II Manual Inglés Nivel II Unal Version 2017b

READING MANUAL LEVEL II
Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Palmira
UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA

SEDE PALMIRA
CENTRO DE IDIOMAS
READING HANDBOOK
ENGLISH II
2018
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CENTRO DE IDIOMAS
PROGRAMA DE APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS

CURSO: INGLÉS II
CÓDIGO: 1000045
PERÍODO ACADÉMICO: FEBRERO – JUNIO 2018
INTENSIDAD HORARIA: 4 HORAS SEMANALES
NUMERO DE CREDITOS: 3
I. JUSTIFICACIÓN Y DESCRIPCIÓN DEL CURSO
En el mundo moderno y globalizado el acceso a la información y el conocimiento sobre los últimos

avances científicos y tecnológicos le exige a todo profesional con buena formación el manejo del idioma
inglés como medio para mantenerse actualizado en los diferentes campos del conocimiento.
Considerando lo anterior, los cursos de inglés van dirigidos a estudiantes universitarios de diferentes
programas de estudio de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Los cursos procuran incentivar en ellos el
desarrollo de habilidades propias de la lengua inglesa y al mismo tiempo les permite cumplir con el
requisito de la lengua extranjera exigido por la universidad según la circular número 012 de 2013 de la
Vicerrectoría Académica y el acuerdo 102 de 2013 del Consejo Superior Universitario, el cual requiere
que los estudiantes de Pregrado acrediten el nivel B1 para demostrar suficiencia en Lengua Extranjera de
acuerdo con el Marco de Referencia Europeo para el aprendizaje, la enseñanza y la evaluación de las
Lenguas. La obtención de dicho nivel de suficiencia en lengua extranjera es una obligación y requisito de
grado de cada estudiante (leer acuerdo completo). Por lo tanto, la universidad Nacional de Colombia,
sede Palmira, ofrece 4 niveles de inglés que sirven como un medio para el desarrollo de competencias
que garantizan el crecimiento profesional del estudiante tal como lo propone el Ministerio de Educación
Nacional.
II. OBJETIVOS
Al finalizar el curso los estudiantes estarán en la capacidad de:

1. Profundizar en la comprensión lectora mediante el uso de textos de mayor complejidad de su área de
estudio.
2. Manejar expresiones propias de la lengua en un contexto más real.
3. Conocer y utilizar estructuras gramaticales y elementos de cohesión que le permitan dar respuesta a
preguntas de comprensión con un grado mayor de dificultad.
4. Ser capaces de hablar acerca de rutinas cotidianas, y experiencias pasadas.
5. Acercarse al manejo de las TIC para propiciar también el aprendizaje autónomo de la lengua.
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III. METODOLOGÍA
Dependiendo de las necesidades particulares de cada curso, el profesor implementará durante el

transcurso del semestre las estrategias metodológicas más adecuadas para maximizar no solo el
desarrollo de las cuatro habilidades sino también la profundización de competencias comunicativas. Todo
esto con fin de que los estudiantes mejoren en su proceso de aprendizaje de la lengua extranjera. En
este contexto, el profesor se convierte en un guía, promotor y facilitador. Además, para apoyar este
trabajo conjunto, se realizarán actividades como talleres, ejercicios prácticos, conversaciones cortas,
entre otras.
IV. RECURSOS DIDÁCTICOS
Multimedia e Internet, software, videos, fichas pedagógicas, impresos (textos, manuales, diccionarios,
revistas, documentos auténticos, etc.).
V. EVALUACIÓN
-Comprensión de textos y producción escrita:
Primer Parcial 15%
Examen Final 15%
Evaluación continua 25%
-Producción Oral 30%
Laboratorio de idiomas 15%
100%
Nota Final: Aprobó / No aprobó
Para garantizar el aprendizaje del idioma se recomienda el cumplimiento de todos los

requerimientos exigidos para este propósito; entre ellos, la asistencia a todas las clases, las
prácticas en el Centro de Recursos y las demás actividades programadas para tal fin.
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VI. CONTENIDOS ENGLISH LEVEL II
WEEK READING COMPREHENSION AND ORAL SKILLS

WRITING PRACTICE
1-2 General Review (cognates, contextual Future plans

references, verbal forms, grammatical
categories, reading strategies, derivation)
3-4 Cohesion and coherence: Talking about places,

Logical Markers reservations and vacations.
5-6 Relative Clauses Asking for suggestions and advices.
7-8 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives. Feeling hungry: Talking about invitations,
restaurants, and food.
9-10 Active and Passive Voice Choosing the best:
Similarities and differences (people, objects
and places)
Comparing things.
11-12 Graphs and Tables Likes and preferences.
13-14 Paragraph analysis How something is done (processes)

Topic Sentence and Supporting Ideas
15-16 Scientific News Sightseeing: Descriptions of towns, historical
descriptions, famous people.
VII. REFERENCIAS
· Murphy, R. (1990) Basic Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

· Wilson, Ken (2007) Smart Choice. Oxford. New York.
· Wilson, Ken (2007) First Choice. Oxford. New York.
Nota: La bibliografía queda abierta de acuerdo con las necesidades de cada curso, de los
estudiantes y de los docentes.
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GENERAL REVIEW
READING: SENSORY MARKETING AND BRANDING: THE

POWER OF THE SENSES
April 13, 2012
In this text we will discuss a topic that refers to the work carried out by marketers in order to
position a certain brand, maintain its validity on the market and enhance its value; i.e. branding.
But also, how it relates to a practice increasingly prolific in the world of marketing: the use of the
senses.
Commonly, branding is associated with every graphical stimulus that characterizes a specific
brand; that is, its logo, colors, images, icons, characters, etc., as well as the transmission of its
values through these. However, this is a quite limited appreciation of what the term represents.
Let's say that traditional marketing, as well as other related disciplines has been somewhat unfair
to reduce branding to a purely visual expression, being such a fundamental and important
variable to the success of a company, brand or organization.
It is common to have everyday work conversations with various professionals of the industry,
from graphic designers, advertisers, even other marketers, and relate to this issue as an
exclusively visual element, setting aside a whole range of possibilities to exploit the identity,
characteristics, values and virtues of a brand.
Fortunately, all is not lost. There are companies that exploit the advantages of branding to a
higher level, thus obtaining significant economic benefits, a solid market position and competitive
advantages over its competition.
As part of a strategy of differentiation and positioning, modern marketing begins to make use of
tools that would have never thought in the past, starts to break traditional schemes, and thinks
laterally in order to expand and solidify the mental territory each brand occupies in our brains as
consumers. One of such tools is known as sensory marketing, i.e. the exploitation of the senses
through stimuli designed to be directly related to a particular brand.
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It may sound too sophisticated and for many even perverse, however, that link product-consumer
through the description of the first and our sensitivity to receive and process information from the
environment in which we live makes it a natural process as always has been, only that it had
never properly being exploited as a marketing strategy or at the levels that is done in modern
times.
 Sight
Until today, the most important variable used by brands to generate recognition and develop an
identity in the market is the sense of sight. We can appreciate logos, corporate colors, characters
and other graphical tools with which one can identify a specific product. It's rare a person who
does not recognize the Apple logo, the golden arches of McDonald's, the white wave on the red
background of Coca-Cola, etc. The list goes on and on. These elements, so far, are the epicenter
of all business strategy in most corporations. However, this is changing. A study described in the
book "Buyology - Truth and lies about why we buy" (Lindstrom 2009) showed how brands like
Marlboro, suffering the brunt of the ban on advertising on many places of the world, decided to
invest in the atmosphere of bars and nightclubs with motifs of their brand identity: images of
horses and beautiful landscapes on the displays of such centers, mountain-shaped seats,
images of racing cars (Marlboro is known for its sponsorship of this important branch), among
others. This paid juicy profits resulting from the consumption of cigarettes- and this without
having to use their logo. The conclusion of this study was that at the end of the day, the use of
the logo is not so important (at least for some brands), provided that the product is adequately
positioned and associated to other variables with easier access to our brain, given that as
people, when watching such advertising information we tend to have an automatic rejection of
the stimulus.
 Sound
Perhaps the second most used variable by marketing and advertising is the sense of hearing.
Corporations realize that visual objects are not sufficient to influence the consumer purchase
decisions and decide to provide new features to their products and brands. Certainly we all
recognize the famous Nokia tune, the specific Intel notes at the end of each commercial, the
Iusacel ringtone of an incoming call, not to mention a few jingles. As well, separately from the
previous examples there are others less obvious but equally or more transcendent as is the case
of the "click" of Zipo lighters; Messenger alert sounds, even the sound coming out of the doors of
many car brands such as GM or Chrysler is designed to be unique and generate
acknowledgement in our mind. Finally, many of the sounds derived from the use of certain
particular product begin to be taken advantage of overused to contribute to a consumption
experience and therefore an enhanced recall and consumer association.
 Touch
Perhaps some readers may have this extraordinary ability to change the TV channel and do
something even more sophisticated without ever seeing the remote control, or, as in the case of
many teens that are able to send text messages on their cell phones hidden under the palette in
their seat while attending math class. This shows how we develop a physical memory and
include certain products in our daily activities. Textured book covers, labels and some printed
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shirts, forms that are better adapted to our hands in bottles of mayonnaise, sauces, beverages;
plush, furry fabrics pleasant to the touch, not to mention the mobile devices and sensitive touch
screen tablets so common today. No doubt brands recognize our singular sensitivity and natural
tendency to feel our environment as a means of interaction and involvement with it.
 Taste
Nothing like a nice and very distinctive flavor. Variable overused (for obvious reasons) especially
for food and beverage brands. Secret formulas jealously treasured, “x” ingredients, grandma's
recipe, exotic ingredients, a whole mystique developed around our favorite food or drink. On the
other hand, there are medicines with a pleasant taste for children, and bubble gum flavored
toothpaste. However, the involvement of the sense of taste in business strategies has come out
of their habitat to start their “baby steps” in unexpected areas: pencils and other office supplies
(for those who like to bite incessantly), as well as toys and clothing with flavor for toddlers.
 Smell
The human nose can distinguish over 10,000 different odors, besides being the most sensitive of
the senses; it has a tremendous evocative power of memories and experiences over the years. I
still remember as if it was yesterday the smell of my Bubble Gummers (bubble gum scented
tennis), the shopping mall I used to visit every Sunday with my family and the characteristic smell
of the food court, which I still visit from time to time just for the memories it evokes; my first day at
school with the smell of Play-Doh and crayons, not to mention the fragrances that remind us of
some person, place or thing. You will agree that like it or not, a myriad of brands have been with
us throughout life, which from the cold, commercial standpoint of business quite functional.
Not everything applies to all products, but certainly it's worth experimenting a little and making
sure what we are doing for our brand. To find out if it's being seen, felt - to find out if it is actually
present.
READING: ORGANIC: IS IT THE FUTURE OF FARMING?

Colin Macilwain
In its pure form, maybe not. But elements of the organic philosophy are starting to be
deployed in mainstream agriculture. Nature's reporters analyse this trend, assess the
extent of organic farming worldwide, and frame the questions on which its wider adoption
will depend.
If your politics are green, you like your medicine 'holistic' and you're deeply worried by economic
globalization, the chances are your fridge is full of organic produce. Today, support for organic
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farming is frequently part of a bigger social and political mindset — one that holds that 'natural' is
best, and that naked capitalism is a threat to the health of the planet and its people.
But the origins of organic agriculture, in 1940s Britain, are more down-to-earth. Its pioneers were
concerned, above all else, about the soil beneath their feet. Their philosophy was centred on
practices designed to improve the richness and stability of the soil by restoring its organic matter
and avoiding synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Wider concerns about biodiversity,
social justice and animal welfare have grown from this core concept about how to manage our
farmland's key resource.
These ideals have always set the organic movement squarely against intensive farming and
chemical-based agribusiness. And, at least in public and in the media, those arguments rage
more fiercely today than ever before. Yet behind the harsh rhetoric, a little-noticed convergence
of views is taking place. For decades, the study of organic farming sat on the fringes of the green
revolution in agriculture, as intensive techniques marched across the world, sending yields
skyrocketing. But mainstream agronomists are becoming concerned about the long-term
sustainability of this approach, and are focusing increasingly on soil integrity. Could it be that
both sides of agriculture's great divide now want the same thing?
"It's been a huge move," says Mark Alley, an agronomist at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg. "Twenty-
five years ago, yield was everything. But in the past ten years, there's been a major recognition of
the need to maintain organic materials in soil." And with the turn of the millennium, farmers have
started to embrace approaches that keep soil structure intact and cut the high level of inputs —
energy, fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides — that characterize intensive agriculture.
 Going green ... again

These new methods diverge significantly from the purist organic vision. In particular, they rely
heavily on 'low tillage' methods, which help to improve the soil but depend partly on the use of
herbicides, fertilizers and pesticides. Those remain anathema to the organic movement. But the
change that is taking place — sometimes referred to as the second green, or doubly green,
revolution — stems from a growing acceptance of the organic critique of the first one.
Mainstream agronomists now acknowledge, for example, that intensive farming reduces
biodiversity, encourages irreversible soil erosion and generates run-off that is awash with harmful
chemicals — including nitrates from fertilizers that can devastate aquatic ecosystems.
For the organic movement, caring for the soil involves interspersing each harvest with a cover
crop such as clover or rye that can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Cover crops keep down
weeds, retain moisture and prevent erosion. Ploughing them into the soil at the end of the season
restores the soil's organic content, and boosts its nitrogen content without the need to use
synthetic fertilizer.
The low-till approach borrows heavily from these principles. Low-till farmers ensure that their soil
is not left open to erosion by growing nitrogen fixers between rows of their cash crops and
between seasons. But low-till farmers don't completely unhitch their wagon from conventional
inputs. They still use nitrate fertilizers and pesticides as needed. Before each planting, they kill
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the previous crop with a broad-spectrum herbicide such as Roundup, made by Monsanto of St
Louis, Missouri. This lets them punch the new seed directly into the ground through the decaying
plants without tilling.
 Till life
Low-till agriculture is taking root in both rich and poor countries. Pat Wall, head of conservation
agriculture at CIMMYT, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in Mexico,
estimates that about 70 million hectares of arable land — something like 2% of the global total —
is now using the method, with about a third of that in the United States.
Brazil has been in the vanguard of the change in the south, says Cheryl Palm, an ecologist
specializing in tropical agriculture at Columbia University in New York. "It's swept through the
country, and cut down soil erosion dramatically," she says.
Although many of the farms that are converting to low-till agriculture are large-scale operations,
the approach is also rapidly gaining acceptance on smallholdings in places such as Ghana and
India. On the Indian subcontinent, the area where low-till is being implemented has grown from
nothing in 1997, through 100,000 hectares in 2001, to one million hectares this year.
Besides conserving soil structure, low tillage also reduces energy inputs. Farms in India that
grow rice in the summer and wheat in the winter have cut their number of annual tilling
operations from eight to one, Wall reports, reducing fuel use by 70%. "When I was there, the only
people complaining about the change were the petrol station owners," he says.
Low-till farming also substantially reduces the need for chemical fertilizers. Cover crops provide
some nitrogen initially, and then, as organic matter builds up in the soil, nitrates and other
nutrients are less readily leached out of it, further decreasing the requirement for added fertilizer.
But for organic purists, any approach to maintaining soil integrity that incorporates regular
sprayings with Roundup and continued applications of nitrates is heresy. Peter Melchett, policy
director of Britain's Soil Association, the world's oldest organic farming organization, scorns low-
till approaches. "They tend to be something you can do for two or three years until you get grass
weeds that aren't well-controlled by Roundup," he says. "Then you have to resort to ploughing."
Wall disagrees. He argues that the need for herbicide applications tails off after the first few years
of low-tillage, as weed seeds disappear from the top layer of soil. "I think it is possible to get to no
tillage and almost no herbicides," he says.
Such disputes might be resolved more readily if there was an abundance of data comparing pure
organic methods with the low-till approach to soil conservation. "But there aren't a lot of long-term
studies," says Mark David, a biogeochemist at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. "It
isn't a simple comparison to make."
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 Chemical cuts
Some of the other ideas being borrowed from the organic movement — in particular a reduction
in pesticide inputs — are resulting in a closer meeting of minds. For instance, farmers have been
forced to discard methyl bromide, the main soil fumigant that has been used to kill soil pests, as it
will be phased out by 2005 under the Montreal Protocol to close the ozone hole. This has led
farmers to experiment not only with other fumigants but with organic methods of killing insect
larvae as well, including flooding fields between plantings and allowing the Sun to bake the soil
through clear plastic sheeting.
Farmers are also bowing to consumer pressure. "People don't want pesticides in their food," says
Diana Wall, director of the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory at Colorado State University in
Fort Collins. US orchards, for instance, have largely adopted organic methods for controlling the
codling moth (Cydia pomonella), the larvae of which bore into ripening fruit and can destroy 80%
of an apple crop without control.
In this case, concerns about pesticide residues on apples and pears led to legal restrictions on
the use of organophosphates, the most effective class of pesticides, under the 1996 Food Quality
Protection Act. Organic control of the codling moth disrupts mating by releasing sterile males and
spraying female sex pheromones to confuse the rest.
The doubly green revolution doesn't necessarily embrace the broader aspects of organic
ideology, such as social justice and animal welfare. But if the organic movement wants to change
the world, it is making a reasonable start.
LOGICAL MARKERS
In written academic English we need to be able to show connections between various sized
pieces of text - between whole stages of text, between paragraphs, between sentences, between
clauses in a sentence and within clauses.
One of the most important skills you need to control in academic writing is the ability to construct
an argument. The argument begins at clause level when you join two or more clauses together in
a logical relationship. One way that you can choose to show these logical relationships is through
conjunctions. The next section is a review of the five types of logical connections:
Logical markers can be classified into five main types:

