant elaborate assessment procedures. The need for such exercises will have to be decided
after initial evaluation of the possible implications of a particular project and its location. The projects
which could be the candidates for detailed Environment Impact Assessment include the following:-
Those which can significantly after the landscape, land use pattern and lead to concentration of
working and service population.
Those which need upstream development activity like assured mineral and forest products supply
or downstream industrial process development.
Those involving manufacture, handling and use of hazardous materials.
Those which are sites near ecologically sensitive areas, urban centers, hill resorts, places of scientific
and religious importance.
Industrial Estates with constituent units of various types which could cumulatively cause significant
environmental damage.
Principles of EIA
It is important to recognize that there is a general principle of assessment that applies to EIA, and to
other assessment processes. There are several other processes that relate closely to the review of
environmental impacts that may result from a proposed project. The following are well recognized
processes.
Social Impact Assessment
Risk Assessment
Life Cycle Analysis
Energy Analysis
Health Impact Assessment
Regulatory Impact Assessment
Species Impact Assessment
Technology Assessment
Economic Assessment
Cumulative Impact Assessment
Strategic Environment Assessment
Integrated Impact Assessment
Stakeholders of EIA;
EIA has stakeholders from both public and private sections. The six main players are:
(i) Those who propose the project
(ii) The environment consultant who prepare EIA on behalf of project proponent.
(iii) Pollution Control Board (State or National)
(iv) Public has the right to express their opinion
(v) The impact assessment Agency
(vi) Regional centre of the Ministry of Environment and forest
Public
• Prediction of impacts
Consultation
• Evaluation and assessment of significance of
impacts
• Identification of mitigating measures
Decision making
(21) Highway projects except projects relating to improvement work including widening and strengthening of
roads with marginal land acquisition along the existing alignments
Provided it does not pass through ecologically sensitive areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, tiger
Reserves, and Reserve Forests.
(22) Tarred road in the Himalayas and forest areas
(23) Distilleries.
(24) Raw, Skins and hide
(25) Pulp, paper and newsprint
(26) Dyes
(27) Cement
(28) Foundries (Individual)
(29) Electroplating
(30) Meta aminophenol
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is 3. Which of the following statements are false?
mandatory under which one of the following India (a) Land use planning systems do the same
legislations thing as EIA
(a) Indian Forest Act (b) EIA is intended to be rational and
(b) Air, (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act comprehensive assessment
(c) Wildlife Protection Act (c) EIA is costly and time consuming
(d) Environment (Protection Act) (d) EIA is a process
2. The primary reason for environmental Impact 4. EIA is necessary because?
Assessment is to (a) Development is bad for the environment
(a) Mitigate existing environmental impacts of (b) There is growing interest in sustainability
development
(c) Environmental impacts of developments are
(b) Predict the size of impacts of developments of public interest
(c) Describe proposed developments (d) None of the above
(d) Identify the environmental consequences of 5. In Environmental assessment study interpretation
development in advance and evaluation should consider
2. The primary reason for environmental Impact (a) Uncertainly of possible impacts
Assessment is to
(b) Significance of measured impacts
(a) Mitigate existing environmental impacts of
(c) Comparison of alternatives
development
(d) All of the above
(b) Predict the size of impacts of developments
(c) Describe proposed developments
Answer Sheet
(d) Identify the environmental consequences of 1. Ans. (d)
development in advance 2. Ans. (d)
3. Ans. (c)
4. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (d)
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY
Humans have made a very impressive economic progress especially during the post two economics, in
creating material and luxuries of life style. This progress has been achieved at a tremendous cost to the
environment ever increasing exploitation of natural resources coupled with environmental degradation has
reached a point that now threatens the well being and future of mankind.
Environmentalist and even the common man around the world area seeking answers to this
question like:
Can we keep up industrial and economic development without depleting or degrading our natural
resources?
Can forests be closed endlessly for cultivation and habitation?
Can agricultural land be regularly used up for building cities, factories and shopping malls?
Can intensive farming be carried out through the year?
Can fossil fuel be pumped out in a never ending manner?
How long can our natural resources last at the increasing rate of exploitation and consumption?
The answer to these questions will explain the “concept of sustainable development”.
ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
In United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the “Earth Summit”) held in Rio de
Janerio in year 1992 the world leaders signed Framework Convention on Climate change and
biological diversity the “Rio Summit adopted Rio Declaration for achieving sustainable Development in
the 21st century. It is here that the concept originated.
CARRYING CAPACITY CONCEPT
Development requires resources for the production of goods and services. The resources are basically
provided by nature and thus known as natural resources we must learn to respect nature and use the
resources in a judicious and responsible manner, failing which we will deprive our future generations from
these natural resources thereby endangering their life on the planet.
Population growth coupled with unplanned and ruthless exploitation of natural resources in the name of
development is the root cause of our present stat e of environment.
If maximum amount of natural resources are drawn from environment and too much pollutants are
discharges into it than it can absorb, then it is severely damaged. Once damaged and destroyed beyond
repair, it loses its ability to get back to its pure or usable or harmless state. Nature is finite and we have
almost reached a critical point beyond which ecological decline would lead to disaster.
Number of Earth’s
1.2 Capacity tp
oo
United States 9.6 alF
ic
0.9
olog
The Neatherlands 3.8 c
y ’sE
0.6 i t
India 0.8 man
Hu
0.3 -
Generally a leguminous crop is grown along with the main crop. Legumes help to increase soil fertility
by fixing atmospheric nitrogen thus saving the cost of chemical fertilizers.
(b) Crop rotation
It is practice of growing different crops in regular succession in the same field. This
Practice controls insects and diseases, increases soil fertility and decreases soil erosion.
Generally soil cannot sustain continuous cropping with high yielding single crop because certain nutrients
required by the crop get exhausted totally while others remain unutilized leading to serious nutrient
imbalance in soil and encouraging certain diseases and pests.
Sowing a leguminous crops (eg. Green gram) as a rotational crop is very useful because legumes
enhance nitrogen level in the soil due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, reduces the need for
chemical nitrogen fertilizer, thereby cutting the cost and saving the soil from the harmful effects of using
high yielding varieties along with the application of large amount of fertilizer, pesticides and water.
It is possible to grow two or sometimes three different crops in succession on the same land within a
year and it is known as multiple cropping. This practice can go on for some time but the land cannot
maintain high yield in the long run.
Bio-Fertilizers And Their Use In Agriculture
For a sustainable agriculture system, it is essential to use renewable inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, water
etc.) which can benefit the plant and cause no or minimal damage to be environment. One possible way
is to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
One of the energy efficient and pollution free method is to exploit the ability of certain microorganisms
like bacteria algae and fungi to fix atmosphere nitrogen, solubilize phosphorous decompose organic
material or oxidize sulphur in the soil. When they are applied in the soil, they enhance growth and yield
of crops, improve soil fertility and reduce.
Pollution. They are known as “bio fertilizers”.
Thus bio-fertilizers are living or biologically active products or microbial inoculants of bacteria, algae and
fungi (separately or in combination) which are able to enrich the soil with nitrogen, phosphorus, organic
matter etc.
Important bio fertilizers
Following are some of the important types of bio fertilizers which can be considered for agro
based industries.
Rhizobium Biofertilizer:
Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium forming root nodules in legume plants. These nodules act as miniature
nitrogen production factories in the fields. The nodule bacteria fix more nitrogen (N2) than needed by
legume plant and the bacteria. The surplus fixed nitrogen is then secreted and fertilizes the soil. Rhizobium
is more efficient than-free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Azotobacter Biofertilizer:
Azobacter are aerobic free living nitrogen fixers. They grow in the rhizoshpere (around the roots) and
fix atmospheric nitrogen non symbiotically and make it available to the particular cereals. These bacteria
produce growth promoting.
Hormones which helps in enhancing growth and yield of the plant.
RNAi pesticides – some of which are topical and some of which are absorbed by the crop.
Biopesticides have usually no known function in photosynthesis, growth or other basic aspects of plant
physiology; however, their biological activity against insect pests, nematodes, fungi and other organisms
is well documented, these biodegradable , economical and renewable alternatives are used especially
under organic farming systems.
Advantages
No harmful residues detected
Can be cheaper than chemical pesticides when locally produced.
Can be more effective than chemical
Biodegradable
Disadvantages
High specificity: which may require an exact identification of the pest/pathogen and the use of multiple
products to be used; although this
Can also be an advantage in that the biopesticide is less likely to harm species other than the target.
Often slow speed of action (thus making them unsuitable if a pest outbreak is an immediate threat to
a crop). Often variable efficiency due to the influences of various biotic and abiotic factors (since some
biopesticides are living organisms, which bring about pest/pathogen control by multiplying within or nearby
the target pest/pathogen)
Living organisms evolve and increase their resistance to biological, chemical, physical or any other form
of control. If the target population is not exterminated or rendered incapable of reproduction, the surviving
population can acquire a tolerance of whatever pressures are brought to bear, resulting in an evolutionary
arms race.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. With reference to Neem tree, consider the 7. Which one of the following plants is preferred
following statements: for mixed cropping in order to enhance the
1. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control bioavailability of nitrogen?
the proliferation of some species of insects (a) Wheat
and mites. (b) Gram
2. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of (b) Maize
biofuels and hospital detergents. (d) Barley
3. Neem oil has applications in pharmaceutical 8. The concept of sustainable development relates
industry. to :
Which of the statements given above is/are (a) consumption levels
correct
(b) exhaustible resources
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) social equity
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Intergenerational equity
2. Which one of the following agricultural practices 9. Vermicompost is a/an
is eco-friendly?
(a) inorganic fertilizer
(a) Organic farming
(b) toxic substance
(b) Shifting cultivation
(c) organic biofertilizer
(c) Cultivation of high-yielding varieties.
(d) synthetic fertilizer
(d) Growing plants in glass-houses. 10 Silent Spring’ considered by many as one among
3. Azolla gives a good biofertilizer when mixed with the greatest science books of all time, is written
(a) Blue-green algae (b) Cow dung by Rachel Carson. The book deals with:
(c) Bone-meal (d) Urea (a) wild life preservation
4. After sowing seeds, the fertilizers (b) Production of the environment
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
AND POLLUTION
THEORY
INTRODUCTION
• Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as
air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife. It is defined as any
change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
• The, United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as
"The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs".
Environmental degradation is of many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources
are depleted, the environment is degraded. Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental
protection and environmental resources management
LAND AND SOIL DEGRADATION
Land is a major constituent of the lithosphere and - is one of the main components of natural environment
besides air, water and plants. The various purposes, for which land can be used, include agriculture and
horticulture for food production, energy production, human dwellings and industrial/commercial purposes,
waste disposal, forests, etc.
LAND DEGRADATION
• It refers to deterioration or loss of fertility or productive capacity of the soil. All modem and growth
oriented activities are having their direct or indirect impact on land. Though land resources are very much
related to natural disasters like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, etc., it is due to human activities that soil
gets polluted.
The factors which are mainly responsible for land degradation are:
1. Soil Erosion:
It refers to the loss or removal of the superficial layer of the soil by the action of wind, water or human
actions. The factors that influence the extent to which soil erosion will occur include:
• Distribution, intensity and amount of rainfall: The soil fails to absorb heavy rainfall restricted to
a few months of the year resulting in plenty of run-off water which removes soil layers as it moves
along, thus causing soil erosion.
• Slope of the ground: if the ground has steep slopes then infiltration of rain water decreases and
the run-off is much faster, thus causing more soil erosion.
• Soil type: light and open soils lose more silt than heavier loams.
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• Vegetation cover: Rain falling on bare land causes soil erosion because the top soil is loose and is
easily carried away by the run-off. On the other hand, vegetation holds the soil in place by forming
a network of roots of the plants.
• Soil mismanagement: Uncontrolled grazing by cattle, faulty methods of surface drainage, wrong
cultivation practices, removal of forest litter etc are common practices that aggravate soil erosion.
2. Salination:
Salination refers to increase in concentration of soluble salts in the soil. In arid and semi arid areas with
poor drainage and high temperatures, water evaporates quickly leaving behind a white crust of salts on
the soil surface. The high concentration of salts in soil severely affects the water absorption process of
the plants, resulting into poor productivity.
