Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt.

25

PART 25—AIRWORTHINESS STAND- 25.233 Directional stability and control.

25.235 Taxiing condition.
ARDS: TRANSPORT CATEGORY 25.237 Wind velocities.
AIRPLANES 25.239 Spray characteristics, control, and
stability on water.
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
SFAR NO. 13 MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
25.251 Vibration and buffeting.
Subpart A—General 25.253 High-speed characteristics.
25.255 Out-of-trim characteristics.
Sec.
25.1 Applicability. Subpart C—Structure
25.2 Special retroactive requirements.
GENERAL
Subpart B—Flight
25.301 Loads.
GENERAL 25.303 Factor of safety.
25.305 Strength and deformation.
25.21 Proof of compliance.
25.307 Proof of structure.
25.23 Load distribution limits.
25.25 Weight limits. FLIGHT LOADS
25.27 Center of gravity limits.
25.29 Empty weight and corresponding cen- 25.321 General.
ter of gravity.
FLIGHT MANEUVER AND GUST CONDITIONS
25.31 Removable ballast.
25.33 Propeller speed and pitch limits. 25.331 Symmetric maneuvering conditions.
25.333 Flight maneuvering envelope.
PERFORMANCE 25.335 Design airspeeds.
25.101 General. 25.337 Limit maneuvering load factors.
25.103 Stalling speed. 25.341 Gust and turbulence loads.
25.105 Takeoff. 25.343 Design fuel and oil loads.
25.107 Takeoff speeds. 25.345 High lift devices.
25.109 Accelerate-stop distance. 25.349 Rolling conditions.
25.111 Takeoff path. 25.351 Yaw maneuver conditions.
25.113 Takeoff distance and takeoff run.
25.115 Takeoff flight path. SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS
25.117 Climb: general. 25.361 Engine torque.
25.119 Landing climb: All-engines-operating. 25.363 Side load on engine and auxiliary
25.121 Climb: One-engine-inoperative. power unit mounts.
25.123 En route flight paths. 25.365 Pressurized compartment loads.
25.125 Landing. 25.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to engine
failure.
CONTROLLABILITY AND MANEUVERABILITY
25.371 Gyroscopic loads.
25.143 General. 25.373 Speed control devices.
25.145 Longitudinal control.
25.147 Directional and lateral control. CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS
25.149 Minimum control speed. 25.391 Control surface loads; general.
TRIM 25.393 Loads parallel to hinge line.
25.395 Control system.
25.161 Trim. 25.397 Control system loads.
25.399 Dual control system.
STABILITY
25.405 Secondary control system.
25.171 General. 25.407 Trim tab effects.
25.173 Static longitudinal stability. 25.409 Tabs.
25.175 Demonstration of static longitudinal 25.415 Ground gust conditions.
stability. 25.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
25.177 Static lateral-directional stability. 25.445 Auxilliary aerodynamic surfaces.
25.181 Dynamic stability. 25.457 Wing flaps.
25.459 Special devices.
STALLS
25.201 Stall demonstration. GROUND LOADS
25.203 Stall characteristics. 25.471 General.
25.207 Stall warning. 25.473 Landing load conditions and assump-
tions.
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
25.477 Landing gear arrangement.
CHARACTERISTICS
25.479 Level landing conditions.
25.231 Longitudinal stability and control. 25.481 Tail-down landing conditions.

325
Pt. 25 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
25.483 One-gear landing conditions. CONTROL SYSTEMS
25.485 Side load conditions.
25.671 General.
25.487 Rebound landing condition.
25.672 Stability augmentation and auto-
25.489 Ground handling conditions.
matic and power-operated systems.
25.491 Taxi, takeoff and landing roll.
25.675 Stops.
25.493 Braked roll conditions.
25.677 Trim systems.
25.495 Turning.
25.679 Control system gust locks.
25.497 Tail-wheel yawing. 25.681 Limit load static tests.
25.499 Nose-wheel yaw and steering. 25.683 Operation tests.
25.503 Pivoting. 25.685 Control system details.
25.507 Reversed braking. 25.689 Cable systems.
25.509 Towing loads. 25.693 Joints.
25.511 Ground load: unsymmetrical loads on 25.697 Lift and drag devices, controls.
multiple-wheel units. 25.699 Lift and drag device indicator.
25.519 Jacking and tie-down provisions. 25.701 Flap and slat interconnection.
25.703 Takeoff warning system.
WATER LOADS
25.521 General. LANDING GEAR
25.523 Design weights and center of gravity 25.721 General.
positions. 25.723 Shock absorption tests.
25.525 Application of loads. 25.725 Limit drop tests.
25.527 Hull and main float load factors. 25.727 Reserve energy absorption drop tests.
25.529 Hull and main float landing condi- 25.729 Retracting mechanism.
tions. 25.731 Wheels.
25.531 Hull and main float takeoff condi- 25.733 Tires.
tion. 25.735 Brakes.
25.533 Hull and main float bottom pressures. 25.737 Skis.
25.535 Auxiliary float loads.
25.537 Seawing loads. FLOATS AND HULLS
25.751 Main float buoyancy.
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
25.753 Main float design.
25.561 General. 25.755 Hulls.
25.562 Emergency landing dynamic condi-
tions. PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS
25.563 Structural ditching provisions. 25.771 Pilot compartment.
25.772 Pilot compartment doors.
FATIGUE EVALUATION 25.773 Pilot compartment view.
25.571 Damage—tolerance and fatigue eval- 25.775 Windshields and windows.
uation of structure. 25.777 Cockpit controls.
25.779 Motion and effect of cockpit controls.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION 25.781 Cockpit control knob shape.
25.783 Doors.
25.581 Lightning protection.
25.785 Seats, berths, safety belts, and har-
nesses.
Subpart D—Design and Construction 25.787 Stowage compartments.
GENERAL 25.789 Retention of items of mass in pas-
senger and crew compartments and gal-
25.601 General. leys.
25.603 Materials. 25.791 Passenger information signs and plac-
25.605 Fabrication methods. ards.
25.607 Fasteners. 25.793 Floor surfaces.
25.609 Protection of structure.
25.611 Accessibility provisions. EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
25.613 Material strength properties and de- 25.801 Ditching.
sign values. 25.803 Emergency evacuation.
25.619 Special factors. 25.807 Emergency exits.
25.621 Casting factors. 25.809 Emergency exit arrangement.
25.623 Bearing factors. 25.810 Emergency egress assist means and
25.625 Fitting factors. escape routes.
25.629 Aeroelastic stability requirements. 25.811 Emergency exit marking.
25.631 Bird strike damage. 25.812 Emergency lighting.
25.813 Emergency exit access.
CONTROL SURFACES
25.815 Width of aisle.
25.651 Proof of strength. 25.817 Maximum number of seats abreast.
25.655 Installation. 25.819 Lower deck surface compartments
25.657 Hinges. (including galleys).

326
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25
VENTILATION AND HEATING 25.971 Fuel tank sump.
25.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
25.831 Ventilation.
25.832 Cabin ozone concentration. 25.975 Fuel tank vents and carburetor vapor
25.833 Combustion heating systems. vents.
25.977 Fuel tank outlet.
PRESSURIZATION 25.979 Pressure fueling system.
25.981 Fuel tank temperature.
25.841 Pressurized cabins.
25.843 Tests for pressurized cabins. FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
FIRE PROTECTION 25.991 Fuel pumps.
25.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
25.851 Fire extinguishers.
25.853 Compartment interiors. 25.994 Fuel system components.
25.854 Lavatory fire protection. 25.995 Fuel valves.
25.855 Cargo or baggage compartments. 25.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
25.857 Cargo compartment classification. 25.999 Fuel system drains.
25.858 Cargo or baggage compartment 25.1001 Fuel jettisoning system.
smoke or fire detection systems.
