Q1-b)Normal Stresses

Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area of unit strength. It is the force on a member
divided by area, which carries the force, formerly express in psi, now in N/mm2 or MPa.
where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm2. The maximum stress in tension
or
compression occurs over a section normal to the load.
Normal stress is either tensile stress or compressive stress. Members subject to pure tension (or tensile
force) is under tensile stress, while compression members (members subject to compressive force) are
under compressive stress.
Compressive force will tend to shorten the member. Tension force on the other hand will tend to
lengthen
the member.

Shear stresses
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and compressive
stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also
known as tangential stress.

T= V/A

where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area A being sheared

Tensile Stress
Tensile stress is the resistance of an object to a force tending to tear it apart. It is
calculated as the highest tension the object can endure without tearing, and is
measured in Newtons/sq.mm, but was initially denoted as tons/sq. in.
Stress is defined as the force per unit area of a material:
Stress = Force / Cross sectional area
and is a measurement of the strength of a material. Therefore, tensile stress refers to a
force that attempts to pull apart or stretch a material.
Many of the mechanical properties of a material can be determined from a tensile test.
In a tensile test, a sample is strained at a constant rate and the stress needed to
maintain this strain rate is measured. A tensile test can determine:

 Elastic modulus
 Ultimate tensile stress
 Fracture stress
 Modulus of toughness
  Modulus of resilience

Tensile stress
ss is also known as normal stress or tension.
Compressive strenght
Compressive stress is the stress on materials that leads to a smaller volume.
By compressive stressthe the material is under compression. Compressive stress to bars,
columns, etc. leads to shortening. One can increase the compressive
stress untilcompressive strength is reached.

Q2 (a) Define the terms shear force and bending moments.

(b)Indicate the shapes of bending moment diagram in case of
uniformly distributed
load on cantilever beam?
beam
Q3-(a) What do you mean by point of ‘contraflexture’ or ‘inflection’ ?
In a bending beam, a point is known as a point of contraflexure if it is a location at which no
bending occurs. It is also known as an inflection point. In a bending moment diagram, it is
the point at which the bending moment curve intersects with the zero line. ... Flexural
reinforcement may be reduced at this point.
Q b) PDF file name B1 is attached ….
Q 4a) Develop an expression for strain energy in a shaft subjected to torsion.
For solid shaft: let us suppose that a solid shaft is subjected to a torque which increase
gradually from zero to a value T. Let q represent the resultant angle of twist. Then, the
energy stores in the shaft is equal to work done in twisting i.e.,

Thus gives the total strain energy over the whole shaft, for which the shear stress is varying
from zero at the axis to t at the outside.
Umax = 1/2 (t2/G)
But, it is energy in case of direct shear. Though in case of torsion the shear stress vary from
zero to t at surface, so equation (1) should be followed for torsion of solid shaft.

(b) For a hollow shaft or radii r0 and ri

When a body will be loaded then there will be deformation in the body and due to this
deformation, energy will be stored in the body and that energy will be termed as strain
energy.

basic definition of the strain energy

Strain energy is basically defined as the internal energy stored in the body when body
will be subjected with a load within its elastic limit.

We must have to be ensuring that load applied over the body must be within its elastic
limit i.e. after removal of load; body must secure its original dimensions.

Strain energy stored in a body due to torsion

consider a solid circular shaft

We have following information

L = Length of solid circular shaft

D= Diameter of solid circular shaft

R= Radius of solid circular shaft

τ = Shear stress acting at outer surface of shaft i.e. at radius R

q = Shear stress acting at a distance r from shaft center

C = Modulus of rigidity

U = Strain energy stored in the shaft due to torsion

consider one elementary ring of thickness dr at a radius r or at a distance r from center

of shaft.

Area of elementary ring = 2П x r x dr

Volume of elementary ring = 2П x r x dr x L

think and write the equation for shear stress (q) at a distance r from the shaft center and
we will have following equation

q/r = τ/R

q = (r/R) x τ

recall our post based on strain energy stored in a body due to shear stress and we will
have following equation

Strain energy stored in the elementary ring = (1/2C) x (Shear stress) 2 x Volume

Ur = (1/2C) x r2/R2 x τ2 x 2П x r x dr x L

Ur = (1/2C) x r2/R2 x τ2 x 2П x r x dr x L

Total shear strain energy stored in the shaft will be determined by integrating the above
equation from 0 to R.

Where J is the polar moment of inertia and we can secure the detailed information
about the concept of polar moment of inertia by visiting the respective post i.e. Polar
moment of inertia for various sections.

Polar moment of inertia for solid circular shaft

J = (П/32) x D4

J = (П/32) x 16 R4

J = (П/2) x R4

use the above value of polar moment of inertia in equation of strain energy stored in the
shaft due to torsion and we will have following expression for strain energy stored in the
shaft due to torsion.
B) What do you mean by equivalent torque?

Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an object to rotate about an axis. Just as force is what

causes an object to accelerate in linear kinematics, torque is what causes an object to acquire angular

acceleration.

Torque is a vector quantity. The direction of the torque vector depends on the direction of the force on the

axis.

Anyone who has ever opened a door has an intuitive understanding of torque. When a person opens a

door, they push on the side of the door farthest from the hinges. Pushing on the side closest to the hinges

requires considerably more force. Although the work done is the same in both cases (the larger force

would be applied over a smaller distance) people generally prefer to apply less force, hence the usual

location of the door handle.

Torque can be either static or dynamic.

A static torque is one which does not produce an angular acceleration. Someone pushing on a closed door

is applying a static torque to the door because the door is not rotating about its hinges, despite the force

applied. Someone pedaling a bicycle at constant speed is also applying a static torque because they are not

accelerating.

The drive shaft in a racing car accelerating from the start line is carrying a dynamic torque because it

must be producing an angular acceleration of the wheels given that the car is accelerating along the track.

The terminology used when describing torque can be confusing. Engineers sometimes use the

term moment, or moment of force interchangeably with torque. The radius at which the force acts is

sometimes called the moment arm.

How is torque calculated?

The magnitude of the torque vector \tauτtau for a torque produced by a given force FFFis
\tau = F \cdot r \sin(\theta)τ=F⋅rsin(θ)tau, equals, F, dot, r, sine, left parenthesis, theta, right parenthesis

where rrr is the length of the moment arm and \thetaθtheta is the angle between the force vector and the

moment arm. In the case of the door shown in Figure 1, the force is at right angles (90^\circ∘degree) to

the moment arm, so the sine term becomes 1 and

\tau = F\cdot rτ=F⋅rtau, equals, F, dot, r.

The direction of the torque vector is found by convention using the right hand grip rule. If a hand is curled

around the axis of rotation with the fingers pointing in the direction of the force, then the torque vector

points in the direction of the thumb as shown in Figure 2.

How is torque measured?

The SI unit for torque is the Newton-meter.

In imperial units, the Foot-pound is often used. This is confusing because colloquially the pound is

sometimes used as a unit of mass and sometimes force. What is meant here is pound-force, the force due

to earth gravity on a one-pound object. The magnitude of these units is often similar as 1~\mathrm{Nm}

\simeq 1.74~ \mathrm{ft}\cdot\mathrm{lbs}1 Nm≃1.74 ft⋅lbs.

Measuring a static torque in a non-rotating system is usually quite easy, and done by measuring a force.

Given the length of the moment arm, the torque can be found directly. Measuring torque in a rotating

system is considerably more difficult. One method works by measuring strain within the metal of a drive

shaft which is transmitting torque and sending this information wirelessly.

Q 5-a) What is a strut ? How does it differ from a column?
Both column and a strut are compression members.

Strut- It is mostly used in roof trusses and steel bridges. The main purpose of strut is to
maintain the rigidity of the structure and to take compressive forces (axial). It is not
designed to take any gravity loads. A strut is mainly differentiated by its effective length.
(IS 456 - Clause 25.1.1)

if L eff/d or D is less than 3 it is a strut.

Column- it is the main structural member designed to take gravity loads (axial) ,
bending and shear. it fails in compression and buckling. These are designed to take
horizontal loads too( earthquake and wind). It is mainly differentiated by its effective
length. (IS 456 - Clause 25.1.1)

if L eff/d or D is more than 3 it is a column.

Qb) Define slenderness ratio of a column.

Though we assume compression member is axially loaded member, the eccentricity of
loads and moments hence produced exist perpetually. The behavior of the compression
member is influenced by the existing eccentricity and, that is the reason, short and
long columns are distinguished. Slenderness is the parameter that allows us to
differentiate these two behaviors of any column or compression member.

A short column is in which the ultimate load or ultimate capacity at a given

eccentricity is governed only by the strength of materials and dimensions of the cross-
section.

A long column is in which the ultimate capacity is influenced by slenderness, which

produces additional bending because of the transverse deformation or buckling.

The criteria to differentiate these two kinds behavior is slenderness ratio, written
as z=kL/r, where k is effective length constant, L is unsupported length, and r is the
radius of gyration.

When the value of z is smaller than a certain limit(for instance, 22 for an unbraced
column), specified by code or retrieved manually, the column is called short and when
it’s greater or equal, the column is slender.

As the two variables, k and L remain constant for a member of a particular cross-
section, the radius of gyration is the most important parameter to understand.

The radius of gyration, in structural mechanics, is a measure of the distribution of

materials in a cross-section. It indicates the resistance of the cross-section against
bending about an arbitrary axis. Think of it as a point where all the particles of a
particular cross-section are concentrated in such a manner that it produces moment
equal to the moment of resistance that the whole section offers. The farther the
materials are, the better the resistance.

Therefore, slenderness ratio is a parameter of a compression member, which gives us

information on whether the eccentricity of loads influence the behavior of the member
or not.