3. Water logging:
This may be due to surface flooding or due to high water table. Excessive use of canal irrigation may
disturb the water balance and create water logging as a result of seepage or rise in the water table of
the area. The productivity of water logged soil is severely reduced.
4. Desertification:
Desertification is diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land which ultimately leads
to the formation of desert. It is a slow process of land degradation that leads to desert formation. It may
result either due to a natural phenomenon linked to climatic change or due to abusive use of land. Some
of the principal causes.
Which promote desertification, are:
• Over Cultivation: Every cycle of cultivation is preceded by ploughing to remove weeds. The
ploughed land turns soil upside down thus exposing rich subsoil to wind and water erosion. Such land
may remain barren for most part of the year and in turn lose more soil due to erosion. Such erosion
is most pronounced on slopes. Moreover, in regions where rainfall is low, the soil is often dry and
is more susceptible to erosion.
• Overgrazing: Deserts receive less rainfall. Deserts have sparse vegetation mostly consisting of
grasses and herbs and is best used for grazing. Overgrazing by goats, domestic cattle remove the
protective vegetation and expose the soil. Further the movements of grazing animals loosen the soil
surface by their hoofs. Unprotected loose soil becomes highly susceptible to erosion by wind and
water.
• Deforestation: Forests and vegetation prevent soil erosion and to hold water in soil. Plant roots
absorb and recycle nutrients released from the decaying organic matter. Forests are often cleared
to agriculture, timber, construction wood, firewood, raw material for paper etc. All this leads to
barrenness of the land leading to desertification.
• Salting due to Irrigation: With demand for more land for agriculture, crops are grown in areas
that have little access to natural water bodies. The water is supplied to these growing areas by
artificial means and improved irrigation methods. Such water brings salts dissolved in it. Water used
for irrigation is lost from agriculture field through evaporation and transpiration by crop plant. The
water gets evaporated but the dissolved salt keeps on accumulating which makes the soils more
salty. Land devoid of plant cover easily becomes decertified.
These activities bring about changes in rainfall, temperature, wind velocity, etc and lead to soil erosion.
Such changes then lead to desertification of the productive lands. Economic forces can encourage people
to over exploit their land for short-term gains.
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174 Environmental Degradation and Pollution General Studies
The centre and the states have launched a number of programmes to combat the menace of desertification
such as the drought prone area programme, the integrated watershed management programme and
others. The need is for concerted action for sustainable development with a 'bottom-up' approach.
Overgrowth of invader
The animals species and unpalatable Invader species
remain hungry plants result in the loss make their way
of plants of nutritional value
Wind drives
Heated earth Barren earth reflects
Desertification away moisture
causes changes more sun rays raising
laden clouds
in wind pattern the temperature at base.
leading to
5. Shifting cultivation:
Jhum cultivation, a very peculiar practice of slash and bum agriculture, prevalent among many tribal
communities inhabiting the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Islands of Pacific ocean
has also laid large forest tracts bare. This practice has led to complete destruction of forests in many
hilly areas of India.
6. Urbanization:
Human activities are responsible for the land-degradation of forests, croplands and grasslands. The
productive areas are fast reducing because of urbanization i.e the developmental activities such as human
settlements and industries.
7. Landslides:
Human activities such as construction of road and railway, canal, dams and reservoir and mining in hilly
areas have affected the stability of hill slopes and damaged the protective vegetation cover both above
and below roads and other such developmental works. This has upset the balance of nature, making such
areas vulnerable to landslides.
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Energy & Environment Environmental Degradation and Pollution 175
8. Soil pollution:
Soil pollutants such as pesticides, chemicals, industrial wastes etc have an adverse effect on the physical,
chemical and biological properties of soil.
SOLID WASTE
Solid waste (Refuse) means any garbage, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, or air pollution
control facility and other discarded material including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material,
resulting from industrial, commercial, mining and agricultural operations, and from community activities.
But it does not include solid or dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid or dissolved materials
in irrigation return flows or industrial discharges.
TYPES AND SOURCES OF SOLID-WASTES
General categories of solid-wastes:
(i) Mining wastes:
Mining wastes are produced during mining operations wherein huge quantities of wastes are dumped on
land surface which may be otherwise useful for other purposes.
(ii) Agricultural wastes:
Include roots and stems of crops, straw, hay, dung, food articles etc. There is almost no problem of
agriculture waste items as they are used and reused in a number of ways.
(iii) Industrial wastes:
Include huge amount of abandoned items which create several environmental problems. For example,
huge quantities of bagasse are produced in sugar mills during the process of sugar production.
(iv) Municipal wastes:
Include solid wastes such as paper, plastics, metal cans, glass bottles, plastic bottles and cans, aluminum
foils, metal junks, polythene bags, garbage mostly coming from domestic uses etc. It may be further
pointed out that most of these items are reused and recycled.
The municipal waste substances are also classified into
(i) Non combustible wastes,
(ii) Highly combustible trash,
(iii) Combustible wastes,
(iv) Animal and vegetable trash etc.
(iv) Packing wastes:
Include packaging of different materials such as polythene, plastics, paper board, paper, jute, flax (gunny
bags) etc. These packaging are generally used several times in different forms in developing countries
but these are immediately discarded after their first use and hence present the problem of their disposal.
(v) Human wastes:
Include fecal matter in the cities which is disposed off in several disposal bodies such as underground
pits, tanks, rivers and seas. These human excreta are washed by rainwater and are carried to nearby
lakes and streams.
Animal wastes such as dung, their skeletons and waste substances from slaughter houses pose serious
disposal problems. In India dungs are picked up by farmers and are used as manures and cooking fuels.
Similarly, bones of dead animals are used in fertilizers industry.
2. Incineration
Incineration means burning of the solid- wastes in properly constructed hearth of furnaces. This method
is generally used when suitable dumping land areas are not available and disposal in sea is not possible.
3. Pulverization
In this method, the solid-waste is pulverized in grinding machines so as to reduce its volume and change
its physical character. By doing so it becomes practically odourless and unattractive to insects. Although
it contains fertilizing elements, it cannot be suitably used as manure. It has to be further disposed of by
land filling. The method is quite costly, and hence not commonly used, particularly in India.
4. Composting
In this method the putrescible organic material in solid-wastes is digested anaerobically and converted
into humus and stable mineral compounds. Its volume is also considerably reduced and is made free of
most of the pathogenic organisms so that it can be easily and safely handled. This method is best suited
to Indian conditions, especially for small and medium size towns; since it solves three problems
simultaneously-disposal of solid-wastes, disposal of night soil (where there is no water carriage system
of sanitation), and production of valuable manure for crops.
5. Pyrolysis
In pyrolysis, the chemical constituents and chemical energy of some organic wastes is recovered by
destructive distillation of the solid waste. In pyrolysis, the combustible constituents of the solid- waste are
heated in a specially designed chamber, known as pyrolysis reactor at 650 to 1000° in an oxygen-free
(or low- oxygen) environment. Pyrolysis is an endothermic process and thus differs from the conventional
incineration.
6. Disposal into Sea
This method of solid-wastes disposal can be used in coastal areas having deep sea water at a reasonable
distance (16 to 20 km), and with strong forward currents. This is quite a simple and cheap method.
But it has following disadvantages:
• The bulky and lighter components of solid-wastes float, spread, and tend to return to the shores
during high tides.
• During monsoons or stormy weather, solid-waste has to be either stored or disposed of by some
other methods.
• Some portion of the solid-wastes may return and spoil the beaches, despite all the necessary
precautions.
7. Vermiculture
It is also known as earthworm farming. In this method, Earth worms are added to the compost. These
worms break the waste and the added excreta of the worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients
Solid Waste Management
• Indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes causes adverse environmental effects. The main objective of solid
waste management is to minimize these adverse effects before it becomes too difficult to rectify in the
future.
• Solid waste management may, thus be defined as the application of techniques that will ensure the orderly
execution of the functions of collection, processing and disposal of solid waste. These functions are called
the 'three basic functional elements of solid waste management'.
Biosparging-Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase “groundwater oxygen”
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by naturally occurring
bacteria.
Bioaugmentation-Microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance degradation process.
(b) Ex situ bioremediation techniques
• Ex situ-involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
Landfarming-contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a prepared bed and periodically tilled
[ ] until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms
and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants.
Biopiles-it is hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially, engineered cells are constructed as
aerated composted piles. Typically used for treatment of surface contamination with petroleum
hydrocarbons.
Bioreactors-it involves the processing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water
through an engineered containment system. Composting-dealt earlier in solid waste management.
When the velocity of water in streams and rivers decreases, the suspended particles settle down
at the bottom as sediments. The excessive sediments that settle down destroy the feeding and
spawning grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs etc.
(7) Water-soluble radioactive isotopes are yet another source of water pollution. These can be concentrated
in various tissues and organs as they pass through food chains and food webs. The feeding and spawning
grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs, etc.
Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. Typically only one or a few
phytoplankton species are involved and some blooms may be recognized by discoloration of the
water resulting from the high density of pigmented cells. Colors observed are green, yellowish-
brown, or red.
Some algal blooms are the result of an excess of nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen)
into waters and higher concentrations of these nutrients in water cause increased growth of algae
and green plants.
As more algae and plants grow, others die. Algal blooms may also be of concern as some species
of algae produce neurotoxins. These toxins may have severe biological impacts on wildlife and are
often called Harmful Algal Blooms, or HABs.
EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH:
• The polluted water usually contains pathogens like virus, bacteria, parasitic protozoa and worms; therefore,
it is a source of water borne diseases like jaundice, cholera, typhoid, amoebiasis etc.
• Mercury compounds in waste water are converted by bacteria action into extremely toxic methyl mercury
which can cause numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, deafness, blurring of vision and mental derangement.
• Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful
disease of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.
• The compounds of lead cause anemia, headache, loss of muscle power and bluish line around the gum.
Types of Water Pollution
Water pollution may be divided on the basis of sources and storages of water into the following 4
categories:
(1) Surface water (river water) pollution,
(2) Lake water pollution
(3) Groundwater pollution, and
(4) Sea water pollution
SURFACE (RIVER) WATER POLLUTION
1. Nature of River Water Pollution
Surface quantities of dissolved inorganic matter in the form of ions. It may be pointed out that the major
source of surface water is precipitation which contributes water to surface storage through rainfall and
melt-water.
• Many of the corals are reported to have been killed off the Andaman and Nicobar coast of toxic industrial
effluents. Fishers are mostly adversely affected due to sea water pollution.
• Leakage of immense quantities of crude oils from oil tankers and offshore oil wells is a major source
of sea water pollution.
• Leaked crude oil rapidly spread on water surface as 'oil slicks' and makes the water poisonous, with the
result numerous sea organisms including valuable fishes die. Thus oil leakages cause ecological disaster
in the coastal ecosystem.
• Water Hyacinth (an aquatic weed) can purify water by taking some toxic materials and a number of
heavy metals from water.
• Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of bregoli- a by product of paper industry resembling
saw dust, oil zapper, micro organisms.
Ground Water Pollution
Groundwater is pollution through a variety of sources viz. leaching and downward movement of pollutants
from agricultural field(such as nitrates, phosphorous, potash and several insecticides and pesticides), from
industrial dumping areas, from urban and rural garbage, from earthen septic tanks and from polluted
ponds and tanks. The main controlling factors of groundwater pollution are lithological characteristics of
sub-soils and subsurface materials, depth of water table of groundwater, nature of aquifer, amount and
nature of annual rainfall, general outlook of society, nature and rate of infiltration of rainwater and
stagnant pond and tank water and above all the nature and amount of pollutants.
(i) Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water is dangerous for human health and may be fatal for infants.
(ii) Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuro-muscular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth
deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints (skeletal fluorosis).
Leaching of polluting ions from the earthen soak pits, septic tanks and rotten and damaged underground
sewer pipelines downward very often pollute groundwater up to a depth of 400 m. The pollutants which
move downward with percolating water are called leachates. The leached pollutants are seldom stationary
in the groundwater rather they move in the aquifers with the movement of groundwater as guided by
groundwater contour.