OIL SYSTEM
25.859 Combustion heater fire protection.
25.863 Flammable fluid fire protection. 25.1011 General.
25.865 Fire protection of flight controls, en- 25.1013 Oil tanks.
gine mounts, and other flight structure. 25.1015 Oil tank tests.
25.867 Fire protection: other components. 25.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
25.869 Fire protection: systems. 25.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
25.1021 Oil system drains.
MISCELLANEOUS
25.1023 Oil radiators.
25.871 Leveling means. 25.1025 Oil valves.
25.875 Reinforcement near propellers. 25.1027 Propeller feathering system.

Subpart E—Powerplant COOLING

25.1041 General.
GENERAL
25.1043 Cooling tests.
25.901 Installation. 25.1045 Cooling test procedures.
25.903 Engines.
25.904 Automatic takeoff thrust control sys- INDUCTION SYSTEM
tem (ATTCS). 25.1091 Air induction.
25.905 Propellers. 25.1093 Induction system icing protection.
25.907 Propeller vibration. 25.1101 Carburetor air preheater design.
25.925 Propeller clearance.
25.1103 Induction system ducts and air duct
25.929 Propeller deicing.
systems.
25.933 Reversing systems.
25.1105 Induction system screens.
25.934 Turbojet engine thrust reverser sys-
25.1107 Inter-coolers and after-coolers.
tem tests.
25.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting sys- EXHAUST SYSTEM
tems.
25.939 Turbine engine operating characteris- 25.1121 General.
tics. 25.1123 Exhaust piping.
25.941 Inlet, engine, and exhaust compatibil- 25.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers.
ity. 25.1127 Exhaust driven turbo-superchargers.
25.943 Negative acceleration.
25.945 Thrust or power augmentation sys- POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES
tem. 25.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
25.1142 Auxiliary power unit controls.
FUEL SYSTEM 25.1143 Engine controls.
25.951 General. 25.1145 Ignition switches.
25.952 Fuel system analysis and test. 25.1147 Mixture controls.
25.953 Fuel system independence. 25.1149 Propeller speed and pitch controls.
25.954 Fuel system lightning protection. 25.1153 Propeller feathering controls.
25.955 Fuel flow. 25.1155 Reverse thrust and propeller pitch
25.957 Flow between interconnected tanks. settings below the flight regime.
25.959 Unusable fuel supply. 25.1157 Carburetor air temperature controls.
25.961 Fuel system hot weather operation. 25.1159 Supercharger controls.
25.963 Fuel tanks: general. 25.1161 Fuel jettisoning system controls.
25.965 Fuel tank tests. 25.1163 Powerplant accessories.
25.967 Fuel tank installations. 25.1165 Engine ignition systems.
25.969 Fuel tank expansion space. 25.1167 Accessory gearboxes.

327
Pt. 25
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
25.1181 Designated fire zones; regions in-
cluded.
25.1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls, and
engine pod attaching structures contain-
ing flammable fluid lines.
25.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying compo-
nents.
25.1185 Flammable fluids.
25.1187 Drainage and ventilation of fire
zones.
25.1189 Shutoff means.
25.1191 Firewalls.
25.1192 Engine accessory section diaphragm.
25.1193 Cowling and nacelle skin.
25.1195 Fire extinguishing systems.
25.1197 Fire extinguishing agents.
25.1199 Extinguishing agent containers.
25.1201 Fire extinguishing system materials.
25.1203 Fire detector system.
25.1207 Compliance.
Subpart F—Equipment
GENERAL
25.1301 Function and installation.
25.1303 Flight and navigation instruments.
25.1305 Powerplant instruments.
25.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
25.1309 Equipment, systems, and installa-
tions.
25.1316 System lightning protection.
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
25.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
25.1322 Warning, caution, and advisory
lights.
25.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
25.1325 Static pressure systems.
25.1326 Pitot heat indication systems.
25.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
25.1329 Automatic pilot system.
25.1331 Instruments using a power supply.
25.1333 Instrument systems.
25.1335 Flight director systems.
25.1337 Powerplant instruments.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
25.1351 General.
25.1353 Electrical equipment and installa-
tions.
25.1355 Distribution system.
25.1357 Circuit protective devices.
25.1363 Electrical system tests.
LIGHTS
25.1381 Instrument lights.
25.1383 Landing lights.
25.1385 Position light system installation.
25.1387 Position light system dihedral an-
gles.
25.1389 Position light distribution and in-
tensities.
25.1391 Minimum intensities in the hori-
zontal plane of forward and rear position
lights.
328
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
25.1393 Minimum intensities in any vertical
plane of forward and rear position lights.
25.1395 Maximum intensities in overlapping
beams of forward and rear position
lights.
25.1397 Color specifications.
25.1399 Riding light.
25.1401 Anticollision light system.
25.1403 Wing icing detection lights.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
25.1411 General.
25.1415 Ditching equipment.
25.1419 Ice protection.
25.1421 Megaphones.
25.1423 Public address system.
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT
25.1431 Electronic equipment.
25.1433 Vacuum systems.
25.1435 Hydraulic systems.
25.1438 Pressurization and pneumatic sys-
tems.
25.1439 Protective breathing equipment.
25.1441 Oxygen equipment and supply.
25.1443 Minimum mass flow of supplemental
oxygen.
25.1445 Equipment standards for the oxygen
distributing system.
25.1447 Equipment standards for oxygen dis-
pensing units.
25.1449 Means for determining use of oxy-
gen.
25.1450 Chemical oxygen generators.
25.1453 Protection of oxygen equipment
from rupture.
25.1455 Draining of fluids subject to freez-
ing.
25.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.
25.1459 Flight recorders.
25.1461 Equipment containing high energy
rotors.
Subpart G—Operating Limitations and
Information
25.1501 General.
OPERATING LIMITATIONS
25.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
25.1505 Maximum operating limit speed.
25.1507 Maneuvering speed.
25.1511 Flap extended speed.
25.1513 Minimum control speed.
25.1515 Landing gear speeds.
25.1517 Rough air speed, VRA.
25.1519 Weight, center of gravity, and
weight distribution.
25.1521 Powerplant limitations.
25.1522 Auxiliary power unit limitations.
25.1523 Minimum flight crew.
25.1525 Kinds of operation.
25.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
25.1529 Instructions for Continued Air-
worthiness.
25.1531 Maneuvering flight load factors.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
25.1533 Additional operating limitations.
MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
25.1541 General.
25.1543 Instrument markings: general.
25.1545 Airspeed limitation information.
25.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
25.1549 Powerplant and auxiliary power unit
instruments.
25.1551 Oil quantity indication.
25.1553 Fuel quantity indicator.
25.1555 Control markings.
25.1557 Miscellaneous markings and plac-
ards.
25.1561 Safety equipment.
25.1563 Airspeed placard.
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
25.1581 General.
25.1583 Operating limitations.
25.1585 Operating procedures.
25.1587 Performance information.
APPENDIX A TO PART 25
APPENDIX B TO PART 25
APPENDIX C TO PART 25
APPENDIX D TO PART 25
APPENDIX E TO PART 25
APPENDIX F TO PART 25
APPENDIX G TO PART 25—CONTINUOUS GUST
DESIGN CRITERIA
APPENDIX H TO PART 25—INSTRUCTIONS FOR
CONTINUED AIRWORTHINESS
APPENDIX I TO PART 25—INSTALLATION OF AN
AUTOMATIC TAKEOFF THRUST CONTROL
SYSTEM (ATTCS)
APPENDIX J TO PART 25—EMERGENCY EVACU-
ATION
AUTHORITY: 49 U.S.C. 106(g), 40113, 44701,
44702 and 44704.
SOURCE: Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec.