1. Adding Information - this is called addition. In this type of relationship we are simply showing
that we are adding more information.
Example:
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 The research has been criticised for three reasons. It did not use a large enough sample
and the results were contradictory. Moreover, it was alleged that the statistical analysis
was faulty.
We can also put 'or' type relationships in this category. Here, rather than simply adding
information, we are offering alternatives.
Example:
 Such a policy could stimulate the economy or it could plunge it deeper into recession.
2. Comparison and Contrast - here we are saying that things are similar or different in some way.
Example:
 Whereas pain and discomfort usually lead to avoidance behaviour, hunger and thirst
usually lead a person to seek food and drink. Anorexic patients, however, do not respond
to hunger in the normal way.
We can also add relationships of concession to this category.
Example:
 Even though the government introduced policies to stimulate the economy the recession
worsened.
3. Exemplification and Restatement - here we either give an example or say what we have
already said in different words.
Example:
 Modern literature in most countries has abandoned the focus on unique, individual
psychological struggles, preferring a contemporary focus on social issues. In other
words contemporary literature has found a critical voice. For example, novels from
Africa depict ordinary people struggling against adversity.
4. Cause and Condition - These are relationships of cause and effect which show the conditions
under which something happens.
Example:
 Because of wind and water erosion Australia loses millions of tonnes of topsoil each
year. If something is not done about this situation, soon we will not have enough soil
left to feed ourselves.
5. Time and Place - these relationships locate and sequence events in time and locate them
in space.
Example:
 There are several arguments in favour of Australia having a Bill of Rights. First, there is
the fact that individual states may at present break the international agreement on human
rights which the federal Government has signed. Then there is the question of.....
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PRACTICE:
A. Select the appropriate linking word and fill in the blanks:
1. You should not travel alone during nights_______________ because / therefore there are
many robbers around.
2. Indian culture is exemplary; _______________ whereas / similarly Indians are honest and
industrious people.
3. We sat there chatting happily, _______________ while / meanwhile the youngsters

danced.
4. I should _______________ first/ now get a job; and then, I can think of marriage.
5. I first saw Ameer Khan in Kaho na Pyaar Hai; _______________ after that / before that I did
not miss any of his films.
6. I love spending my time chatting on the net _______________ unlike / whereas my brother
hates it.
7. He met with an accident in which his leg was injured. _______________ yet / however he
drives very fast.
8. The government has given them scholarships to study. _______________ further / also it
has promised them suitable employment.
9. Fortunately, we have a good teacher. She makes learning very interesting and easy for us.
She gives us tasks to solve. She loves us and takes good care of us. _______________ in brief
/thus, she is like a god mother to us.
10. First, read the whole paragraph carefully. Secondly, read it for the details and then read the
questions on the paragraph, later skim through the paragraph for needed information; and
_______________ eventually / finally, answer the questions.
B. Read this essay and fill in the blanks with the words below:
On the other hand First at all Another advantage

And finally Although In the end
In addition While On the other hand
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SHOULD CRYONICS BECOME AN ALTERNATIVE TO DEATH?
With new advances in science, cryonics has now become a business. Many people believe it is a
way to extend their lives, _________________ (a) others feels it is a way to live their lives to the
fullest. _____________________ (b), many people feel we should not take life into our own
hands. They say we should use cryonics for more important aspects of life. Which side is
correct?
_______________________ (c) let us consider the arguments in favor of cryonics. If people who
have incurable diseases could be put to sleep before their diseases affect them and be brought
back when a cure is found, their lives would be longer and happier.
_________________ (d) is that cryonics would allow us to preserve some of our stronger,
healthier, and more intelligent people, so that we could progress in all areas of life.
_________________ (e) to this, it is said, cryonics would help people live a life with a type of
body they could choose.
________________ (f), cryonics is very unnatural. Even though people could have a disease
cured, they may find themselves in strange surroundings, in an environment they are not used to.
They would find it difficult to adjust to a new time. A popular movie called Born Again suggested
this problem.
People who support cryonics think it would help to keep the most important people alive. But who
would choose the most important people?
________________ (g), and perhaps most important of all, is the fact that the world would
become overcrowded if no one died. We already have many problems with overcrowding. What
about the babies being born? The natural balance would be completely destroyed.
______________ (h), though the idea of cryonics sounds appealing, I believe it is much better to
follow the natural order of life. _______________ (i) we are all afraid of death, I am not
convinced that a prolonged, period of sleep will help us any better when the final moment really
does come.
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READING: AGROECOLOGY AND THE DISAPPEARING YIELD GAP
Eric Holt-Giménez | 12.10.2014

The more scientists actually study agroecology, the better it looks.
The largest meta-analysis to date comparing yields of organic and conventional agriculture
concluded that the “yield gap” between the two is much smaller than previously assumed and for
some crops, doesn’t exist at all.
In a new study published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London entitled
Diversification Practices Reduce Organic to Conventional Yield Gap, researchers from the
University of California, Berkeley found that when organic farms employ agroecological practices
like inter-cropping and crop rotations, the organic-conventional yield gap all but disappears. For
legumes, there is no yield difference. The study used three times the number of farms and a
more discerning, fine-grained statistical procedure than a previous study published in Nature by
Seufert, Ramankutty and Foley in 2012 that due to a statistical bias erroneously concluded
organic yielded 25% less than conventional agriculture.
Great! But after the celebrating among organic farming enthusiasts is over, what are we to make
of this?
First of all, agroecology—the science of sustainable agriculture—must be taken seriously by
policy makers, land grant universities, the National Science Foundation and big philanthropy, all
of whom have preferred to invest in high-input, industrial agriculture for the past fifty years. This
bias is deeply engrained in our scientific and political institutions; Nature refused even to look at
the new study that called the results of the 2012 research into question… Less than 2% of the
USDA’s research budget currently goes to organic systems. In places where there is significant
research money spent on organics (e.g., University of Washington in wheat,) or on agroecology
(e.g. Cuba) the highly touted “yield gap” disappears. Agroecology will not only get the yields we
need without chemical inputs, genetically engineered seeds and expensive precision farming, it
will bring us resiliency.
Agroecologically-managed farms in all of their rich biodiversity are usually organic or become
organic over time. Their diversity of crops, rotations, agroforestry and mixed livestock-cultivar-
forest landscapes builds environmental resilience into the farm system. This has been shown to
be essential for confronting the extreme weather events associated with global warming, like
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drought, flood, heat waves and freezes, all of which can wreak havoc with a crop within a single
season. Unlike genetically engineered crops (GMOs) that attempt to build resilience into the
genomes of specific cultivars one trait at a time, agroecology strengthens the resilience of the
entire agroecosystem. Not all organic farms are agroecological, of course. Some are vast
industrial monocultures that are as climate-vulnerable as their conventional counterparts. What
this new study shows is that agroecology—not organic agriculture per se—is the key to
sustainability without sacrificing yields.
Refreshingly, the authors of this research recognize that simply increasing yields will not end
hunger in a world that already produces 1 ½ times more than enough food for everyone. They
also recognize that the way this food is produced makes a difference.
What the study does not address, is that who is producing the food also makes a difference. The
real inventors and tireless practitioners of agroecological methods—innovative smallholder
farmers like those in the Campesino a Campesino Movement (farmer to farmer)—need to be
recognized and supported in their contribution to productive, sustainable food systems.
In fact, the key to ending global hunger is not to produce food for hungry people (who aren’t able
to afford it), but to allow people to feed themselves. Globally, the world’s smallholders produce
70% of the world’s food on 25% of the land. Tragically, because they don’t have enough land (or
market power), they are also among the world’s poorest people and so make up 70% of the
world’s hungry. We don’t need to produce more food to end world hunger. We need to create an
equitable food system for the people who actually produce the world’s food. Smallholders need
more land, access to water, and basic infrastructure, education and health services—not GMOs,
precision agriculture or global markets. They also need more agroecology and are especially
suited to this practice.
Many thanks to the authors of Diversification Practices Reduce Organic to Conventional Yield
Gap for revealing the importance of agroecology. Now let’s support the practice by supporting the
farmers who know how to do it.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative Clauses are sentences we start with the relative pronouns who, that, which, where,
when, whose. They are used to join sentences and to give more information about something or
someone. For example:
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 My friend has found the dog that disappeared last week.

 I interviewed the boy who won the spelling contest.
 He is the man whose car was stolen.
 They want to study in a college where they can know different cultures.
 I live in Cali, which has many touristic places.
 Last week was a week when great things happened to us.
DEFINING AND NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:
A Defining Relative Clause tells which noun we are talking about:
 Jhon is the architect who designs that building.
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the defining relative clause we can use which, who
or that. We use who for people, which for things and that for people or things.
The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We can't drop the
relative pronoun.
 The dog which bit me belonged to my cousin.

 He is the writer who won the prize.
When a relative pronoun is the object of the clause, in this case we can drop the relative pronoun
if we want to.
 Andrea likes the house that I rented.

 I went to a restaurant which my friend recommended.
A Non-Definig Relative Clause gives us extra information about something, this information is not
necessary to understand the sentence.
We can´t use that in non-defining relative clauses, so we need to use which if the pronoun refers
to a thing, and who if it refers to a person. We can't drop the relative pronoun in this kind of
clause, even if the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
 My daughter, who lives in California, works as a teacher.

 The students, who travelled to Ecuador, brought many souvenirs.
 I bought a cell phone, which I don´t really like.
PPT: http://www.slideshare.net/deepakkrishnan/relative-clauses-
3249185?qid=23bf4fa9-8d7d-4af9-9fb5-7e30e3d6f696&v=qf1&b=&from_search=2
16
LINKS:https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/clause-phrase-and-sentence/verb-
patterns/relative-clauses
PRACTICE:
Combine the sentences using a relative clause. Use relative pronouns only where necessary.
Note that you have to use commas in some of the sentences.
A HOLIDAY IN SCOTLAND
-We spent our holiday in Scotland last year. Scotland is in the north of Great Britain.
Last year we__________________________________________________________________
-People live in Scotland. They are called Scots.
The people___________________________________________________________________
-We first went to Edinburgh. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.
We first______________________________________________________________________
-Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh. He wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.
Arthur Conan Doyle____________________________________________________________
-Then we visited a lake. It is in the Highlands.
The lake_____________________________________________________________________
-Loch Ness is 37 km long. People know it for its friendly monster.
Loch Ness___________________________________________________________________
-There we met an old man. He told us that he had seen Nessie.
An old man___________________________________________________________________
-We then travelled to a mountain. The mountain is near the town of Fort William.
We then_____________________________________________________________________
-The mountain is the highest mountain in Great Britain. It is called Ben Nevis.
The mountain_________________________________________________________________
-I sent you a postcard. It was written on the summit of Ben Nevis.
The postcard _________________________________________________________________
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READING: COLOMBIA TAKES LEAD IN LATIN AMERICAN

BIODIVERSITY OFFSETTING
Author: Mariana Sarmiento
As Latin America’s economic prospects brighten, so does its concerns over how economic health will
impact the environment. Several countries have begun to explore biodiversity offsetting, but Colombia is
the first to implement rules and regulations specifically designed to support biodiversity offsetting. Here's
how they're doing it.
24 July 2013 | Colombia, Perú, Ecuador and Chile are all wrestling with ways to balance
economic growth with environmental protection, and representatives from all four countries this
month participated in talks hosted by Peru to explore biodiversity offsetting mechanisms from
around the world and see which, if any, could work best for them.
“The tremendous growth in interest worldwide over the last three years in rigorous mitigation
measures, including biodiversity offsets, is now visible in Latin America,” says Kerry ten Kate,
Director of Forest Trends’ Biodiversity Initiative. “As elsewhere, it’s spurred by new regulations,
tighter loan conditions by financial institutions and the voluntary business case”.
Of the four, Colombia has most clearly embraced biodiversity offsets. Recent policy
developments there require planned development projects such as mining, oil and gas
infrastructure to offset residual biodiversity impacts by restoring or protecting an equivalent
habitat elsewhere. The new regulation is based on two key principles: no net loss and ecological
equivalence. Furthermore, it establishes offset ratios that range from 1:4 to 1:10.
This is particularly relevant now that Colombia is concentrating significant efforts to promote
economic growth. According to the country’s National Development Plan, the private sector is
expected to invest US $126 billion dollars, which represents 40% of the budget for the
implementation of the national development plan. This investment is mainly targeted towards
mining and energy expansion (US $51 billion), housing and urbanization (US $40.6 billion) and
for infrastructure (US $8.8 billion).
Some of the results expected by 2014 from this investment include a 100% increase in both
paved highways and railroads, coal production up by almost 70%, energy generation increased
by 20%, and oil production increased by 43%, with associated pipelines for transporting oil and
gas. All of these projects, by law, require environmental permits and environmental management
plans in order to prevent, mitigate, and offset their residual environmental impacts in order to
prevent a net loss of biodiversity.
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At the moment, offsets have to be implemented by the project developer, which must identify the
sites where compensation will take place, buy the land or make arrangements with individual
landowners, and establish the offset project. Unfortunately there are difficulties with this
approach. Environmental agencies, communities, and NGOs do not have certainty regarding the
effectiveness of the compensatory actions undertaken. Those who receive the environmental
permits – mining companies for example – are not experienced in ecological restoration or
conservation projects which often have disappointing results, and there are high environmental
and financial transaction costs associated with time lag and additional consulting services that
have to be paid. This can slow down the environmental licensing process, and also result in the
loss of valuable ecosystem services during the years that offset actions are postponed.
Recent data collected by Fundepublico (a Colombian NGO), shows that one of the reasons for
private companies not implementing offsets and complying with the regulation is because they
cannot find the land to establish the offsets, a problem that has dogged offset systems in other
countries in their early days. Also, in the cases where offsets have been established,
environmental agencies do not know the exact location of offset sites. In this regard, despite the
leap forward that Colombia has made, the puzzle of matching offset demand with offset supply
has yet to be solved. And it’s a complicated one.
With over 8 million hectares under mining titles, over 130 oil and gas companies, with operations
in the country over at least 1.5 million hectares, including Shell, Oxy, Chevron, ExxonMobil, and
Petrobas, and thousands of kilometers of highways in the pipeline that will affect critical
biodiversity hotspots, one of the key questions is where are the hundreds of thousands of
hectares needed in offsets going to come from.
On top of that, according to the new regulation, biodiversity offset plans have to be presented to
the environmental agencies up to one year after the environmental permit has been awarded.
This is troubling, given that it increases the uncertainty of when offsets will be implemented after
the impact has occurred, and thus, the no net loss goal, seems hard to reach. The question then
becomes, how can Colombia transition towards a system that promotes timely, cost effective,
transparent, and efficient offsets?
One mechanism for achieving this is by moving towards a conservation banking system. Different
forms of such a system exist in the United States, Australia, and Germany, and are currently
being developed in France and the United Kingdom. Despite its challenges, many in the field
believe that conservation banks accelerate the implementation of high quality biodiversity offsets
in areas where conservation is needed, reduce the time-lag between projects’ impacts and offset
implementation, encourage the practitioners and companies with the conservation expertise to
do the work, and motivate private investment in environmental conservation.
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COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
We use comparatives (e.g. smaller than) to say that two or more things or people are different in
some way:
 Your house is bigger than mine.