Methods for control of water pollution and water recycling:
The sewage water can be treated to make it safe for disposal into water bodies like rivers, lakes etc.
The treatment involves three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary.
• Bio-digester is a consortium of anaerobic bacteria, which have been screened and gradually adapted to
work at temperatures as low as -5°C through the isolation of psychrophilic bacteria from Antarctica/
Siachen. These convert the organic waste into water, methane and CO2.
The anaerobic process inactivates the pathogens responsible for water-borne diseases. Bio-digesters
serve as reaction vessels for bio-methanation and provide anaerobic conditions and the required temperature
for the bacteria. Bio-toilets treat the human waste at source- obviating the need to carry/transport the
fecal matter, no spoiling of environment or groundwater, and don't need any energy.
Then, there are other benefits of the bioloo. The system leaves pathogen-free water as effluent that can
be re-used. For large bio-tanks, methane can be collected and used. These can be installed anywhere,
without specification of land type, terrain, distance, etc. We see bio-toilets as a true panacea to many
of India's sanitation woes.
Minamata Convention
The Minamata Convention on Mercury is an international treaty designed to protect human health and
the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds by
2020.
Thermal Pollution
Sources: The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called thermal pollution. It occurs when
an industry removes water from a source (e.g. a river), uses the water for cooling purposes, and then
returns the heated water to its source.
Effects:
• The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases the metabolism of fish. This
changes the ecological balance of the river. Within certain limits, thermal additions can promote the
growth of certain fish and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of a power plant. However, sudden
changes in temperature caused by periodic plant shutdowns, both planned and unintentional, can result
in the death of these fish that are acclimatized to living in warmer waters.
• Tropical marine animals are generally unable to withstand a temperature increase of 2-3 °C and most
sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 37°C. This results in a change
in the diversity of fauna, as only those species that can live in warmer water will survive and proliferate
excessively.
Control measures:
• Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through a cooling pond or a cooling
tower after it leaves the condenser. The heat is dissipated into the air and the water can then be
discharged into the river or pumped back to the plant for to be reused for cooling.
• There are several other ways in which thermal pollution can be reduced. One method is to construct a
large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler water is removed from
the other end. The heat gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere. Another method is to use a
cooling tower; these structures take up less land area than the ponds. Here, most of the heat transfer
occurs through evaporation. The disadvantage in both these methods however is that large amounts of
water is lost due to evaporation.
LAND/SOIL POLLUTION
Land simply means the superficial parts of lithosphere wherein soil is the most significant aspect of land
surface for biological communities. This is why soils are termed as 'biological reservoirs' or 'biological
factory'. Land degradation simply means loss of utility of land for plants and animals.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a property of certain element
(radium, thorium, uranium etc.) to spontaneously
emit protons (alpha particles) electron (beta
particles) and gamma rays (short-wave
electromagnetic wave) by disintegration of their
atomic nuclei (nuclides).
Mercury
• This is the most common and most toxic in water bodies. It occurs in water as monomethyl mercury.
Most industrial effluents have mercury. Methyl mercury vapours cause fatal poisoning.
• High levels of mercury in fish stocks have been found, mainly in coastal areas. Mumbai, Kolkata, Karwar
(in Karnataka) and North Koel(in Bihar) are some of the severely affected areas.
• The recent popularity of energy efficient compact of fluorescent lamps or CFLs has added another
dimension to the controversy.
• Toxicity of mercury is much greater than any other substance, about 1000 times more potent than
colchicines.
Fluorine
It occurs in nature a fluoride, in air, soil and water. Fluorisis is a common problem in several states of
the country due to intake of high fluoride content water. Fluorides cause dental fluorisis, stiffness of joints
(particularly spinal cord) causing humped back. Pain in bones and joint and outward bending of legs from
the knees is called Knock-Knee syndrome. In cattle, fluoride intake causes staining, mottling and abrasion
of teeth, lameness and decrease in milk production.
DDT
• Toxic pesticides as BHC, PCB, DDT etc., are not easily degraded and are long-lasting in the environment.
Their concentration therefore goes on increasing in water and soil with successive applications.
• DDT was sprayed for many years on marshes to control mosquitoes.
• The DDT has bio-magnified from water to fish eating birds and humans. DDT is known to depress the
activity of estrogen, the female sex hormone and testosterone, male sex hormone. Fish die due to eating
of DDT-killed insects; turtles die because of eating DDT-killed fish and so on. DDT deposited in butter
fat of milk is a potential danger to infants.
• The end result of DDT use is that whole population of predatory birds such as the fish hawk (osprey)
and of detritus feeders a fiddler crab are wiped out. Birds are more vulnerable as DDT interferes with
egg shell formation by causing a breakdown in steroid hormones which results in fragile eggs that break
before the young can hatch.
Lead in Paints
• Modem houses are full of harmful chemicals. One of them is lead, present in paints.
• Though several countries have banned the use of this substance India is yet to do so, which is why paint
makers use them.
• Inhaling lead dust like opening or closing windows is the most common source of lead poisoning.
• The human body is not designed to process lead. Young children are particularly vulnerable to lead as
it can damage the central nervous system and the brain.
Transfat
• Transfats are formed during the process of addition of hydrogen atoms to oils, a process which industry
prefers as it keeps the oil from turning rancid and ensures a longer shelf life. (E.g. trans-fatty acid in
vanaspati)
• Transfats are associated with a host of serious health problems ranging from diabetes to heart diseases.
• The health ministry in 2008 came out with a notification for labeling food including tranfats.
• Junk food is high in transfats, salt and sugar, junk food gives no nutrition. In fact, getting addicted to it
is making the young vulnerable to hypertension, heart diseases, diabetes and obesity.
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High Caffeeiene in Energy Drinks
• Energy drinks are in controversy because of its high caffeine content. Most of these brands have upto
320 ppm of caffeine in them. These drinks are marketed as an instant source of energy.
• The manufactures claim that it is the combination of caffeine, taurine, glucoronolactone, vitamins, herbal
supplements, and sugar or sweeteners that gives the energy.
• According to study reports, it is the sugar that gives the energy rush, the caffeine only gives a 'feeling'
of energy.
Pesticide in Human Blood
• Pesticides are commonly used in India but this comes at great cost to human health. It found that 15
different pesticides in the 20 blood samples tested from four villages in Punjab.
Testing of Pesticide Toxicity
• All pesticides are tested to establish toxicity– a dose necessary to produce a measurable harmful effect,
it is usually established through tests on mice, rats, rabbits and dogs.
• Results are then extrapolated on humans, and safe exposure levels predicted.
• The value commonly used to measure acute toxicity is LD 50 (a lethal does in the short term; the
subscript 50 indicates the dose is toxic enough to kill 50 percent of lab animals exposed to the chemical).
• Pesticides once ingested, accumulate in the body fat or pass through. Organochlorine pesticides, for
instance, accumulate in body fat and blood lipids. These fat-soluble chemicals persist in the body for
many years.
DISEASES CAUSED DUE TO ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
(a) Minamata disease
• Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956.
• It was caused by the release of methyl mercury in the industrial wastewater from the Chisso Corporation's
chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968.
• It is also referred to a Chisso-Minamata disease, is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury
poisoning.
• Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the
fields of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death
follow within weeks of the onset of symptoms. A congenital form of the disease can also affect fetuses
in the womb.
• This highly toxic chemical bioaccumulated in shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay and the Shiranui Sea,
which when eaten by the local populace resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog, pig, and human
deaths continued over more than 30 years, the government and company did little to prevent the pollution.
(b) Itai-itai disease
• Itai-itai disease was the documented case of mass cadmium poisoning in Toyama Preference, Japan,
staring around 1912.
• The cadmium poisoning caused softening of the bones and kidney failure.
• The cadmium was released into rivers by mining companies in the mountains. The mining companies
were successfully used for the damage.
(c) Blue baby syndrome
• It is believed to be caused by high nitrate contamination in ground water resulting in decreased oxygen
carrying capacity of hemoglobin in babies leading to death.
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Energy & Environment Environmental Degradation and Pollution 209
• The groundwater is thought to be contaminated by leaching of nitrate generated from fertilizer used in
agricultural lands and waste dumps.
• It may also be related to some pesticides (DDT, PCBs etc), which cause eco toxicological problems in
the food chains of living organisms, increasing BOD, which kills aquatic animals.
(d) Pneumoconiosis
• The coal miners are frequently caught by the black lung disease, which is also called as Pneumoconiosis.
• Pneumoconiosis is caused due to the deposit of coal dust in the lungs of coal miners, leads to a serious
lung disease called as Black Lung disease.
(e) Asbestosis
• Workers working in the asbestos industry are caught by the serious lung disease called as asbestosis.
(f) Silicosis
• It is caused due to the deposit of silica in the lungs of workers working in silica industries or the sand
blasting sites.
(g) Emphysema
• The breaking down of sensitive tissue of lungs due to air pollution and smoke of cigarette is called as
Emphysema. Once this disease happens, the lungs cannot expand and contract property.
(h) Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)
• Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a combination of ailments (a syndrome) associated with an individual’s
place of work or residence.
• Most of the sick building syndrome is related to poor indoor air quality.
• Sick building causes are frequently pinned down to flaws in the heating ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems. Other causes have been attributed to contaminants produced by out gassing of some
types of building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), molds, improper exhaust ventilation of
ozone, light industrial chemicals used within, or lack of adequate fresh-air intake air filtration.
Concept of Ecolabelling
Labeling of environmentally beneficial goods and resources extracted by more sustainable methods can
help consumers decide which goods and services to buy. Product ecolabelling can encourage companies
to develop green products and services and help consumers select more environmentally beneficial
products and services. Eco-labels are also being used to certify that the fish bearing ecolabels were
caught by using sustainable fishing methods and also for timber products to certify and trees were
harvested in accordance with the sustainable forest management principles.
Objectives of ecolabelling
• Protecting the environment and to make consumers aware of environmental issues.
• Encouraging efficient management of renewable resources to ensure their availability to future
generations.
• Promoting efficient management of nonrenewable resources, including fossil fuels.
• Encouraging protection of ecosystems and species diversity.
• Encouraging proper management of chemicals to prevent pollution.
Ecolabelling in India
• Ecolabelling scheme of Government of India supports cleaner (environmentally friendly) production
practices. There is strong emphasis on cleaner manufacturing processes in the criteria used for the
granting Eco-labels to products. Presently the scheme is limited to household and some consumer
products to meet certain environment criteria along with quality requirements of Indian standards. The
label is known as ‘Eco mark’.
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210 Environmental Degradation and Pollution General Studies
• The products for which notifications have been issued for the criteria are: toilet soaps, detergents, paper,
architectural points and laundry soaps.
• Eco-label is issued by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is represented by a pitcher or an
‘earthen pot’ indicating that the product is not harmful to the environment like as an earthen pot which
is made of soil and after its use returned to it the soil. It is without causing any harmful effect on the
environment.
HAZARDS AND DISASTERS
Volcano
Volcanic hazards and disasters are associated with volcanic eruptions of both types e.g. violent central
eruptions and fissure lava flows.
Distribution of Volcanoes
There are three major belts/zones of volcanoes
(1) circum-pacific belt or pacific ring of fire
(2) mid-continental belt
(3) mid-oceanic ridge belt
Hazardous effects of volcanic eruptions:
volcanic eruption causes heavy damage to human lives and property through advancing hot lavas; fallout
of volcanic materials; destruction to human structures such as buildings, factories, roads, rails and
airports, dams and bridges, reservoirs, fires caused by hot lavas.
Floods in the rivers and climatic changes.
(1) Huge volumes of hot and liquid lavas moving at considerably fast speed bury human structures, kill people
and animals, destroy agricultural farms and pastures, plug rivers and lakes, bum and destroy forests etc.
(2) Fallout of immense quantity of volcanic materials including fragmental materials,, dusts and ash, smokes
etc, covers ground surface and thus destroy crops, vegetations and buildings, disrupt and divert natural
drainage systems, creates health hazards due to poisonous gases emitted during the eruption and causes
acid rains.
