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GLOSSARY OF CONTINUUM TERMS

analyze own writing: the student is able to step back from the writing in order to view it
from a reader’s perspective, consider changes or improvements, and make decisions
about content, style, and effectiveness. This may lead to revising or editing the writing.

appropriate level: reading material that matches the reader’s abilities and interests. The
student should be able to read the text with 95 % accuracy and strong comprehension.
Teachers often refer to this as a “just right” book for a student to read independently.

author’s purpose: the author’s intent or reason for writing (to entertain, to persuade, to
inform, etc.).

basic punctuation: simple forms of punctuation, such as the period (.), question mark
(?), and exclamation mark (!) used to clarify meaning.

begins to: indicates the first steps students take as they perform an activity or task on
their own. Students still need help from an adult or peer. They may demonstrate a strategy
some of the time, but not yet consistently.

brainstorm: a free-flowing offering of ideas or suggestions, often used as a prewriting,

pre-reading, or problem-solving strategy.

challenging children’s literature (Fluent Stage): chapter books with more characters
and more challenging plots than medium level chapter books. Challenging children’s
literature includes mysteries (Nancy Drew books by Carolyn Keene) and nonfiction books
on topics of interest (Lightning by Seymour Simon, 1997). Novels also include survival
books (Hatchet by Gary Paulsen, 1987) and fantasy (James and the Giant Peach by
Roald Dahl, 1961).

chapter books: novels written with multiple chapters (see “beginning chapter books” and
“medium level chapter books”).

characters: participants in a story.

children’s literature: fiction, nonfiction, or poetry written for children (see “challenging
children’s literature” and “complex children’s literature”).

climax: high point or exciting part in the action of a story.

cohesive paragraph: a distinct section of text, usually indented, with a central idea and
logical sequence and structure.

complex children’s literature (Proficient and Connecting Stages): children’s novels

with several main characters who are often approaching adolescence. The texts include

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fully developed plots, frequently touching upon issues such as death, prejudice, poverty or
war. These texts often require an understanding of other time periods, unfamiliar locations,
or complex issues. Some examples include Island of the Blue Dolphins (Scott O’Dell,
1960), Bridge to Terabithia (Katherine Paterson, 1977), Sign of the Beaver (Elizabeth
George Speare, 1983), and Maniac Magee (Jerry Spinelli, 1990). Many students also
enjoy biographies, such as Diane Stanley’s biography, Leonardo Da Vinci (1996). Other
books address broad themes, such as good versus evil, truth, and human rights.
Examples of other complex literature include The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle
(Avi, 1990), A Wrinkle in Time (Madeleine L’Engle, 1962), and the Redwall fantasy series
by Brian Jacques.

complex punctuation: more sophisticated punctuation marks, such as commas (,),

colons (:), semicolons (;), and quotation marks (“ “) used to clarify meaning.

complex sentence structure: sentences varying in length with multiple clauses and more
sophisticated arrangement and punctuation.

context cues: the information available in surrounding words, illustrations, or sentences

that helps the reader or listener make meaning. Teachers sometimes prompt readers to
use context cues by asking, “Does that make sense?”

conventions: accepted practices in written language. As a writing trait, conventions

include punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar, and use of paragraphs.

conventional spelling: correct spelling.

cueing system: sources of information (phonics, grammar, context, word parts, and text
structure) that help readers construct meaning from print.

description: words used to evoke images in the reader’s mind.

dialogue: conversation between people or characters.

draft: writing ideas down in a rough, unpolished form.

early-reader books (see “simple early-reader books” and “harder early-reader books”).

easy chapter books (Expanding Stage): short books (60–100 pages) written in
chapter format. Easy chapter books usually contain page numbers, a table of contents,
and chapter numbers or titles. Nonfiction titles sometimes include a glossary. These books
have significantly less controlled vocabulary and a smaller font than I Can Read books.
Most books have only a few characters and a simple plot. Some easier examples include
Polk Street books (Patricia Reilly Giff) and The Magic Treehouse series (Mary Pope
Osborne). These books usually have illustrations every 2–6 pages. More challenging easy
chapter books are The Littles (John Peterson), and the Amber Brown (Paula Danziger)
series which may only have a few illustrations in each chapter and a smaller font.

