SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Comparative investigations in order to characterise
ultrafine particles in fumes in the case of welding and
allied processes
Discussions about the stipulation of limiting values for welding fumes in
the air and for the ultrafine particles (UFPs) they contain as well as recent
findings about the properties of particles in the Nano size range caused
the “Metal and Surface Treatment” expert committee in the employers’ li-
ability insurance association to have investigations conducted into the
type, quantity and parameters of these particles. These investigations may
be used for a subsequent assessment of the possibly pathogenic effect of
these particles. In particular, the objective was to obtain data material
comparable in this regard from currently used welding, cutting and sol-
dering/brazing processes and materials.
1 Introduction
The objective was the description and documentation
of the hazard potentials generated by welding,
soldering/brazing and cutting processes. For the preven-
tion of hazards to health during work with hazardous sub-
stances, the observation of limit values for these sub-
stances in the breathing air is necessary. For many working
processes, including welding and allied processes, these
limit values and their protection strategies are known.
These data are, however, rare or non-existent, if it comes
to the quantities of generated ultrafine particles (UFP)
generated in the welding fumes.
Therefore, the research goal was the comparative in-
vestigation of welding fume data during processes used
in practice. Besides a simultaneous registration of weld-
ing fume emission, type and quantity of A and E fractions
and their quantitative and chemical characterisation,
the physical characteristics of the UFP were to be inves-
tigated.
The welding process generates gaseous and partic-
ulate by-products. The physical properties of the welding
fume which may be relevant under toxicological aspects
comprise among others mobility diameter of the agglom-
erates, the number and geometrical diameter of the pri-
mary particles and their “biologically active“ surface. It
was intended to investigate into the probability of sub-
stantial differences in size distributions and particle mor-
phologies of different standard processes. The parame-
ters mass, surface, number and morphology are relevant
for the physical characterisation of the welding fumes.
The mass emissions during the welding processes are
relatively well investigated. No comprehensive state-
ments on mass size distribution, surface, number con-
centration, number size distribution and microscopic
morphology are, however, known. With knowledge on
the microscopic structure of the particles, the particle
surface may also be estimated. Thus, a rather complete
image of the UFP is achieved: number and size distribu-
tion of primary particles and agglomerates and an ap-
proximation of the surface.
2 Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2
THE AUTHORS
Dr. Gerhard Pohlmann studied Chemical Enginee-
ring and Chemistry and has been dealing with ae-
rosols for over 30 years. He works in the Aerosol
Technology Department at the Fraunhofer Institute
of Toxicology and Experimental Medicine (ITEM) in
Hanover/Germany and is responsible for the inha-
lation technology there.
Dipl.-Ing. Charly Holzinger is a former research
associate of the Welding and Joining Institute (ISF)
of RWTH Aachen University in Aachen/Germany.
Dr.-Ing. Vilia Elena Spiegel-Ciobanu is Chairman
of the Section “Hazardous Substances in Welding
and Allied Processes“ in the BG Expert Committee
“Metal and Surface Treatment“ (FAMO) of the Ger-
man Social Accident Insurance (DGUV), German So-
cial Accident Insurance Institution for the Wood-
working and Metalworking Industries (BGHM).
2 Objective
The gaseous and particulate by-products generated
during the welding process consist of a complex mixture
of metals and their chemical compounds, e.g. metal oxides
and other chemical substances from the vaporisation of
the base metal of the alloy, the welding consumable or
the welding flux and which may penetrate deeply into the
lung [1]. There is a variety of information on the mass-re-
lated chemical composition of welding fumes as a function
of welding process, parent metal and electrodes [2].
The potentially toxicologically relevant properties of
the welding fumes are, among others, mobility diameter
of the agglomerates, the number and diameter of the
primary particles and their “biologically active“ surface.
The surface is of particular importance insofar as it may
be assumed that – as is e.g. shown by the investigations
by Jenkins [3] – the inhaled welding fumes may again
decompose into their primary particles. The agglomerate
diameter of the UFPs is significant according to the Ger-
man MAK (“Maximale Arbeitsplatz-Konzentration“ i.e.
Maximum Workplace Concentration) definition in that
it determines the respirability of the particles and their
