PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE

Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

MODULE 6
Sub Module 6.2

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS –NON-FERROUS METALS

ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M6/01 Rev. 01
6.2 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

Contents

(a) CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS; .....................................................1
HEAT-TREATMENT OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS ..................3
(b) TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METALS .............................7

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Category - B2
CHARACTERISTICS, PROPEROERTIES AND
IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON NON-FERROUS AIRCRAFT
MATERIALS;
NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
A metal in which there is little or no iron is said to be non-
ferrous. The list of non-ferrous metals is quite impressive – and
their uses make very interesting reading, if it is intended to
follow a career in metallurgy – but, for the purposes of this
course, the topics must be confined to the more common non-
ferrous metals, their qualities and their uses in aerospace
engineering.
PURE METALS
Certain non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper and
lead, are used in the commercially ‘pure’ state for engineering
purposes – usually in the form of sheets, tubes, wires or as thin
coatings on other metals.
Cadmium, chromium, nickel, tin and zinc are also often used to
provide protective coatings on other metals in order to retard the
effects of corrosion.
Aluminium, copper, magnesium and titanium alloys are among
the more common non-ferrous metals that are used in aircraft
construction and repair.
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Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals
PURE ALUMINIUM
Pure aluminium is extracted from the mineral rock bauxite
(named after the town of Les Baux, in France, where it was first
found). It is a soft, weak, ductile and malleable metal.
Aluminium is approximately one third the weight of steel and
has approximately one third the stiffness of steel. While its
strength may be improved by cold working, it remains a low-
strength material. Aluminium is highly corrosion-resistant, due to
the rapid formation of a thin, but very dense oxide surface film,
which limits further corrosion and it is an excellent conductor of
electricity (and heat).
PURE COPPER
Copper with a conductivity (of electricity and heat) second only
to silver, and having the ability to be beaten, cast, drawn,
forged, pressed, rolled or spun into many different (and often
complicated) shapes, copper is a very versatile metal.
Despite a relative density of 8.96, copper’s ductility and
malleability allow it to be used in electrical systems (in bus bars,
bonding, electrical motors, wiring etc.), though neither copper,
nor its alloys, find much use as structural materials in the
construction of aircraft.
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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

PURE MAGNESIUM

Two thirds the weight of aluminium (with a relative density of

1.74), no metal can be cut, drilled, filed or shaped so easily as
magnesium – provided that certain precautions are taken to
prevent it over-heating.

Magnesium burns readily, especially in small particles and dust.

Great care must be taken when filing and grinding this metal
and, if a fire should occur, it must be extinguished with dry sand
or an appropriate powder extinguisher but WATER MUST NOT
BE USED.

PURE TITANIUM

Pure titanium at approximately 56% the weight of stainless steel

has almost the same strength as iron. It is highly resistance to
corrosion, non-magnetic and is readily shaped by all of the
methods, which relate to steel. Titanium is also soft and ductile.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Because pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for

aircraft construction and, to achieve medium/high-strength
properties, aluminium must be alloyed with other elements. The
most common alloying elements in the wrought aluminium
alloys are copper, manganese, magnesium and zinc. A
common element used when casting aluminium is silicon.