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edit: to correct or proofread for meaning, mechanics, and conventions (e.g., spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation) in order to share or publish a piece of writing.

editing tools: resources used in the editing process (e.g., dictionaries, word lists, spell
checkers, or editing handbooks) to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar.

environmental print: print and symbols connected to daily living (e.g., signs, restaurant
menus, billboards, logos).

evaluate reading/writing: to examine students’ work in order to determine their strengths

as well as areas for growth. Reading and writing growth can also be examined by
comparing recent and earlier reading or writing samples. Students can self-evaluate by
stepping back to analyze their own work based on rubrics and criteria developed in class.

expand on others’ ideas: to build on another person’s comments by adding new

information or relevant insights.

fiction: imaginative writing often designed to delight or entertain.

finger-print-voice matching: when young readers point to each word as they read,
indicating that they have made the connection between spoken and written language.

genres: categories used to classify literature (e.g. mystery, biography, autobiography,

poetry, historical fiction, fantasy, realistic fiction, science fiction, and nonfiction).

grammar: the structure of how language works (see “syntax”). Readers use the grammar
of language to create meaning from written texts.

group reading: oral reading of a common text by several people, such as choral reading
or Readers Theatre.

guided literature discussions: conversations about books which are facilitated by a

teacher, older student, or other adult.

harder early-reader books (Later Beginning Stage): short books (20–75 pages) with
fairly simple vocabulary, large font, and illustrations on every page or two. They are often
marked on the cover as I Can Read books and may have sections that look like chapters
but are not specifically labeled as “Chapter One.” Some examples are the Frog and Toad
(Arnold Lobel), Henry and Mudge (Cynthia Rylant) and Little Bear (Else Minarik) series.

high frequency words: common words that appear often in written or spoken language
(e.g., “the,” “of,” and “because”).

ideas: as a writing trait, the ideas include the content of a piece of writing, the theme, and
the use of supporting details.

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illustrations: pictures, artwork, or photography used to enhance, clarify, or extend the text.

imagery: mental pictures evoked by a piece of descriptive writing or through the use of
similes or metaphors.

informational texts: functional data presented graphically or visually (e.g., want ads,
brochures, schedules, catalogs, manuals, consumer reports, applications, and forms).

invented spelling: see “phonetic spelling.”

irony: circumstances that are the opposite of what might normally be expected; an
incongruous situation (e.g., “The cobbler’s children have no shoes.”).

knowledge of word parts: an understanding of common roots, prefixes, and suffixes

(e.g., “un” usually means “not” and “ing” signifies an action verb).

lead: opening sentence of a paragraph or the beginning sentences of a longer piece of

writing.

letter cluster: a sequence of two or more consonants (e.g., -nn- in “funny”) or vowels (e.g.,
-ee in “bee”).

letter/sound cues: sometimes referred to as “phonics” or “phonetics.” The connection

between a written letter or letter combination (such as “sp”) and the spoken sound(s).

literature: fiction, nonfiction prose, and poetry.

literary devices: tools authors use to enhance the power of writing (e.g., simile, metaphor,
personification, foreshadowing, irony, and satire).

literature discussions: small group discussions about a book students read in common
(much like adult book clubs). During guided literature discussions, a teacher, older
student, or another adult may provide modeling and support.

literary elements: essential features of a piece of writing (e.g., setting, plot, characters,
mood, theme, and author’s purpose).

meaning cues (see “context cues”).

meaningful predictions: a reader’s logical guesses about what will happen next, based
on clues from the text and the reader’s background knowledge.

medium level chapter books (Bridging Stage): relatively long novels (75–200 pages)
with only a few illustrations. The books focus on everyday concerns of children growing up.
Well-known medium chapter books include the Ramona (Beverly Cleary), Encyclopedia
Brown (Donald Sobol), and The Boxcar Children (Gertrude Chandler Warner) series.

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More recent titles include popular series, such as Goosebumps (R. L. Stine), Baby-Sitter’s
Club (Ann Martin), Animorphs (K. A. Applegate), and The Time Warp Trio (Jon Scieszka).

metaphor: a literary device in which two different objects are compared by analogy (i.e.,
“The lake is a mirror.”).

miscues: “mistakes” or deviations from text when reading aloud.

multiple strategies for spelling: varied ways of figuring out words (e.g., “sounding out” a
word, drawing on knowledge of similar words, asking a friend, or using a dictionary)

nonfiction: prose other than fiction that is intended to inform, persuade, explain, or give
directions (e.g., biographies, autobiographies, letters, lists, reports on a topic, technical
manuals, and newspapers).

organization: as a writing trait, organization includes the internal structure and logical
sequence of a piece of writing appropriate to a specific genre. It includes the sequence of
ideas, transitions, and conclusion.

pattern books (Emerging and Developing Stages): picture books with predictable and
repetitive phrases, structure, and/or plot, such as Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You
See? (Bill Martin, Jr., 167), Just Like Daddy (Frank Ash, 1981), All By Myself (Mercer
Mayer, 1983), or Quick as a Cricket (Audrey Wood, 1990).

personification: a literary device in which inanimate objects are described with human-
like qualities (i.e., “The sun was smiling down on me.”).

persuasive writing: writing intended to convince, argue, or influence.

phoneme: minimal sound unit in speech made by a letter or combination of letters. For
example, “cat” [k/ã/t] and “ship” [sh/ /p] both have three phonemes. A phoneme is not the
same as a syllable or a letter.

phonemic awareness: an awareness of the sounds (phonemes) that make up words.

phonetic spelling: spelling a word as it sounds (love = luv). Primary students often use
phonetic spelling (sometimes called “temporary,” “invented,” or “creative” spelling) as they
begin to construct an understanding of written language.

phonic cues: the speech sounds represented by a letter or letter combination. Readers
use phonics cues to construct meaning from written texts. Teachers sometimes prompt
students to use phonics cues by asking, “Does that look right?”

picture cues: illustrations in a book which help the reader figure out the printed text. For
example, a picture of a cow might help the reader identify the word beneath an illustration.
This is a temporary support during the early stages of reading. For older readers, an

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illustration in a social studies text may provide clarification and support for a new concept
or term.

plot: the structure or sequence of events in a story, often including tension, a climax, and
resolution.

point of view: the vantage point or perspective from which the author presents the action
of the story. For instance, Nothing But the Truth (Avi, 1991) tells the same story from the
perspectives of multiple characters.

predict: using the text structure, title, content, illustrations, and background knowledge to
anticipate what might happen next.

prewrite: the initial writing stage of gathering ideas and information and planning writing.
Students may sketch, brainstorm, or use webs, outlines, or lists to generate and organize
ideas.

polished format: written material which has been carefully revised and edited to be
precise and error free, then published to share with others.

publish: to prepare written materials to be shared with an audience, such as in a bound

book or oral performance. This is the final stage in the writing process after the writer
revises and edits.

range of strategies for planning writing: see “prewrite”.

reading: the process of exploring, creating, and using meaning by interacting with written
language.

“reading between the lines”: the process of looking beyond the literal level of a text to
achieve deeper understanding, also known as “inferring.” Readers make inferences and
draw conclusions by using the information in the text, as well as their own experiences and
background knowledge.

reading materials and texts: a broader term than “books” which includes all reading
materials, including literature (fiction, magazines, nonfiction, and poetry) and informational
materials (manuals, guides, charts, newspapers, magazines, reference materials, and
letters), as well as material on the computer (Internet and websites).

reading strategies: the varied processes a reader uses to make meaning from written
language (e.g., context, grammar, word patterns, and letter sounds). Students also use
comprehension strategies by determining important information, using their background
knowledge, asking questions as they read, visualizing, drawing inferences, making
connections, and constantly checking for understanding.

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resources to increase vocabulary: reference materials such as a dictionary, word list,

or thesaurus.

resources to locate information: reference materials such as encyclopedias, the

Internet, articles, or nonfiction texts.

response to literature: the ways in which students react to texts and demonstrate
understanding and appreciation through oral discussions, writing, or the arts.

retell: a process in which the reader writes or orally describes what happened in a story
after reading or hearing the text read aloud. A retelling is more detailed than a summary.

revision: making content changes in a text in order to make the meaning clearer or the
writing more effective and powerful.

satire: the use of irony, ridicule, or sarcasm as a commentary on an event, person, or

situation.

scaffolding: in education, the gradual withdrawing of adult assistance and support as

students become able to accomplish a task more independently.

sentence fluency: as a writing trait, the sound and flow of sentences that contribute to
readability.

sentence structure cues: the intuitive knowledge about grammar that helps the reader
make meaning. Teachers sometimes prompt students to use sentence structure cues by
asking, “Does that sound right?”

setting: the location and time period of a story.

similes: a literary device in which two unlike things are compared, using words such as
“like” or “as” (e.g., “Her cheeks were as pink as roses.”).

simple early-reader books (Early Beginning Stage): short books (10–50 pages) with
simple vocabulary, large font, and illustrations on every page. Many students begin reading
Dr. Seuss books at this stage, such as The Cat in the Hat (1960) or Green Eggs and
Ham (1960). Some simple early readers contain rhyme (e.g., Jamberry by Bruce Degan,
1983) or repetition (e.g., I Was So Mad by Mercer Mayer, 1983) as support for beginning
readers.

simple words: easily decodable words with consistent consonant-vowel-consonant

patterns (e.g., “hot” or “cat”), simple sight words, Dolch words, or high frequency words
(e.g., “the” or “me”).

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six-trait writing: the characteristics of effective writing developed by the Northwest

Regional Educational Laboratory in Portland, Oregon. These traits include: ideas,
organization, word choice, sentence fluency, voice, and conventions.

sound-symbol relationship (see “letter/sound cues”).

strong verbs: specific and descriptive action words (e.g., “saunter” instead of “walk”).

style: the author’s choice of language, structure, and voice that makes the writing unique.

summarize: to state or write a brief statement about the essential ideas in a text.

syntax: the structure of sentences and word order and the grammar of English.

takes risks with writing: the writer is willing to explore new kinds of writing, techniques,
or content. For new writers, this may include the use of invented spelling.

text: written or printed language.

text features: parts, other than the body of a text, that designate special features (e.g., the
title, author, copyright information, and dedication).

text organizers: important features of texts that provide structure and help readers locate
information (e.g., page numbers, table of contents, captions, glossary, and index).

theme: the underlying or implicit meaning, concept, or message embedded in a story.

traits: see “six-trait writing”.

transitional sentences: sentences that link ideas or paragraphs together for fluidity and
coherence.

visual cues: visual information (the way a word looks) used in connection with
sound/symbol relationships and conventions of print (such as spacing and direction) to
determine correct spelling and word identification. Teachers often ask, “Does it look
right?” to help students focus on visual cues. Visual cues in a text may also include
illustrations.

voice: the distinctive tone or style of a particular writer. Voice reflects the particular
personality of the writer and often strikes an emotional chord in the reader.

web: a type of graphic organizer for planning or structuring writing. A web can also be
used for supporting comprehension of texts during or after reading.

with guidance: the student performs an activity or task with direction or support from a
teacher, another adult, or peer. Scaffolding (support) is gradually withdrawn, as the student
becomes more independent. Students at this level still need adult help most of the time.
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word choice: as a writing trait, the selection of precise and appropriate language and
vivid vocabulary.

word family: a group of words with the same root word (e.g., “mailing” and “mailman”) or
phonic base or rime (e.g., “m-at,” “f-at,” and “h-at”).

word structure cues: information available about word parts (prefixes, suffixes, root
words, and word chunks) that help readers understand new vocabulary.

writing: the process of exploring, creating, and expressing meaning through written
language.

writing process: the stages of writing (prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and
publishing). These stages are recursive, rather than linear. For example, the writer might
brainstorm and draft, step back and make changes, then write more.

young adult literature (Connecting and Independent Stages): novels that address
sophisticated and challenging issues and include complex characters who are often
approaching adulthood. The style includes more complicated literary techniques (such as
flashbacks, foreshadowing), as well as sophisticated language and vocabulary. These
books require significantly more background knowledge on the part of readers. Some
examples of young adult novels are Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry (Mildred Taylor, 1976),
The Devil’s Arithmetic (Jane Yolen, 1988), Shabanu (Suzanne Fisher Staples, 1989), and
The Golden Compass (Philip Pullman, 1995), as well as novels by Cynthia Voigt, Chris
Crutcher, and Walter Dean Myers.

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