24, 1964, unless otherwise noted.
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION
REGULATIONS SFAR NO. 13
1. Applicability. Contrary provisions of the
Civil Air Regulations regarding certification
notwithstanding,1 this regulation shall pro-
vide the basis for approval by the Adminis-
trator of modifications of individual Douglas
DC–3 and Lockheed L–18 airplanes subse-
quent to the effective date of this regulation.
2. General modifications. Except as modified
in sections 3 and 4 of this regulation, an ap-
plicant for approval of modifications to a
DC–3 or L–18 airplane which result in
changes in design or in changes to approved
limitations shall show that the modifica-
tions were accomplished in accordance with
1 It is not intended to waive compliance
with such airworthiness requirements as are
included in the operating parts of the Civil
Air Regulations for specific types of oper-
ation.
329
Pt. 25, SFAR No. 13
the rules of either Part 4a or Part 4b in ef-
fect on September 1, 1953, which are applica-
ble to the modification being made: Provided,
That an applicant may elect to accomplish a
modification in accordance with the rules of
Part 4b in effect on the date of application
for the modification in lieu of Part 4a or
Part 4b as in effect on September 1, 1953: And
provided further, That each specific modifica-
tion must be accomplished in accordance
with all of the provisions contained in the
elected rules relating to the particular modi-
fication.
3. Specific conditions for approval. An appli-
cant for any approval of the following spe-
cific changes shall comply with section 2 of
this regulation as modified by the applicable
provisions of this section.
(a) Increase in take-off power limitation—
1,200 to 1,350 horsepower. The engine take-off
power limitation for the airplane may be in-
creased to more than 1,200 horsepower but
not to more than 1,350 horsepower per engine
if the increase in power does not adversely
affect the flight characteristics of the air-
plane.
(b) Increase in take-off power limitation to
more than 1,350 horsepower. The engine take-
off power limitation for the airplane may be
increased to more than 1,350 horsepower per
engine if compliance is shown with the flight
characteristics and ground handling require-
ments of Part 4b.
(c) Installation of engines of not more than
1,830 cubic inches displacement and not having
a certificated take-off rating of more than 1,350
horsepower. Engines of not more than 1,830
cubic inches displacement and not having a
certificated take-off rating of more than
1,350 horsepower which necessitate a major
modification of redesign of the engine instal-
lation may be installed, if the engine fire
prevention and fire protection are equivalent
to that on the prior engine installation.
(d) Installation of engines of more than 1,830
cubic inches displacement or having certificated
take-off rating of more than 1,350 horsepower.
Engines of more than 1,830 cubic inches dis-
placement or having certificated take-off
rating of more than 1,350 horsepower may be
installed if compliance is shown with the en-
gine installation requirements of Part 4b:
Provided, That where literal compliance with
the engine installation requirements of Part
4b is extremely difficult to accomplish and
would not contribute materially to the ob-
jective sought, and the Administrator finds
that the experience with the DC–3 or L–18
airplanes justifies it, he is authorized to ac-
cept such measures of compliance as he finds
will effectively accomplish the basic objec-
tive.
4. Establishment of new maximum certificated
weights. An applicant for approval of new
maximum certificated weights shall apply
for an amendment of the airworthiness cer-
tificate of the airplane and shall show that
§ 25.1
the weights sought have been established,
and the appropriate manual material ob-
tained, as provided in this section.
NOTE: Transport category performance re-
quirements result in the establishment of
maximum certificated weights for various
altitudes.
(a) Weights–25,200 to 26,900 for the DC–3 and
18,500 to 19,500 for the L–18. New maximum
certificated weights of more than 25,200 but
not more than 26,900 pounds for DC–3 and
more than 18,500 but not more than 19,500
pounds for L–18 airplanes may be established
in accordance with the transport category
performance requirements of either Part 4a
or Part 4b, if the airplane at the new maxi-
mum weights can meet the structural re-
quirements of the elected part.
(b) Weights of more than 26,900 for the DC–3
and 19,500 for the L–18. New maximum certifi-
cated weights of more than 26,900 pounds for
DC–3 and 19,500 pounds for L–18 airplanes
shall be established in accordance with the
structural performance, flight characteris-
tics, and ground handling requirements of
Part 4b: Provided, That where literal compli-
ance with the structural requirements of
Part 4b is extremely difficult to accomplish
and would not contribute materially to the
objective sought, and the Administrator
finds that the experience with the DC–3 or L–
18 airplanes justifies it, he is authorized to
accept such measures of compliance as he
finds will effectively accomplish the basic
objective.
(c) Airplane flight manual-performance oper-
ating information. An approved airplane flight
manual shall be provided for each DC–3 and
L–18 airplane which has had new maximum
certificated weights established under this
section. The airplane flight manual shall
contain the applicable performance informa-
tion prescribed in that part of the regula-
tions under which the new certificated
weights were established and such additional
information as may be necessary to enable
the application of the take-off, en route, and
landing limitations prescribed for transport
category airplanes in the operating parts of
the Civil Air Regulations.
(d) Performance operating limitations. Each
airplane for which new maximum certifi-
cated weights are established in accordance
with paragraphs (a) or (b) of this section
shall be considered a transport category air-
plane for the purpose of complying with the
performance operating limitations applica-
ble to the operations in which it is utilized.
5. Reference. Unless otherwise provided, all
references in this regulation to Part 4a and
Part 4b are those parts of the Civil Air Regu-
lations in effect on September 1, 1953.
This regulation supersedes Special Civil
Air Regulation SR–398 and shall remain ef-
330
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
fective until superseded or rescinded by the
Board.
[19 FR 5039, Aug. 11, 1954. Redesignated at 29
FR 19099, Dec. 30, 1964]
Subpart A—General
§ 25.1 Applicability.
(a) This part prescribes airworthiness
standards for the issue of type certifi-
cates, and changes to those certifi-
cates, for transport category airplanes.
(b) Each person who applies under
Part 21 for such a certificate or change
must show compliance with the appli-
cable requirements in this part.
§ 25.2 Special retroactive require-
ments.
The following special retroactive re-
quirements are applicable to an air-
plane for which the regulations ref-
erenced in the type certificate predate
the sections specified below—
(a) Irrespective of the date of applica-
tion, each applicant for a supplemental
type certificate (or an amendment to a
type certificate) involving an increase
in passenger seating capacity to a total
greater than that for which the air-
plane has been type certificated must
show that the airplane concerned
meets the requirements of:
(1) Sections 25.721(d), 25.783(g),
25.785(c), 25.803(c)(2) through (9), 25.803
(d) and (e), 25.807 (a), (c), and (d), 25.809
(f) and (h), 25.811, 25.812, 25.813 (a), (b),
and (c), 25.815, 25.817, 25.853 (a) and (b),
25.855(a), 25.993(f), and 25.1359(c) in ef-
fect on October 24, 1967, and
(2) Sections 25.803(b) and 25.803(c)(1)
in effect on April 23, 1969.
(b) Irrespective of the date of applica-
tion, each applicant for a supplemental
type certificate (or an amendment to a
type certificate) for an airplane manu-
factured after October 16, 1987, must
show that the airplane meets the re-
quirements of § 25.807(c)(7) in effect on
July 24, 1989.
(c) Compliance with subsequent revi-
sions to the sections specified in para-
graph (a) or (b) above may be elected in
accordance with § 21.101(a)(2) of this
chapter or may be required in accord-
ance with § 21.101(b) of this chapter.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29773, July 20, 1990]
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
Subpart B—Flight
GENERAL
§ 25.21 Proof of compliance.