 He is taller than you.
We use superlatives (e.g. the smallest) like this:
 You are the best student of the class.

 This house is the most expensive.
We can form comparative and superlative adjectives depending on their length:

1. Short adjectives (one syllable)
ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Small Smaller (than) The smallest
Fast Faster (than) The fastest
★ Big Bigger (than) The biggest
★ Wet Wetter (than) The wettest
★ Hot Hotter (than) The hottest
★ One syllable adjective ending with a single consonant with a single vowel before it.
2. Long adjectives (two syllables or more)
Beautiful More beautiful (than) The most beautiful
Inteligent More inteligent (than) The most inteligent
Expensive More expensive (than) The most expensive
Difficult More difficult (than) The most difficult
Famous More famous (than) The most famous
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3. Adjectives ending with -y
Easy Easier (than) The easiest
Happy Happier (than) The happiest
4. Irregular adjectives
Good Better (than) The best
Bad Worse (than) The worst
Far Farther (than) The farthest
Little Less (than) The least
Many More (than) The most
LINKS: http://www.eflnet.com/grammar/compsupadj1.php
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/adjectives/comparative-and-superlative-
adjectives
PRACTICE:
Complete the dialogues using the comparative form of the adjective in brackets + than, or the
superlative form of the adjective in brackets.
1. A. Did you enjoy being a student?

B. Yes, it was _______________ (happy) period of my life.
2. A. Is he famous in this country?
B. Yes, he´s _______________ (famous) any other singer.
3. A. I´m not a very good cook.
B. I´m sure I´m _______________ (bad) you. I can´t cook anything well.
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4. A. Do you like this program?

B. Yes, I think it´s _______________ (good) program on TV.
5. A. What did you have for dinner?
B. I chose _______________ (expensive) dish on the menu.
6. A. How is your new course going?
B. It´s _______________ (difficult) the last one I took.
7. A. What´s the weather going to be like today?
B. They say that today is going to be _______________ (wet) yesterday.
8. A. Are you happy in your new flat?
B. Yes, it´s _______________ (comfortable) my last one.
9. A. Is London _______________ (exciting) city in Britain?
B. No, I think that Liverpool is _______________ (exciting) London.
READING: FORGET ENERGY EFFICIENCY, THINK EXERGY

CAN A NEW DEFINITION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION HELP
UNLOCK EFFICIENCY?
Katherine Tweed
August 7, 2013
If we want to understand how to wring more efficiency out of our energy usage, we need to
redefine energy use in the first place, argues a new study from the American Council for an
Energy-Efficient Economy.
Instead of thinking about energy overall, it is better to think about high-quality energy, or exergy,
according to Skip Laitner, a visiting fellow at ACEEE.
“What most people call energy, for example, is what physicists and engineers are more likely to
call exergy, or high-quality energy that is available to do work,” he explains in a blog post.
“Energy that is either wasted or useless -- in effect, energy that has no capacity to perform work
such as the heat in the atmosphere -- is referred to as anergy.” Add up anergy and exergy and
you get total energy. Capture that waste heat, however, and it becomes something useful.
Laitner found that just tracking energy commodities, for instance, accounted for only 80 percent
of the exergy necessary to power the U.S. economy in 2010. By measuring and cutting the waste
22
that it takes to complete a task, he argues, there will be greater opportunity for more useful work
which can then in turn increase economic activity.
Useful work is divided into three categories: muscle work, mechanical and electrical power, and
heat that is delivered to the point of actual use (in homes or businesses).
Using those definitions, Laitner found that exergy efficiency has slowed considerably in recent
decades, from a 1.4 percent improvement per year from 1950 to 1980, to a 0.4 percent per year
growth from 1980 to 2010. The smaller rate of improvement, Laitner argues, weakens the
nation’s larger economic productivity. But, if the opposite were to happen -- if the rate of exergy
efficiency increased -- the total exergy needed to power the economy could decline even as work
continues to grow.
So why bother using a new, somewhat confusing method of assessing efficiency in the
economy?
"The reason is that the EIA data tracks only the heating values for commodities we call gallons of
oil or gasoline, cubic feet of natural gas, or kilowatt-hours of electricity -- whether for heat and
power, or for use as chemical feedstocks as in the production of plastics and petroleum products.
Those heating values don’t tell us how much actual work is being done. Because exergy tracks
the conversion of high-quality energy into useful work (that is, how much shaft power, delivered
lighting, or chemical energy is necessary to transform matter in the goods and services) the
Ayres-Warr accounting framework gives us an improved capacity to assess how much productive
work is enabled by the use of high-quality energy."
By using the Ayres-Warr approach, Laitner found that not only are rates of converting total
energy into useful work stagnant, but that they could constrain economic productivity through
2040.
23
Laitner acknowledges that energy efficiency, as it is currently defined, is a good way to manage
the growth of energy consumption and is a cost-effective means to transition to a lower-carbon
economy. But he contends that “energy efficiency -- especially when understood as exergy
efficiency -- plays a more critical role within the economic process than is generally understood.”
Essentially, Laitner wants everyone to think bigger. He advocates for a shift from focusing on
energy supply to energy productivity, as defined by exergy efficiency improvements. Of course,
that would require exergy accounting, which agencies like the U.S. Energy Information
Administration currently don’t do. Laitner suggests a national workshop or conference to explore
these issues further.
But as for the smarter policy he calls for, which would enable more accurate pricing of exergy
efficiency, it will be an uphill battle, to say the least. Energy efficiency, even if it is an imperfect
measure, is still a tough sell for homes and businesses despite its obvious benefits in terms of
cost and societal value. It is unclear if changing the methodology would dissipate the inertia
around energy efficiency, or if it would inspire policymakers to move faster to enable it -- just look
at how long Shaheen-Portman has been hanging around.
But Laitner certainly gives economists and energy analysts something to think about. “If we want
to develop a resilient and more sustainable economy over the long-term,” he concludes, “then we
must agree that energy efficiency -- more properly, exergy efficiency -- matters.”
24
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
 ACTIVE VOICE
In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by
the verb; the subject acts.
These examples show that the subject is doing the verb's action.
Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to
be in the active voice.
Additional Examples:
1. Colombia produces coffee 2. Tom broke the window 3. They repair the bridges
4. The boy kicked the ball 5. The explorers found Gold
 PASSIVE VOICE
One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so
that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive.
Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE

-The man ate five hamburgers. Five Hamburgers (subject) were eaten
by the man.
-Marilyn mailed the letter. The letter (subject) was mailed by
Marilyn
Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in
the passive voice.
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NOTE: Colorful parrots live in the rainforests cannot be changed to passive voice because the
sentence does not have a direct object.
To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following:
1. Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot
2. Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by
3. Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form
REMINDER: Sentences in Passive Voice

Passive voice: SUBJECT + VERB TO BE + VERB IN PAST PARTICIPLE + COMPLEMENT
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES:

1. Colombia produces coffee 1. Coffee is produced by Colombia
2. Tom broke the window 2. The window was broken by Tom
3. They repair the bridges 3. The bridges are repaired by them
4. The boy kicked the ball 4. The ball was kicked by the boy
5. The explorers found Gold 5. Gold was found by explorers
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*In sentences written in passive voice, the agent performing the action may appear in a "by the "
phrase or may be omitted. **In scientific writing, passive voice is used because it allows the
author to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the
subjects of sentences.However, overuse of passive voice in an essay can cause your prose to
seem flat and uninteresting. This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective.
Passive voice in the simple present and the simple past: The Simple Present of to be, and the
Simple Present Indicative of the Passive Voice of the verb to show (irregular verb) are
conjugated as follows:
Simple Present Simple past

Passive Voice of To Show passive Voice of to show
I am shown I was shown
you are shown you were shown
he is shown he was shown
she is shown she was shown
it is shown it was shown
we are shown we were shown
they are shown they were shown
 Negative Statements
To form a negative statement, the word not is placed after the first auxiliary.
For example:
You are not shown the sights. / She is not shown the sights.
You were not shown the sights. / She was not shown the sight.
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PRACTICE:
1. PASSIVE VOICE: Read the following sentences and change them to passive voice

A. My professor asks me.
B. Pedro manages the store.
C. I order a package.
D. My friend bought these shirts.
E. Sandra and Luis wrote the answers.
F. The studio filmed a movie.
G. Japan sells technology.
2. PASSIVE VOICE: Each of the sentences below is in the PASSIVE VOICE. Write the
correct form of each verb in brackets:
A. Tom was ______________ many times to stop talking in class. (Tell)

B. He was ______________ by the movie. (Disappoint)
C. He was ______________ by his brother to go to the beach. (Convince)
D. The present was ______________ to her by her co-worker. (Give)
E. The thief was ______________ by the police. (Catch)
F. This book is being ______________ by all the students. (Read)
G. "Jitterbug Perfume" was ______________ by Tom Robbins. (Write)
H. A new shopping mall is going to be ______________ in Pasadena. (Build)
I. Many mistakes were ______________ by the students. (Make)
J.The meeting was ______________ in the conference room. (Hold)
3. PASSIVE VOICE:
 ACTIVITY A: Read the following biography and fill the blanks using simple past tense, you
can use the active or the passive voice. Use the verbs in parentheses
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GANDHI A MODEL OF NON VIOLENT ACTION
Mohandas K. Gandhi was one of the most important political activists of all time. He was born
(Bear) in 1869 and he died (Die) in 1948. He lived (Live) in Africa and India, but he __________
(know) worldwide for his work. He______________(become) famous because he_______(Use)
nonviolent action.
During Gandhi’s life, India__________ (Control) by Great Britain. Even though many
Indians_____________ (Want) independence, they ____________ (Not Give) control of their
country by the British. Many different ideas__________ (Discuss) about how to get
independence. Some Indians ____________ (Buy) Guns and___________ (Fight) in bloody
confrontations, but Gandhi_______________ (Teach) nonviolent action.
Finally in 1947, India______________ (Give) independence. Gandhi’s

work______________(Not Finish) because the new India____________(face) with many new
problems. But sadly, Gandhi_________(Kill) in 1948). Gandhi´s work________(End) with his
death. But his ideas and beliefs_________(Remain).
 ACTIVITY B: Now, using what you´ve learned, write about famous character. First, find out
information about his or her life, and then write. Use these questions to help you prepare.
a. Who was the person?

b. When and where was the person born?
c. What was the person known for?
d. Why was she or he important?
e. What examples can you give of this person’s work or accomplishments?
LINKS: http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/complex_tests/passive1/index.php passive voice

exercises
http://www.mansioningles.com/gram55_ej1.htm passive voice exercises
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4. PASSIVE VOICE: Complete the table changing the sentences from active voice to passive
voice.
DATE EVENT- ACTIVE VOICE CHANGE THE SENTENCES TO PASSIVE VOICE

1885 John Pemberton created Coca-Cola.
1963 Douglas Engelbart patented the
mouse
1973 Martin Cooper invented the first cell
phone
1976 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak
founded Apple
1979 Engineers Developed the first laptop
1980 Sony introduced the first Compact
Disc (CD)
1982 Gabriel García Márquez won the
Nobel Prize
2008 Panasonic launched the first plasma
T.V.
5. PASSIVE VOICE: Complete the paragraphs below with the passive form of the verbs in
parenthesis. The first one has been done for you.
READING: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The plastic six-pack rings that (use) ARE USED for canned beer and soft drinks are harmful to
the environment in two ways. First, most of them are not biodegradable. Once a ring
____________ (discard), it becomes a permanent part of the landfill problem. Second, many of
these rings end up in the ocean. Because the rings are invisible in water, animals cannot see
them. If a ring ___________ (catch) around animal´s neck, the animal can drown or strangle
itself. Every year, thousands of animals ______________ (kill) this way. How do the rings get
into the ocean?
Sometimes they ____________ (leave) on the beach by careless people. Later,

they___________ (wash) into the ocean. Sometimes they _____________ (dump) into seaside
landfills and _______________ (blow) into the water by the wind.
According to the statistics, more than 6.5 millions of dolphins___________ (affect) by hunting
because fishermen use nets to catch tuna and dolphins ____________ (trap) on them
accidentally. Besides, animals like Elephants _____________ (slaughter) for ivory, a fact that
has reduced their number significantly from 1.5 million to 750.000 and risks their survival.
Source: video Earth Watch.
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READING: THE BASICS OF MAKING CHEESE

The process of cheese making dates back thousands of years. Even by today's experts the
process is considered to be difficult, as it combines both "Art" and "Science
Milk from different mammals such as cows, sheep's, goats and buffalo's are used to produce
cheese. However, using milk from different mammals has an effect on the final quality of the
cheese. For example, sheep's milk contains high total solids and thus makes the cheese harder.
However, milk high in fat produces softer cheese. Therefore, the cheese process has to be
modified in relation to the type of milk used.
Cheese making depends on the curdling of milk. First, the milk is carefully selected to make sure
there are no antibiotics or harmful agents that could affect the process. The milk is then heated
and held at a given temperature for a short period to destroy any harmful bacteria (i.e.
pasteurisation).
Special starter cultures are then added to the warm milk and change a very small amount of the
milk sugar into lactic acid. This acidifies the milk at a much faster rate and prepares it for the next
stage. Rennet is then added to the milk and within a short time a curd is produced. The curd is
then cut into small cubes, and heat is applied to start a shrinking process, which, with the steady
production of lactic acid from the starter cultures, changes it into small rice-size grains.
At a carefully chosen point the curd grains are allowed to fall to the bottom of the cheese vat, the
left-over liquid, which consists of water, milk sugar and albumen (now called whey) is drained off
and the curd grains allowed to mat together to form large slabs of curd. The slabs are then
milled, and salt is added to provide flavour and help preserve the cheese. Later, it is pressed,
and subsequently packed in various size containers for maturing.
Fat exists in milk as small globules that can vary in depending on the breed of cow. The fat in the
milk helps to produce flavour, aroma and body in mature cheese. Cheese made from skimmed
milk is hard in body and texture, and lacks flavour. Protein exists in two forms in milk as a
suspension/colloidal (casein) and in a soluble form (whey proteins).
In milk different enzymes may arise from the cow herself, from bacteria present in the teat canals
or from organisms that gain entry to the milk at a later stage. Lactose is the main sugar in the
31
milk. It provides the energy source for the starter cultures to produce lactic acid, and so helps to
modify the milk for cheese making. About 10% of the lactose is used by the starter bacteria to
make lactic acid, and the rest is drawn off with the whey.
Cheese is really a form of fermented milk, and acid production is carried out by starter cultures.
Milk being sourced from a living animal has bacteria in it when fed to the calf. Some bacteria
produce acid, others help to digest the protein in the milk; some use milk as a base for their own
development which, in the case of disease-producing bacteria, can infect those who drink it.
Tuberculosis and undulant fever are three examples of diseases that can affect those who may
drink un-pasteurised milk.
The need to clot milk has been well recognised since Roman times, and this can be achieved by
the selective use of certain plants or by extracting the enzyme rennet from the fourth stomach of
the milk-fed calf.
These are called textured cheese, such as Cheddar, Cheshire and the English regional cheeses
including Caerphilly, which undergo pressing for a period from 18 hours up to 2-3 days after
being put into the cheese moulds.
Throughout the cheese making process the starter is steadily making acid, its speed in so doing
reduced somewhat in the heating process used in the final stages. To stop further acid
development, and also to provide an element of flavour and help preserve the final cheese, salt is
added after the curd blocks are milled. Salting provokes a further small rush of whey, cools the
curd slightly and controls further acid development.
Moulding has nothing to do with the blue green mass sometimes seen on traditional cheese, or
stale bread, but is the term used for containing and pressing salted curd into a certain shape in
which it can be matured before finally being sold.
32
PODCAST: http://www.aulafacil.com/cursos/l22849/idiomas/ingles/ingles-first/reading-making-cheese
READING: MAN WITH A DREAM
Martin Luther King, Jr. wanted black and white Americans to live happily together. On the third
Monday in January, many Americans honour this hero.
Dr Martin Luther King, Jr. was a black pastor. He was born in Atlanta, Georgia on 15th January,
1929. He was the leader of the Civil Rights movement demanding equality for black people.
Many Southern states in the U.S.A., like Georgia, were segregated in the 1950s: black children
couldn't go to the same schools as whites; blacks and whites couldn't sit in the same bus seats,
theatres or use the same public toilets. King believed that was wrong.
In December 1955, Rosa Parks, a black woman, was on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. A white
man demanded her seat and she refused. She was arrested. King, who was working in
Montgomery, led a black protest. For a year, black people refused to use the buses. Finally,
segregation on the buses was declared illegal. In fact all segregation in Alabama was stopped !
Dr. King was now famous and he continued with many other protests. He wanted black and white
people to have the same rights. Some white people supported him, but many opposed him. His
house was bombed. But King, like Gandhi, refused violence. In 1964, he received the Nobel
Peace Prize.
King was an excellent orator. His speeches were famous and convinced many people, including
President Kennedy, that he was right. But he continued to have enemies and on April 4th, 1968,
he was assassinated. Ironically, the death of this non-violent man provoked riots all over
America.
33
From " Easy Speakeasy " (January 1999).
GRAPHS AND TABLES
Tables and graphs are visual representations. They are used to organise information to show
patterns and relationships. These visual methods can make the point much stronger than simply
describing the data. A graph shows this information by representing it as a shape. Researchers
and scientists often use tables and graphs to report findings from their research. In newspapers,
magazine articles, and on television they are often used to support an argument or point of view.
- Constructing graphs (Purposes) Graphs are:
 A way of exploring the relationships in data.