(3) All types of volcanic emptions, if not predicted well in advance, cause tremendous losses to precious
human lives. Sudden eruption of violent and explosive type through central pipe does not give any time
to human beings to evacuate themselves and thus to save them from the clutches of death looming large
over them.
(4) Earthquakes caused before and after the under sea volcanic emptions generate destructive tsunami
seismic waves which create most devastating sea waves causing innumerable deaths of human beings
in the affected coastal areas.
Environmental impacts of volcanic emption:
Volcanic dust and climate changes: The formation of dust veils in the stratosphere whether due to
volcanic emption or from atmospheric dust storms causes lowering of temperatures of earth’s surface
and the lower atmosphere because (i) dusts reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's
surface as they scatter and reflect some amount of incoming short wave solar radiation, (ii) the dust veils
do not hinder in the loss of heat of the earth's surface through outgoing long wave terrestrial radiation.
Volcanic disaster reduction
There are certain precursor events which help in the prediction of emption of dormant and extincl
volcanoes as given below:
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Energy & Environment Environmental Degradation and Pollution 211
Demarcation of coastal regulatory zones (CRZ) and to make it free from human settlements.
Protection and conservation of natural line of protection from tsunami waves such as coastal
dunes, beaches, mangroves, corals etc.
Installation of tsunami meters, tracking of undersea earthquakes and resultant tsunami waves.
Provisions for early tsunami warning systems and preparedness for timely evacuation of
people living in the danger coastal zone to safer places.
(2) Post tsunami disaster stage:
The following steps should be taken after the tsunami has struck a particular locality of a country:
Rescue and evacuation of stranded alive people
Immediate relief work
Recovery
Rehabilitation
Landslides Hazards and Disasters
Landslides are natural as well as man-induced hazards when they occur in uninhabited area but they
become disasters when they strike populated area. Generally, hills and mountains and cliffed sea costs
are vulnerable to landslides of various sorts.
Landslides: Meaning and Concepts
• Disintegrated and fragmented rock materials due to mechanism of weathering processes (mechanical,
chemical, biotic and biochemical) are called rockwastes. Generally, movement of rockwaste enblock
down the hillslope is called mass movement of rockwaste or simply mass movement. Mass movement
is the detachment and downslope transport of soil and rock material under the influence of gravity.
• The sliding or flowing of these materials is due to their position and to gravitational force, but mass
movement is accelerated by the presence of water, ice and air. It may be mentioned that generally all
types of mass movements of rockwastes including soils and ice are collectively called as landslides.
• Landslides (downslope movement of different types of debris enblock) are divided into five major
categories e.g. fall, slide, topple, flows and lateral spread.
Landslide prone area:
The most vulnerable regions from the stand point of occurrences of landslides are the Himalayas mainly
in Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, sub Himalayan West Bengal, North-East Hill region etc.
Landslide disaster management:
Like other natural hazards landslide disaster reduction and management involves two stages of action i.e.,
(1) pre disaster stage, and
(2) Post disaster stage.
• It may be mentioned that besides natural causative factors, landslides are also caused by human activities
mostly deforestation, building activities, urbanization, quarrying and mining in landslide prone hill areas.
The foremost task in landslide management is to prepare landslide vulnerability maps on the basis of
susceptibility of an area to landslides, landslide history of the region, frequency and recurrence interval
of landslides, vulnerability index in terms of density of human settlements an population, economic
activities, risk factor, loss of property etc. Such areas of high landslides vulnerability should be avoided
for human settlements and building.
• The area of 6 to 48 sq km around the centre of hurricane is generally dry and rainless and winds are
feeble. This is called ‘eyes of the cyclone’. The waves caused in the oceans due to ferocity of hurricanes
are called hurricane waves which are generally from 3 to 6 m in height.
Reduction and Management of Cyclonic Disaster
The reduction and management of tropical cyclonic disaster includes the following steps:
Preparedness,
Mitigation,
Prevention,
Relief work,
Recovery and
Rehabilitation
The state of preparedness basically revolves around the mechanism of (ECWS) early cyclone warning
system, and the establishment of cyclone warning centres (CWC) so that messages of advancing
cyclones may be timely converted to the concerned area and the people may be evacuated to safer
places in time.
Thunderstorms
• Thunderstorms, considered tertiary atmospheric circulation, are local storms characterized by swift upward
movement (updraft) of air and heavy precipitation including rainfall, hailstorm and squall with cloud
thunder and lightning.
• Thunderstorms differ from cyclones in that the latter are almost circular in shape wherein winds blow
from outside towards the center while the former is characterized by strong updraft of air.
Conditions of Thunderstorm Development
Atmospheric instability, updraft of potentially unstable air, abundant supply of warm and moist air, thick
clouds etc. are the factors which favour the development of thunderstorms. The upward movement of
warm and moist air is prerequisite condition for the origin of thunderstorms. Surface heating through
intense insolation causes convective mechanism resulting into updraft of air and atmospheric instability.
This is why thunderstorms originate mainly during summer season, warm day of a season, and warm
hours of day. It appears that warm, moist and rising unstable air is the most important factor in the
development of thunderstorms. This becomes possible when normal lapse rate of temperature is greater
than adiabatic rate of temperature change.
Thunderstorms and Weather
(i) Rainfall
Thunderstorms is in the form of heavy downpour with greatest intensity of all other forms of precipitation
but is of short duration because of two factors viz.
(i) The air rises abruptly with great force due to which there is quick condensation and cloud formation.
(ii) There is abundant absolute humidity due to high temperature during summer season.
(ii) Hailstorms:
When condensation occurs below freezing point, ice particles are formed which range from the size of
a pea to a large ball. Hail is not associated with every thunderstorm. Hails fall down on the ground
surface when the rising convection currents become weak and feeble. The sudden fall of hails inflicts
great damages to human health and wealth, birds and animal and standing agricultural crops.
individual bends or a series of bends so that the flood discharge may move downstream more rapidly and
the water may be disposed off by the rivers quickly.
Reduce the Volume of Water
The volume of water during flood stage of a river may be reduced through a series of engineering
devices such as construction of flood-control storage reservoirs. Such storage reservoirs impound enormous
volume of water during flood period and thus these help in two ways e.g. firstly, these storage reservoir
reduce the volume of water of the rivers, and secondly, these provide water for irrigation and drinking
purposes. If the reservoirs are succeeded by huge dams, they also help in the generation of hydro-
electricity.
Divert the Flood water
Flood-diversion systems imply diversion of flood water in lowlying areas, depressions or artificially
constructed channels bordered by artificial dykes so that the flood crests may be reduced and the flood
magnitude may be decreased.
Reduce the Impacts of Floods
Embankment, dikes and flood walls are used to confine the flood water within the valley or say within
a narrow channel. These engineering works include the building of artificial levees of earthen materials,
stones or even concrete walls.
Flood Forecasts and Early Warning
The flood forecasting centres collect data of rainfall and discharge rate, gauge level or flood level from
various data recording centres in the jurisdiction of each flood forecasting centre and thus warn the
inhabitants of particular river basin about the possible danger of floods much in advance, so that people
may be evacuated to safer places.
Droughts
• Droughts are more deadly natural environmental hazards because these are directly related to one of the
three basic requirements of any form of life (such as water, air food) that is water and are indirectly
related to food because upon water. Droughts resulting from accumulative effects of water scarcity
cause extensive and enormous damage to agriculture and natural vegetation and therefore cause famine
and starvation of human and animal population of the region concerned.
• Rainfall is the main parameter for the determination of droughts.
• Failure of monsoonal rainfall in India and adjacent countries adversely affects ‘kharif crops’ and causes
drought conditions. According to Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) drought is defined as a
situation occurring in any area when the mean annual rainfall is less than 75 percent of the normal
rainfall.
IMD has further classified droughts into two broad categories viz.
(i) severe drought when the deficiency of rainfall exceeds 50 percent of the normal rainfall, and
(ii) moderate drought when the deficiency of rainfall is between 25 percent and 50 percent of normal
rainfall.
IMPACT OF DROUGHTS
• The impacts of prolonged droughts include ecological, economic, demographic and political aspects.
• Prolonged drought conditions in a given region change the biotic component of the natural ecosystem
because
(d) Zone of high damage risk covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, northern Punjab, and Haryana,
Delhi, western Uttar Pradesh, 'tarai' and 'babar' regions and Himalayan regions of Uttarakhand and
Bihar, and Sikkim areas.
(e) Zone of very high damage risk includes parts of Jammu and Kashmir, some parts of Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, extreme north Bihar, entire north-eastern India and Kutch region of Gujarat.
Tsunami
• Tsunami refers to the displacement of a large volume of a body of water such as Ocean. Most Tsunamis
are seismically generated, result of abrupt deformation of sea floor resulting vertical displacement of the
overlying water.
• The east and west coasts of India and the island regions are likely to be affected by Tsunamis generated
mainly by subduction zone related earthquakes from the two potential source regions, viz. the Andaman-
Nicobar-Sumatra Island Arc and the Makran subduction zone north of Arabian Sea.
• Coastal zone regulation (CRZ) should be strictly enforced in order to save the humans from death traps
of tsunami waves. In India, CRZ were declared through government notification in 1991 where in coastal
and marine ecosystems are under continued threat. Such coastal zone natural ecosystems include coastal
zones, beaches, mangrove, forest and coral reefs. The coasts as per 1991 notification have been divided
into 4 zones as follows:
Zone 1 includes most sensitive areas having mangroves and coral reefs. No development is allowed
within 500m of the high tide water.
Zone 2 includes the areas above 500m distance line having towns and cities. Here, new constructions
are permitted further landward from the already constructed buildings.
Zone 3 comprises undeveloped areas and tourist centres. Permission to new constructions and
development. plans is granted on the basis of review of individual cases.
Zone 4 includes Andaman and Lakshadweep where a zone of 500m from the coast is fully
protected and no construction and new development plan is allowed.
Landslides
Landslides are common in India in Himalayan region as well as Western Ghats. The Himalayan ranges
are among the youngest fold mountains of world. They comprise a series of seven curvilinear parallel
folds running along a grand arc of around 3400 kilometers.
The landslides in this region are probably more frequent than any other areas in the world. The Westem
Ghats, particularly Nilgiri hills also are notorious for frequent landslides.
TECHNOLOGIC DISASTERS
Industrial, Chemical & Nuclear Disasters
• The industrial and chemical disasters can occur due to accident, negligence or incompetence. They may
result in huge loss to lives and property.
• The Hazardous industries and the workers in these industries are particularly vulnerable to chemical and
industrial disasters.
• The most significant chemical accidents in recorded history was the 1984 Bhopal Gas disaster, in which
more than 3,000 people were killed after a highly toxic vapour, (methyl isocyanate), was released at a
Union Carbide pesticides factory.
Hazards may also divided on the basis of duration of hazards and disasters as follows:
DISASTER VULNERABILITY ANANLYSIS
• In environmental science vulnerability refers to capable of or susceptible to a particular hazard and
disaster.
• Vulnerability denotes the “conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors
or processes, which increase susceptibility of a community to the impacts of hazards. Vulnerability is thus
the probability of being damaged, destroyed or lost because of a natural hazard”.
DISASTER RISK ANALYSIS
• A disaster risk is defined as likely adverse impacts of a particular hazard on different aspects, such as
social, economic, political, medical, psychological etc., of human society.
• Since hazard/disaster risk is probability of likely adverse impacts of particular hazard on society, it is fall
uncertainties in terms of magnitude and severity of a hazard, speed, quantum of likely damage, duration
of persistence of disaster etc.
Disaster communication is in fact a warning system of the probable occurrences of hazards and
disasters. This is also called risk information which has two basic components as follows:
(1) risk communication system or transmission of disaster risks information to different segments of society,
government and non-governmental organizations (NGO), and
(2) takers (receiver) of disaster risk information i.e, vulnerable and threatened sections of society.
PRE-DISASTER STAGE
• Pre-disaster stage of disaster reduction and management aims at informing the people of the area to be
affected by a hazard and disaster well in advance; to make the community prepared and mentally ready
to face any sort of eventuality through various measures.
• The pre-disaster stage primarily aims at reducing the adverse impacts of hazards and disasters by
adopting certain measures.