(a) Each requirement of this subpart
must be met at each appropriate com-
bination of weight and center of grav-
ity within the range of loading condi-
tions for which certification is re-
quested. This must be shown—
(1) By tests upon an airplane of the
type for which certification is re-
quested, or by calculations based on,
and equal in accuracy to, the results of
testing; and
(2) By systematic investigation of
each probable combination of weight
and center of gravity, if compliance
cannot be reasonably inferred from
combinations investigated.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) The controllability, stability,
trim, and stalling characteristics of
the airplane must be shown for each al-
titude up to the maximum expected in
operation.
(d) Parameters critical for the test
being conducted, such as weight, load-
ing (center of gravity and inertia), air-
speed, power, and wind, must be main-
tained within acceptable tolerances of
the critical values during flight test-
ing.
(e) If compliance with the flight
characteristics requirements is depend-
ent upon a stability augmentation sys-
tem or upon any other automatic or
power-operated system, compliance
must be shown with §§ 25.671 and 25.672.
(f) In meeting the requirements of
§§ 25.105(d), 25.125, 25.233, and 25.237, the
wind velocity must be measured at a
height of 10 meters above the surface,
or corrected for the difference between
the height at which the wind velocity
is measured and the 10-meter height.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2320, Jan. 16, 1978;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.23 Load distribution limits.
(a) Ranges of weights and centers of
gravity within which the airplane may
be safely operated must be established.
If a weight and center of gravity com-
bination is allowable only within cer-
tain load distribution limits (such as
331
§ 25.25
spanwise) that could be inadvertently
exceeded, these limits and the cor-
responding weight and center of grav-
ity combinations must be established.
(b) The load distribution limits may
not exceed—
(1) The selected limits;
(2) The limits at which the structure
is proven; or
(3) The limits at which compliance
with each applicable flight require-
ment of this subpart is shown.
§ 25.25 Weight limits.
(a) Maximum weights. Maximum
weights corresponding to the airplane
operating conditions (such as ramp,
ground or water taxi, takeoff, en route,
and landing), environmental conditions
(such as altitude and temperature), and
loading conditions (such as zero fuel
weight, center of gravity position and
weight distribution) must be estab-
lished so that they are not more than—
(1) The highest weight selected by
the applicant for the particular condi-
tions; or
(2) The highest weight at which com-
pliance with each applicable structural
loading and flight requirement is
shown, except that for airplanes
equipped with standby power rocket
engines the maximum weight must not
be more than the highest weight estab-
lished in accordance with appendix E of
this part; or
(3) The highest weight at which com-
pliance is shown with the certification
requirements of Part 36 of this chapter.
(b) Minimum weight. The minimum
weight (the lowest weight at which
compliance with each applicable re-
quirement of this part is shown) must
be established so that it is not less
than—
(1) The lowest weight selected by the
applicant;
(2) The design minimum weight (the
lowest weight at which compliance
with each structural loading condition
of this part is shown); or
(3) The lowest weight at which com-
pliance with each applicable flight re-
quirement is shown.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–63, 53 FR 16365, May 6, 1988]
§ 25.27 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

§ 25.27 Center of gravity limits. (c) The means used to limit the low
pitch position of the propeller blades
The extreme forward and the extreme
must be set so that the engine does not
aft center of gravity limitations must
exceed 103 percent of the maximum al-
be established for each practicably sep-
lowable engine rpm or 99 percent of an
arable operating condition. No such
approved maximum overspeed, which-
limit may lie beyond—
ever is greater, with—
(a) The extremes selected by the ap-
(1) The propeller blades at the low
plicant;
pitch limit and governor inoperative;
(b) The extremes within which the
(2) The airplane stationary under
structure is proven; or
standard atmospheric conditions with
(c) The extremes within which com-
no wind; and
pliance with each applicable flight re- (3) The engines operating at the take-
quirement is shown. off manifold pressure limit for recip-
§ 25.29 Empty weight and correspond- rocating engine powered airplanes or
ing center of gravity. the maximum takeoff torque limit for
turbopropeller engine-powered air-
(a) The empty weight and cor- planes.
responding center of gravity must be
determined by weighing the airplane [Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
with— amended by Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23,
(1) Fixed ballast; 1984; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990]
(2) Unusable fuel determined under PERFORMANCE
§ 25.959; and
(3) Full operating fluids, including— § 25.101 General.
(i) Oil; (a) Unless otherwise prescribed, air-
(ii) Hydraulic fluid; and planes must meet the applicable per-
(iii) Other fluids required for normal formance requirements of this subpart
operation of airplane systems, except for ambient atmospheric conditions
potable water, lavatory precharge and still air.
water, and fluids intended for injection (b) The performance, as affected by
in the engine. engine power or thrust, must be based
(b) The condition of the airplane at on the following relative humidities;
the time of determining empty weight (1) For turbine engine powered air-
must be one that is well defined and planes, a relative humidity of—
can be easily repeated. (i) 80 percent, at and below standard
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as temperatures; and
amended by Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2320, Jan. 16, (ii) 34 percent, at and above standard
1978; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990] temperatures plus 50° F.
Between these two temperatures, the
§ 25.31 Removable ballast.
relative humidity must vary linearly.
Removable ballast may be used on (2) For reciprocating engine powered
showing compliance with the flight re- airplanes, a relative humidity of 80 per-
quirements of this subpart. cent in a standard atmosphere. Engine
power corrections for vapor pressure
§ 25.33 Propeller speed and pitch lim- must be made in accordance with the
its. following table:
(a) The propeller speed and pitch
Specific hu-
must be limited to values that will en- Altitude H Vapor pres- midity w (Lb. Density ratio ρ/
sure e (In.
sure– (ft.) moisture per σ=0.0023769
Hg.) lb. dry air)
(1) Safe operation under normal oper-
ating conditions; and 0 0.403 0.00849 0.99508
(2) Compliance with the performance 1,000 .354 .00773 .96672
2,000 .311 .00703 .93895
requirements of §§ 25.101 through 25.125. 3,000 .272 .00638 .91178
(b) There must be a propeller speed 4,000 .238 .00578 .88514
limiting means at the governor. It 5,000 .207 .00523 .85910
6,000 .1805 .00472 .83361
must limit the maximum possible gov- 7,000 .1566 .00425 .80870
erned engine speed to a value not ex- 8,000 .1356 .00382 .78434
ceeding the maximum allowable r.p.m. 9,000 .1172 .00343 .76053

332
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
Vapor pres- Specific hu-
Altitude H midity w (Lb.
sure e (In.
(ft.) moisture per
Hg.) lb. dry air)
10,000 .1010 .00307
15,000 .0463 .001710
20,000 .01978 .000896
25,000 .00778 .000436
(c) The performance must correspond
to the propulsive thrust available
under the particular ambient atmos-
pheric conditions, the particular flight
condition, and the relative humidity
specified in paragraph (b) of this sec-
tion. The available propulsive thrust
must correspond to engine power or
thrust, not exceeding the approved
power or thrust less—
(1) Installation losses; and
(2) The power or equivalent thrust
absorbed by the accessories and serv-
ices appropriate to the particular am-
bient atmospheric conditions and the
particular flight condition.
(d) Unless otherwise prescribed, the
applicant must select the takeoff, en
route, approach, and landing configura-
tions for the airplane.
(e) The airplane configurations may
vary with weight, altitude, and tem-
perature, to the extent they are com-
patible with the operating procedures
required by paragraph (f) of this sec-
tion.
(f) Unless otherwise prescribed, in de-
termining the accelerate-stop dis-
tances, takeoff flight paths, takeoff
distances, and landing distances,
changes in the airplane’s configura-
tion, speed, power, and thrust, must be
made in accordance with procedures es-
tablished by the applicant for oper-
ation in service.
(g) Procedures for the execution of
balked landings and missed approaches
associated with the conditions pre-
scribed in §§ 25.119 and 25.121(d) must be
established.