 A way of displaying and reporting data, making it easier to report patterns and
relationships, shapes of distributions, and trends.
- Structure: Any graph used to report findings should show:

 The significant features and findings of the investigation in a fair and easily read way.
 The underlying structure of an investigation in terms of the relationships between and
within the variables.
 The units of measurement.
 The number of readings (though sometimes these will be in the accompanying text).
 The range and interval of readings, where appropriate.
It is good practice (but only a convention) to put the dependent variable on the horizontal (x) axis
and the independent on the vertical (y) axis.
34
GRAPH TYPES
There are different types of graphs that are used most frequently. There are more complex types
that are used for specific purposes. A graph is really a graphical representation of one or more
sets of data. A set of related data is referred to as a data series. For example, the sales of
product X each year for the past five years would be one data series. Here are the basic graph
types:
Bar Graphs Example
Bar graphs should be used for categoric,

ordered, and discrete variables. If the
number of units in a discrete variable is large
it may be displayed as a continuous
variable.
Tables Example
Graphical devices containing columns and

rows, whether labeled or unlabeled. Typically,
tables give readers specific types of
information (e.g., what an animal eats, where it
lives, how it moves) about each of a series of
related things (e.g., mammals: lions, camels,
zebras, monkeys).
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Line Graphs Example

Line graphs should be used for continuous
variables. These graphs show values at
different points in time. It is usually best to
have equal time intervals along the
horizontal axis of the graph.
VIDEO https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EiUK_JewKPM
Pie Graphs Example

Pie graphs (sometimes called pie or circle
charts) are used to show the parts that
make up a whole. They can be useful for
comparing the size of relative parts.
Because it is difficult to compare different
circle graphs, and often hard to compare
the angles of different sectors of the pie,
it is sometimes better to choose other
sorts of graphs.
36
Maps Example
Graphical devices drawn to scale to

represent whole or part of a specific
area. Maps can include symbols, a
legend, and a scale.
Flowcharts Example
Graphical devices that depict the stages of a

process in a chronologically ordered set of
illustrations or photographs, typically
connected by lines or arrows.
Histograms Example
Use histograms when y-axis gives the

frequency of, or occurrences for continuous
data that has been sorted into groups, for
example, 20-24 metres. All bars are usually of
equal width. They can be turned into line
graphs by connecting the middle of the top
section of each vertical bar. Histograms are not
joined up bar graphs and should not be used
for categoric data (unless the number of units
in each group is large).
37
Diagrams: Surface Example
Illustrations or photographs of the surface of

an animate or inanimate object or scene in
which specific, individual parts are labeled.
Timelines Example
Graphical devices that identify specific
historical events or epochs within a period
of time, arranged in chronological order.
Timelines often include labels indicating
dates or times and may also include brief
written descriptions. Typically, timelines
show how something has changed over
time or highlight key moments in the
history of a person, group, object, or
place.
Diagrams: Cross-section Example
Illustrations or photographs that include

normally unseen interior portions of an
animate or inanimate object or scene in
which specific, individual parts are labeled.
38
PRACTICE:
Exercises: Answer the questions about the following graphs:
1. Bar Graphs
A. Look at the bar graph on the above. Can you tell what the bar graph measures?
Pick One:
___Kilowatts used by appliances
___Hours appliance used per day
___Total electricity per year
___Hours appliance used monthly
B. What do the numbers in the vertical axis of this graph represent?
Pick One
___Hours in a day
___Days of the week
___Types of appliances
___Amount of electricity used
39
1. Bar Graphs
A. What was the trend of recrutis between 1999 and 2005?
B. What happened with men in 2004?
C. What happened to women in 2005?
2. Line Graphs
A. What was the trend for the first six months of the year?
B. How many units were sold in June?
C. What happened in February?
40
2. Line Graphs
QUESTIONS
A. What is the title of this line graph?

B. What is the range of values on the horizontal scale?
C. What was the highest temperature recorded?
D. At what point did the temperature dip?
3. Pie Graphs
A. Tina spends the largest portion of her income on ______________

B. Bus fare corresponds to_____________
C. What is the second percentage of Tina monthly living expenses? ____________
41
4. Tables
Answer "yes" if the answer to the question can be found in the chart, answer "no" if it cannot.
QUESTIONS YES NO
A. Which candidate placed third?
B. Which candidate got the most votes from women?
C. Which candidate was more popular among men than women?
D. Which candidate got the most votes from senior citizens?
REMINDER: Graphs are important to construct meaning and demonstrate comprehension.
VIDEO: http://www.tv411.org/science/tv411-whats-cooking/video-water
42
READING: PROS AND CONS OF NUCLEAR POWER
As a result of the current discussion how further global warming could be prevented or at least
mitigated, the revival of nuclear power seems to be in everybody's - or at least in many
politician's - mind. It is interesting to see that in many suggestions to mitigate global warming, the
focus is put on the advantages of nuclear power generation, its disadvantages are rarely
mentioned.
Hopefully, the following summary of arguments for and against nuclear power can fill this
gap:
Advantages of nuclear power generation:
 Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO 2). The
emissions of green house gases and therefore the contribution of nuclear power plants to
global warming is therefore relatively little.
 This technology is readily available, it does not have to be developed first.
 It is possible to generate a high amount of electrical energy in one single plant.
Disadvantages of nuclear power generation:
 The problem of radioactive waste is still an unsolved one. The waste from nuclear energy
is extremely dangerous and it has to be carefully looked after for several thousand years
(10'000 years according to United States Environmental Protection Agency standards).
43
 High risks: Despite a generally high security standard, accidents can still happen. It is
technically impossible to build a plant with 100% security. A small probability of failure will
always last. The consequences of an accident would be absolutely devastating both for
human being as for the nature (see here , here or here ). The more nuclear power plants
(and nuclear waste storage shelters) are built, the higher is the probability of a disastrous
failure somewhere in the world.
 Nuclear power plants as well as nuclear waste could be preferred targets for terrorist
attacks. No atomic energy plant in the world could withstand an attack similar to 9/11 in New
York. Such a terrorist act would have catastrophic effects for the whole world.
 During the operation of nuclear power plants, radioactive waste is produced, which in turn
can be used for the production of nuclear weapons. In addition, the same know-how used to
design nuclear power plants can to a certain extent be used to build nuclear weapons
(nuclear proliferation).
 The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource, its supply
is estimated to last only for the next 30 to 60 years depending on the actual demand.
 The time frame needed for formalities, planning and building of a new nuclear power
generation plant is in the range of 20 to 30 years in the western democracies. In other words:
It is an illusion to build new nuclear power plants in a short time.
For several reasons, nuclear power is neither «green» nor sustainable:
 Both the nuclear waste as well as retired nuclear plants are a life-threatening legacy for
hundreds of future generations. It flagrantly contradicts with the thoughts of sustainability if
future generations have to deal with dangerous waste generated from preceding generations.
 Uranium, the source of energy for nuclear power, is available on earth only in limited
quantities. Uranium is being «consumed» (i.e. converted) during the operation of the nuclear
power plant so it won't be available any more for future generations. This again contradicts
the principle of sustainability.
Nuclear energy uses Uranium as fuel, which is a scarce resource. The supply of Uranium is
expected to last only for the next 30 to 60 years (depending on the actual demand).
Therefore nuclear energy is not a renewable energy.
From the above mentioned pros and cons of nuclear power plants, it should be evident that
nuclear energy cannot be a solution to any problem. Even worse: it is the source of many
further problems.
44
We must not any longer shut our eyes to the consequences of our being on earth. Besides
moral, ethical and spiritual reasons, at least for the pure will to survive we should
consequently strive for a sustainable living and realize it in our personal life. It's time for
change!
READING: PREDICTION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION WORLD-

WIDE
According to the American Energy Information Administration (EIA) and to the International
Energy Agency (IEA), the world-wide energy consumption will on average continue to
increase by 2% per year.
A yearly increase by 2% leads to a doubling of the energy consumption every 35 years.

This means the world-wide energy consumption is predicted to be twice as high in the year
2040 compared to today (2007).
By far the highest increase in world-wide energy consumption is predicted to be from all
three fossil fuels: oil, coal and natural gas (see graph) the renewable energies are predicted
45
to grow as well, but much less than fossil energies. Nuclear energy is predicted to grow
relatively moderate.
We have a serious problem. It is only possible to mitigate global warming if the world-wide
consumption of fossil fuels can be drastically reduced in the next 10 to 15 years. There is
simply no room for a scenario as it is predicted by the International Energy Agency IEA.
It is also obvious that no combination of alternative technologies can replace the current
usage of fossil fuels. There is simply not enough non-fossil fuel available for this. In order to
mitigate global warming, we have to use the available energy much more efficiently. But this
won't be enough either: We will have to change our behaviour to reduce our personal
energy consumption. We must change our current live style and seriously strive for
a sustainable living .
46
GAMES:
1. GRAPHS CROSSWORD
1 2 3
4 5 6
9 10
11 12
13
Across
1 A circle is made up of 360 of these.

5 Another name for a graph.
7 A dot on the graph that show us the facts.
9 Tells us how much or how many.
11 Tells us what the graph is about.
13 A bar graph can have horizontal or ________ bars.
Down
1 Numbers which have been collected for study.

2 Show what percentage of the whole is being represented by each category in a circle graph.
3 Graph used to compare facts.
4 Graph used to compare the parts with the whole.
6 Used to organize exact amounts of data and to display numerical information.
8 Lines used to create the scale for a bar graph.
10 Tells us what kinds of facts are listed.
47
2. TABLES AND GRAPHS
L U H M C S E D J R B T S Q W
M B A F D H E G O T I T L E H
E J Y N A G A T N X Y D E E O
X L E F R C C N A A S Y B R L
D R C E C A T E G O R Y A E E
T C E R R F C S V E X B L L G
V S Y T I P O O E V S P T A R
R A O A A C M C H A R T O C A
D R L R M Z P D I R G M L S P
P E T U T U A Q T N E S P E H
N S N J E R R X S R O T C E S
U T N I O P E D L E L C L Z E
Q F W B L W A G W E O B G V R
X C D M P T T A O K A N P L F
T V A C A U Y K B T Y X L E A
WORDS
Bar Category Changes
Chart Circle Compare
Data Degrees Facts
Graph Grid Labels
Line Parts Plot
Point Protractor Range
Scale Sectors Table
Title Trends Value
Whole
48
VIDEO: http://www.tv411.org/science/tv411-whats-cooking/video-water
PARAGRAPH ANALYSIS
The information presented in the text is organized in Paragraphs. A paragraph is a “unit of

thought” which contains a group of related sentences developing one central idea. Paragraphs
facilitate the reading of long texts by combining sentences and developing one central idea at the
time. Each paragraph shows the introduction of a new idea. A paragraph to be effective has
these parts:
 Main idea of a passage or reading is the central thought or message. In contrast to the term
topic, which refers to the subject under discussion, the term main idea refers to the point or
thought being expressed. It is usually presented at the beginning of the paragraph—in a
sentence-- but in some cases could be in a different place or be implicit.
 Supporting sentences or ideas: Sentences that express more information, details and
additional explanations that elaborate the main idea.
 Concluding Sentence: This final stage in a paragraph is optional and usually short. If It is
present, it is usually only one or two sentence.The content of the final stage is unlike
sentences in the Body- it does not present specific information to elaborate the Topic. It
usually contains general information which either concludes, or links the paragraph to the next
one.(See diagram below)
49
CHARACTERISTICS OF A PARAGRAPH
Paragraphs to be effective have two important features: Cohesion can be thought of as all the
grammatical and lexical links that link one part of a text to another (the glue). This includes use
of synonyms, pronouns, verb tenses, time references, grammatical references, etc.
It means that all the information contribute to develop the same idea. Repetition of key words
and use of reference words are also needed for cohesion, and Coherence: how meanings and
sequences of ideas relate to each other following a logical connection that provides consistency
to the whole text.
EXAMPLE:
The Topic Sentence
The Supporting Sentences
Paragraph: HOW TO BOIL AND EGG
You can cook a perfectly boiled egg for breakfast if you follow this six easy steps. First, get
a pot big enough to hold one egg. Then, fill the pot 4/5 full with water and put in the egg. Next,
turn the heat to high until the pot of water is boiling. Boil the egg in the water for three minutes.
Take the egg out of the pot and put it in an egg cup. Now the eeg is ready to eat. Enjoy it!
The Concluding Sentence
50
PRACTICE:
Exercises: The main idea- The supporting ideas.
PARAGRAPH # 1
A number of recent books with titles like Raising Cain, Real Boys, and Lost Boys all focus on the
same issue: Today’s teenaged boys are feeling more anxiety than ever before about their
physical appearance. Bombarded by advertising featuring well-muscled, semi-clad young men,
teenage boys are experiencing what teenage girls have been coping with for years. They are
afraid that they cannot possibly live up to the media’s idealized image of their gender. Young
boys below the average in height, weight, or both suffer the most. Often, they are brutally teased
by their brawnier peers. Some react to the ridicule by heading for the gym and lifting weights. Yet
even those who successfully “bulk up” don’t like feeling that they are considered worthless if they
lose their hard-won muscle tone. Others, convinced that no amount of body building can help,
often withdraw from social contact with their peers. This is their way of avoiding taunts about their
size or shape. Still, they are understandably angry at being badly treated because of their body
type. Although school psychologists generally recognize that boys today are having severe body
image problems, they are at a loss about what to do to solve those problems.
Questions:
A. Choose 1 option that effectively sums up the main idea.
1. More than in previous generations, teenaged boys are getting into body building.
2. Teenaged boys today are showing more anxiety about their physical appearance than did
boys of previous generations.
3. According to school psychologists young boys are superficial.
4. Young boys want to compete with women in their physical appearance.
B. Sum up the most important (4) Supporting ideas.
51
PARAGRAPH #2
In 1997, the U.S. Consumer Products Safety Commission reported that skateboarding injuries
were up by 33 percent. Mountain climbing injuries were also up by 20 percent. Similarly,
snowboarding injuries showed an increase of thirty-one percent. By all accounts, many
Americans are having a love affair with risky sports; as a result, they are injuring themselves in
ever greater numbers. One reason for the growing participation in risky, or extreme, sports has
been put forth by Dan Cady, a professor of popular culture at California State University.
According to Cady, previous generations didn’t need to seek out risk. It was all around them in
the form of disease epidemics, economic instability, and global wars. At one time, just managing
to stay alive was risky, but that feeling has all but disappeared, at least for members of the
privileged classes. To a degree Cady’s theory is confirmed in the words of adventure racer Joy
Marr. Marr says that risk has been “minimized” in everyday life, forcing people to seek out
challenges in order to prove themselves. (Source: Karl Taro Greenfield. “Life on the Edge.” Time.
September 6, 1999, p.29).
Questions:
A. Choose the Main Idea:
1. According to Professor Dan Cady, many Americans yearn for the days when just staying alive
was a difficult task.
2. More and more Americans are taking up high-risk sports; as a result, injuries from these
sports are increasing.
3. Today life is not risky.
4. The percentage of injuries went down.
B. Sum up the most important (4) Supporting ideas.
52
PARAGRAPH # 3
“WHAT HAPPENS TO PEOPLE WHO ALWAYS WANT MORE?”
There is actually nothing wrong with people who want more”. In fact, it is a human condition we
are all pre-programmed to align with. However, if a person decides to take what is not theirs, or
decides that they “deserve” something for doing nothing, they will inevitably fail in the long run.
There is nothing to replace hard work, dedication and the will to succeed through your own
volition if you want to live a happy and fruitful life with those around you. When a person ignores
this intrinsic value, it may look sweet and happy at the beginning, but usually it all comes apart at
the same further down the line. It can lead to animosity from peers, hatred from your family, and
more often than not separation, leading to divorce from your wife or husband. In addition, the
personal feelings of despair, failure and guilt will rear their ugly heads, and the destruction of your
own life is inevitable.
Questions:
1. Use the chart below to represent the parts of paragraph # 3
53
CHALLENGE TO THINK
A. Organize these two paragraphs in the correct sequence according to their titles.
B. Write the main idea and summarize the supporting sentences.
1--THE GENERAL´S VISIT