DISASTER PREPAREDNESS (P)
• Preparedness means necessary arrangements to meet nay eventuality if a hazard strikes a locality and
community.
• It is apparent from above discussion that primary aim of disaster preparedness is to initiate such steps
and measures, pursue such activities and formulate and adopt such action plans which can reduce the
adverse impacts of disasters in terms of loss of lives and property of the human society to be affected
by a disaster.
• The following measures should be adopted to make the disaster preparedness effective:
disaster research, which includes the following:
(i) mapping and preparation of disaster prone (vulnerable) areas and risk magnitude zone maps.
(ii) study of nature (types, characteristics, origin), magnitude and severity of hazards and disasters,
(iii) risk assessment of disasters,
(iv) study of past history and recurrence intervals of hazards and disasters,
(v) study of psychological, economic and social implications,
(vi) prediction techniques etc.
precursor events, slow events which herald the occurrence of major events, for example,
(1) there is surface creep of very slow rate of movement for longer duration before a major landslide
occurs;
(2) final violent eruption of a volcano is heralded by the bulging of ground surface, significant increase
in local seismic activity, emission of volcanic gases.
(3) long-duration incessant high intensity rainfall is precursor event of probable flood.
(4) regular occurrence of seismic tremors of minor to moderate intensities heralds the occurrence of
major earthquake etc.
(iv) Disaster Warning Systems Disaster warning system (DWS) comprises effective measures to
communicate the human community of the area. The DWS now a days uses advanced scientific
knowledge and technologies of early warning system (EWS) which includes the following components:
trace indicators
early warning tool, such as radars, television, radio, news papers, hooters and sirens of alarm, door
knocking, mobile loud speakers etc.
elements of warning systems; detection of disaster, detectional warning, communication of disaster
warning to concerned segments of society, response and quick review of disaster warning etc.
disaster warning centers, local centers, regional centers, national centers, global centers (involving
many countries, as is done in the case of tsunami occurrence in the Pacific Ocean).
mobilization of masses for quick response to warning and to follow the safety measures.
(v) Disaster Education: The prime goal of disaster education is to educate the people about various aspects
of hazards an disasters.
Disaster education aims at the following:
to arouse perception and awareness about hazards and disaster among decision and policy makers
and general public and to train the decision makers to handle the situation created by a disaster.
to provide information about possible disaster well in advance.
to provide disaster risk and vulnerability maps.
to persuade the people to improve the standard of constructions so as to escape the disasters.
to acquaint the people about safety measures in the event of occurrence of a disaster.
to explain the disaster reduction techniques.
DISASTER MITIGATION
Disaster mitigation focuses on the following two major objectives:
(1) to minimize the disruptive forces of disaster, and to reduce the magnitude of disasters.
(2) to lessen the adverse impacts of disasters.
Disaster mitigation aims at reducing economic losses in case of disaster occurrences. The nature of
disaster mitigation depends on the nature of disaster and environmental conditions of the area which is
vulnerable to a particular disaster.
DISASTER PREVENTION
• Disaster prevention does not mean to prevent the occurrences of natural disaster rather it means to
prevent the adverse impacts of natural disasters by adopting certain measures much in advance of the
occurrence of a disaster.
• Disaster prevention is based on the outcome of disaster preparedness and disaster mitigation. Disaster
prevention includes all those activities which help in preventing the harmful effects of natural disasters
on human lives and property.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Consider the following statements regarding 2. Ammonia and water vapour are the only
'bioremediation'. It involves the use of bacteria end products in this decomposition which
and fungi to are released into the atmosphere.
1. Clean up aquifers Which of the statements given above is/are
2. Clean up toxic dumps correct?
4. With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Select the correct answer using the codes given
Railways, consider the following statements: below
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only
1. The decomposition of human waste in the
bio-toilets is initiated by a fungal inoculum. (c) 1, 3 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
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228 Environmental Degradation and Pollution General Studies
8. Recently, “oil zapper” was in the news. What is 14. Which one of the following consequens will
it ? happen if large quantities of domestic sewage
(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the are Continuously discharged in a stream?
remediation of oily sludge and oil spills. (a) Increase in the algal bloom of the stream
(b) It is the latest technology developed for water
under-sea oil exploration. (b) Increase in the temperature level of the
(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel- stream water
yielding maize variety. (c) Reduction in the carbon dioxide level of the
(d) It is the latest technology to control the stream water
accidentally caused flames from oil wells. (d) Reduction in the dissolved oxygen level of
9. Pneumoconiosis afflicts the workers who works the stream water
mainly in : 15. Eutrophication of water bodies is mainly caused
(a) Tanneries by
(b) Coal mining industry (a) carbonates and oxides
(c) Distilleries (b) hydrocarbons and metals
(d) Distilleries Glass industry (c) carbonates and sulphates
10. If water pollution continues at its present rate, it (d) phosphates and nitrates
will eventually 16. A high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
(a) stop water cycle indicates that water
(b) prevent precipitation (a) is pure
(c) make oxygen molecules unavailable to water (b) has high level of microbial pollution
plants (c) has negligible microbial action
(d) make nitrate unavailable to water plants (d) has low level of microbial pollution
11. Taj Mahal is reported to be in danger because 17. Which one of the following is permissible level
of of noise in a silent zone at daytime?
(a) Water pollution in Jamuna (a) 50 dB (b) 60 dB
(b) Stealing of marble bricks (c) 65 dB (d) 75 dB
(c) Decay of marble due to its age factor 18. Which of these is/are flood prevention and
(d) Air pollution due to nearby industries mitigation strategy?
12. Minamata disease, first identified in fish in Japan, 1. Construction of flood protection
is caused due to the poisoning effect of which embankments
one of the following heavy metals? 2. Depopulating the flood plains
(a) Chromium (b) Arsenic 3. Afforestation
(c) Lead (d) Mercury 4. Decongesting river channels
13. Workers of paint industry are exposed to which Select the correct option using the codes given
one of the following hazards? below
(a) Nickel Pollution (a) 1 and 2 only
(b) Cadmium pollution (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) Strontium pollution (c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) Lead pollution (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
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Energy & Environment Environmental Degradation and Pollution 229
ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS
AND CONVENTIONS
THEORY
TIME SCALE OF ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS
1961 The World Wildlife Fund, now the World Wide Fund for Nature, is established.
1962 Rachel Carson publishes "Silent Spring;" it is considered a turning point in our understanding of
the interconnections between the environment, the economy, and social well-being.
1968 Paul Ehrlich publishes the "Population Bomb;" it discusses the connection between human
population, resource exploitation, and the environment.
The Club of Rome is established; it commissions a study of global proportions to model and
analyze the dynamic interactions between industrial production, population, environmental
damage, food consumption, and natural resource usage.
1972 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment is held in Stockholm; it leads to the
establishment of numerous national environmental protection agencies and the United Nations
Environment Programme. The Club of Rome publishes "The Limits to Growth;" it predicts
consequences if population growth is not slowed; it calls for a state of global equilibrium.
1973 The Chipko Movement is born in India in response to deforestation and environmental
degradation, influencing forestry practices and women's participation in environmental issues.
1974 The United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora is opened for signature in Washington, DC; it is an important step in controlling illegal
commerce in ivory, furs, and other products of endangered species.
1979 The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution is adopted.
1980 The term "sustainable development" is first introduced into the international policy debate by the
World Conservation Strategy.
1982 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is adopted; it sets rules for environmental
standards and enforcement provisions to deal with pollution of the marine environment.
1985 The Antarctic ozone hole is discovered.
1987 The World Commission on Environment and Development publishes "Our Common Future,"
also known as the Brandtland Report; it weaves together social, economic, cultural, and
environmental issues and global solutions; it popularizes the term "sustainable development."
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is adopted.
1988 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is established to assess the most up-to-date
scientific, technical, and socioeconomic research in the field.
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Energy & Environment Environmental Laws and Conventions 231
1992 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development is held in Rio de Janeiro;
agreements are reached on Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework
Convention on Climate Change, and nonbinding Forest Principles.
The United Nations General Assembly sets up the Commission on Sustainable Development to
oversee implementation of Agenda 21 into the programs and processes of the United Nations
system.
1993 The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development is established to ensure follow-up
to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, enhance international
cooperation, and rationalize intergovernmental decision-making capacity.
1994 Under the Global Environment Facility, billions of aid dollars are restructured to give more
decision-making power to developing countries.
The United Nations Convention on Desertification is adopted.
1995 The World Summit for Social Development is held in Copenhagen; this marks the first time hat
the international community makes a clear commitment to eradicating absolute poverty.
1977 Delegates to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change sign the Kyoto
Protocol; the protocol commits developed nations to reducing overall emissions of several
greenhouse gases and mechanisms to encourage North-South cooperation on emissions
reduction.
1998 Global environmental and food security concerns are raised over genetically modified food
products; the European Union blocks imports of genetically modified crops from North America
and farmers in developing countries rebel against "teiminator technology," seeds that will only
germinate once.
1999 The global sustainability index is launched, tracking leading corporate sustainability practices
worldwide; called the Dow Jones Sustainability Group Indexes, the tool provides guidance to
investors looking for profitable companies that follow sustainable development principles.
2000 The United Nations Millennium Summit agrees to a set of time-bound and measurable goals for
combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination
against women; the Millennium Development Goals are to be achieved by 2015.
2002 The World Summit on Sustainable Development is held in Johannesburg, marking the 10-year
anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development; the summit
promotes "partnerships" as a non-negotiated approach to sustainability.
2005 The Kyoto Protocol enters into force, legally binding developed country parties to goals for
greenhouse gas emission reductions and establishing the Clean Development Mechanism for
developing countries.
2007 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change publishes its fourth assessment report on
climate change; the report posits that climate change policies are best addressed by integrating
them within the broader framework of sustainable development strategies.
Former United States Vice-President Al Gore's documentary, "An Inconvenient Truth," wins an
Academy Award; the alarming forecasts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
about the planet's health make headlines; the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and Al
Gore share the Nobel Peace Prize.
2008 Notions of green economy enter the mainstream; a low-carbon economy and green growth
become new objectives. The World Glacier Monitoring Service points to strong acceleration of
glacier melting in 2000-2005, with a doubling of the rate compared to the two preceding decades.
2009 The Group of 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (G20) promises to phase out
fossil fuel subsidies; experts estimate that annual subsidies could amount to $500 billion, equal to
1% of world gross domestic product. The 15th session of the Conference of the Parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is convened in Copenhagen; the
domestic targets and actions of large emitters such as the Unites States and the People's Republic
of China take center stage.
2010 The 16th session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change is held in Cancun; it calls for the establishment of a Green Climate Fund and
a Climate Technology Center and network.
2012 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development gathers in Rio de Janeiro to mark the
20th anniversary of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in
Rio de Janeiro and the 10th anniversary of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development
in Johannesburg; it focuses on two themes: a green economy in the context of sustainable
development and poverty eradication, and the institutional framework for sustainable
development.
2013 2013-COP19, This is the 19th yearly session of the conference of the Parties (COP19) to the 1992
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 9th session of the
Meeting of the Parties (CMP9) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. The conference led to an agreement
that all states would start cutting emissions as soon as possible but preferably by the first quarter
of 2015. The Warsaw Mechanism was also proposed.
2014 2014- The United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP20 or CMP10 was held in Lima,
Peru, from December 1 to 12, 2014. This was the 20th yearly session of the Conference of the
Parties (COP20) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). The overarching goal of the conference was to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
(GHGs) to limit the global temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius above current levels.
2015 2015- The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in
Paris, France, from 30 November to 12 December 2015. It was the 21st yearly session of the
Conference of the Parties (COP) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement, a global agreement on the
reduction of climate change, the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of
the 196 parties attending it. The agreement says that its objective is to keep the global
temperature rise below 2°C, but pursue efforts to keep it below 1.5°C from pre-industrial times.
• CMS covers many mammals, including land mammals, marine mammals and bats; birds; fish; reptiles and
one insect.
• It is the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and
migration routes, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other international organizations.
5. Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES)– 1973
• CITES is a multilateral treaty to prevent species from becoming endangered or extinct because of
international trade.