(h) The procedures established under
paragraphs (f) and (g) of this section
must—
(1) Be able to be consistently exe-
cuted in service by crews of average
skill;
(2) Use methods or devices that are
safe and reliable; and
(3) Include allowance for any time
delays, in the execution of the proce-
§ 25.105
dures, that may reasonably be expected
Density ratio ρ/ in service.
σ=0.0023769
(i) The accelerate-stop and landing
.73722
distances prescribed in §§ 25.109 and
.62868 25.125, respectively, must be deter-
.53263 mined with all the airplane wheel
.44806 brake assemblies at the fully worn
limit of their allowable wear range.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–92, 63 FR 8318, Feb. 18, 1998]
§ 25.103 Stalling speed.
(a) VS is the calibrated stalling speed,
or the minimum steady flight speed, in
knots, at which the airplane is control-
lable, with—
(1) Zero thrust at the stalling speed,
or, if the resultant thrust has no appre-
ciable effect on the stalling speed, with
engines idling and throttles closed;
(2) Propeller pitch controls (if appli-
cable) in the position necessary for
compliance with paragraph (a)(1) of
this section and the airplane in other
respects (such as flaps and landing
gear) in the condition existing in the
test in which VS is being used;
(3) The weight used when VS is being
used as a factor to determine compli-
ance with a required performance
standard; and
(4) The most unfavorable center of
gravity allowable.
(b) The stalling speed VS is the mini-
mum speed obtained as follows:
(1) Trim the airplane for straight
flight at any speed not less than 1.2 VS
or more than 1.4 VS At a speed suffi-
ciently above the stall speed to ensure
steady conditions, apply the elevator
control at a rate so that the airplane
speed reduction does not exceed one
knot per second.
(2) Meet the flight characteristics
provisions of § 25.203.
§ 25.105 Takeoff.
(a) The takeoff speeds described in
§ 25.107, the accelerate-stop distance de-
scribed in § 25.109, the takeoff path de-
scribed in § 25.111, and the takeoff dis-
tance and takeoff run described in
§ 25.113, must be determined—
(1) At each weight, altitude, and am-
bient temperature within the oper-
ational limits selected by the appli-
cant; and
333
§ 25.107
(2) In the selected configuration for
takeoff.
(b) No takeoff made to determine the
data required by this section may re-
quire exceptional piloting skill or
alertness.
(c) The takeoff data must be based
on—
(1) In the case of land planes and am-
phibians:
(i) Smooth, dry and wet, hard-sur-
faced runways; and
(ii) At the option of the applicant,
grooved or porous friction course wet,
hard-surfaced runways.
(2) Smooth water, in the case of sea-
planes and amphibians; and
(3) Smooth, dry snow, in the case of
skiplanes.
(d) The takeoff data must include,
within the established operational lim-
its of the airplane, the following oper-
ational correction factors:
(1) Not more than 50 percent of nomi-
nal wind components along the takeoff
path opposite to the direction of take-
off, and not less than 150 percent of
nominal wind components along the
takeoff path in the direction of takeoff.
(2) Effective runway gradients.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–92, 63 FR 8318, Feb. 18,
1998]
§ 25.107 Takeoff speeds.
(a) V1 must be established in relation
to VEF as follows:
(1) VEF is the calibrated airspeed at
which the critical engine is assumed to
fail. VEF must be selected by the appli-
cant, but may not be less than VMCG
determined under § 25.149(e).
(2) V1, in terms of calibrated airspeed,
is selected by the applicant; however,
V1 may not be less than VEF plus the
speed gained with critical engine inop-
erative during the time interval be-
tween the instant at which the critical
engine is failed, and the instant at
which the pilot recognizes and reacts
to the engine failure, as indicated by
the pilot’s initiation of the first action
(e.g., applying brakes, reducing thrust,
deploying speed brakes) to stop the air-
plane during accelerate-stop tests.
(b) V2MIN, in terms of calibrated air-
speed, may not be less than—
(1) 1.2 VS for—
334
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(i) Two-engine and three-engine tur-
bopropeller and reciprocating engine
powered airplanes; and
(ii) Turbojet powered airplanes with-
out provisions for obtaining a signifi-
cant reduction in the one-engine-inop-
erative power-on stalling speed;
(2) 1.15 VS for—
(i) Turbopropeller and reciprocating
engine powered airplanes with more
than three engines; and
(ii) Turbojet powered airplanes with
provisions for obtaining a significant
reduction in the one-engine-inoper-
ative power-on stalling speed; and
(3) 1.10 times VMC established under
§ 25.149.
(c) V2, in terms of calibrated air-
speed, must be selected by the appli-
cant to provide at least the gradient of
climb required by § 25.121(b) but may
not be less than—
(1) V2MIN, and
(2) VR plus the speed increment at-
tained (in accordance with § 25.111(c)(2))
before reaching a height of 35 feet
above the takeoff surface.
(d) VMU is the calibrated airspeed at
and above which the airplane can safe-
ly lift off the ground, and con- tinue
the takeoff. VMU speeds must be se-
lected by the applicant throughout the
range of thrust-to-weight ratios to be
certificated. These speeds may be es-
tablished from free air data if these
data are verified by ground takeoff
tests.
(e) VR, in terms of calibrated air-
speed, must be selected in accordance
with the conditions of paragraphs (e)(1)
through (4) of this section:
(1) VR may not be less than—
(i) V1;
(ii) 105 percent of VMC;
(iii) The speed (determined in accord-
ance with § 25.111(c)(2)) that allows
reaching V2 before reaching a height of
35 feet above the takeoff surface; or
(iv) A speed that, if the airplane is
rotated at its maximum practicable
rate, will result in a VLOF of not less
than 110 percent of VMU in the all-en-
gines-operating condition and not less
than 105 percent of VMU determined at
the thrust-to-weight ratio correspond-
ing to the one-engine-inoperative con-
dition.
(2) For any given set of conditions
(such as weight, configuration, and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
temperature), a single value of VR, ob-
tained in accordance with this para-
graph, must be used to show compli-
ance with both the one-engine-inoper-
ative and the all-engines-operating
takeoff provisions.
(3) It must be shown that the one-en-
gine-inoperative takeoff distance,
using a rotation speed of 5 knots less
than VR established in accordance with
paragraphs (e)(1) and (2) of this section,
does not exceed the corresponding one-
engine-inoperative takeoff distance
using the established VR. The takeoff
distances must be determined in ac-
cordance with § 25.113(a)(1).
(4) Reasonably expected variations in
service from the established takeoff
procedures for the operation of the air-
plane (such as over-rotation of the air-
plane and out-of-trim conditions) may
not result in unsafe flight characteris-
tics or in marked increases in the
scheduled takeoff distances established
in accordance with § 25.113(a).
(f) VLOF is the calibrated airspeed at
which the airplane first becomes air-
borne.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2320, Jan. 16, 1978;
Amdt. 25–92, 63 FR 8318, Feb. 18, 1998; Amdt.
25–94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]
§ 25.109 Accelerate-stop distance.
(a) The accelerate-stop distance on a
dry runway is the greater of the follow-
ing distances:
(1) The sum of the distances nec-
essary to—
(i) Accelerate the airplane from a
standing start with all engines operat-
ing to VEF for takeoff from a dry run-
way;
(ii) Allow the airplane to accelerate
from VEF to the highest speed reached
during the rejected takeoff, assuming
the critical engine fails at VEF and the
pilot takes the first action to reject
the takeoff at the V1 for takeoff from a
dry runway; and
(iii) Come to a full stop on a dry run-
way from the speed reached as pre-
scribed in paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of this
section; plus
335
§ 25.109
(iv) A distance equivalent to 2 sec-
onds at the V1 for takeoff from a dry
runway.