2--NO TEETH
 He immediately ordered a pool and courts to be built
 Some weeks later Peter met his friends in the street, and the friend asked him what had
happened.
 Peter had been called up, but he didn´t want to join the army, so he asked his friend what
he should do.
 When he was asked why he would not give benches to primary children but wanted
prisoners to have a swimming pool, he replied, “Do you think I will ever go back to primary
school?”
 His friend said, “Well, why don`t you have all your teeth pulled out? You won´t get pass
the medical exam then”.
 A general visited a primary school where the children said they had no benches to sit on.
 Some time later he visited a prison. The men there complained they had no swimming
pool and no tennis courts.
 Peter, who had no teeth left, mumbled, “The officer said I was no good to the army---I got
flat feet”.
 He told the kids there were no benches---they must make sacrifices for their country.
54
READING: FREEDOM OF SPEECH
In the last decade, there has been considerable debate over the role of free speech in a free
society. Some object to absolute freedom of speech. Others advocate free speech, arguing that
the freedom of speech is the single most important political right of citizens in a civilized society.
Whilst I believe that there are strong arguments on both sides, I would suggest that freedom of
speech should be protected in all but extreme circumstances.
The freedom of speech is important at all levels in a society. Yet it is most important for the
governments. A government which does not know what the people feel and think is in a
dangerous position. This is how the communist regimes of Eastern Europe were toppled in the
1980s. The same is happening again in other regions of the world today. The governments that
muzzle free speech run a risk of pushing their people to behave destructively or to rebel.
Furthermore, without free speech no political action is possible and no resistance to injustice and
oppression is possible. Without free speech elections would have no meaning at all. Policies of
contestants become known to the public and become responsive to public opinion only by virtue
of free speech. Between elections the freely expressed opinions of citizens help restrain
oppressive rule. Without this freedom it is futile to expect political freedom or consequently
economic freedom.
In conclusion, I believe that the importance of free speech as a basic and valuable characteristic
of a free society cannot be underestimated. It may be challenging for society to allow differences
of opinion out into the open; however, the consequences of restricting free speech are likely to be
more damaging in the longer term.
55
READING: COFFEE AND ITS PROCESSING
1-The coffee plant, an evergreen shrub or small tree of African origin, begins to produce fruit 3 or
4 years after being planted. The fruit is hand-gathered when it is fully ripe and reddish purple in
color. The ripened fruit of the coffee shrubs are processed where they are produced to separate
the coffee seeds from their covering and from the pulp. Two different techniques are in use: Wet
process and Dry process.
2-The Wet Process: First, the fresh fruit is pulped by a pulping machine. Some pulp still clings to
the coffee, however, this residue is removed by fermentation in tanks. The few remaining traces
of pulp are then removed by washing. The coffee seeds are then dried to a moisture content of
about 12 per cent either by exposure to the sun or by hot air driers. If dried in the sun, they must
be turned by hand several times a day for even drying.
3-The dry process: In the dry process the fruits are immediately placed to dry either in the sun or
in hot-air driers. Considerably more time and equipment is needed for drying than in the wet
process. When the fruits have been dried to a water content of about 12 percent then seeds are
mechanically freed from their covering.
4-The characteristics aroma and taste of coffee only appear later and are developed by high
temperatures to which they are subjected during the process known as roasting. Temperatures
are raised progressively to about 220-230°c. This releases steam, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide and other volatiles from the beans, resulting in a loss of weight of between 14 and 23
per cent. But the most important phenomenon of roasting is the appearance of the characteristics
aroma of coffee, which arises from very complex chemical transformations within the
beans.Good quality coffees are then sorted by electronic sorters to eliminate the seeds that
roasted badly. The presence of seeds which are either too light or too dark depreciates the
quality.
56
READING: APPLYING ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLES IN THE

WORKPLACE:
How the Alexander Technique can Help
By: Holly A. Sweeney
As early as the 18th century, doctors noticed that workers whose jobs required them to maintain
certain body positions for long periods of time developed musculoskeletal problems. In the last
20 years, research has clearly established the connection between certain job tasks and
repetitive stress injuries, or RSI’s.
Two elements are at work here: “static work” and “force.” “Static work” refers to the
musculoskeletal effort required to hold a certain position, even a comfortable one. For example,
when we sit and work at computers, keeping our head and torso upright requires either small or
great amounts of static work depending upon the efficiency of the body positions we choose.
“Force” refers to the amount of tension our muscles generate. For example, tilting your head
forward or backward from a neutral, vertical position quadruples the amount of force acting on
your lower neck vertebra. This increase of force is due to the increase in muscular tension
necessary to support your head in a tilted position.
The term “ergonomics” is derived from two Greek words: “erg,” meaning work and “nomoi,”
meaning natural laws. Ergonomists study human capabilities in relationship to work demands. In
recent years, ergonomists have attempted to define postures which minimize unnecessary static
work and reduce the forces acting on the body. All of us could significantly reduce our risk of
injury if we could adhere to the following ergonomic principles:
1. All work activities should permit the worker to adopt several different, but equally healthy and
safe postures
2. Where muscular force has to be exerted it should be done by the largest appropriate muscle
groups available.
3. Work activities should be performed with the joints at about mid-point of their range of
movement. This applies particularly to the head, trunk, and upper limbs. (Cortlett, 1983)
57
Here, however, we arrive at a problem: In order to put these recommendations into practice, a
person would have to be a skilled observer of his or her own joint and muscle functioning and
would have to be able to change his or her posture to a healthier one at will. No one develops
this sort of highly refined sensory awareness without special training. Therefore, in order to
derive the benefits of ergonomic research, we must learn how to observe our bodies in a new
way.
One training program that cultivates these skills is the Alexander Technique, which enables its
students to put ergonomic principles into practice, and thus helps them reduce their risk of
developing an RSI.
The Alexander Technique is not new. It was developed in the early 20th century before
ergonomics became a recognized science and has been applied throughout this century by
people from all walks of life. The Technique is an educational method which shows people how
they are misusing their bodies and how their everyday habits of work can be harmful. It also
teaches people how to avoid work habits which create excessive amounts of static work and how
to reduce the amount of unnecessary muscular force they are applying to their bodies.
Performing artists comprise one occupational group which has studied the Alexander Technique
extensively. This group of workers is extremely aware of the potential for serious injury as a
result of repetitious demands on the body. Typically, the work demands of performing artists
require hours of daily practice and rehearsal plus the rigors of maintaining performance
schedules. In addition to the desire to perform at peak levels of skill, performers also hope to
extend their careers as far into their life span as possible. RSI’s represent a serious threat to
livelihood and career longevity. It is for these reasons that the Alexander Technique is found in
the curriculum of most performing arts schools.
The Alexander Technique is studied in group classes as well as in private lessons. Students are
taught how to observe themselves in a new way and bring a higher level of awareness to routine
activities. Students are sometimes surprised to discover that the Alexander Technique does not
involve a prescription to do certain exercises or to practice new positions. They quickly come to
understand that exercises or positions will not teach them anything fundamentally new. Instead,
students learn to observe themselves in a new way and experience the physical benefits that
come from a more refined understanding of all the elements that contribute to everyday tasks
such as sitting, standing, walking, and working.
58
In an Alexander lesson, students experience profound physical changes through the gentle
guidance of the teacher’s hands. These changes are a direct result of reduction of static work
demands and force. As students progress in their study of the Technique, they notice that they
feel more comfortable performing everyday tasks like sitting, standing, walking, typing because
they have learned how to lower static work and applied force within their bodies.
Students of the Alexander Technique report increased self confidence as they learn to exert a
constructive influence over the repetitive injury process; they discover that they do not have to be
unwitting victims of RSI’s. This increased sense of self reliance and fresh perspective on how to
protect their body from injury contributes to a mental state that is less anxious, more resilient and
better prepared to handle work challenges safely.
SCIENTIFIC NEWS
General Science, technology or business magazines, newspapers and journals include News
(briefs or long articles) about current issues. In this sense, their purpose is to report readers
about different themes or introduce new discoveries or developments in order to popularize
scientific progress. Articles may include a byline, body text, photo, and caption. Typically,
newspaper articles that appear closest to the front page or within the first section are those that
editors consider to be the most important and relevant to their readers.
Parts of a Newspaper Article
-Headline or Title: The title of your news article.
-Byline: The byline is the name of the writer.
-Lede or lead: It is the first paragraph, but it is written to provide a detailed preview of the entire
story. It summarizes the story and includes all of the basic facts. It helps readers decide if they
want to read the rest of the story, or if they are satisfied knowing these details. For this reason,
the lede may contain a hook. (Wh - What? Who? Where? When? Why? How?)
-The Story: A well-written story that contains facts from the research and quotes from people
you’ve interviewed. The article should not contain your opinions. In this part, the events are
detailed in chronological order. In a news article, you would typically find the most critical
59
information in the early paragraphs and follow with supporting information, background
information, and related information.
PODCAST: http://www.manythings.org/listen/light.html
PRACTICE:
1. Read the following News articles and identify the most important facts reported on them.
Represent the articles on the graphs.
NEWS ARTICLE#1: GENETIC SIGNATURES IDENTIFY CROP VARIETIES

BEST ABLE TO WITHSTAND STRESS
July 09, 2015
by VOA News
Differences in a crop plant's genes can help predict how a particular variety will respond to a drier
or hotter climate.
Geneticist Geoff Morris of Kansas State University sampled the genomes of about 2,000 varieties
of sorghum, looking for differences. The genetic material, as well as information about the village
where each variety of the cereal grain crop was grown, came from gene banks.
Using those different genetic signatures and the location data, Morris and his colleagues were
able to determine how each variety adapted to environmental stressors, such as drought and
toxins in the soil.
They grew test plots of hundreds of varieties in India and Texas, and subjected them to drought
conditions. The result showed that the genetic analysis predicted which ones were likely to do
well under stress.
60
The findings, collected in a database, will help sorghum breeders in developing countries make
better choices about which varieties to plant based on the weather that's forecast for an
upcoming growing season.
Sorghum is a staple food source for nearly half a billion people, grown in Africa, Asia and some
of the world's harshest environments. According to Morris, the researchers hope this approach
will help "develop new climate-smart varieties for farmers in the world's toughest crop-growing
regions."
SCIENTIFIC NEWS Just the Facts!

WHO WHY
WHAT
HOW
WHERE
WHEN
61
NEWS ARTICLE #2: SPACECRAFT WAKES UP
In November 2014, scientists sent a spacecraft probe to land on a comet. The probe successfully
landed and worked for 60 hours, but when it ran out of energy, it stopped working. It happened to
sit in a shadow and its solar battery could not recharge.
When the comet moved closer to the sun, the shadow moved and the probe’s battery received
solar power. Recently, the probe started to send transmissions to scientists again. It even sent a
tweet!
*Difficult Words: probe (an electronic machine that people send to study something far away), recharge
(to get energy again), transmission (a message).
PODCAST: www.youtube.com/watch?v=yIIq7yxca3E
WHERE WHAT
EVENT
WHO
WHEN
HOW WHY
62
NEWS ARTICLE 3: LAZY LIFESTYLE KEY TO PANDAS'

BAMBOO-ONLY DIET
By Matt McGrath Environment correspondent, BBC News
10 July 2015
Scientists now know how pandas survive on low-calorie bamboo
Scientists have uncovered the key reason why giant pandas are able to survive solely on
a diet of bamboo.
The researchers found that pandas get by on shoots and leaves because they expend extremely
small amounts of energy.
A typical adult panda burns up about 38% of the calories used by other, similarly sized animals.
The scientists found the bears' slow-moving ways were linked to low levels of thyroid hormones.
Scientists have long been intrigued as to how the black and white mammals are able to live
exclusively on hard-to-digest bamboo, since their stomachs still retain the gut bacteria of the
omnivorous creatures they evolved from.
The metabolic rate of an active panda is lower than a completely stationary humanProf John
Speakman, University of Aberdeen & Chinese Academy of Sciences
This new analysis sheds light on the mystery.
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'Frugal with energy'
The researchers looked at the daily energy expenditure of five captive pandas and three living in
the wild.
They found that the creatures used around 38% of the predicted value for mammals of their size.
This compares to slow-moving koalas, which use around 69% of the energy normal for similarly
sized animals.
The most direct comparison with the pandas' laid-back ways were three-toed sloths, which have
a similarly minimal energy consumption for their size.
When the researchers measured the panda's rates of movement they found they were only
active 49% of the time, and when they did move, their average speed was a less-than-blistering
20 metres per hour.
"Pandas save a lot of energy by being frugal with the energy they spend on physical activity,"
said Prof John Speakman, from the University of Aberdeen and Chinese Academy of Sciences,
one of the study's lead authors.
"However, it is not only their low activity that contributes to their low metabolism; the metabolic
rate of an active panda is still lower than a completely stationary human.
"We found that their low metabolism is correlated with very low levels of thyroid hormones, which
was linked to a genetic mutation in the thyroid hormone synthesis pathway that is unique to the
panda."
These hormone levels were the equivalent to those found in hibernating black bears.
Pandas in captivity were even less inclined to move about, rising off their bottoms for only about
one third of the time they were studied.
The researchers also discovered that the panda's brain, liver and kidneys are relatively small
compared to other bears.
According to WWF, there are around 1,800 pandas left in the wild in China.
The findings were reported in the journal Science.
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NEWS ARTICLE# 4: ULTRASOUND MAY HEAL CHRONIC