• Though this convention did not seek to directly protect endangered species, rather it aimed to reduce the
economic incentive to poach these species and destroy their habitat by closing off the international
demand.
6. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands- 1971
• The Convention uses a broad definition of wetlands. It includes all lakes and rivers, underground aquifers,
swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, mangroves and
other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs
and salt pans.
• The Convention's mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national
actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout
the world”.
• Under the “Three Pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to:
Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
Designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (the “Ramsar
List”) and ensure their effective management;
Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared species.
The Montreux Record
• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance
where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result
of technological developments, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the
Ramsar List.
7. Paris Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)- 1994
• Its objective is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing
serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through effective action at all levels, supported
by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach
which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable
development in affected areas.
• It is to be achieved through the long-term integrated strategies that focus on productivity, rehabilitation,
conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources, leading to improved living conditions,
in particular at the community level.
• The year 2006 was declared “International Year of Deserts and Desertification”
• Board may close a defaulting industrial plant or withdraw its supply of power or water by an administrative
order; the penalties are more stringent, and a citizen's suit provision supports the enforcement machinery.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act of 1977
• The Water Cess Act was passed to generate financial resources to meet expenses of the Central and
State Pollution Boards. The Act creates economic incentives for pollution control and requires local
authorities and certain designated industries to pay a cess (tax) for water effluent discharge.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 and amendment, 1987
• The Air Act's framework is similar to that of the Water Act of 1974. The main objectives of this Act
are to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control and abate air pollution in the country. Important
provisions of this Act are given below:
• The Air Act expanded the authority of the central and state boards established under the Water Act, to
include air pollution control.
• All industries operating within designated air pollution control areas must obtain “consent” (permit) from
the State Boards.
ENVIRONMENT ACTS
The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986
• In the wake of the Bhopal tragedy, the government of India enacted the Environment (Protection) Act
of 1986.
• The purpose of the Act is to implement the decisions of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment of 1972, in so far as they relate to the protection and improvement of the human environment
and the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and property.
• The Act is an “umbrella” for legislations designed to provide a framework for Central Government,
coordination of the activities of various central and state authorities established under previous Acts, such
as the Water Act and the Air Act.
In this Act, main emphasis is given to “Environment”, defined to include water, air and land and the
interrelationships which exist among water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures,
plants, micro-organisms and property.
“Environmental pollution” is the presence of pollutant, defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
present in such a concentration as may be or may tend to be injurious to the environment.
“Hazardous substances” include any substance or preparation, which may cause harm to human
beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the environment. The main provisions
of this Act are given below:
The Central Government is authorized:
• To set new national standards for the quality of the environment (ambient standards) as well as standards
for controlling emissions and effluent discharges;
• To regulate industrial locations, to prescribe procedures for managing hazardous substances;
• To establish safeguards preventing accidents, and
• To collect and dismantle information regarding environmental pollution.
By virtue of this Act, Central Government has armed itself with considerable powers which include
coordination of action by state, planning and execution of nationwide programmes, laying down environmental
quality standards, especially those governing emission or discharge of environmental pollutants, placing
restriction on the location of industries and so on.
Reserved forests,
Village forests,
Protected forests and
Private forests.
• A state may declare forest lands or waste lands as reserved forest and may sell the produce from these
forests. Any unauthorized felling of trees quarrying, grazing and hunting in reserved forests is punishable
with a fine or imprisonment, or both reserved forests assigned to a village community are called village
forests.
• The state governments are empowered to designate protected forests and may prohibit the felling of
trees, quarrying and the removal of forest produce from these forests. The preservation of protected
forests is enforces through rules, licenses and criminal prosecutions. Forest officers and their staff
administer the Forest Act.
• Alarmed at India's rapid deforestation and resulting environmental degradation, Centre Government
enacted the Forest (Conservation) Act in 19 80. Under the provisions of this Act, prior approval of the
Central Government is required for diversion of forestlands for non-forest purposes.
• An Advisory Committee constituted under the Act advises the Centre on these approvals.
Biodiversity Act 2000
• India’s richness in biological resources and indigenous knowledge relating to them is well recognized. One
of the major challenges is in adopting an instrument which helps realize the objectives of equitable benefit
sharing enshrined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The legislation aims at regulating
access to biological resources so as to ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use.
• The Act covers conservation, use of biological resources and associated knowledge occurring in India
for commercial or research purposes or for the purposes of bio-survey and bio-utilisation. It provides a
framework for access to biological resources and sharing the benefits arising out of such access and use.
The Act also includes in its ambit the transfer of research results and application for intellectual property
rights (IPRs) relating to Indian biological resources.
• Salient features of the biodiversity legislation:
The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich biodiversity and associated knowledge
against their use by foreign individuals and organizations without sharing the benefits arising out of
such use, and to check Biopiracy.
The Act provides for setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity
Boards (SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) in local bodies. NBA and SBB
are required to consult BMCs in decisions relating to use of biological resources or related knowledge
within their jurisdiction and BMCs are to promote conservation, sustainable use and documentation
of biodiversity.
All foreign nationals or organizations require prior approval of NBA for obtaining biological resources
and associated knowledge for any use. Indian individuals /entities require approval of NBA for
transferring results of research with respect to any biological resources to foreign nationals/
organizations. Collaborative research projects and exchange of knowledge and resources under
these projects are exempted provided they are drawn as per the policy guidelines of the Central
Government and have its approval the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and benefit
sharing. However, Indian citizens/entities/local people including vaids and hakims to have free
access to use biological resources within the country for their own use, medicinal purposes and
research purposes.
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244 Environmental Laws and Conventions General Studies
While granting approvals, NBA will impose terms and conditions to secure equitable sharing of
benefits. Before applying for any form of IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) in or outside India for
an invention based on research or information on a biological resource obtained from India, prior
approval of NBA will be required.
There is an enabling provision for setting up a framework for protecting traditional knowledge.
The monetary benefits, fees, royalties as a result of approvals by NBA to be deposited in National
Biodiversity Fund, which will be used for conservation and development of areas from where
resource has been accessed, in consultation with the local self-government concerned.
This Act intends to check biopiracy, protect biological diversity and local growers through a three-
tier structure of central and state boards and local committees. These will regulate access to plant
and animal genetic resources and share the benefits.
INSTITUTIONS RELATED ENVIRONMENT IN INDIA
• The initial steps were taken in 1972 with the formation of the National Committee on Environmental
Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) that gradually evolved as a separate department of environment and
reached the full-fledged stage of Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. Initially the Constitution
of India did not contain any provision towards the promotion/protection of environment.
However, the 42nd amendment of the constitution in 1977 added some important clauses that entrusted
the government the responsibility of providing a clean and wellprotected environment.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forest, Central Pollution Control Board, Indian Board for Wildlife are
the main national environmental agencies.
The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
• The MoEFCC is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central Government, for planning,
promoting, coordinating and overseeing the implementation of environmental and forestry programmes in
the country.
• The main activities undertaken by the ministry include conservation and survey of the flora and fauna
of India, forests and other wilderness areas; prevention and control of pollution; afforestation and reducing
land degradation. It is responsible for the administration of the national parks of India.
• The main tools utilized for this include surveys, environmental impact assessment, control of pollution,,
regeneration programmes, support to organizations, research to find solutions and training to augment the
requisite manpower, collection and dissemination of environmental information and creation of environmental
awareness among all sectors of the country’s population.
• The Ministry is also the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
Central Pollution Control Board
• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), is statutory organisation, under the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. Further, CPCB was entrusted with the powers and functions under the
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• It serves as a field formation and also provides technical services to the Ministry of Environment and
Forests of the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• Principal functions of the CPCB,
(i) to promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States by prevention, control
and abatement of water pollution, and
(ii) to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.
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Air Quality Monitoring is an important part of the air quality management. The National Ambient Air
Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) Programme has been established with the objectives to determine the
present status of air quality, for controlling and regulating emission of air pollutants from industries and
other sources to meet the air quality standards. It also provides background air quality data needed for
setting of industries and town planning.
Similarly the National Water Quality Monitoring (NWQM) and Surveillance are of utmost importance.
The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB)
• The National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) was set up under the Ministry of Environment
& Forests in 1985 with the objective of
(i) to increase tree and other green cover on wastelands.
(ii) to prevent good land from becoming wasteland, and
(iii) to formulate within the overall nodal policy, perspective plans and programmes for the management
and development of the wastelands in the country.
• In 1992, the Board was transferred to the Ministry of Rural Development, putting under a New Department
of Wastelands Development under the charge of a Minister of State.
Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL)
The IBWL is the apex advisory body in the field of Wildlife Conservation in the country and is headed
by the Honorable Prime Minister of India
Institutions related to the National Biodiversity Act
To realize the initiatives pertaining to access and benefit sharing (ABS) and the protection of traditional
knowledge (TK) in compliance with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a three-tiered structure
at the national, state and local level is to be established under the Biological Diversity Act of 2002. A
brief description of the institutions is as follows:
National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
The Authority deals with all matters relating to requests for access by foreign individuals, institutions or
companies, and all matters relating to transfer of results of research to any foreigner.
State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs):
All matters relating to access by Indians for commercial purposes are under the purview of the State
Biodiversity Boards (SBBs). The Indian industry is required to provide prior intimation to the concerned
SBB about the use of biological resource. The State Board has the power to restrict any such activity,
which violates the objectives of conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits.
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs):
Institutions of local self-government are required to set up Biodiversity Management Committees in their
respective areas for conservation, sustainable use, and documentation of knowledge relating to biodiversity.
Technical support and guidance is also provided to the biodiversity management committees for the
preparation of people’s biodiversity register.
National Green Tribunal (2010)
• It is established for the effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection
and conservation of forests and other natural resources, including enforcement of any legal right relating
to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters
connected therewith or incidental thereto.
• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) provides a sharper focus on required interventions.
Currently, NAPCC is implemented through eight National Missions, outlining priorities for mitigation and
adaptation to combat climate change.
• The Energy Conservation Act has been enacted to encourage efficient use of energy and its conservation.
• The National Policy for Farmers focuses on sustainable development of agriculture.
• The National Electricity Policy (NEP) underscores the focus on universalizing access to electricity and
promoting renewable sources of energy, as does the Integrated Energy Policy (IEP).
• Policies to promote actions that address climate concerns also include fiscal instruments like coal cess,
cuts in subsidies, increase in taxes on petrol and diesel, market mechanisms including Perform Achieve
and Trade (PAT), Renewable Energy Certificates (REC) and a regulatory regime of Renewable Purchase
Obligation (RPO). The institutional arrangement for off take of renewable power will be further
strengthened.
India’s Progress in Combating Climate Change
In recognition of the growing problem of Climate Change, India declared a voluntary goal of reducing
the emissions intensity of its GDP by 20-25%, over 2005 levels, by 2020, despite having no binding
mitigation obligations as per the Convention. A slew of policy measures were launched to achieve this
goal. As a result, the emission intensity of our GDP has decreased by 12% between 2005 and 2010.
NAPCC (National Action Plan on Climate Change)
NAPCC is a comprehensive action plan which outlines measures on climate change related adaptation
and mitigation while simultaneously advancing development.
It has 8 missions:
I. National Solar Mission
Objective:
Make solar energy competitive with fossil-based energy options.
Launch an R & D programme facilitating international co-operation to enable the creation of
affordable, more convenient solar energy systems.
II. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
The Energy Conservation Act of 2001 provides a legal mandate for the implementation of energy
efficiency measures through the mechanisms of The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) in the
designated agencies in the country.
A number of schemes and programmes have been initiated which aim to save about 10,000 MW
by the end of the 11th Five-Year Plan in 2012.
III. National Mission on Sustainable Habitats Objective:
Make habitats sustainable through improvements in energy efficiency in buildings, management of solid
waste and a modal shift to public transport.
National Water Mission
Objective:
Conserving water, minimizing wastage, and ensuring more equitable distribution and management of
water resources.
Optimizing water use efficiency by 20% by developing a framework of regulatory mechanisms.