(2) The sum of the distances nec-
essary to—
(i) Accelerate the airplane from a
standing start with all engines operat-
ing to the highest speed reached during
the rejected takeoff, assuming the
pilot takes the first action to reject
the takeoff at the V1 for takeoff from a
dry runway; and
(ii) With all engines still operating,
come to a full stop on dry runway from
the speed reached as prescribed in para-
graph (a)(2)(i) of this section; plus
(iii) A distance equivalent to 2 sec-
onds at the V1 for takeoff from a dry
runway.
(b) The accelerate-stop distance on a
wet runway is the greater of the fol-
lowing distances:
(1) The accelerate-stop distance on a
dry runway determined in accordance
with paragraph (a) of this section; or
(2) The accelerate-stop distance de-
termined in accordance with paragraph
(a) of this section, except that the run-
way is wet and the corresponding wet
runway values of VEF and V1 are used.
In determining the wet runway acceler-
ate-stop distance, the stopping force
from the wheel brakes may never ex-
ceed:
(i) The wheel brakes stopping force
determined in meeting the require-
ments of § 25.101(i) and paragraph (a) of
this section; and
(ii) The force resulting from the wet
runway braking coefficient of friction
determined in accordance with para-
graphs (c) or (d) of this section, as ap-
plicable, taking into account the dis-
tribution of the normal load between
braked and unbraked wheels at the
most adverse center-of-gravity position
approved for takeoff.
(c) The wet runway braking coeffi-
cient of friction for a smooth wet run-
way is defined as a curve of friction co-
efficient versus ground speed and must
be computed as follows:
(1) The maximum tire-to-ground wet
runway braking coefficient of friction
is defined as:
§ 25.109
Where—
Tire Pressure=maximum airplane oper-
ating tire pressure (psi);
µt/gMAX=maximum tire-to-ground brak-
ing coefficient;
V=airplane true ground speed (knots);
and
Linear interpolation may be used for
tire pressures other than those list-
ed.
(2) The maximum tire-to-ground wet
runway braking coefficient of friction
must be adjusted to take into account
the efficiency of the anti-skid system
on a wet runway. Anti-skid system op-
eration must be demonstrated by flight
testing on a smooth wet runway, and
its efficiency must be determined. Un-
less a specific anti-skid system effi-
ciency is determined from a quan-
titative analysis of the flight testing
on a smooth wet runway, the maxi-
mum tire-to-ground wet runway brak-
ing coefficient of friction determined
in paragraph (c)(1) of this section must
be multiplied by the efficiency value
associated with the type of anti-skid
system installed on the airplane:
336
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
Effi-
Type of anti-skid system ciency
value
On-Off ........................................................................ 0.30
Quasi-Modulating ....................................................... 0.50
Fully Modulating ......................................................... 0.80
(d) At the option of the applicant, a
higher wet runway braking coefficient
of friction may be used for runway sur-
faces that have been grooved or treated
with a porous friction course material.
For grooved and porous friction course
runways, the wet runway braking
coefficent of friction is defined as ei-
ther:
(1) 70 percent of the dry runway brak-
ing coefficient of friction used to deter-
mine the dry runway accelerate-stop
distance; or
(2) The wet runway braking coeffi-
cient defined in paragraph (c) of this
section, except that a specific anti-skid
system efficiency, if determined, is ap-
propriate for a grooved or porous fric-
tion course wet runway, and the maxi-
mum tire-to-ground wet runway brak-
ing coefficient of friction is defined as:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
Where—
Tire Pressure=maximum airplane oper-
ating tire pressure (psi);
µt/gMAX=maximum tire-to-ground brak-
ing coefficient;
V=airplane true ground speed (knots);
and
Linear interpolation may be used for
tire pressures other than those list-
ed.
(e) Except as provided in paragraph
(f)(1) of this section, means other than
wheel brakes may be used to determine
the accelerate-stop distance if that
means—
(1) Is safe and reliable;
(2) Is used so that consistent results
can be expected under normal operat-
ing conditions; and
(3) Is such that exceptional skill is
not required to control the airplane.
(f) The effects of available reverse
thrust—
(1) Shall not be included as an addi-
tional means of deceleration when de-
termining the accelerate-stop distance
on a dry runway; and
(2) May be included as an additional
means of deceleration using rec-
ommended reverse thrust procedures
when determining the accelerate-stop
distance on a wet runway, provided the
requirements of paragraph (e) of this
section are met.
(g) The landing gear must remain ex-
tended throughout the accelerate-stop
distance.
(h) If the accelerate-stop distance in-
cludes a stopway with surface charac-
teristics substantially different from
those of the runway, the takeoff data
must include operational correction
337
§ 25.111
factors for the accelerate-stop dis-
tance. The correction factors must ac-
count for the particular surface charac-
teristics of the stopway and the vari-
ations in these characteristics with
seasonal weather conditions (such as
temperature, rain, snow, and ice) with-
in the established operational limits.
(i) A flight test demonstration of the
maximum brake kinetic energy accel-
erate-stop distance must be conducted
with not more than 10 percent of the
allowable brake wear range remaining
on each of the airplane wheel brakes.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2321, Jan. 16,
1978; Amdt. 25–92, 63 FR 8318, Feb. 18, 1998]
§ 25.111 Takeoff path.
(a) The takeoff path extends from a
standing start to a point in the takeoff
at which the airplane is 1,500 feet above
the takeoff surface, or at which the
transition from the takeoff to the en
route configuration is completed and a
speed is reached at which compliance
with § 25.121(c) is shown, whichever
point is higher. In addition—
(1) The takeoff path must be based on
the procedures prescribed in § 25.101(f);
(2) The airplane must be accelerated
on the ground to VEF, at which point
the critical engine must be made inop-
erative and remain inoperative for the
rest of the takeoff; and
(3) After reaching VEF, the airplane
must be accelerated to V2.
(b) During the acceleration to speed
V2, the nose gear may be raised off the
ground at a speed not less than VR.
However, landing gear retraction may
§ 25.113
not be begun until the airplane is air-
borne.
(c) During the takeoff path deter-
mination in accordance with para-
graphs (a) and (b) of this section—
(1) The slope of the airborne part of
the takeoff path must be positive at
each point;
(2) The airplane must reach V2 before
it is 35 feet above the takeoff surface
and must continue at a speed as close
as practical to, but not less than V2,
until it is 400 feet above the takeoff
surface;
(3) At each point along the takeoff
path, starting at the point at which the
airplane reaches 400 feet above the
takeoff surface, the available gradient
of climb may not be less than—
(i) 1.2 percent for two-engine air-
planes;
(ii) 1.5 percent for three-engine air-
planes; and
(iii) 1.7 percent for four-engine air-
planes; and
(4) Except for gear retraction and
propeller feathering, the airplane con-
figuration may not be changed, and no
change in power or thrust that requires
action by the pilot may be made, until
the airplane is 400 feet above the take-
off surface.
(d) The takeoff path must be deter-
mined by a continuous demonstrated
takeoff or by synthesis from segments.
If the takeoff path is determined by the
segmental method—
(1) The segments must be clearly de-
fined and must be related to the dis-
tinct changes in the configuration,
power or thrust, and speed;
(2) The weight of the airplane, the
configuration, and the power or thrust
must be constant throughout each seg-
ment and must correspond to the most
critical condition prevailing in the seg-
ment;
(3) The flight path must be based on
the airplane’s performance without
ground effect; and
(4) The takeoff path data must be
checked by continuous demonstrated
takeoffs up to the point at which the
airplane is out of ground effect and its
speed is stabilized, to ensure that the
path is conservative relative to the
continous path.
338
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
The airplane is considered to be out of
the ground effect when it reaches a
height equal to its wing span.
(e) For airplanes equipped with
standby power rocket engines, the
takeoff path may be determined in ac-
cordance with section II of appendix E.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–6, 30 FR 8468, July 2,
1965; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2321, Jan. 16, 1978;
Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60172, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt.