WOUNDS, SUGGESTS STUDY
By James GallagherHealth and science reporter, BBC News website
A blast of ultrasound can help stubborn chronic wounds heal more quickly, a study
suggests.
Tests on animals, published in the Journal of Investigative Dermatology, showed healing times
could be cut by nearly a third.
Experts said the early results were "quite impressive" but needed to be tested on people.
More than 200,000 people in the UK have chronic wounds which can take weeks to heal.
Ultrasound is already used to heal some bone injuries.
A team from the Universities of Sheffield and Bristol tried the technology on mice with chronic
wounds, which do not close readily and often become infected.
Pressure sores from lying or sitting in the same position for too long, and diabetic foot ulcers
which can lead to amputation, are both types of chronic wound.
They become more common when we age due to a decline in our body's ability to repair itself.
Ultrasound
The high frequency sound waves physically vibrate cells in and around the wound. The process
effectively wakes up the cells to make them more responsive to the wound.
The study showed that in both old and diabetic mice, healing times were reduced from nine to six
days.
The report said ultrasound was "restoring healing rates to those observed in young healthy
animals".
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In the tests the team was treating the wounds before they become chronic, so they will need to
test the power of ultrasound on wounds that have been there for weeks.
Dr Mark Bass, one of the researchers from Sheffield University, told the BBC News website: "At
the moment, treatment is based around stopping the infection and hoping it heals, with
ultrasound we are promoting the healing of the wound."
"It's activating the normal healing process, that's why it's an attractive therapy; the ultrasound is
simply waking up cells to do what they do normally."
The researchers now need to study the approach in people, which they expect to do in the next
year.
"We're looking at 200,000 patients currently with a chronic wound, all those may well benefit from
the technology," Dr Bass said.
The researchers are using broadly the same equipment that is used in an ultrasound scan during
pregnancy.
Dr John Connelly, from Queen Mary, University of London, said: "They're getting almost
complete reversal of impaired wound healing which is quite impressive."
So does it have potential as a treatment?
"I think it could, but that's a major question as wound healing is quite different between humans
and mice," he said.
"One of the big wound-healing treatments is negative pressure - putting the wound under a
vacuum - that acts through mechanical stimulation, so it's entirely reasonable that ultrasound
may also work."
VIDEO TEXTS: http://www.manythings.org/voa/v/ja/
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READINGS AND EXERCISES FOR SELF PRACTICE
PRACTICE:
Answer the following questions according to what is stated or implied in the text:
Being able to land safely is a critically important skill for all flying animals. Whereas terrestrial
animals face no particular challenge when they need to stop running or crawling, flying animals
move at much higher speeds, and they must be careful about how they land.
Hitting the ground, or even water, at full flight speed would be quite dangerous. Before touching
down, they must decrease their speed in order to land safely. Both bats and birds have mastered
the skill of landing, but these two types of flyers go about it quite differently.
In the past it was believed that, in terms of flying mechanics, there was little difference between
bats and birds. This belief was based only on assumption, however, because for years nobody
had actually studied in graphic detail how bats move their wings. In recent years, though,
researchers have discovered a number of interesting facts about bat flight.
Bats are built differently from birds, and their wings incorporate both their front and hind limbs.
This makes coordinating their limbs more difficult for bats and, as a result, they are not very good
at flying over longer distances. However, they are much better at maneuverability: a bat can
quickly change its direction of flight or completely reverse it, something a bird cannot easily do.
Another interesting characteristic of bat flight is the way in which bats land—upside down! Unlike
birds, which touch down on the ground or on tree branches, bats can be observed flying around
and then suddenly hanging upside down from an object overhead.
How do they do it? A group of researchers recently used video cameras to film bats landing on
nets suspended from the ceiling of their laboratory and studied the recordings in slow motion.
They painted spots on the bats’ wings to see in detail what happens to the wings in flight and
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during touchdown. It turns out that the bats flew in a straight line up to the net and then quickly
flipped over and attached themselves to it upside down. One downside to this landing routine is
that the bats often slam into their landing spot with some force, which probably causes pain.
However, not all bats hit their landing spots with the same speed and force; these will vary
depending on the area where a bat species makes its home.
For example, a cave bat, which regularly perches on a hard stone ceiling, is more careful about
its landing preparation than a bat more accustomed to landing in leafy treetops.
1. What is the main topic of the passage?
(A) Places where flying animals chooseto land
(B) Why scientists have difficultyobserving bats
(C) Differences in the eating habits ofbats and birds
(D) Ways in which bats move differently frombirds
2. In line 2, the word terrestrial is closest
in meaning to _______.
(A) high-flying
(B) fast-moving
(C) tree-climbing
(D) ground-living
3. According to the passage, what skillis crucial for flying animals?
(A) Diving underwater
(B) Slowing down to land
(C) Flying over great distances
(D) Balancing on high branches
4. Which of the following is a false assumptionabout bats that was recently corrected?
(A) They cannot hear.
(B) They sleep upside down.
(C) They fly similarly to birds.
(D) They hide in tree branches.
5. According to the passage, what is anadvantage that bats have over birds?
(A) Bats can land on a greater variety ofsurfaces.

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(B) Bats can turn in the air more quickly.
(C) Bats can eat while flying.
(D) Bats are lighter.
6. In line 11, the word incorporate is closest in
meaning to _______.
(A) add
(B) deliver
(C) include
(D) discover
7. In line 14, the word it refers to _______.
(A) bat
(B) bird
(C) direction
(D) maneuverability
8. The researchers used all of the following tostudy bats EXCEPT _______.
(A) nets
(B) paint
(C) cables
(D) cameras
9. In line 20, the word suspended is closest inmeaning to _______.
(A) hanging
(B) entering
(C) falling
(D) living
10. In line 24, the word slam is closestin meaning to _______.
(A) crash
(B) bring
(C) break
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(D) chang
11. According to the passage, what helpsdetermine a bat’s landing speed?
(A) What it eats
(B) How old it is
(C) How big it is
(D) Where it lives
READING: THE CANTERVILLE GHOST
When the American, Mr. Otis, bought Canterville Castle, everyone told him that this was very
foolish, as the place was haunted. But Mr. Otis answered, “I come from a modern country, where
we have everything that money can buy. And if there were such a thing as a ghost in Europe, we
would have it at home in one of our museums.”
A few weeks later, on a lovely July evening, Mr. Otis, his wife and their children, Washington,
Virginia and the twins, went down to their new home. When they entered the avenue of
Canterville Castle, the sky suddenly became dark and a spooky stillness was in the air.
Mrs. Umney, the housekeeper, led them into the library of the castle, where they sat down and
began to look around. Suddenly, Mrs. Otis saw a red stain on the floor just by the fireplace and
said to Mrs. Umney, “I am afraid something has been spilt there.”
“Yes, madam,” said the old housekeeper in a low voice, “blood has been spilt on that spot.”
“How terrible,” said Mrs. Otis; “I don't want any blood-stains in my sitting-room. It must be
removed at once.”
The old woman smiled and answered, “It is the blood of Lady Eleanore de Canterville, who was
murdered on that spot by her husband, Sir Simon de Canterville, in 1575. Sir Simon disappeared
seven years later. His body has never been found, but his ghost still haunts the Castle. The
blood-stain is a tourist attraction now and it cannot be removed.”
70
“That is all nonsense,” said Washington, the eldest son of the Otis family, “stain remover will
clean it up in no time,” and he took a bottle of stain remover out of his pocket and cleaned the
spot. But as soon as the blood-stain had disappeared, a terrible flash of lightning lit up the room
and a fearful peal of thunder made the whole building shake.
READING: 50 YEARS OF ERGONOMICS – WHERE HAVE WE

BEEN AND WHERE ARE WE GOING?
By: Magdalen Galley, President of the UK Ergonomics Society.
Paragraph1. Although ergonomics can only be traced back formally for about 50 years there is
evidence that it is much older than this, especially in the design of hand tools, where ergonomics
input can be traced into pre-history. Christensen (1976) expresses that early man specially
selected pebbles, made scoops from bone and fashioned tools and utensils in general. Men
showed ‘specific, intelligent reactions to the interactions between man and his environment,
something that he considers is the very essence of ergonomics.
Paragraph 2. We know that ergonomics is a Greek work but is there any evidence of its use at this
time? They certainly had a good knowledge of anthropometry if ancient Greek sculpture is
considered, and Hippocrates, the father of medicine, suggests that surgeons should stand or sit
according to comfort, should position light to avoid glare, and that tools should be a shape, size,
weight and construction to be easy to use, all of which are major ergonomics considerations.
Indeed many hand tools of the time are identical to those we still use today and so they have
clearly stood the test of time as they take account of the user. There was also a concern for the
health and safety of slaves working in the mines and construction sites of ancient Greece. It may
be an overstatement to say that ergonomics was specifically employed in these ancient times but
we can trace its basis back to then. The same can be said of the early Chinese civilizations
where ergonomics was applied to facilitate the development of Chinese industry and society. In
later times more work was also done but much of it was lost during the Cultural Revolution of
1966 – 76.
71
Paragraph 3. In the 20th Frederick Taylor’s work on the scientific study of work was important for
the design work flow to increase worker efficiency. In the summer of 1949 “Ergonomics” was
defined by Murrell, after consultation with Greek and Latin Scholars, as “the study of the
relationship between man and his working environment”. A little over 25 years later, in 1976,
Welford noted that the term “ergonomics” had always been regarded as ugly and
incomprehensible and was adopted in 1950 in the face of “grave misgivings”. Despite these initial
reservations and concerns, the term is still with us and, with a few problems along the way,
appears to have caught on and become highly successful.
Paragraph 4. Ergonomics has also become a more widespread discipline, no longer merely
concerned with men at work. Now we consider it to be concerned with the understanding of the
interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies
theoretical principles, data and methods to design in order to optimise human well-being and
overall system performance.
READING: THE INFLUENCE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
Today, researchers generally agree that heredity and environment have an interactive influence
on intelligence. Many researchers believe that there is a reaction range to IQ, which refers to the
limits placed on IQ by heredity. Heredity places an upper and lower limit on the IQ that can be
attained by a given person. The environment determines where within these limits the person’s
IQ will lie.
Despite the prevailing view that both heredity and environment influence intelligence, researchers
still have different opinions about how much each contributes and how they interact.
Hereditary Influences
Evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes from the following observations:
Family studies show that intelligence tends to run in families.

Twin studies show a higher correlation between identical twins in IQ than between fraternal twins.
This holds true even when identical twins reared apart are compared to fraternal twins reared
together.
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Adoption studies show that adopted children somewhat resemble their biological parents in
intelligence.
Family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies, however, are not without problems. See
pages 36-–38 for more information about the drawbacks of such studies.
Heritability of Intelligence
Heritability is a mathematical estimate that indicates how much of a trait’s variation in a

population can be attributed to genes. Estimates of the heritability of intelligence vary, depending
on the methods used. Most researchers believe that heritability of intelligence is between 60
percent and 80 percent.
Heritability estimates apply only to groups on which the estimates are based. So far, heritability
estimates have been based mostly on studies using white, middle-class subjects. Even if
heritability of IQ is high, heredity does not necessarily account for differences between groups.
Three important factors limit heritability estimates:
1. Heritability estimates don’t reveal anything about the extent to which genes influence a single
person’s traits.
2. Heritability depends on how similar the environment is for a group of people.
3. Even with high heritability, a trait can still be influenced by environment.
Environmental Influences
Evidence for environmental influences on intelligence comes from the following observations:
 Adoption studies demonstrate that adopted children show some similarity in IQ to their
adoptive parents.
 Adoption studies also show that siblings reared together are more similar in IQ than siblings
reared apart. This is true even when identical twins reared together are compared to
identical twins reared apart.
 Biologically unrelated children raised together in the same home have some similarity in IQ.
 IQ declines over time in children raised in deprived environments, such as understaffed
orphanages or circumstances of poverty and isolation. Conversely, IQ improves in children
who leave deprived environments and enter enriched environments.
 People’s performance on IQ tests has improved over time in industrialized countries. This
strange phenomenon, which is known as the Flynn effect, is attributed to environmental
influences. It cannot be due to heredity, because the world’s gene pool could not have
changed in the seventy years or so since IQ testing began.
Possible Causes of the Flynn Effect

The precise cause for the Flynn effect is unclear. Researchers speculate that it may be due to
environmental factors such as decreased prevalence of severe malnutrition among children,
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enhancing of skills through television and video games, improved schools, smaller family sizes,
higher level of parental education, or improvements in parenting.
Cultural and Ethnic Differences

Studies have shown a discrepancy in average IQ scores between whites and minority groups in
the United States. Black, Native American, and Hispanic people score lower, on average, than
white people on standardized IQ tests. Controversy exists about whether this difference is due to
heredity or environment.
Hereditary Explanations
A few well-known proponents support hereditary explanations for cultural and ethnic differences
in IQ:
 In the late 1960s, researcher Arthur Jensen created a storm of controversy by proposing
that ethnic differences in intelligence are due to heredity. He based his argument on his
own estimate of about 80 percent heritability for intelligence.
 In the 1990s, researchers Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray created a similar
controversy with their book, The Bell Curve. They also suggested that intelligence is largely
inherited and that heredity at least partly contributes to ethnic and cultural differences.
Environmental Explanations
Many researchers believe that environmental factors primarily cause cultural and ethnic
differences. They argue that because of a history of discrimination, minority groups comprise a
disproportionately large part of the lower social classes, and therefore cultural and ethnic
differences in intelligence are really differences among social classes. People in lower social
classes have a relatively deprived environment. Children may have:
READING: REASSESSING THE IMPACTS OF BRAIN DRAIN ON

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Brain drain, which is the action of having highly skilled and educated people leaving their country
to work abroad, has become one of the developing countries concern. Brain drain is also referred
to as human capital flight. More and more third world science and technology educated people
are heading for more prosperous countries seeking higher wages and better working conditions.
This has of course serious consequences on the sending countries.
While many people believe that immigration is a personal choice that must be understood and
respected, others look at the phenomenon from a different perspective. What makes those
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educated people leave their countries should be seriously considered and a distinction between
push and pull factors must be made. The push factors include low wages and lack of satisfactory
working and living conditions. Social unrest, political conflicts and wars may also be determining
causes. The pull factors, however, include intellectual freedom and substantial funds for
research.
Brain drain has negative impact on the sending countries economic prospects and
competitiveness. It reduces the number of dynamic and creative people who can contribute to the
development of their country. Likewise, with more entrepreneurs taking their investments abroad,
developing countries are missing an opportunity of wealth creation. This has also negative
consequences on tax revenue and employment.
Most of the measures taken so far have not had any success in alleviating the effects of brain
drain. A more global view must take into consideration the provision of adequate working and
living conditions in the sending countries. Another option should involve encouraging the
expatriates to contribute their skill to the development of their countries without necessarily
physically relocating.
LINKS: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/magazine/the-mixed-up-brothers-of-
bogota.html?fb_ref=Default# Magazine Article
READING: WHAT DO A SEED AND A WEBSITE HAVE TO DO

WITH STOPPING CLIMATE CHANGE?
Author: Ann Clark Espuelas
Sustainably produced forest products have the potential to mitigate climate change, preserve biodiversity
and enhance local livelihoods. But their value is underappreciated. Now, an online network called
CanopyBridge, which brings together the sustainable sellers with interested buyers, is bringing these
products to global markets.
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16 March 2015 | Deep in the tropical rainforests of Latin America, a seed the size of a marble
grows in abundance. Amid the many visual splendors of the rainforest, neither the tree from
which the seed comes, Brosimum alicastrum, nor the seed itself seem of particular note. Indeed,
though the seed (and leaves, sap, and wood) have been critical to the survival of people who
have lived in the forest for years, it has been largely ignored outside of its native habitat.
Yet this seed--like other products of the rainforest--may be central to a shift in the universal
understanding of how we fight climate change.
The thin, citrus-flavored skin of the seed covers an edible, highly nutritious "nut." Known as the
Maya Nut, this "superfood" was once a diet staple of forest dwellers, and in recent years, the
Maya Nut Institute has been working to bring this ancient food back to prominence, and its
production has already greatly improved the livelihoods and the health of forest dwellers.
The Maya Nut, like myriad other products of the world's rainforests, has the potential for even
greater impact, however, particularly for the value it adds to the world's perception of the forests
in which they grow--namely, that a forest is worth more alive than dead.
The forests of our planet, on the frontlines of climate-change mitigation because of their ability to
store massive amounts of carbon, are in real danger from deforestation and degradation. But
what if it were known, on a global level, that these forests contained value not just because of
their timber, but because they contained sustainable and marketable products that could greatly
impact lives--and keep the forests healthy and alive?
The Long Road to Market
Because it is harvested exclusively in the wild--deep in the forest--the Maya Nut, however, has a
long way to go before gaining the global acceptance enjoyed by other superfoods like quinoa.
Making that journey a bit easier is CanopyBridge, an online global network that connects sellers
of sustainable, wild-harvested products with international buyers. The site "allows members from
around the world to list, describe, discover and learn more about natural products and the people
behind them."
The site aims to bring together small-scale producers--such as the Maya Nut Institute--and
businesses looking to source such unique products and make the transaction process between
them easy and transparent. "The world has about 400,000 plant species, but 90% of our food
comes from only about 100 of these," says Jacob Olander, director of EcoDecision, an
environmental consultancy, and a founder of CanopyBridge. "There's this vast storehouse of
diversity and local traditions still waiting to be discovered, and there are literally millions of local
producers whose livelihoods depend on finding better markets for their products. But it's still
really difficult to connect that potential supply with demand--both for buyers looking for new
sustainably sourced products and for producers trying to reach broader markets."
The Maya Nut Institute joins a long list of sellers connecting with buyers, such as restaurants
looking for innovative menu items, boutique chocolatiers looking for single-origin cocoa beans,
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people looking for the next acai, or perhaps someone developing a new power bar. Smaller
producers--many in the rainforest, for example--simply don't have the advocates or the funds to
go to an international trade fair and make the connections necessary to bring their products to a
global market.
"We've got producers of alpaca fibers on the site," says Olander. "We've got people who are
purchasing ingredients for energy drinks. Then we've got Shea nut producers from West Africa.
The idea is really that there's a vast world of possible ingredients out there that should be
discovered, and we want to create a space where you can find all that."
Olander and Marta Echavarria founded EcoDecision, a company based in Ecuador, in 1995.
EcoDecision is a pioneer in the emerging markets of ecosystem services. These markets work
on the premise that natural ecosystems generate more value alive than dead. A swamp, for
example, filters water and acts as a floodplain, while a forest sucks carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, and mangroves protect the coasts. All ecosystems, meanwhile, support biodiversity-
-and all of these services are lost when swamps are drained for farming, forests are cleared for
timber, and mangroves become pricey resorts.
Some products can still be harvested from the forest without destroying it, and it was in their
exploration of the non-timber values that a forest could provide that Olander and Echavarria hit
upon the idea for CanopyBridge, an offshoot of EcoDecision.
"We were looking at the products coming out of projects that are related to conservation in some
way, where additional income from sustainable crops or wild-harvested ingredients can make the
financial difference between keeping or clearing a forest," says Olander. "And we realized that
the process of sustainability-minded buyers and sellers finding each other was really inefficient.
"We realized that if you're a business and you're looking to source these products, there is no
easy way to find these things. There's no community out there that somehow brings buyers and
sellers committed to conservation together. Finding your market or finding your supplier still
largely depends on personal contacts, word of mouth and chance."
Of course there's Google, Olander explains, and "the Internet in all of its breadth and depths," but
if you were looking for sustainable products, across a range of certifications and around the
world, and if you needed to know the origins of the product, such a site did not exist.
CanopyBridge was born of this need, and they settled on the name to communicate "the idea of
building a connection between the sheltering forest, the forest canopy, and all that it contains,
and building a bridge between the producers there and buyers who are using these products
around the world."
The products on CanopyBridge reflect these original goals in that they are produced in such a
way that they protect nature and foster healthy communities. Runa, a Brooklyn, N.Y., and
Ecuador-based seller on the site, makes energy drinks from the guayusa leaf, and is certified
organic, Fair Trade, non-GMO and kosher, and the company itself is a B Corp.
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"We're huge fans of Runa, and we're proud that they're on our site," says Olander. "We think
they're a great example of a company that's working with one of the literally hundreds of
thousands of potential ingredients that are out there in these natural ecosystems in the tropics
that's had a traditional use, and using it in a way that brings it to a new market, and at the same
time reinforces its traditional value within the communities where they work."
To use the site, buyers and suppliers create a profile for free, which provides detailed information
about the product being sold or the potential selling venue. Although CanopyBridge does not
require its members to hold a specific certification or follow a certain standard, it looks for users
with a strong commitment to sustainability who are open and transparent about their products or
services.
"Behind each of these products are wonderful stories," says Echavarria. "Both from a human
standpoint, but also from a biological standpoint."
Focus on Food
The emphasis at CanopyBridge is on ingredients for either foods or cosmetics, or with medicinal
and supplemental uses. With its focus on food, CanopyBridge is tapping into the burgeoning
connection being made between conservation groups and the food industry. Superstar chefs like
Pedro Miguel Schiaffino, of Ámaz and Malabar restaurants in Lima, Peru, are sourcing and
cooking with unusual and delicious ingredients from the Amazon, many of which are listed sellers
on CanopyBridge. This kind of work is pushing the envelope on modern cuisine--and taking a big
step in the preservation of the planet's biodiversity.
"There are some fantastic ingredients out there," says Olander. "You've got this wild fruit called
camu camu, which makes this beautiful pink juice and grows on the river banks [of the Amazon].
It's one of the world's highest, most concentrated sources of vitamin C. Sacha inchi or Inca
peanut from Peru is a great source of Omega-3s and protein. From Indonesia, several varieties
of palm sugar, sweeteners that are not available or commonly used yet that I think have a huge
potential. Baobab is coming into its own as an antioxidant superfruit from southern Africa. The list
just goes on and on."
CanopyBridge presents a tremendous opportunity for valuing biodiversity--these products are