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HEAT-TREATMENT AND APPLICATION OF NON-
FERROUS MATERIALS
Heat-treatment is a series of operations involving the heating
and subsequent cooling of alloys in their solid state. Its purpose
is to make the metal harder, stronger and more resistant to
impact but it can also make the metal softer and more ductile for
working into a required shape (bending etc.). One treatment
cannot give all of these properties. Some treatments are
achieved at the expense of others when, for example, a
hardened material usually becomes more brittle.
The heating and cooling cycles occur in most treatments and it
is only the time and temperatures which differ. Aluminium alloys
have two main heat-treatments, which are referred to as
solution heat-treatment and precipitation heat-treatment.
The procedures for heat-treating aluminium alloys are critical if
correct properties are to be obtained.
SOLUTION TREATMENT
Solution treatment is sometimes called ‘re-crystallization H.T’.
This operation serves to distribute the copper uniformly
throughout the aluminium (i.e. to create a solid solution).
ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved
PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M6/01
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Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals
AGE-HARDENING
The gradual formation of the copper alumide ‘islands’ (also
referred to as ‘slip’), causes an increase in hardness and
strength and these properties reach maximum values after
several days (or weeks in some instances). Because of the time
lapse involved, this gradual hardening is termed ‘age-hardening’
ANNEALING
Annealing, as with steel, serves to soften the aluminium alloy, to
enable it to be worked without cracking. Even in this condition,
ageing will gradually occur and 24 hours is the normal limit for
working after annealing, although this can be extended if the
material is stored under refrigerated conditions to slow the
ageing process. A temperature of -5ºC will provide
approximately 2 days’ delay while one of -20ºC will provide
approximately 1 week’s delay in the age-hardening process
The maximum for refrigeration is approximately 150 hours at -
20°C.
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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

PRECIPITATION TREATMENT

Solution-treated aluminium alloys are comparatively soft,

immediately following quenching although, with time, the metal
gradually becomes harder and gains strength.

When the alloys are left at room temperature, after quenching,

the hardening process (natural ageing), and can take from
several hours to several weeks. An aluminium/copper alloy, for
example, is only at 90% strength within 30 minutes of quench,
but is at maximum strength after four or five days.

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Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

CAST ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
These are not used extensively on airframes mainly due to their
lack of strength, poor fatigue characteristics and lack of
elasticity when compared to the wrought aluminium alloys.
Magnesium alloys can also be solution heat-treated, which will
improve their tensile strength, ductility and resistance to shock.
To improve their hardness and yield strength they can also be
precipitation heat-treated after the solution heat- treatment.
COPPER ALLOYS

The lack of elasticity is particularly relevant, as the very nature Of those (Heavy) alloys that use copper as a base; brasses,
of an airframe structure requires the ability to flex considerably and various bronzes are the primary types used on aircraft.
without cracking.
Brasses may contain zinc and small amounts of aluminium,
Although their use is obviously limited on airframes, cast iron, lead and other elements such as manganese, nickel (and
aluminium alloys are used extensively on engines, where there even very small amounts of tin!). Depending on the percentage
content of zinc, brass can be made ductile (30%-35% Zn) or
is a need to produce complex cored shapes such as
strong (45% Zn).
crankcases, drive casings, cylinder heads etc. No other method
than casting would be viable for such items. The stresses can
be kept to a modest level on these parts by producing robust
castings of adequate stiffness.

MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Magnesium alloys are used for castings and, in their wrought

form, are available as sheet, bar, tubing and extrusions. They
are among the lightest metals having sufficient strength and
suitable working characteristics for use in aircraft structures.

There are some serious disadvantages to using magnesium

alloys in aircraft construction. These include a high susceptibility
to corrosion and cracking.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

TITANIUM ALLOYS

Titanium alloys, apart from being light and strong, also have
excellent corrosion resistance, particularly in a salt-laden
atmosphere. To prevent reaction with oxygen and nitrogen, in
its pure form, titanium is treated with chlorine gas and a
reducing agent, to produce a coating of titanium dioxide.

When suitably alloyed, titanium-based materials are heat-

treatable. The strengthening is immediate i.e. it is not an age-
hardening material.

Titanium alloys are used extensively in aerospace gas turbines,

but their use is limited on subsonic civil airframes to fasteners,
and high temperature areas such as engine bays, heat shields,
hot zone bulkheads, air ducts etc.

In appearances titanium is similar to 18/8 stainless steel.

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PTC/CM/B2 Basic/M6/01 Rev. 01
6.2 - 6 Nov 2017
 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

(b) TESTING OF NON-FERROUS METALS

HARDNESS TESTING

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

The Brinell hardness test gives the largest indentation of all the
hardness tests and is able to reflect the full feature of the
material being tested. The test is unaffected by the un-
evenness of the material and is hence an accurate test of
hardness.

Brinell hardness testing is used commonly in metallurgy,

forging, casting, un-tempered steel and in the non-ferrous
metals industry.

The typical test uses 10 millimeters (0.39 in) diameter steel ball
as an indenter with a 3,000 kgf (29 kN; 6,600 lbf) force.

For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder Fig. 01 Brinell hardness test
materials, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.

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 PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

The Vickers hardness test was developed in 1921 by Robert L.

Smith and George E. Sand land at Vickers Ltd as an alternative
to the Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials. The
Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests
since the required calculations are independent of the size of
the indenter, and the indenter can be used for all materials
(ferrous, non- ferrous) irrespective of hardness.

The basic principle, as with all common measures of hardness,

is to observe the questioned material's ability to resist plastic
deformation from a standard source.

The Vickers test can be used for all metals and has one of the
widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of hardness given
by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or
Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH).

The hardness number can be converted into units of Pascals,

but should not be confused with a pressure, which also has
units of Pascals. The hardness number is determined by the
load over the surface area of the indentation and not the area
normal to the force, and is therefore not a pressure.
Fig. 02 Vickers tester

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Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING

Rockwell hardness testing is suitable for measuring the

hardness of ferrous, non-ferrous and plastic materials.

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material

involves the application of a minor load followed by a major
load, and then noting the depth of penetration from a dial, on
which a harder material gives a higher number.

The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to

display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious
calculations involved in other hardness measurement
techniques.
Fig. 03 Rockwell Hardness Test
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece
should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.

Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular

surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A
correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex
surface is to be measured.

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TENSILE TESTING OF NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
Tensile testing is the most commonly used test to determine
mechanical properties of metals. Electromechanical testing
instruments are widely used throughout the metals industry for
evaluating important properties such as Tensile strength,
Young’s modulus of elasticity, yield strength, Poisson’s ratio,
elastic and plastic deformation, and strain hardening behavior.
The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s
dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the
specimen geometry and testing conditions.
Also many components such as springs, pipes, containers, etc.
rely on compression tests that provide data on force versus
deformation. The mechanical requirements for many metals are
typically specified as “tensile strength”, “yield point” and
“%elongation” in addition to other properties.
The strength of a material under tension has long been
regarded as one of the most important characteristics required
for design, production quality control and life prediction of
industrial plants. The uni-axial tensile test is the primary method
used for quality control and certification of virtually all metallic
materials produced by casting, rolling and forging processes.
ISO 9001 - 2008 Approved
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Module 6 – MATERIALS & HARDWARE
Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals
FATIGUE TESTING
Fatigue is the loss of strength and energy resulting from
physical work. Fatigue testing is the applying of continuous
loading to a test specimen in order to determine how it performs
under repeated vibration or strain conditions. The fatigue life of
the specimen is the number of cycles of fluctuating stress and
strain that a specimen can withstand before failure occurs.
The fatigue life will change for each specimen because it’s
dependent on the magnitude of the fluctuating stress, the
specimen geometry and testing conditions. Fatigue behavior is
classified into two domains, high cycle and low cycle fatigue.
High cycle fatigue is associated with low strain conditions and a
fatigue life greater than 104 to 105 cycles.
High cycle fatigue creates stress levels that are under the yield
strength of a given material. It results from vibrations or strain
from high cycles that can reach thousands of cycles per second,
at frequencies that can be induced by many sources. Low cycle
fatigue is associated with high vibration or strain conditions. Low
cycle fatigue failure generally occurs in a relatively small
number of fatigue cycles.
Endurance limit is the limit below which repeated stress does
not induce failure, theoretically, for an infinite number of cycles
of load.
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Category - B2 Sub Module 6.2 – Aircraft Materials – Non-Ferrous Metals

S-N CURVES

Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different

characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit
as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if
subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at
very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an
endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles
is quoted instead.

It follows that components made from such materials must be

designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service
at the appropriate time. The service fatigue lives of complete
airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this
philosophy.

An S-N Curve for an Aluminium Alloy

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