2. Solar power in India is poised to grow significantly with Solar Mission as a major initiative of the
Government of India. Solar power installed capacity has increased from only 3.7 MW in 2005 to about
4060 MW in 2015. The ambitious solar expansion programme seeks to enhance the capacity to 100 GW
by 2022, which is expected to be scaled up further thereafter. A scheme for development of 25 Solar
Parks, Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects, canal top solar projects and one hundred thousand solar pumps
for farmers is at different stages of implementation. Government is also promoting solarization of all the
55,000 petrol pumps across the country.
3. Biomass energy constitutes about 18% of total primary energy use in the country and more than 70%
of the country’s population depends on it. However, it is currently used in an inefficient manner with high
levels of indoor pollution. A number of programmes have been initiated for promotion of cleaner and more
efficient use, including biomass based electricity generation. It is envisaged to . increase biomass installed
capacity to 10 GW by 2022 from current capacity of 4.4 GW.
4. Hydropower contributes about 46.1 GW to current portfolio of installed capacity, of which 4.1 GW is
small hydro (upto 25 MW) and 41.99 GW is large hydro (more than 25 MW). Special programmes to
promote small and mini hydel projects, new and efficient designs of water mills have been introduced for
electrification of remote villages. With a vast potential of more than 100 GW, a number of policy
initiatives and actions are being undertaken to aggressively pursue development of country’s vast hydro
potential.
5. India is promoting Nuclear Power as a safe, environmentally benign and economically viable source to
meet the increasing electricity needs of the country. With a 2.2% share in current installed capacity, total
installed capacity of nuclear power in operation is 5780 MW. Efforts are being made to achieve 63 GW
installed capacity by the year 2032, if supply of fuel is ensured.
6. Clean Coal policies: Coal based power as of now accounts for about 60.8% (167.2 GW) of India’s
installed capacity. In order to secure reliable, adequate and affordable supply of electricity, coal will
continue to dominate power generation in future. Government of India has already taken several initiatives
to improve the efficiency of coal based power plants and to reduce its carbon footprint. Coal beneficiation
has been made mandatory. Introduction of ultra-supercritical technology, as and when commercially
available is part of future policy. Besides, stringent emission standards being contemplated for thermal
plants would significantly reduce emissions.
7. National Smart Grid Mission has been launched to bring efficiency in power supply network and
facilitate reduction in losses and outages. Green Energy Corridor projects worth INR (Indian National
Rupee) 380 billion (USD 6 billion) are also being rolled out to ensure evacuation of renewable energy.
The Government’s goal of Electricity for All is sought to be achieved by the above programs that would
require huge investments, infusion of new technology, availability of nuclear fuel and international support.
ENHANCING ENERGY EFFICIENCY
• With the goal of reducing energy intensity of the Indian economy, Ministry of Power through Bureau of
Energy Efficiency (BEE) has initiated a number of energy efficiency initiatives. The National Mission
for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) aims to strengthen the market for energy efficiency by
creating a conducive regulatory and policy regime.
• Demand Side Management programmes have been launched to replace existing lowefficiency appliances:
1. During the last decade, there has been rapid transformation of efficient lighting in India. India has also
launched an ambitious plan to replace all incandescent lamps with Lightemitting diode (LED) bulbs in the
next few years leading to energy savings of upto 100 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) annually.
1. The National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) aims at enhancing food security and protection
of resources such as land, water, biodiversity and genetics. The mission focuses on new technologies and
practices in cultivation, genotypes of crops that have enhanced CO2 fixation potential, which are less
water consuming and more climate resilient. India has developed 580 district level (covering many states)
contingency plans based on early warning systems and other weather forecasting systems.
2. Government of India adopted a mega project called the National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA). Its four main modules include Natural Resource Management, improving crop production,
livestock and fisheries and institutional interventions.
3. A Scheme has been launched to provide in mission mode Soil Health Card to every farmer. Additionally,
100 mobile soil-testing laboratories have been setup across the country.
4. National Agroforestry Policy (NAP) of India aims at encouraging and expanding tree plantation in
complementarity and integrated manner with crops and livestock. It will help protect and stabilize ecosystems,
and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to minimize the risk during extreme climatic events.
It will also complement achieving the target of increasing forest/ tree cover.
WATER
The adaptation strategies for the water sector focus on enhancing efficient use of water, ensuring access
and tackling the adverse impact of Climate Change. The transboundary and regional issues also need to
be factored in.
1. The main objective of India’s National Water Mission (NWM) is “conservation of water, minimizing
wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated
water resources development and management”. One of the key goals of the mission is to enhance water
use efficiency by 20%.
2. Groundwater is the major component of the total available water resources. Rapid expansion of groundwater
use in India in the last three decades has resulted in a steep decline in the groundwater table in vast areas
of the country. Rainwater harvesting, which offers a promising solution to replenish and recharge the
groundwater is a significant component of Watershed Development Programme, taken up under different
schemes of the central and state governments. Several municipal authorities, including Delhi have amended
their existing building bye-laws, making it compulsory for every large house or hotel (200 yards or more
in area) to undertake rainwater harvesting.
3. Neeranchal is a recent programme by Government to give additional impetus to watershed development
in the country.
4. Another important initiative relating to rivers is the National Mission for Clean Ganga which seeks to
rejuvenate the river along its length of more than 2,500 km through multifarious activities such as pollution
inventorization, assessment and surveillance and laying of sewage networks, treatment plants etc.
5. The total flood prone area in the country is about 45.64 million ha. Existing flood management mechanisms
involve both Central and State Government.
6. Government of India has also set up the National River Conservation Directorate for conservation of
rivers, lakes and wetlands in the country and improving the water quality which covers stretches of 40
rivers in 190 towns spread over 20 States.
HEALTH
• India is now formulating a ‘Health Mission’ under the ambit of NAPCC to evolve strategies for mitigating,
containing and managing the adverse impact of Climate Change on health. The mission aims at analysing
epidemiological data, identify vulnerable population and regions, build knowledge base and expertise,
increase awareness and community participation.
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256 Environmental Laws and Conventions General Studies
• Apart from the overall public heath infrastructure at the national and sub national levels, the Government
of India has launched programmes like integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP), National
Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) to deal with vector borne diseases like malaria,
dengue etc. As part of this programme India aims to eliminate malaria by 2030.
Disaster Management
• The Indian subcontinent is among the world’s most disaster prone areas. Almost 85% of India’s area is
vulnerable to one or multiple hazard.
• India has enacted National Disaster Management Act-2005 to deal with disasters in India. India is one
of the active participant of Hygo Framework of Action and recent Sindai Framework of Action Disasters.
• India has set up Disaster Relief Funds at all levels and launched the National Disaster Relief Fund, which
is financed through the levy of a cess.
1994 First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama
• The First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama, Japan from 23 to 27 May 1994, adopted
the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and
Mitigation and its Plan of Action, endorsed by the UN General Assembly in 1994.
• It was the main outcome of the mid-term review of the International Decade of Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR) and established 10 principles for its strategy, a plan of action and a follow-up.
Furthermore, it provides guidelines for natural disaster prevention, preparedness and mitigation.
2005 Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction in Kobe
• The Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction conference was held in Kobe, Japan from 18 to
22 January 2005.
• The World Conference adopted plans to put in place an International Early Warning Programme (IEWP).
The goal of the World Conference was to find ways to reduce the toll of disasters through preparation,
and ultimately to reduce human casualties. Due to the proximity to the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami,
developing a global tsunami warning system was high on the agenda.
• The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015): Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters was an outcome of the 2005 conference. The Hyogo Framework (HFA) was the first plan to
explain, describe and detail the work required from all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster
losses. It was developed and agreed on with the many partners needed to reduce disaster risk-governments,
international agencies, disaster experts and many others- bringing them into a common system of
coordination. The HFA, ran from 2005 to 2015.
2015 Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR) in Sendai
• The Third UN United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction was held in Sendai, Japan.
Many developed nations announced they would partner with smaller countries to prepare for future
disaster relief operations.
• The Sendai Framework is a 15-year nonbinding agreement which recognizes that the State has the
primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders
including local government and the private sector. It aims for the following outcome: The substantial
reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social,
cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries.
• The conference adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The Sendai
Framework is the first major agreement of the post-2015 development agenda, with seven targets and
four priorities for action. It was endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015.
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Energy & Environment Environmental Laws and Conventions 257
(i) reflect the principles of equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) and
(ii) the Country’s contributions must be seen in a balanced and comprehensive context.
India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) under COP-19 under UNFCCC
1. To put forward and further propagate a healthy and sustainable way of living based on traditions and
values of conservation and moderation.
2. To adopt a climate friendly and a cleaner path than the one followed hitherto by others at corresponding
level of economic development.
3. To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 from 2005 level.
4. To achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel based
energy resources by 2030 with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance
including from Green Climate Fund (GCF).
5. To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest
and tree cover by 2030.
6. To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development programmes in sectors
vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture, water resources, Himalayan region, coastal regions,
health and disaster management.
7. To mobilize domestic and new & additional funds from developed countries to implement the above
mitigation and adaptation actions in view of the resource required and the resource gap.
8. To build capacities, create domestic framework and international architecture for quick diffusion of
cutting edge climate technology in India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is/are part of National Which of the statements given above is/are
action plan on climate change? correct?
(a) National Mission on Enhanced Energy (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Efficiency (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) National Solar Mission 6. With reference to the International Union for
(c) Both Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) and the Convention on International
(d) None Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
2. Which one of the following Union Ministries Flora (CITES), which of the following statements
implements the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety? is/are correct?
(a) Ministry of Science and Technology 1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations
(b) Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and CITES is an international agreement
between governments.
(c) Ministry of Environment and Forests
2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects
(d) Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers around the world to better manage natural
3. The United Nations Framework Conventions on environments.
Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international 3. CITES is legally binding on the States that
treaty drawn at: have joined it, but this Convention does not
(a) United Nations Conference on the Human take the place of national laws.
Environment, Stockholm, 1972. Select the correct using the code given below:
(b) UN conference on Environment and (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992. (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, 7. What is Rio+20 Conference, often mentioned in
Johannesburg, 2002. the news?
(d) UN Climate Change Confer ence (a) It is the United Nations Conference on
Copenhagen, 2009. Sustainable Development
4. The concept of carbon credit originated from (b) It is a Ministerial Meeting of the World
which one of the following? Trade Organization
(c) It is a Conference of the Intergovernmental
(a) Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro
Panel on Climate Change
(b) Kyoto Protocol
(d) It is a Conference of the Member Countries
(c) Montreal Protocol of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(d) G- 8 Summit, Heiligendamm 8. Which of the following statements regarding
5. Consider the following statements: ‘Green Climate Fund’ is/are correct?
1. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in 1. It is intended to assist the developing
respect of carbon credits in one of the Kyoto countries in adaptation and mitigation
Protocol Mechanisms. practices to counter climate change.
2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP,
2. Under the CDM, the projects handled pertain
OECD, Asian Development Bank and World
only to the Annex-I countries.
Bank.
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Select the correct answer using the code given Select the correct answer using the code given
below. below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (a) Only 1
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (b) Only 2
9. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (c) Both 1 and 2
is constituted under the (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 13. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafely deals with
(b) Geogr aphical Indications of Goods (a) establishing or promoting in xilu conservation
(Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 facilities for rare and endangered organisms
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (b) maintaining the worldwide network of gene
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 banks for all the known flora and
10. How does National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) (c) monitoring and regulating the development
help in protecting the Indian agriculture? of living modified organisms
1. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects the (d) ensuring safe handling, safe use and safe
indigenous and traditional genetic resources. trans-boundary movement of living modified
2. NBA directly monitors and supervises the organisms
scientific research on genetic modification 14. If a wetland of international importance is
of crop plants. brought under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does
3. Application for Intellectual Property Rights it imply?
related to resources genetic/biological cannot (a) Changes in ecological character have
be made without approval of NBA. occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur
Which of the statements given a above is/are in the wetland as a result of human
correct? interference.
(a) 1 Only (b) 2 & 3 Only (b) The country in which the wetland is located
should enact a law to prohibit any human
(c) 1 & 3 only (d) 1, 2 & 3
activity within five kilo meters from the edge
11. “Chipko movement” in Uttar Pradesh relates to of the wetland.
(a) Prevention of felling green trees (c) The survival of the wetland depends on the
(b) Prevention of felling of old trees by cultural practices and traditions of certain
unauthorized persons communities living in its vicinity and therefore
(c) Prevention of felling of dead trees by the cultural diversity therein should not be
destroyed.
governmental agencies
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage
(d) Planting frees on private plots
Site’.
12. Which of the following statements about National
Green Tribunal is/are correct? 15. What is the main subject of the Kyoto Protocol?
(a) Bio-diversity
1. It is a specialized body equipped with the
necessary expertise to handle environmental (b) Global warming
disputes involving multidisciplinary issues. (c) Alternative sources of energy
2. The Tribunal shall be bound by the procedure (d) Genetically modified organisms
laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure,
1908.
• Threat
Diseases-in 1985-1960, surra disease, caused by Trypanosoma evansi and African Horse Sickness.
Other threats include habitat degradation due to salt activities, the invasion of the Prospis juliflora
shrub, and encroachment and grazing by the Maldhari.
9. Dhole/Asiatic wild dog or Indian wild dog
• Threat-habitat loss, depletion of its prey base, competition from other predators, persecution and possibly
diseases from domestic and feral dogs.
10. Eld’s deer/thamin or brow-antlered deer
Status-endagered, deer indigenous to Southeast Asia.
• Found in the Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), Manipur.
11. Himalayan Brown/ Red Bear
Status– endangered.
• India’s largest animals in the Himalayas, omnivores. Himalayan Brown Bears exhibit sexual dimorphism.
• Distribution-Nepal, Pakistan and Northern India.
12. Himalayan wolf
• Habitat/distribution-trans-Himalayan region of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir in northern India.
• Status-Endangered
13. Himalayan/White-bellied Musk Deer
• Habitat/distribution-Kashmir, Kumaon and Sikkim.
• Musk deer lack antlers, but they possess a pair of enlarged canines that grow continuously.
• Status-endangered
• Threat-poaching & illegal trade for its musk
• Deer musk is a substance with a persistent odor obtained from a gland of the male musk deer (Only
males produce the musk). The substance has been used as a perfume fixative, incense material, and
medicine.
14. Hispid hare/Assam rabbit
• Habitat/distribution-southern foothills of the central Himalayas. Status-endangered.
• The habitat of hispid hares is highly fragmented due to increasing agriculture, flood control and human
development.
15. Hog deer
• Status-endangerd
• Habitat/distribution-northern India.
• Name-The hog deer runs through the forests with its head hung low (hog-like manner) so that it duck
under obstacles instead of leaping over them like most other deer do.
16. Lion-tailed macaque/wanderoo
Endemic to the Western Ghats.
• Status-endangered. Avoid human presence and they do not live, feed or travel through plantations.
• Habitat:
Lion-tailed macaques live in southwest India in pockets evergreen forests, called shoals, in the Western
Ghats range.
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266 Important Species in India General Studies
Today, they only live in mountain forests scattered across three Indian states: Karnataka, Kerala, and
Tamil Nadu.
• Threat-habitat fragmentation due to spread of agriculture and tea, coffee, teak and cinchona, construction
of water reservoirs and human settlements to support such activities.
17. Markhor
• Exhibit sexual dimorphism. National animal of Pakistan.
• Habitat/distribution-mountains of central Asia. In India-some parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Status-endangered
• Threat-hunting (both for meat and for its twisted horns), armed conflict and habitat loss
• Conservation-listed on Appendix I of CITES
18. Nilgiri langur/Nilgiri leaf monkey
Status-endangered
• Threat-habitat degradation, development activities, introduction of exotic tree species.
• Habitat/distribution-hilly areas of Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Tropical wet evergreen,
semi-evergreen and riparian forests.
19. Nilgiri tahr
• The Nilgiri tahr is the largest of the three tahr species, inhabit montane grasslands of western ghats.
• It is the state animal of Tamilnadu. Status in the Wild: Endangered
• Shoals forest (stunted evergreen forests) are typically avoided by tahr.
• Threats-habits loss, overgrazing, illegal hunting.
20. Great Indian One horned Rhinoceros
• Habitat: Found only in the tall grassland and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas.
• National Parks: Kaziranga National Park, pabitora wildlife sanctuary, Manas National Park, Assam
• Status in the Wild: Endangered
• Threat-Oriental belief that its horn, among other parts, has medical properties.
• Captive breeding– arinchar anna zoological park.
VULNERABLE MAMMALS
21. Chiru/Tibetian Antelope
• Status-vulnernable
• Habitat: Tibet cold desert
• Threat: The chiru is threatened by hunting for its fine wool which is used to make the shahtoosh scarves,
meat, magnificent horns.
22. Himalayan tahr
• Status-vulnerable
• habitat-Himalayas
• tahr have many characters in common with true goats, but lack a beard and have several other unique
features.
List of Marsupials
Phalangers Opossum
Kola Tasmanian devils
Kangaroo Mursupial Mole (4 foot)
Wallaby Bandi coot
Wombats Tasmanian Wolf/Tiger
Dasyure
43. Flying squirrel
• Flying squirrels are mammals too, but they don't really fly.
• They jump from high in a trees glide through the air like a kite.
REPTILES-CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
44. Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
Is the most uniquely evolved crocodilian in the world, a specialized, river-dwelling, fish- eater. The dire
condition of the gharial reflects the tragedy of our rivers, where we stand to not only lose other
endangered taxa such as the Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) but also the use of their waters
for human consumption and other needs.
Habitat:
Clean rivers with sand banks. Distribution: Only viable population in the National Chambal Sanctuary,
spread across three states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in India. Small non-breeding
populations exist in Son, Gandak, Hoogly and Ghagra rivers. Now extinct in Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan
and Bangladesh.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The term ‘Bali Action Plan’, is sometimes seen 5. A warm-blooded animal is one which
in news in the context of: (a) has a fluctuating body temperature
(a) Global climate change (b) does not lose heat to surroundings
(b) Global terrorism (c) absorbs heat from surroundings
(c) Global wildlife trafficking (d) has a constant body temperature
(d) World trade 6. Consider the following:
2. Consider the following statements:
1. Palm civet
1. Snakes are always at the end of a food
2. Puma
chain.
3. Cheetah
2. Some snakes are viviparous
Which of the above is/are found in India in their
Which of the statements given above is/are
natural habitat?
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
7. With reference to ‘Seshachalam Biosphere
3. Consider the following statements:
Reserve’, which of the following statements is/
1. Red panda in its natural habitat is found in are correct?
Eastern Himalayas.
1. It is located in the Eastern Ghats
2. Gharial in its natural habitat is found in
2. It is a unique tropical rain forest
Bhitarkanika mangroves.
Select the correct answer using the code given
Which of the statements given above is/are
below:
correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. With reference to carbon dioxide, which of the 8. Which of the following is associated with the
following statements is/are correct? issue of control and phase out of the use of
ozone depleting substances?
1. It is released from the interior of the Earth
during volcanic eruption. (a) Bretton Woods Conference
2. It corrodes metal surfaces. (b) Doha Development Agenda
3. It is required for the green plants for their (c) Geneva II Conference
survival. (d) Montreal Protocol
Select the correct answer using the code given 9. At which of the following places is the Marine
below. National Park located?
(a) 1 and 2 only (a) Chandipur-on-sea
(b) 3 only (b) Jamnagar
(c) 2 and 3 only (c) Puducherry
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) Visakhapatnam
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274 Important Species in India General Studies
10. ‘Fly ash’, which can be used in making bricks, Select the correct answer using the code given
is emitted from: below:
(a) Burning of agricultural waste (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(b) Burning of municipal solid waste (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Mining of aluminum and iron ores 15. With reference to Loktak lake, consider the
following statements:
(d) Thermal power plants
1. Loktak is a freshwater lake in northeastern
11. Which of the following is/are World Heritage
India.
Properties as per UNESCO?
2. Loktak lake carries floating islands that are
1. Bhitarkanika National Park
made up of decaying masses of Vegetation,
2. Bandhavgarh National Park soil and organic matter.
3. Sundarbans National Park Which of the statements given above is/are
Select the correct answer using the code given correct?
below? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 16. There is a growing concern about the release of
12. Which of the following places have nuclear a particular gas into the atmosphere form the
power plants? permafrost of Arctic region. Which one of the
following is that gas?
1. Amarkantak 2. Kaiga
(a) Carbon monoxide
3. Rawatbhata 4. Visakhapatnam
(b) Ethane
Select the correct answer using the code given
below: (c) Methane
(d) Sulfur dioxide
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
17. Which of the following is/are among the main
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
objective/objectives of G20 group of countries?
13. Consider the following pairs:
1. Discussing key issues in the global economy.
Well known Lake State
2. Promoting international financial stability.
1. Chilika Lake : Odisha
Select the correct answer using the code given
2. Kolleru Lake : Kerala below:
3. Pulicat Lake : Karnataka (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
matched? 18. Consider the following crop plants:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 1. Banana
(c) l and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Potato
14. With reference to carbon dioxide, which of the 3. Turmeric
following statements is/are correct? Which of the above is/are propagated by
1. It is released from the interior of the Earth vegetative methods?
during volcanic eruption. (a) 1 only
2. It corrodes metal surfaces. (b) 1 and 2 only
3. It is required for the green plants for their (c) 2 and 3 only
survival.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
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Energy & Environment Important Species in India 275
19. Which of the following, considered a carcinogen, 23. Statement (I): Denuding of forest cover followed
is often secretively used by some for artificial by quarrying and/or terrace levelling may cause
fruit ripening? landslides.
(a) Calcium carbonate Statement (II): These activities aid in recharging
(b) Calcium carbide into the ground water storage locally.
(c) Sodium benzoate (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(d) Sodium sulfate individually true; and Statement (II) is the
20. The UN Conference on Environment and correct explanation of Statement (I)
Development, known as Rio Summit, led to the (b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
final development of which international treaty? individually true; but Statement (II) is NOT
(a) Kyoto Protocol the correct explanation of Statement (I)
(b) World Environment Treaty (c) Statement (I) is true; but Statement (II) is
false
(c) Environment Treaty of the G8 Nations
(d) Universal Environment Treaty (d) Statement (I) is false; but Statement (II) is
true
21. Consider the following statements regarding the
generation of biomass energy: 24. Statement (I): Greenhouse gases increase the
earth's surface temperature.
1. It is generated from organic material, plant
or animal waste Statement (II): Greenhouse gases help to retain
the incoming heat energy from the Sun.
2. It is easily available
3. Biomass boilers are less expensive than gas (a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
individually true; and Statement (II) is the
or oil boilers
correct explanation of Statement (I)
Which of the above statements are correct?
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
individually true; but Statement (II) is NOT
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 the correct explanation of Statement (I)
22. Which of the following items will be relevant to
(c) Statement (I) is true; but Statement (II) is
properly conduct the needful Environmental
false
Impact Assessment at a locality for any project
(d) Statement (I) is false; but Statement (II) is
coming up there?
true
1. The lay of the land, particularly large
depressions which may hold water of any ANSWER SHEET
source. 1. Ans. (a) 13. Ans. (b)
2. Prevailing or predominant wind directions 2. Ans. (b) 14. Ans. (d)
throughout the year in the locality. 3. Ans. (a) 15. Ans. (c)
3. Food habits of the local population 4. Ans. (d) 16. Ans. (c)
4. Whether sanitary fills for disposal of
5. Ans. (d) 17. Ans. (c)
Municipal wastes are in the neighbourhood.
6. Ans. (a) 18. Ans. (d)
5. Nearness to National Highways.
7. Ans. (a) 19. Ans. (b)
6. Availability of higher educational institutions
in the vicinity. 8. Ans. (d) 20. Ans. (a)
Select the correct answer using the codes given 9. Ans. (b) 21. Ans. (a)
below: 10. Ans. (d) 22. Ans. (c)
(a) 2, 3 and 6 (b) 1, 3 and 5 11. Ans. (b) 23. Ans. (c)
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 4 and 6 12. Ans. (b) 24. Ans. (a)
# 100-102 Ram Nagar, Bambala Puliya, Email: info@engineersacademy.org
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NOTES