now given explicit market value--with potential for significant livelihood benefits for the producers
of rainforest products as well as along the value chain.
Small Site With Far-Reaching Potential
As with the Maya Nut seed, the implications of what CanopyBridge is doing may not at first be
apparent. But CanopyBridge is far more than simply a "Match.com" type site bringing vendors
and producers together. By bringing sustainable, scalable products out of the forest into a global
market, CanopyBridge is making an enormous ripple in the pond of biodiversity conservation,
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local livelihoods, and climate change mitigation. And according to Jacob Olander, such a ripple is
vital.
"I got my start with non-timber forest products years ago, researching the potential for new
ornamental plants from the rainforests of Costa Rica when I was in grad school," says Olander.
"There's all this great stuff out there, these products that complement these other objectives of
valuing nature and keeping communities healthy and prosperous. Paying for watershed services
alone or paying for carbon alone is never going to get us [to climate-change mitigation]."
"If you start to look at how much the economy is already moving in these other kinds of
sustainable products, it's an astounding volume of trade, probably greater than the total amount
of development aid globally. [CanopyBridge] just seemed like a really logical fit while we were
looking for new ways to finance the protection of ecosystems. If we can bring all the pieces
together--farmers, forest peoples, companies and consumers committed to sustainability--that's a
really, really powerful combination."
Both in the forest and in business, big things grow from a single seed.
PRACTICE:
1.General Motors Co will build the next generation of its Astra compact in Britain after workers at
its factory in Ellesmere Port, northwest England, overwhelmingly agreed to a new labour deal,
leaving its plant in Bochum, Germany in danger of closure.
The U.S. carmaker said on Thursday it would invest 125 million pounds in the 5.Ellesmere Port
plant, where assembly of the new vehicle will start in 2015.
Britain's Unite union said 94 percent of those balloted voted in favour of changes to working
conditions and that some 700 jobs would be created at the plant, securing its future until 2020.
"It's almost certain that one of GM's German plants will now be closed, probably the 10.plant in
Bochum," a source close to the negotiations said.
GM, which sells under the Vauxhall brand in Britain, is expected to halt production of the Astra,
its most important model, at its main plant in Russelsheim, Germany, making the car only at
Ellesmere Port and at Poland's Gliwice plant from 2015.
The source added that some production of GM's Chevrolet marque could be shifted 15.from Asia
79
to Europe, with Russelsheim the likely beneficiary. This would leave the Opel factory at Bochum
as the most likely site to be closed.
The decision is one of the most dramatic so far as Europe's carmakers look to restructure or
consolidate in response to more than four years of falling demand and profits.
20.Many factories are running at partial capacity - analysts estimate automakers have cut some 3
million cars, or 20 percent, from their production lines - and still producers struggle to sell their
wares.
Answer the questions below according to what is stated or implied in the text.
1. According to the article, which GM plant will likely be closed?

a.The plant in Russelsheim, Germany
b.The plant in Ellesmere Port, England
c.The plant in Bochum, Germany
2. The article states that from 2015, the Astra will no longer be produced in ________________.
a.Gliwice, Poland
b.Russelsheim, Germany
c.Ellesmere Port, England
3. Does GM own the Vauxhall brand?

a.yes
b.No
c.It is not specified in the article
4. How many years of falling demand and profits has GM seen, according to the article?
a.Three
b.Four
c.Two
5. The workers at GM's UK plant _________________.

a.will soon be voting on a new labor contract
b.rejected a proposed labor contract
c.agreed to a new labor contract
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READING: WHAT ARE NEUROMARKETERS REALLY SELLING?
By Matt Wall
Geodesic sensor net used by scientists during an experiment at the EEG lab at Auckland
University, where New Zealand's first computer images of thought process were obtained,
December 17, 1998.
Geodesic sensor net used by scientists during an experiment at the EEG lab at Auckland
University, where New Zealand's first computer images of thought process were obtained,
December 17, 1998.
The prefix “neuro” is attached to an increasing number of other terms these days. There are
people conducting research in neuroeconomics, neuroethics, and of course neuroscience, the
broad research field that covers everything from the study of chemical receptors on individual
nerve cells to the workings of the entire human brain en masse. The neuro-neologism that has
perhaps made the biggest impact outside of the academic world, though, is neuromarketing.
Marketers and advertising agencies have always conducted research, and they have adopted
methodology and concepts from academic psychology for decades. Traditional marketing
research typically involves questionnaires, focus groups, or in-depth interviews, and it is usually
aimed at answering questions related to product development, advertising, or evaluating potential
new markets. This seems eminently reasonable; if you have a new product that you want to
launch in a specific market, why not ask the people in that market what they think of it?
But in the 1990s, some people on the fringes of the marketing world got very excited about new
technology. Functional magnetic resonance imaging and other tools suddenly made it possible to
visualise the workings of the human brain in unprecedented detail and precision. With an
objective window into the working of the brain (in theory, anyway), marketers could neatly bypass
many of the problems associated with asking subjects overt questions. A number of fMRI studies
were conducted that explicitly investigated particular products and advertising, with often quite
interesting and informative results. Unfortunately, fMRI scanners are bulky, very expensive, and
not remotely portable. In addition, the participant has to lie supine in a narrow tube, watching
images on a screen while trying to ignore the God-awful banging and clanking noise the scanner
makes. To really commercialize neuromarketing, something much more portable, user-friendly,
and above all cheaper was needed. It was recently found in a much older brain-recording
technology: electroencephalography, or EEG.
It’s been known since the late 19th century that the brain’s activity gives off electrical signals, and
the first recording of that activity in humans was in 1924. EEG works by attaching recording
electrodes to the scalp. It is used in clinical settings to diagnose epilepsy and monitor coma
patients, and until recently (when better technologies like MRI came along) it was also used for
81
diagnosing tumors and strokes. EEG is also a popular neuroscience research method and can
provide very detailed information about the brain’s activity while the participant performs some
kind of laboratory task. EEG is only good for sensing the activity of the surface of the brain;
activity lower down is just too far away from the electrodes on the scalp to get reliable data.
Recording neural activity through the skull is like listening to an argument in the apartment below
yours by pressing your ear against the floor; you might be able to hear some muffled voices, and
maybe even some of the louder details, but you’ve no hope at all of hearing what’s happening in
an apartment five floors below.
Despite the long history of EEG, the marketing world was slow to embrace it as a research
method. This is because for most of its history it suffered from the same problems as fMRI:
reliance on expensive, bulky equipment that was difficult and time-consuming to set up and run
properly. Modern research-grade EEG systems can use up to 256 separate electrodes, and
fixing them to a subject’s head using conductive gel (in order to get the best possible connection)
is a messy business that can take several hours. However, technical advances in the past 10
years have changed the game; in 2007 a company called NeuroSky released the first consumer
EEG device that used dry-sensor technology, removing the need to smear conductive gel in your
participant’s hair. Cheap and easy wireless technology, the high power densities of lithium-ion
batteries, and advances in computer technology have driven the cost ever downward and the
user-friendliness upward. There are now more than 10 cheap (around $100 to $200) consumer-
grade EEG headsets available. Some of them use just a single sensor, while the more
sophisticated ones use up to 14 and also incorporate gyroscopic head-motion detectors and
additional sensors that record the muscle movements of the face. Finally, here was the brain-
imaging technology marketers had been waiting for: cheap, easy to use, and so portable that it
could even be used in environments like shopping malls.
The marketing world rapidly embraced this new technology. There are now around 100
companies worldwide that offer some form of neuromarketing services, many of them using
these EEG devices, and their clients are some of the largest consumer businesses in the world.
Perhaps the best-known neuromarketing company is NeuroFocus, founded in 2005 by A.K.
Pradeep and now a subsidiary of the Neilsen Co., a behemoth in the market-research world.
Pradeep has a background in engineering and business consulting and has recently released a
book titled The Buying Brain: Secrets for Selling to the Subconscious Mind. Other current big
hitters in the field are NeuroSpire (recently founded by 22-year-old self-proclaimed wunderkind
Jake Stauch) and Emotiv (developer of the EPOC EEG hardware and software suites that claim
to monitor emotional and cognitive states in real time). These companies all use off-the-shelf
hardware; their intellectual capital is largely based on their (proprietary and closely guarded)
analysis techniques that claim to derive useful measures from the collected EEG data: measures
related to attention, engagement, frustration, and supposedly even buying potential.
The EEG neuromarketers make big claims based on their research techniques. NeuroFocus
says it measures the “neurological iconic signature” and “deep subconscious response” related to
a tested product. NeuroSpire asserts that its technology allows you to “peer into the
subconscious mind of the consumer.” Can they deliver on these promises?
82
READING: BIOSAFETY LEVELS 1, 2, 3 & 4
Biological safety levels are ranked from one to four and are selected based on the agents or
organisms on which the research or work is being conducted. Each level up builds on the
previous level, adding constraints and barriers.
By Vince McLeod | December 09, 2010
A very specialized research laboratory that deals with infectious agents is the biosafety lab.
Whether performing research or production activities, when working with infectious materials,
organisms or perhaps even laboratory animals, the proper degree of protection is of utmost
importance. Protection for laboratory personnel, the environment and the local community must
be considered and ensured. The protections required by these types of activities are defined as
biosafety levels. Biological safety levels are ranked from one to four and are selected based on
the agents or organisms on which the research or work is being conducted. Each level up builds
on the previous level, adding constraints and barriers. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) are our main sources for biological
safety information for infectious agents. The publication Biosafety in Microbiological and
Biomedical Laboratories1 is a principal reference and the resource for much of the information
presented in this month’s column. As an introduction, we summarize what the different biosafety
levels encompass in terms of the typical biological agents used, safe work practices, specialized
safety equipment (primary barriers) and facility design (secondary barriers).
The four biosafety levels were developed to protect against a world of select agents. These
agents include bacteria, fungi, parasites, prions, rickettsial agents and viruses, the latter being
probably the largest and most important group. In many instances the work or research involves
vertebrate animals, everything from mice to cattle. When vertebrates are involved, additional
precautions and safety requirements are necessary. Using the most infectious agents also
means extensive security measures are in place, not only because of their virulence but also
because of their potential for use in bioterrorism.
Level 1
Biosafety level one, the lowest level, applies to work with agents that usually pose a minimal
potential threat to laboratory workers and the environment and do not consistently cause disease
in healthy adults. Research with these agents is generally performed on standard open
laboratory benches without the use of special containment equipment. BSL 1 labs are not usually
isolated from the general building. Training on the specific procedures is given to the lab
personnel, who are supervised by a trained microbiologist or scientist.
83
Standard microbiology practices are usually enough to protect laboratory workers and other
employees in the building. These include mechanical pipetting only (no mouth pipetting allowed),
safe sharps handling, avoidance of splashes or aerosols, and decontamination of all work
surfaces when work is complete, e.g., daily. Decontamination of spills is done immediately, and
all potentially infectious materials are decontaminated prior to disposal, generally by autoclaving.
Standard microbiological practices also require attention to personal hygiene, i.e., hand washing
and a prohibition on eating, drinking or smoking in the lab. Normal laboratory personal protective
equipment is generally worn, consisting of eye protection, gloves and a lab coat or gown.
Biohazard signs are posted and access to the lab is limited whenever infectious agents are
present.
Level 2
Biosafety level two would cover work with agents associated with human disease, in other words,
pathogenic or infectious organisms posing a moderate hazard. Examples are the equine
encephalitis viruses and HIV when performing routine diagnostic procedures or work with clinical
specimens. Therefore, because of their potential to cause human disease, great care is used to
prevent percutaneous injury (needlesticks, cuts and other breaches of the skin), ingestion and
mucous membrane exposures in addition to the standard microbiological practices of BSL 1.
Contaminated sharps are handled with extreme caution. Use of disposable syringe-needle units
and appropriate puncture-resistant sharps containers is mandatory. Direct handling of broken
glassware is prohibited, and decontamination of all sharps prior to disposal is standard practice.
The laboratory’s written biosafety manual details any needed immunizations (e.g., hepatitis B
vaccine or TB skin testing) and whether serum banking is required for at-risk lab personnel.
Access to the lab is more controlled than for BSL 1 facilities. Immunocompromised,
immunosuppressed and other persons with increased risk for infection may be denied admittance
at the discretion of the laboratory director.
BSL 2 labs must also provide the next level of barriers, i.e., specialty safety equipment and
facilities. Preferably, this is a Class II biosafety cabinet or equivalent containment device for work
with agents and an autoclave or other suitable method for decontamination within the lab. A
readily available eyewash station is needed. Selfclosing lockable doors and biohazard warning
signs are also required at all access points.
Level 3
Yellow fever, St. Louis encephalitis and West Nile virus are examples of agents requiring
biosafety level 3 practices and containment. Work with these agents is strictly controlled and
must be registered with all appropriate government agencies.2 These are indigenous or exotic
agents that may cause serious or lethal disease via aerosol transmission, i.e., simple inhalation
of particles or droplets. The pathogenicity and communicability of these agents dictates the next
level of protective procedures and barriers. Add to all the BSL 2 practices and equipment even
more stringent access control and decontamination of all wastes, including lab clothing before
84
laundering, within the lab facility. Baseline serum samples are collected from all lab and other at-
risk personnel as appropriate.
More protective primary barriers are used in BSL 3 laboratories, including solid-front wraparound
gowns, scrub suits or coveralls made of materials such as Tyvek® and respirators as necessary.
Facility design should incorporate self-closing double-door access separated from general
building corridors. The ventilation must provide ducted, directional airflow by drawing air into the
lab from clean areas and with no recirculation.
Level 4
Agents requiring BSL 4 facilities and practices are extremely dangerous and pose a high risk of
life-threatening disease. Examples are the Ebola virus, the Lassa virus, and any agent with
unknown risks of pathogenicity and transmission. These facilities provide the maximum
protection and containment. To the BSL 3 practices, we add requirements for complete clothing
change before entry, a shower on exit and decontamination of all materials prior to leaving the
facility.
The BSL 4 laboratory should contain a Class III biological safety cabinet but may use a Class I or
II BSC in combination with a positive-pressure, air-supplied full-body suit. Usually, BSL 4
laboratories are in separate buildings or a totally isolated zone with dedicated supply and exhaust
ventilation. Exhaust streams are filtered through high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters,
depending on the agents used.
We have touched on only the main issues and differences between BSL 1, 2, 3 and 4
laboratories. There are many other concerns and requirements addressed in the CDC manual,
such as impervious, easy-to-clean surfaces; insect and rodent control; and total barrier sealing of
all wall, floor and ceiling penetrations. Our goal was to introduce you to the different levels of
biological safety practices and facility design considerations. Hopefully, you now have the
knowledge to decide whether you should open that door or not.
References: Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories, 5th edition, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention and National Institutes of Health, February 2007. http://www.cdc.gov/biosafety/
Biennial Review of the Lists of Select Agents and Toxins, National Select Agent Registry, CDC. Atlanta,
GA. 2010. http://www.selectagents.gov/
85
GRAMMAR FOLDER
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
NOUNS A noun is a part of speech that is used to name a person,
place, thing, quality, or action.
Nouns can be singular or plural. The plural form of a noun is
usually formed by adding s at the end of the noun. But this is
not always the case. There are exceptions to the rule. Some
plurals are irregular:
Singular Plural
fish fish
tooth teeth
man men
woman women
ADJECTIVES  An adjective is a word which modifies a noun or a