deposition tendency in the lung. (According to the MAK
definition, agglomerates with diffusion equivalent di-
ameters which significantly exceed 100 nm are also con-
sidered as UFPs, if their primary particles are smaller
than 100 nm). The other parameters mentioned influ-
ence the interaction between the particles and the lung
 medium and should thus rather be responsible for the
specific effects attributed to UFPs.
With regard to the parameters mentioned, random
investigations at chosen welding processes [4…8] and the
influence of operating parameters on these characteristics
are described in literature [9]. A systematic consideration
of the physical characteristics of the welding fumes like
number, surface, size distribution and morphology as a
function of the welding process was still missing before
conclusion of the work described in the present study.
The objective of the project was the investigation of the
basic differences in the particle size distribution and mor-
phology between the different standard processes. The
Welding and Joining Institute (ISF) of the RWTH Aachen
University in Aachen/Germany was to prepare a list of the
most frequently used practice-relevant processes. Beside
the process, the particle characteristics depend on operating
conditions under which welding is carried out [9]. As for
reasons of time and costs only one operating condition each
could be investigated due to the variety of processes con-
cerned, the ISF had to specify one typical operating condi-
tion for the measurements. In parallel to these activities,
the Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental
Medicine (ITEM) in Hanover/Germany prepared an outline
of results already known from other investigations with re-
gard to particle characteristics. After conclusion of that re-
search, the parameters for the particle measuring program
were specified in cooperation with the steering committee.
The parameters mass, surface, number and morphol-
ogy were specified as being relevant for the physical char-
acterisation of the welding fumes. As until now, no com-
prehensive statements on mass size distribution, surface,
number concentration, number size distribution and mi-
croscopic morphology are available, these parameters
were investigated in the framework of the present project
in order to be able to fill the gaps. If the microscopic struc-
ture of the particles is known, a statement on the particle
surface is also possible. Thus, a relatively complete picture
of the UFP is gained: number and size distribution of the
primary particles and agglomerates and an approximation
Fig. 1 • Test stand
for the measure-
Extraction gas flow
ments during gas
metal welding. Filter
Fume Box
Smoke
Thin sheet
Torch
Gas nozzle with
contact tube
Wire
Cooling water
Rotary table
Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2
of the geometric surface. The combination of a thermal
precipitator for collection and the modern high resolution
imaging process of the transmission electron microscopy
was used in order to investigate the suitability for the eval-
uation of UFP at the workplace.
In order to avoid the disadvantages of the collection
of dusts via common thermal precipitators described by
Rödelsperger et al [10] (“Charakterisierung von ultrafeinen
Partikeln für den Arbeitsschutz“ – BAuA-Bericht; BAuA
report: Characterisation of ultrafine particles for occupa-
tional safety and health) and at the same time the known
disadvantages of a collection on nuclear pore filters, the
Fraunhofer ITEM developed and constructed a special
thermal precipitator. Its main feature is a structure-con-
serving and representative precipitation.
3 Processes and materials investigated
A large variety of practice-relevant welding, cutting
and soldering processes were compared, which by expe-
rience are known to be high- or low-emission, respective-
ly. On the whole, the following processes were integrated
into the investigation for comparison:
• Manual metal arc welding with covered electrodes,
• Gas metal arc welding (GMA),
- Metal active gas welding (MAG),
- Metal inert gas welding (MIG),
• Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG),
• Resistance spot welding (random sampling),
• Resistance spot adhesive bonding (random sampling),
• Electron beam welding in atmosphere (NVEBW),
• Laser beam welding,
• Laser beam MIG welding,
• MIG soldering,
• Soldering and brazing,
• Thermal cutting processes,
• Plasma fusion welding,
• Thermal cutting,
• Laser beam cutting (random sampling).
The materials used were non-alloyed and low-alloy filler
metals, high-alloy filler metals, copper based alloys, alu-
minium and aluminium alloys. Shielding gases used were
mainly mixed gases containing carbon dioxide, argon, he-
lium and oxygen.
4 Test arrangement, execution and
characterisation of welding fume emission
For sampling and determination of emission rates and
chemical analysis, relevant equipment was provided at
the Welding and Joining Institute including a suitable