25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25–94,
63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]
§ 25.113 Takeoff distance and takeoff
run.
(a) Takeoff distance on a dry runway
is the greater of—
(1) The horizontal distance along the
takeoff path from the start of the take-
off to the point at which the airplane is
35 feet above the takeoff surface, deter-
mined under § 25.111 for a dry runway;
or
(2) 115 percent of the horizontal dis-
tance along the takeoff path, with all
engines operating, from the start of the
takeoff to the point at which the air-
plane is 35 feet above the takeoff sur-
face, as determined by a procedure con-
sistent with § 25.111.
(b) Takeoff distance on a wet runway
is the greater of—
(1) The takeoff distance on a dry run-
way determined in accordance with
paragraph (a) of this section; or
(2) The horizontal distance along the
takeoff path from the start of the take-
off to the point at which the airplane is
15 feet above the takeoff surface,
achieved in a manner consistent with
the achievement of V2 before reaching
35 feet above the takeoff surface, deter-
mined under § 25.111 for a wet runway.
(c) If the takeoff distance does not in-
clude a clearway, the takeoff run is
equal to the takeoff distance. If the
takeoff distance includes a clearway—
(1) The takeoff run on a dry runway
is the greater of—
(i) The horizontal distance along the
takeoff path from the start of the take-
off to a point equidistant between the
point at which VLOF is reached and the
point at which the airplane is 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, as deter-
mined under § 25.111 for a dry runway;
or
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(ii) 115 percent of the horizontal dis-
tance along the takeoff path, with all
engines operating, from the start of the
takeoff to a point equidistant between
the point at which VLOF is reached and
the point at which the airplane is 35
feet above the takeoff surface, deter-
mined by a procedure consistent with
§ 25.111.
(2) The takeoff run on a wet runway
is the greater of—
(i) The horizontal distance along the
takeoff path from the start of the take-
off to the point at which the airplane is
15 feet above the takeoff surface,
achieved in a manner consistent with
the achievement of V2 before reaching
35 feet above the takeoff surface, as de-
termined under § 25.111 for a wet run-
way; or
(ii) 115 percent of the horizontal dis-
tance along the takeoff path, with all
engines operating, from the start of the
takeoff to a point equidistant between
the point at which VLOF is reached and
the point at which the airplane is 35
feet above the takeoff surface, deter-
mined by a procedure consistent with
§ 25.111.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–92, 63 FR 8320, Feb. 18, 1998]
§ 25.115 Takeoff flight path.
(a) The takeoff flight path shall be
considered to begin 35 feet above the
takeoff surface at the end of the take-
off distance determined in accordance
with § 25.113(a) or (b), as appropriate for
the runway surface condition.
(b) The net takeoff flight path data
must be determined so that they rep-
resent the actual takeoff flight paths
(determined in accordance with § 25.111
and with paragraph (a) of this section)
reduced at each point by a gradient of
climb equal to—
(1) 0.8 percent for two-engine air-
planes;
(2) 0.9 percent for three-engine air-
planes; and
(3) 1.0 percent for four-engine air-
planes.
(c) The prescribed reduction in climb
gradient may be applied as an equiva-
lent reduction in acceleration along
that part of the takeoff flight path at
339
§ 25.121
which the airplane is accelerated in
level flight.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–92, 63 FR 8320, Feb. 18,
1998]
§ 25.117 Climb: general.
Compliance with the requirements of
§§ 25.119 and 25.121 must be shown at
each weight, altitude, and ambient
temperature within the operational
limits established for the airplane and
with the most unfavorable center of
gravity for each configuration.
§ 25.119 Landing climb: All-engines-op-
erating.
In the landing configuration, the
steady gradient of climb may not be
less than 3.2 percent, with—
(a) The engines at the power or
thrust that is available eight seconds
after initiation of movement of the
power or thrust controls from the min-
imum flight idle to the go-around
power or thrust setting; and
(b) A climb speed of not more than 1.3
VS.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR 30749, June 9,
1995]
§ 25.121 Climb: One-engine-inoper-
ative.
(a) Takeoff; landing gear extended. In
the critical takeoff configuration exist-
ing along the flight path (between the
points at which the airplane reaches
VLOF and at which the landing gear is
fully retracted) and in the configura-
tion used in § 25.111 but without ground
effect, the steady gradient of climb
must be positive for two-engine air-
planes, and not less than 0.3 percent for
three-engine airplanes or 0.5 percent
for four-engine airplanes, at VLOF and
with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative
and the remaining engines at the power
or thrust available when retraction of
the landing gear is begun in accordance
with § 25.111 unless there is a more crit-
ical power operating condition existing
later along the flight path but before
the point at which the landing gear is
fully retracted; and
(2) The weight equal to the weight
existing when retraction of the landing
§ 25.123
gear is begun, determined under
§ 25.111.
(b) Takeoff; landing gear retracted. In
the takeoff configuration existing at
the point of the flight path at which
the landing gear is fully retracted, and
in the configuration used in § 25.111 but
without ground effect, the steady gra-
dient of climb may not be less than 2.4
percent for two-engine airplanes, 2.7
percent for three-engine airplanes, and
3.0 percent for four-engine airplanes, at
V2 and with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative,
the remaining engines at the takeoff
power or thrust available at the time
the landing gear is fully retracted, de-
termined under § 25.111, unless there is
a more critical power operating condi-
tion existing later along the flight path
but before the point where the airplane
reaches a height of 400 feet above the
takeoff surface; and
(2) The weight equal to the weight
existing when the airplane’s landing
gear is fully retracted, determined
under § 25.111.
(c) Final takeoff. In the en route con-
figuration at the end of the takeoff
path determined in accordance with
§ 25.111, the steady gradient of climb
may not be less than 1.2 percent for
two-engine airplanes, 1.5 percent for
three-engine airplanes, and 1.7 percent
for four-engine airplanes, at not less
than 1.25 VS and with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative
and the remaining engines at the avail-
able maximum continuous power or
thrust; and
(2) The weight equal to the weight
existing at the end of the takeoff path,
determined under § 25.111.
(d) Approach. In the approach con-
figuration corresponding to the normal
all-engines-operating procedure in
which VS for this configuration does
not exceed 110 percent of the VS for the
related landing configuration, the
steady gradient of climb may not be
less than 2.1 percent for two-engine air-
planes, 2.4 percent for three-engine air-
planes, and 2.7 percent for four-engine
airplanes, with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative,
the remaining engines at the go-around
power or thrust setting;
(2) The maximum landing weight;
and
340
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(3) A climb speed established in con-
nection with normal landing proce-
dures, but not exceeding 1.5 VS.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR 30749, June 9,
1995]
§ 25.123 En route flight paths.
(a) For the en route configuration,
the flight paths prescribed in para-
graphs (b) and (c) of this section must
be determined at each weight, altitude,
and ambient temperature, within the
operating limits established for the
airplane. The variation of weight along
the flight path, accounting for the pro-
gressive consumption of fuel and oil by
the operating engines, may be included
in the computation. The flight paths
must be determined at any selected
speed, with—
(1) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(2) The critical engines inoperative;
(3) The remaining engines at the
available maximum continuous power
or thrust; and
(4) The means for controlling the en-
gine-cooling air supply in the position
that provides adequate cooling in the
hot-day condition.
(b) The one-engine-inoperative net
flight path data must represent the ac-
tual climb performance diminished by
a gradient of climb of 1.1 percent for
two-engine airplanes, 1.4 percent for
three-engine airplanes, and 1.6 percent
for four-engine airplanes.
(c) For three- or four-engine air-
planes, the two-engine-inoperative net
flight path data must represent the ac-
tual climb performance diminished by
a gradient of climb of 0.3 percent for
three-engine airplanes and 0.5 percent
for four-engine airplanes.