pronoun. In the example below:
He's got an expensive car.
 Adjectives may come before a noun
He found a nice job
 Adjectives may also come after certain verbs like be,
feel, seem, look:
He is intelligent
I feel happy
VERBS A verb in syntax is a part of speech which conveys an action

(bring, read, walk, run, learn) or state of being (exist, stand)
Sentences in English have a main verb which is stated in a
tense (simple present, simple past, simple future...)
 verbs take s in the third person singular of the simple
present:
Infinitive Third Singular Person
play he/she/it plays
work he/ she/it works
ADVERBS An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other
adverbs.
Basically, most adverbs tell you how, in what way, when,
where, and to what extent something is done. In other words,
they describe the manner, place, or time of an action. Here
are some examples:
He speaks quietly. ( quietly is an adverb of manner.)
I live here. (here is an adverb of place.)
We'll leave tomorrow . (tomorrow is an adverb of time.)
She never sleeps late . (never is an adverb of frequency.)
86
PREPOSITIONS A preposition is a word which is used before a noun, a noun

phrase or a pronoun, connecting it to another word. In the
sentences:
"We jumped in the lake"
"Many shops don't open on Sundays."
"in" and "on" are prepositions
Generally speaking one can classify prepositions in three
groups:
 prepositions of time
 prepositions of place
other kinds of prepositions.
PRONOUNS Pronouns are words that substitute a noun or another
pronoun. Examples of pronouns are he, she, who,
themselves...
PREFIXES
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

anti- against/opposed to anti-government, anti-racist,
anti-war
auto- self autobiography, automobile
de- reverse or change de-classify, decontaminate,

demotivate
dis- reverse or remove disagree, displeasure,

disqualify
down- reduce or lower downgrade, downhearted
extra- beyond extraordinary, extraterrestrial
hyper- extreme hyperactive, hypertension
il-, im-, in-, ir- not illegal, impossible, insecure,

irregular
inter- between interactive, international
mega- very big, important megabyte, mega-deal, megaton
mid- middle midday, midnight, mid-October
mis- incorrectly, badly misaligned, mislead, misspelt
non- not non-payment, non-smoking
over- too much overcook, overcharge, overrate
out- go beyond outdo, out-perform, outrun
87
post- after post-election, post-war
pre- before prehistoric, pre-war
pro- in favour of pro-communist, pro-democracy
re- again reconsider, redo, rewrite
semi- half semicircle, semi-retired
sub- under, below submarine, sub-Saharan
super- above, beyond super-hero, supermodel
tele- at a distance television, telepathic
trans- across transatlantic, transfer
ultra- extremely ultra-compact, ultrasound
un- remove, reverse, not undo, unpack, unhappy
under- less than, beneath undercook, underestimate
up- make or move higher upgrade, uphill
SUFFIXES
Noun suffixes
Suffix Examples of nouns
-age baggage, village, postage
-al arrival, burial, deferral
-ance/-ence reliance, defence, insistence
-dom boredom, freedom, kingdom
-ee employee, payee, trainee
-er/-or driver, writer, director
-hood brotherhood, childhood, neighbourhood
-ism capitalism, Marxism, socialism (philosophies)
-ist capitalist, Marxist, socialist (followers of

philosophies)
-ity/-ty brutality, equality, cruelty
-ment amazement, disappointment, parliament
88
-ness happiness, kindness, usefulness
-ry entry, ministry, robbery
-ship friendship, membership, workmanship
-sion/-tion/-xion expression, population, complexion

Adjective suffixes
Suffix Examples of adjectives
-able/-ible drinkable, portable, flexible
-al brutal, formal, postal
-en broken, golden, wooden
-ese Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese
-ful forgetful, helpful, useful
-i Iraqi, Pakistani, Yemeni
-ic classic, Islamic, poetic
-ish British, childish, Spanish
-ive active, passive, productive
-ian Canadian, Malaysian, Peruvian
-less homeless, hopeless, useless
-ly daily, monthly, yearly
-ous cautious, famous, nervous
-y cloudy, rainy, windy
Verb Suffixes
Suffix Examples of verbs
-ate complicate, dominate, irritate
-en harden, soften, shorten
-ify beautify, clarify, identify
-ise/-ize economise, realise, industrialize (-ise is most

common in British English; -ize is most
common in American English)
89
Adverb Suffixes
Suffix Examples of adverbs
-ly calmly, easily, quickly
-ward(s) downwards, homeward(s), upwards
-wise anti-clockwise, clockwise, edgewise
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL POSSESIVE DEMONSTRATIVE POSSESIVE OBJECT RELATIVE
PRONOUN PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES PRONOUN PRONOUNS
MINE THIS MY WHICH
I ME
YOURS THESE YOUR WHO

YOU YOU
(Plural)
HE HIS THAT HIS HIM WHOSE
HERS THOSE HER WHOM

SHE (Plural) HER
IT ITS ITS IT THAT
WE YOURS OUR US WHAT
YOU OURS YOUR WHOEVER

YOU
(plural)
THEY THEIRS THEIR THEM
90
CONNECTORS
FUNCTIONS CONNECTORS
For Example, For Instance, In This Case, In Another Case, On This
Occasion, In This Situation, Take The Case Of, To Demonstrate, To
EXEMPLIFICATION
Illustrate, As An Illustration, ( e.g.) To Illustrate, ( i.e.), Like, As An
Example, Such as.
Like, Either…Or, As…As, In The Same Manner, Similarly, Likewise,
SIMILARITY/ COMPARISON
Just As…As, The Same As, As, In A Similar Way, Just As.
ALTERNATIVE Or
EXPLANATION That means, In other words, that is.
PURPOSE For, To, In Order To, For (Verb)- ing.
The former, The latter, First (ly) , Prior to, First, Second, Third,
TIME /SEQUENCE And So Forth, In/ At the beginning, To begin with, From, Since, Then,
OR ORDER And Then Next, Later, After, Afterwards, The following, Eventually,
Subsequently, Consequently, At last, Lastly, Ultimately, At the end,
Finally.
In Brief, On The Whole, Summing Up, To Conclude, In
SUMMARY OR CONCLUSION Conclusion, As I Have Shown, As I Have Said, Consequently,
In Summary, In Resume.
MEANS OR MANNER By Means Of, Through, By (Before a noun) By + (Verb) + ing.
Definitely, Extremely, Obviously, In Fact, Indeed, In
EMPHASIS/ Any Case, Absolutely, Positively, Naturally, Surprisingly,
REINFORCEMENT Always, Forever, Never, Emphatically, Unquestionably,
Without A Doubt, Certainly, Undeniably.
CONDITION
If, In Case Of, Whether, When, Unless That, Supposing That.
SIMULTANEITY As, At The Same Time, While.

Not…Nor, By No Means, Not At All, Not
NEGATION
Neither, In No Way.
As A Result , Because Of, In View Of , On Account Of,
REASON/CAUSE
Due To, Because, Since, Now That, In View
Of The Fact That,
Due To The Fact That.
Therefore, Hence, Consequently, As A Result, So That, For This

EFFECT/ RESULT Reason, As A Consequence, Resulting In, With The Result That, In
This Sense, Thus, So
However, Nevertheless, On The Other Hand, On The Contrary, But,

Although, Meanwhile, In Contrast, While, Though, Unlike, Despite, In
CONTRAST / OPPOSTION
Spite Of, (Even) Though, Despite The Fact That, Nonetheless,
Nevertheless, Whereas, Yet, Instead of.
And, Again, And Then, In Addition to, Besides, Equally Important,
Furthermore, Too, What Is More, Moreover, As Well, Plus,
ADDITION
both…and, Also.
91
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS
Infinitivo Pasado Participio Traducción

arise arose arisen surgir
awake awoke awoken despertar(se)
bear bore borne soportar
beat beat beaten golpear
become became become convertirse en
begin began begun empezar
bend bent bent doblar(se)
bet bet bet apostar
bid bid bid pujar
bind bound bound encuadernar
bite bit bitten morder
bleed bled bled sangrar
blow blew blown soplar
break broke broken romper
breed bred bred criar
bring brought brought traer
build built built construir
burn burnt burnt quemar(se)
burst burst burst estallar
buy bought bought comprar
cast cast cast tirar
catch caught caught coger
choose chose chosen elegir
cling clung clung aferrarse
come came come venir
cost cost cost costar
creep crept crept arrastrar
cut cut cut cortar
deal dealt dealt tratar
dig dug dug cavar
do did done hacer
draw drew drawn dibujar
dream dreamt dreamt soñar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conducir
92
eat ate eaten comer

fall fell fallen caer(se)
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentirse
fight fought fought pelearse
find found found encontrar
flee fled fled huir
fly flew flown volar
forbid forbade forbidden prohibir
forget forgot forgotten olvidar(se)
forgive forgave forgiven perdonar
freeze froze frozen helar(se)
get got got conseguir
give gave given dar
go went gone irse
grind ground ground moler

grow grew grown crecer
hang hung hung colgar
have had had haber, tener
hear heard heard escuchar
hide hid hidden esconder(se)
hit hit hit golpear
hold held held agarrar(se)
hurt hurt hurt hacer daño
keep kept kept guardar
kneel knelt knelt arrodillarse
know knew known saber, conocer
lay laid laid poner
lead led led llevar
lean leant leant apoyarse
leap leapt leapt brincar
learn learnt learnt aprender
leave left left dejar
lend lent lent prestar
let let let permitir
lie lay lain echarse
light lit lit encender(se)
93
lose lost lost perder

make made made hacer
mean meant meant significar
meet met met encontrar(se)
overcome overcame overcome vencer
pay paid paid pagar
put put put poner
read read read leer
ride rode ridden montar
ring rang rung sonar
rise rose risen levantarse
run ran run correr
saw sawed sawn serrar
say said said decir
see saw seen ver
seek sought sought buscar
sell sold sold vender(se)
send sent sent enviar
set set set poner
sew sewed sewn coser
shake shook shaken agitar
shear sheared shorn esquilar
shine shone shone brillar
shoot shot shot disparar
show showed shown mostrar
shrink shrank shrunk encoger(se)
shut shut shut cerrar(se)
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk hundir(se)

sit sat sat sentar(se)
sleep slept slept dormir
slide slid slid resbalar
smell smelt smelt oler
sow sowed sown sembrar
speak spoke spoken hablar
speed sped sped acelerar
94
spell spelt spelt deletrear

spend spent spent pasar, gastar
spill spilt spilt derramar
spit spat spat escupir
split split split hender
spoil spoilt spoilt estropear(se)
spread spread spread extender(se)
stand stood stood estar de pie
steal stole stolen robar
stick stuck stuck pegar(se)
sting stung stung picar
stink stank stunk apestar
strike struck struck golpear
strive strove striven esforzarse
swear swore sworn jurar
sweep swept swept barrer
swim swam swum nadar
swing swung swung balancear(se)
take took taken tomar(se)
teach taught taught enseñar
tear tore torn romper(se)
tell told told contar, decir
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown lanzar
tread trod trodden pisar
undergo underwent undergone sufrir
understand understood understood entender
upset upset upset afligir
wake woke woken despertar(se)
wear wore worn llevar (puesto)
weave wove woven tejer
weep wept wept llorar
win won won ganar
wind wound wound enrollar
withdraw withdrew withdrawn retirar(se)
wring wrung wrung torcer
write wrote written escribir
95
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READING MANUAL LEVEL II

Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Palmira

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA

PROGRAMA DE APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS

I. JUSTIFICACIÓN Y DESCRIPCIÓN DEL CURSO

En el mundo moderno y globalizado el acceso a la información y el conocimiento sobre los últimos

Al finalizar el curso los estudiantes estarán en la capacidad de:

Dependiendo de las necesidades particulares de cada curso, el profesor implementará durante el

IV. RECURSOS DIDÁCTICOS

-Comprensión de textos y producción escrita:

Primer Parcial 15%

Examen Final 15%

Evaluación continua 25%

-Producción Oral 30%

Laboratorio de idiomas 15%

Nota Final: Aprobó / No aprobó

Para garantizar el aprendizaje del idioma se recomienda el cumplimiento de todos los

VI. CONTENIDOS ENGLISH LEVEL II

WEEK READING COMPREHENSION AND ORAL SKILLS

1-2 General Review (cognates, contextual Future plans

3-4 Cohesion and coherence: Talking about places,

5-6 Relative Clauses Asking for suggestions and advices.

13-14 Paragraph analysis How something is done (processes)

· Murphy, R. (1990) Basic Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.

READING: SENSORY MARKETING AND BRANDING: THE

READING: ORGANIC: IS IT THE FUTURE OF FARMING?

 Going green ... again

Logical markers can be classified into five main types:

3. We sat there chatting happily, _______________ while / meanwhile the youngsters

On the other hand First at all Another advantage

SHOULD CRYONICS BECOME AN ALTERNATIVE TO DEATH?

READING: AGROECOLOGY AND THE DISAPPEARING YIELD GAP

Eric Holt-Giménez | 12.10.2014

 My friend has found the dog that disappeared last week.

DEFINING AND NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES:

A Defining Relative Clause tells which noun we are talking about:

 Jhon is the architect who designs that building.

 The dog which bit me belonged to my cousin.

 Andrea likes the house that I rented.

 My daughter, who lives in California, works as a teacher.

READING: COLOMBIA TAKES LEAD IN LATIN AMERICAN

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

 Your house is bigger than mine.

We use superlatives (e.g. the smallest) like this:

 You are the best student of the class.

We can form comparative and superlative adjectives depending on their length:

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Small Smaller (than) The smallest

Fast Faster (than) The fastest

★ Big Bigger (than) The biggest

★ Wet Wetter (than) The wettest

★ Hot Hotter (than) The hottest

2. Long adjectives (two syllables or more)

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Beautiful More beautiful (than) The most beautiful

Inteligent More inteligent (than) The most inteligent

Expensive More expensive (than) The most expensive

Difficult More difficult (than) The most difficult

Famous More famous (than) The most famous

3. Adjectives ending with -y

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Easy Easier (than) The easiest

Happy Happier (than) The happiest

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE