EMPIRICAL PHASE
- Person, mail or internet – most
2 STEPS
1. Collecting the Data
- where and when data will be
collected.
- what, who, where, when and how.
- describes participants
Important points to Remember
Researchers must:
- Maintain confidentiality
- Should be serious in keeping their
appointment.
- Participants should be informed time
and place their pressure are required.
- Enough materials are available to
complete the study.
Important Dimensions:
1. Structure
• Structured Method
- Limited opportunities to explain.
- Includes fixed set of question to be
answered.
• Unstructured Method
- No formal instrument
- “essay type”
- Very hard to analyze.
2. Quantifiability
- Subjective to analysis must be
gathered in such a way that data can
be quantified.
3. Researcher’s Obtrusiveness
- Obviousness of the researcher
4. Objectivity
- No feelings
- Evident when 2 independent
researchers arrive at similar
observations
- Checklist
Major types of Data Collecting Method:
A. Self – Reports
- Good deal of information can be
gathered by questioning people.
Ex.
1. Questionnaire
- Paper & Pencil test answered in writing
answers
conveniently clarify misunderstanding.
- Cover letter should accompany a
questionnaire.
Guidelines:
• Adequate margin & spacing
• Should be neat in appearance &
grammatically correct and no typing errors.
• Should be kept short as possible
• State questions in an affirmative
manner
• Avoid ambiguous questions (avoid
double (-) questions)
• Should contain neutral wording.
• Information on how to complete the
questionnaire must be clear & concise.
Types of Questions
a. Demographic questions
- Sex, age, educational background,
religion
b. Open-ended questions
- Essay-type
c. Close-ended questions
- True/false
- Must have no overlapping
- Should be complete choices
d. Contingency questions
- Follow-up questions
e. Filler questions
- Fill in the blank
- Purpose of the study would not be very
obvious.
Advantage
• Quick and inexpensive
• Easy to test its reliability and validity
• Adm. Is less time consuming than
interview
• Data can be obtained in a widespread
geographical area.
• Respondents can remain anonymous
Disadvantage
• Mailing will be costly.
• Response rate is low (needs
participants who are literate)
• May provide socially acceptable
• No opportunity to clarify items
• Must be literate.
• Must not be a representative of the
population
• May fail to answer items
2. Interview
- Face to face encounter or through
telephone call
- Oral exam
Categories:
a. Unstructured – not formal
b. Structured – set of questions
c. Semi-structured and promoting (ad lib)
questions.
Guidelines:
Before:
- Important to introduce yourself &
explain purpose of the study.
- How they are chosen & how info will be
used.
- How long interview will take.
During:
- Ensure comfortable atmosphere.
- Subjects should be in a comfortable
position (maintain personal distance).
- Undesired noises must be controlled.
- Should use language that is understood
by subjects & talk in conversational
tone.
- Should be informed that there are no
wrong right answers.
- Sensitive questions should be asked
last.
After:
- Ask for any questions.
- Common courtesy (must be thanked
for participation.
- Further explanations may be made.
- Respondents: how to obtain results.
Advantage:
- In depth questions are obtained.
- Response rate is high.
- Nonverbal & verbal manners can be
observed.
- Can be obtained in a wide range of
subjects.
- Data are usable.
Disadvantage:
- Training programs are needed.
- Time consuming & expensive.
- Arrangement may be difficult to make.
- May provide socially acceptable
responses (subjective)
- Subject may be (anxious) influenced by
interviewer’s characteristics.
- May misinterpret nonverbal behavior.
B. Observation Method
- Systematic collection.
- Uses senses.
a. Structured- checklist (guide)
b. Unstructured- don’t knew what will
happen next.
Phenomena Amenable
- Characteristic & condition of individual.
- Act & behavior.
- Skills attainment & performance.
- Verbal communication.
- Nonverbal communication.
- Environmental characteristics.
Categories
A. Non- Participant Observer- Overt
- Participants are aware with no
participation.
- Clearly identified as researcher.
B. Non- Participant Observer- Covert
- With consent
- One who doesn’t before the
beginning of data collection
identifies him to the subjects
who are being observed.
- Subject will not alter behavior.
- Non- ethical.
C. Participant Observer- Overt
- Becomes involved with subject
openly & with full awareness of
those people being observed.
D. Participant Observer- Covert
- Not Ethical
- Spy
- Interacts with subjects &
observes their behavior with
their knowledge.
Points to Remember:
- Training sessions will be necessary.
- Preferable to have more than 1
observer = reliability.
- Client’s welfare should take
precedence.
- Researches must determine how &
when observations will be made.
C. Biophysiologic Measures
- BP, stool, v/s.
- Physical data of subject.
- More objective & accurate than any
other data collection methods.
Types:
1. Vivo Measurements
- BP, stool, v/s
- Highly complex instruments system.
2. Vitro Measurements
- Blood tests, CBS.
- Take something from the body then to
the lab.
Advantage:
- Reliable, accurate, & precise.
- Objective
- Provides vital measures of targeted
variables
- Available equipment in hospital setting.
- Cost may be low.
Disadvantage:
- Presence of certain data
- May adversely influence the subjects.
- No interferences that may create
artifacts in measurements.
- Special expertise may be necessary to
use some of these devices.
Criteria for D/C Selection of Instruments:
1. Practicality of the instruments- cost &
appropriateness.
2. Reliability- consistent & stable
Types:
- Stability Reliability- consistency
over time.
-Similar results are obtained.
-Correlation coefficient is used.
- Equivalence Reliability- 2
instruments / observers with
same result.
- Concerns the degree to which
2 different forms of an
instruments obtain the same
result, 2 or more observers
using a single instrument
obtain the same exits.
- Internal Consistency Reliability-
all items measure the same
variable.
- Split half method can be used
to measure this.
3. Validity – degree to which an instrument
measure swhat is approved.
Types:
- Face validity- instrument shows
that its measuring what’s
supposed to be measured.
- Content validity- concerned
with the scope or range of
items used to measure the
variable.
- Criterion validity- not only
based on questions but to
other criteria.
- involved determining the
relationship between an
instrument and an external
criterion.
ATTITUDE SCALES
1. Likert Scales – agree, undecided,
disagree
2. Semantic Differential Scales
- Friendly, 7654321
- Indicate their position about some
concept along continuum between 2
adjectives.
- Rate a concept on a series of opposite
adjectives.
Visual Analogue Scale
- To measure subject exposure such as
pain, fatigue and dyspnea
- Straight line (100mm long)
2. Preparing the Data for Analysis
Preliminary Activities
- Examine questionnaire to determine if
they are usable
- Assign identification no. to the
responses or observations of different
subjects.
- Coding of data / Translation of data in
numeric forms
- Written document to compute files
- Transferring the data from written docs
into computer files for subsequent analysis.