Fume Box in accordance with EN ISO 15011-1 [11]. Ade-
quate parameter windows were selected for each process.
The measuring devices of the Fraunhofer ITEM for the
determination of the ultrafine particles had to be adapted
to every joining or cutting task used. The measurements
were carried out by the ITEM.
Simultaneously, concentration determinations in the
welder’s breathing zone and chemical analyses of the
welding fumes were carried out. Fig. 1 shows the test
arrangement with the Fume Box for capture of the welding
3
SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Fig. 2 • Fume Box
for manual
metal arc welding.
Fig. 3 • Structure
of the thermo-
phoretic precipi-
tator
fumes generated by processes with consumable electrode,
in compliance with standards.
For the capture of welding fumes during manual metal
arc welding with covered electrodes, a Fume Box accord-
ing to SS 062801 (former Swedish Standard [12], Fig. 2)
was used. The test arrangement for MIG soldering is sim-
ilar to that for GMA welding.
In order to be able to extend the tests to other process-
es (laser beam welding, laser beam hybrid welding, laser
beam MIG welding, electron beam welding in atmos-
phere, resistance spot welding, thermal cutting), the de-
velopment of a mobile fume box was necessary. This Fume
Box, with integrated side channel compressor also had to
comply with the standard and ensure safe results.
4.1 Mass size distribution
The determination of the mass size distribution was
done with a low pressure Berner impactor. The size range
reaches from 0,03 to 16 µm.
4.2 Agglomerate number emission rates
The agglomerate number emission rates (N) were de-
termined from the number concentrations, measured with
a condensation particle counter (CPC) and the invariable
extraction volume flow (V) following the equation
(1).
4.3 Primary particle number emission rates
The sampling of the agglomerates must be careful
enough for the partly very filigree structure to be main-
4 Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2
tained for further investigations in the transmission elec-
tron microscope. For this reason, a thermophoretic pre-
cipitator has already been developed at the ITEM, Fig. 3,
the precipitation of which is structure-conserving and
representative on the basis of the inherent deposition
mechanism.
For the determination of the primary particle emission
rate (np), firstly the mean primary particle number per
agglomerate (np) for the different welding processes in-
vestigated has to be determined. Then, np can be deter-
mined via the agglomerate emission rate (N).
(2)
For the determination of the mean primary particle num-
ber, transmission electron micrographs (TEM, LEO
910/Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen/Germany) of the agglomer-
ates precipitated on the copper nets with the ther-
mophoretic precipitator are made.
For the determination of the primary particle number
and the geometrical extension of the primary particles in
the agglomerates, firstly an automatic process was looked
for. As there is no process meeting the requirements, an
own program for the manual counting of the particle was
developed. The evaluation program was developed in
MATLAB (software for the solution of mathematical prob-
lems and graphical representation of the results), which
enables manual counting of the primary particles of the
agglomerates and determination of their sizes on the
screen. The contours of the primary particles were marked
and the corresponding particle was measured. On the ba-
sis of the magnification of the TEM graph, the coordinates
and the diameter of the counted particle are recorded and
stored. The program enables the zooming of graph sec-
tions, the modification of the brightness and the use of
false-colour coded images for a better visualisation.
5 Explanation to the results
5.1 Mass emission and chemical composition
In welding processes without filler metals, emissions
are mainly generated by the parent metal. In the processes
using filler metals, the latter are reflected in the chemical
composition of the welding fumes. Here, the parent metals
only have little effect on the emission rate and the chem-
ical composition.
Dependency on the selected welding parameters can
also be observed: With increasing deposition rate, the
emission rate also increase; at the same time, the tests
showed an increase in emissions with higher welding
speeds. Therefore, it may be assumed that the emissions
are connected to the weld pool volume generated. In ad-
dition, a significant influence of the shielding gas is ob-
served.
5.2 Mass size distributions
As the dusts measured are subject to fast ageing (co-
agulation) due to high concentration, the values measured
are “snap-shots“ and thus only suitable for a direct com-
parison under the given conditions. A transfer to size dis-
 Table 1 • Summa-
ry of the research
results on ultra-
fine particles.
(MMAD Mass Me-
dian Aerodynamic
Diameter, GSD
Geometric Stan-
dard Deviation)

Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2 5

SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Table 1 continued
tributions at the workplace is not possible due to the dif-
ferent ageing conditions present.
5.3 Number size distributions
The statement made for mass size distributions applies
analogously for the dynamics of the measured size distri-
butions.
5.4 Agglomerate number emission rates
Similar to the size distributions, the basic number
concentrations are “snap-shots“ and may only be used
for a direct comparison of emissions measured for differ-
6 Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2
ent processes under equal conditions. Here, they shall
only be considered as intermediate result for the deter-
mination of the primary particle emission rate.
5.5 Mean primary particle number per agglomerate
Together with the agglomerate emission rate, the
mean primary particle number is used for the determi-
nation of the primary particle emission rate. Here as
well, the composition of the agglomerates depends on
ageing. A mean number of 60 TEM images were created
per welding process. As a function of the agglomerate
size, generally for more than 300 particles per agglom-
erate, it was necessary to create several images per ag- Table 2 • Pearson correlation matrix of the particle characteristics found for the
glomerate in order to reach the necessary resolution for investigated welding processes.
the measurement. Therefore, less than 60 agglomerates
per welding process were counted with increasing num-
ber of primary particles. For larger agglomerates, over-
lapping of the primary particles, sometimes in several
superposed layers, was found, which prevented the in-
dividual capture of all primary particles. All the above
factors lead to rather considerable faults in the determi-
nation of the mean number of primary particles per ag-
glomerate, which could actually reach an order of 50%
for large agglomerates. Nevertheless, significant differ-
ences between the different welding processes investi-
gated were observed.

5.6 Primary particle number emission rates

In contrast to the parameters mentioned in the sec-
tions above, the primary particle emission rates are not
subject to a modification due to ageing by coagulation
and may thus be transferred to other collection scenarios,
e.g. at the workplace. Due to the reasons listed in the sec-
tion above, the primary particle emissions rates are also
subject to faults, nevertheless, significant differences be-
tween the different processes investigated were observed.

6 Results
In Table 1 are presented the results of the research
work to the subject ultrafine particles arranged according
to the welding and cutting processes.

6.1 Welding fume and coagulation

During execution of the tests it became increasingly
obvious that the number concentrations present during
sampling are so high that the agglomerate number flows
and the mass and agglomerate distributions were mainly
coagulation-controlled.
The coagulation is one of the most important mecha-
nisms influencing the size distribution of aerosols. It leads
to the formation of larger units and thus to a displacement
of the size distribution.
6.2 Statistical considerations
In order to find possible common trends for the weld-
ing processes investigated with regard to different particle
characteristics, the Pearson correlation matrix presented
in Table 2 was calculated. For this purpose, the data of all
processes – except for resistance spot welding/adhesion
welding, as it became obvious during the evaluation that
this process has to be considered in a principally different
way – were taken into account. Significantly positive cor-
relations (N=42, p=0.05) were found for the combinations
high-lighted in gray.
As expected, the number of agglomerates measured
tends to increase with mass emission. Due to coagulation
processes, a strictly linear relation between agglomerate
number and mass emission cannot be expected. Instead,
the measured agglomerate emission rates depend on a
variety of process- and sampling-specific parameters be-
sides mass emission. As expected, a dependency of the
measured mobility diameter on the mass emission can Fig. 4 • Scatter
diagram for the
be observed as expected. In contrast, such an interrelation
group mean valu-
is not found for the aerodynamic diameter. As, except for
es of the measu-
the mass emission rate, the particle characteristics men-
rements. (Y gra-
tioned above are not subject to a conservation law, the dient of the line,
relations mentioned are only valid under the special sam- r correlation
pling conditions described in the report. The primary par- coefficient)
ticle emission rate is an explicit exception, since here, a
conservation law applies (see above). With a correlation
coefficient (r) of 0,41, the positive correlation in this case
is an indication that with increasing mass concentration,
e.g. at the work place, also increasing exposure with regard
to primary particle concentration has to be assumed as a
general rule.
As already mentioned before, only the mass emission
rate and the primary particle emission rate are subject to
a conservation law. Therefore, a detour via the primary
particle emission rate and the primary particle diameter
is necessary to find an answer to the question concerning
a connection between total particle surface and mass. Due
to significant scattering of the values, reliable statements
can only be achieved by means of statistical methods.
It can be seen that the majority of the processes in-
vestigated (Fig. 4, black points), which rather belong to
the conventional processes, is relatively densely concen-
trated around a line with the slope 2,3 × 1013 Pp/mg. Only
the following three listed processes differ significantly
from the others:

Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2 7

SPECIALIST ARTICLES
Fig. 5 • Scatter • Electron beam welding is still relatively near to the
diagram for sur- line mentioned above with 4 × 1013 Pp/mg.
face emission rate • Resistance spot welding/adhesive bonding is about
estimated from
2 orders of magnitude below with 4 × 1011 Pp/mg. This
the particle emis-
is probably mainly due to the fact that in this welding
sion rate and the
process besides the typical agglomerates from evap-
mean primary
particle diameter orated metals and metal oxides also other materials
as a function of are released, which rather form compact particles
the mass emission and therefore contribute significantly less to the small
rate (Y gradient of primary particles.
the line, r correla- • Laser welding processes, on the other hand, are near-
tion coefficient) ly one order of magnitude above the line with 1 ×
1014 Pp/mg. An increase of the primary particle size
with decreasing factor Pp/mg was not observed
(r2=0.01).
The information from the primary particle emission rates
and the mass emission rates can be used for an estimation
of the specific surface of the welding fumes. In the scatter
diagram in Fig. 5, the surface emission rates calculated
from the mean primary particle emission rates and the
mean primary particle diameters are presented as a func-
tion of the mass emission rate. The presented surface
emission rates are estimated under the assumption of ide-
ally ball-shaped primary particles with a diameter corre-
sponding to the primary particle median diameter.
The resulting particle surface multiplied by the primary
particle emission rate gives the surface emission rate. The
slope of the calculated line of best fit, where the same weld-
ing processes as in Fig. 4 are integrated, gives a mean spe-
cific surface of 58 m²/g. For each individual point, the spe-
cific surface may be determined by division of the surface
emission rate by the corresponding mass emission rate.
These values are given in Fig. 5 for the other points taking
account of the processes not yet captured. The average
value of the specific surface for all processes represented
in Fig. 5 is 307 m²/g. This corresponds to the specific sur-
face of a rust particle (density 5 g/cm) with a geometrical
diameter of 7 nm or a ball of the density 2 g/cm³ with a di-
ameter of 18 nm and is thus in a range which can be ex-
pected for primary particles in welding fume.
8 Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2
7 Discussion
Comprehensive statements on mass emissions, mass
and number size distributions and the microscopic mor-
phology expressed as primary particle emission rates for
a large variety of welding processes could be achieved.
As the mean primary particle diameter and the primary
particle emission rate were determined, an estimation of
the mean specific surface of the welding fumes could also
be derived. Due to strong scattering of the values, reliable
statements can only be achieved by means of statistical
methods. The mean value of the specific surface corre-
sponds to the primary particle diameters as determined
by means of the morphological examinations.
Coagulation is one of the most important mechanisms
effecting the size distribution of aerosols. It generally leads
to the formation of larger units and thus to a displacement
of the size distributions of the agglomerates. For high ini-
tial concentrations as in the tests carried out here, the dis-
placement of the mean particle size may be very signifi-
cant even for relatively short ageing times. Thus, the size
distributions of the agglomerates found in the tests are
mainly influenced by the ageing time of the dusts meas-
ured. Therefore, efforts were made to keep the ageing
times as equal as possible in all tests. Transferred to meas-
urements at the workplace this means that for the fre-
quently high concentrations during welding, the agglom-
erates continue to grow with ageing, if they stay in the air-
borne state as is the case at the workplace. The agglomer-
ate size distributions found at the workplace thus mainly
reflect the coagulation history, i.e. residence time and di-
lution of the welding fumes.
Despite the immense number of primary particles
measured (about 650,000 from about 60 TEM images per
sample), the method used for the determination of the pri-
mary particle number is subject to a rather considerable
uncertainty. Repetitions of the morphological tests were not
possible in the framework of this project due to the variety
of the processes examined. The uncertainty in the deter-
mined number of the primary particles per agglomerate is
on the one hand related to the fact that particularly for com-
pact agglomerated, overlapping of superposed primary par-
ticles may occur due to the 2-D-representation in the TEM.
On the other hand, a so-called sol-gel-transfer may occur
during the collection process for very high particle concen-
trations. This process leads to agglomerates with practically
endless extension and thus to artifacts in the determination
of the number of primary particles per agglomerate.
In spite of the difficulties mentioned, basic findings
could be derived from the measurements: Primary particle
and surface emission rates are principally correlated to
the mass emission rate (compare Table 1 and Fig. 4, mean
primary particle emission rate about 5 × 1013/mg). For
some welding processes, however (compare Fig. 4), this
correlation is only given with considerable deviation. As
expected, welding processes where besides metal and
metal oxide compounds other easily volatile substances
may be released, deviate significantly from this principle.
The mean specific surface for all processes examined
was found to be 307 m²/g. The range of this value corre-
sponds to the specific surface expected from the primary
particle diameters measured. Significant differences
were, however, found between the specific surfaces of
the welding fumes released during the different welding
processes. For conventional welding processes (Fig. 5
bottom left) the slope of the straight line results in a
mean value of 58 m²/g. The laser welding processes de-
viate upwards with 250 and 460 m²/g (laser hybrid weld-
ing). Electron beam welding is in between the two with
270 m²/g. For the reasons already mentioned, resistance
spot welding deviates downwards to a significant extent
with 0,4 m²/g.
The results show that the processes used are suitable
for the determination the specific surface of welding fumes
in situ. Due to the large variety of welding processes ex-
amined and the large number of the TEM images required
for each sample, multiple determinations for further val-
idation of the data were not possible in the framework of
this project. Therefore, additional tests limited to random
determination of primary particle and mass emission rates
and allow for multiple examinations were considered to
be useful. In parallel to these tests, measurement instru-
ments for aerosol surface measurements, which are mean-
while available on the market, should be carried out. If
the results were in accordance, already available and fu-
ture measurements could be used to easily enlarge the
data base related to the specific surface of welding fume.
Fig. 6 shows some examples of mass emission rates and
the chemical composition of welding fumes.
8. Summary
8.1 Mass emission rates
When comparing all process/material combinations,
the following is found:

Fig. 6 • mass
Rest
emission rates
Calcium and chemical
Potassium composition of
Sodium welding fumes:
Zinc a) Gas metal arc
Nickel welding,
Molybdenum b) Filler metals.
Manganese
Emission rate [mg/s]

Iron
Copper
Chrome VI
Chrome total
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10
e

e
pl

pl

pl

pl

pl

pl

pl

pl
m

m
Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Sa

Various GMA wire electrodes

Flux-cored wires
for overlay welding
Emission rate [mg/s]

MAG M High alloy MAG M

MAG C
MIG
brazing wires
Stick electrodes

d d
ye ye
d

Cu d
is

e
d

w- ed

w- ed

gh yed

ed

w- ed

ed

gh yed

gh yed
gh yed

nz
lo oye

lo oye
lo oye

lo oye

e
lo oye

ye

as

llo llo
oy

oy

oy

oy
oy

oy

ro
llo

llo
o

llo

llo

-B

a a
ll

all
all

al l

all

all

all

all
all

all

all

al l

-B

- -
-a

-a

-a
-a

-a

gh gh
h-
w-

w-

w-

w-

w-
w-

w-

Al
gh

hi hi
g
lo

lo

lo

lo

lo
hi

hi

hi

hi
hi

hi

Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2 9

SPECIALIST ARTICLES
• The highest mass emission rates are generated during
MIG welding of AlMg alloys (31,96 mg/s), during
electron beam welding under atmosphere 831,7
mg/s) and during MAG welding with filler wire with-
out shielding gas, with self-shielded flux-cored wire
(30,4 mg/s).
• From the total range of processes investigated, the
following are confirmed to be low-emission processes
with regard to mass emission rates: TIG welding for
all materials used with emission rates of 0,038 mg/s
at maximum, soldering and brazing with emission
rates of 1 mg/s at maximum, resistance spot weld-
ing/adhesive bonding with emission rates of 0,050
mg/s at maximum and thermal cutting on water bath
or with efficient extraction with emission rates of 0,66
mg/s at maximum.
8.2 Mean primary particle number per agglomerate
A very high mean primary particle number per ag-
glomerate (about 2,600) was measured for laser welding
without filler metal and for laser hybrid welding, although
not in all tests carried out. On the contrary, during laser
hybrid welding with AlSi12 and with zinc-plated parent
metal, a mean primary particle number per agglomerate
between 200 and 510 was found.
For MIG welding, the mean primary particle number
per agglomerate was between 500 and 750, although also
agglomerates from more than 1000 primary particles were
observed.
8.3 Agglomerate emission rates and primary particle
emission rates
Most of the processes investigated show comparable
tendencies in the values determined with respect to ag-
glomerate emission rates. The order of magnitude of
1012/sec is only exceptionally exceeded. Considered on a
group basis, the agglomerate emission rate is higher for
electron beam welding in atmosphere and MAG welding
and much lower for MIG and TIG welding. The primary
particle emission rates vary strongly both within and be-
tween process groups. Lower values were calculated for
soldering and TIG welding, relatively high values were
calculated for MAG, MIG, laser, MIG hybrid and electron
beam welding.
9 Conclusion
In contrast to other characteristics (mass size distribu-
tion, agglomerate number emission rates, mean primary
particle number per agglomerate), the primary particle
emission rates are not subject to modification due to ageing
and can thus be transferred to the workplace. For a given
volume concentration, the number concentration of the ag-
glomerates decreases with time, similarly, the mean ag-
glomerate diameter increases. For the sampling of welding
fumes this means that measuring results related to particle
characteristics of the agglomerates may only be compared
if sampling locations and times of sampling were identical.
10
The number median of the mobility distribution (nm)
strongly depends on time and increases with increasing
time. This shows that growing of the mean particle diam-
eter and modification of the number concentration may
be very distinctive even for relatively short ageing times,
especially for high concentrations. The size distributions
found in the tests are mainly influenced by the ageing
time of the fumes measured as far as mass and agglomer-
ate number are concerned and only secondarily depend
on the initial parameters.
For the majority of the processes investigated, the
mass emission rates generated are above 2 mg/s and even
reach 32 mg/s. Thus, these processes are high-emission
processes as defined in TRGS 528 and BGI 593 and should
only be used at the workplace with adequate ventilation
measures so that exceeding the limit values in the breath-
ing zone of the welding staff hazards due to exposure to
welding fume are avoided.
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Welding and Cutting 12 (2013) No. 2