Cells

The basic unit of structure and function in living organisms is the cell. Because cells are very
minute, they can only be seen under high magnification with the microscope.
While some organisms are very simple, containing a single cell (unicellular), there are some
organisms that are more complex (multi-cellular). In eukaryotes, cells often combine to make
tissue and tissues combine to form organs. These organs may then combine (work together) to
form systems.
There are 2 types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells are much simpler, and hence smaller than eukaryotic cells. They do not have an
organized nucleus or the organelles found in eukaryotic cells. Examples of prokaryotes are
bacteria.
Since eukaryotic cells are more complex, it means that they have an organized nucleus as well as
several organelles that are not found in prokaryotic cells. Examples of eukaryotes are plants,
animals, fungi and protists.
The diagram below shows the differences between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
 Cell Structures And Organelles
Cell Surface Membrane (plasma membrane)
All cells possess a cell membrane (both prokaryotic and eukaryotic). This is the outermost
structure of the cell which separates the cell from its environment. The cell membrane is a thin
partially permeable bilayer structure (2 layers) which has protein embedded within the
layers. The layers are made of lipids, especially phospholipids and function not only to
separate the cell from its outer environment but also filters the entrance and exit of molecules.
Cytoplasm
This is a semi-liquid material enclosed within the cell membrane. The cell cytoplasm, often
described as jelly-like, essentially acts as a form of support for the cell structures located within
the semi-liquid medium. About 70% of the cytoplasm is water. The entire content of the cell is
called protoplasm.
Nucleus
This is the largest cell organelle that is present in both the plant and animal cell however it is
absent in prokaryotic cells. The nucleus is composed mostly of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). This DNA is the genetic material of the cell and controls its structure and function. DNA
is organized into linear units called chromosomes. The functional parts of each chromosome are
called genes. It is through these genes that genetic material is passed during reproduction.
The nucleus is enclosed by an envelope of two membranes called nuclear membrane (similar
to the cell membrane). Though prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, they do have DNA. This
DNA is found freely in the cytoplasm of the cell, most times wrapped in a tight coil.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a very important organelle in the cell and is found in both animal
and plants cells. It is responsible for protein and lipid synthesis. There are 2 types of
endoplasmic reticulum: rough and smooth. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has
ribosomes present and is responsible for the synthesis of proteins. The smooth endoplasmic
reticulum does not have ribosomes present and is responsible for the synthesis of lipids. In
addition to protein synthesis the endoplasmic reticulum is also used to modify proteins.
The Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria)
The mitochondrion appears as dark spots when viewed under the microscope. The
mitochondrion is elongated and shaped like a sausage. It is referred to as the “power house of
the cell” because it provides energy in the form of ATP through the process of respiration. Cells
release energy from foods during respiration by way of the mitochondrion. This organelle is
present in all eukaryotic cells.
Chloroplast
These are large plastid structures containing chlorophyll. They have large internal surface areas
and conduct photosynthesis on their thylakoid membranes. The large surface area increases the
amount of photosynthesis taking place within a given area thus increasing efficiency. Starch
grains may be found within the chloroplast, which have been made as a result of photosynthesis.
Vacuoles
These are small sacs bounded by a single membrane called the vacuolar membrane. Vacuoles
contain cell sap, which is made up of variable amounts of water, mineral salts, sugars, pigments
and enzymes depending on the cell. Vacuoles are present in both the plant and animal cell, but
they are much smaller in the animal cell and are not permanent. The presence of a large vacuole
increases the osmotic pressure of the cell. It is the presence of a large vacuole in a plant cell that
causes it to become turgid (swollen). Plants need turgid cells to aid in support as it does
not have a bone structure.
Cell wall
This structure is only found in plant cells. This rigid cell structure gives the cell a regular
shape and prevents it from bursting when the plant cells become swollen. The cell
wall is made of cellulose, which is a polysaccharide. The cell wall encloses/ covers the cell
membrane and its contents (protoplasm). Due to its structural make up its primary function is to
provide protection and support to the cell.
There are many other organelles present in both the animal and plant cells which we have not
discussed. However, at this stage in your studies only these will really be asked for. It would not
hurt however to familiarize yourself with other organelles.
These include:
-Golgi body/apparatus
-Ribosomes
-Lysosome
 Difference Between Plant And Animal Cells
Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells. However, there are distinct differences between
the cells found in plants and those found in animals.
The differences between the two types of cells can be seen with a light microscope. Below is a list
of the major differences:
ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS
Does not have a cell Has a cell wall, regular in
wall, irregular in shape
shape
No chloroplast present Chloroplast present
Small temporary Large vacuoles located in
vacuoles or no vacuole the centre of the cell
Starch grains not Starch grains present
present
The nucleus is usually Due to the central location
located centrally of the vacuole, the nucleus
of the cell may be located
at the edge of the cell

TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL

Similarities between plant and animal cells:
-Both have a cell surface membrane that surrounds the cell.
-Both contain endoplasmic reticulum
-Both have cytoplasm
-Both contain ribosomes
-Both contain a nucleus
-Both contain mitochondria

Specialization Of Cells
In living organisms there are millions of cells present. If all the cells in a body were the same and
performed the same functions, there would be some functions that an organism would be unable
to perform. As a result, some of these cells are specialized and grouped together to form tissues
which may form organs. Since each of these tissues and organs perform a specific function, there
is a division of labour and increased efficiency.
Cells are able to perform different functions because of their structure, the proteins they produce
and the organelles present. Since different cells perform different functions a nerve cell, for
example, cannot have the same structure as a white blood cell. This specialization is the same for
the organelles within the cells. In the cell, each organelle has its own role involving its own
specialized structure and chemistry. All the cells and organelles within a cell do their own thing
but they all come together for one purpose and that’s to allow proper body function.
Specialized cells differ in size, shape and function. These modifications of the cell enable it to
perform its task properly. Both plant and animal cells may be specialized for different tasks.
Examples of Specialized cells are:
-Nerve cell
-White blood cell
-Red blood cell
-Fat cells
-Root hair cell
-Palisade cell

NERVE CELL
Cells that perform the same specific functions are grouped together in the body to form tissues.
Some of the main tissues in Man are:
-Muscle
-Nerve
-Connective
-Epithelium
The main tissues in plants are:
-Xylem
-Phloem
Tissues are grouped together to form organs.
Examples of organs in animals are: kidney, liver and stomach.
Examples of organs in plants are: stem, root, leaf.
Organs are then grouped together to form systems.
An example of a system is the excretory system which we will be examining shortly.
From the flow chart above, it can be seen that cells group together to form tissues and tissues
form organs. Organs are grouped together to form systems which collectively form an organism.