§ 25.125 Landing.
(a) The horizontal distance necessary
to land and to come to a complete stop
(or to a speed of approximately 3 knots
for water landings) from a point 50 feet
above the landing surface must be de-
termined (for standard temperatures,
at each weight, altitude, and wind
within the operational limits estab-
lished by the applicant for the air-
plane) as follows:
(1) The airplane must be in the land-
ing configuration.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(2) A stabilized approach, with a cali-
brated airspeed of not less than 1.3 VS
or VMCL, whichever is greater, must be
maintained down to the 50 foot height.
(3) Changes in configuration, power
or thrust, and speed, must be made in
accordance with the established proce-
dures for service operation.
(4) The landing must be made with-
out excessive vertical acceleration,
tendency to bounce, nose over, ground
loop, porpoise, or water loop.
(5) The landings may not require ex-
ceptional piloting skill or alertness.
(b) For landplanes and amphibians,
the landing distance on land must be
determined on a level, smooth, dry,
hard-surfaced runway. In addition—
(1) The pressures on the wheel brak-
ing systems may not exceed those spec-
ified by the brake manufacturer;
(2) The brakes may not be used so as
to cause excessive wear of brakes or
tires; and
(3) Means other than wheel brakes
may be used if that means—
(i) Is safe and reliable;
(ii) Is used so that consistent results
can be expected in service; and
(iii) Is such that exceptional skill is
not required to control the airplane.
(c) For seaplanes and amphibians, the
landing distance on water must be de-
termined on smooth water.
(d) For skiplanes, the landing dis-
tance on snow must be determined on
smooth, dry, snow.
(e) The landing distance data must
include correction factors for not more
than 50 percent of the nominal wind
components along the landing path op-
posite to the direction of landing, and
not less than 150 percent of the nomi-
nal wind components along the landing
path in the direction of landing.
(f) If any device is used that depends
on the operation of any engine, and if
the landing distance would be notice-
ably increased when a landing is made
with that engine inoperative, the land-
ing distance must be determined with
that engine inoperative unless the use
of compensating means will result in a
landing distance not more than that
with each engine operating.
Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20,
1990; Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR 30749, June 9, 1995]
341
§ 25.143
CONTROLLABILITY AND
MANEUVERABILITY
§ 25.143 General.
(a) The airplane must be safely con-
trollable and maneuverable during—
(1) Takeoff;
(2) Climb;
(3) Level flight;
(4) Descent; and
(5) Landing.
(b) It must be possible to make a
smooth transition from one flight con-
dition to any other flight condition
without exceptional piloting skill,
alertness, or strength, and without
danger of exceeding the airplane limit-
load factor under any probable operat-
ing conditions, including—
(1) The sudden failure of the critical
engine;
(2) For airplanes with three or more
engines, the sudden failure of the sec-
ond critical engine when the airplane is
in the en route, approach, or landing
configuration and is trimmed with the
critical engine inoperative; and
(3) Configuration changes, including
deployment or retraction of decelera-
tion devices.
(c) The following table prescribes, for
conventional wheel type controls, the
maximum control forces permitted
during the testing required by para-
graphs (a) and (b) of this section:
Force, in pounds, applied to the Pitch Roll Yaw
control wheel or rudder pedals
For short term application for
pitch and roll control—two
hands available for control ..... 75 50 ............
For short term application for
pitch and roll control—one
hand available for control ....... 50 25 ............
For short term application for
yaw control ............................. ............ ............ 150
For long term application ........... 10 5 20
(d) Approved operating procedures or
conventional operating practices must
be followed when demonstrating com-
pliance with the control force limita-
tions for short term application that
are prescribed in paragraph (c) of this
section. The airplane must be in trim,
or as near to being in trim as practical,
in the immediately preceding steady
flight condition. For the takeoff condi-
tion, the airplane must be trimmed ac-
cording to the approved operating pro-
cedures.
§ 25.145
(e) When demonstrating compliance
with the control force limitations for
long term application that are pre-
scribed in paragraph (c) of this section,
the airplane must be in trim, or as near
to being in trim as practical.
(f) When maneuvering at a constant
airspeed or Mach number (up to VFC/
MFC), the stick forces and the gradient
of the stick force versus maneuvering
load factor must lie within satisfactory
limits. The stick forces must not be so
great as to make excessive demands on
the pilot’s strength when maneuvering
the airplane, and must not be so low
that the airplane can easily be over-
stressed inadvertently. Changes of gra-
dient that occur with changes of load
factor must not cause undue difficulty
in maintaining control of the airplane,
and local gradients must not be so low
as to result in a danger of overcontrol-
ling.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2321, Jan. 16,
1978; Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR 30749, June 9, 1995]
§ 25.145 Longitudinal control.
(a) It must be possible at any speed
between the trim speed prescribed in
§ 25.103(b)(1) and Vs, to pitch the nose
downward so that the acceleration to
this selected trim speed is prompt
with—
(1) The airplane trimmed at the trim
speed prescribed in § 25.103(b)(1).
(2) The landing gear extended;
(3) The wing flaps (i) retracted and
(ii) extended; and
(4) Power (i) off and (ii) at maximum
continuous power on the engines.
(b) With the landing gear extended,
no change in trim control, or exertion
of more than 50 pounds control force
(representative of the maximum short
term force that can be applied readily
by one hand) may be required for the
following maneuvers:
(1) With power off, flaps retracted,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 VS1, ex-
tend the flaps as rapidly as possible
while maintaining the airspeed at ap-
proximately 40 percent above the stall-
ing speed existing at each instant
throughout the maneuver.
(2) Repeat paragraph (b)(1) except ini-
tially extend the flaps and then retract
them as rapidly as possible.
342
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(3) Repeat paragraph (b)(2), except at
the go-around power or thrust setting.
(4) With power off, flaps retracted,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 VSI,
rapidly set go-around power or thrust
while maintaining the same airspeed.
(5) Repeat paragraph (b)(4) except
with flaps extended.
(6) With power off, flaps extended,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 VS1, ob-
tain and maintain airspeeds between
1.1 VS1, and either 1.7 VS1, or VFE,
whichever is lower.
(c) Is must be possible, without ex-
ceptional piloting skill, to prevent loss
of altitude when complete retraction of
the high lift devices from any position
is begun during steady, straight, level
flight at 1.1 VS1 for propeller powered
airplanes, or 1.2 VS1 for turbojet pow-
ered airplanes, with—
(1) Simultaneous movement of the
power or thrust controls to the go-
around power or thrust setting;
(2) The landing gear extended; and
(3) The critical combinations of land-
ing weights and altitudes.
If gated high-lift device control posi-
tions are provided, retraction must be
shown from any position from the max-
imum landing position to the first
gated position, between gated posi-
tions, and from the last gated position
to the full retraction position. In addi-
tion, the first gated control position
from the landing position must cor-
respond with the high-lift devices con-
figuration used to establish the go-
around procedure from the landing con-
figuration. Each gated control position
must require a separate and distinct
motion of the control to pass through
the gated position and must have fea-
tures to prevent inadvertent movement
of the control through the gated posi-
tion.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990;
Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR 30749, June 9, 1995]
§ 25.147 Directional and lateral con-
trol.
(a) Directional control; general. It must
be possible, with the wings level, to
yaw into the operative engine and to
safely make a reasonably sudden
change in heading of up to 15 degrees in
the direction of the critical inoperative
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
engine. This must be shown at 1.4Vs1
for heading changes up to 15 degrees
(except that the heading change at
which the rudder pedal force is 150
pounds need not be exceeded), and
with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative
and its propeller in the minimum drag
position;
(2) The power required for level flight
at 1.4 VS1, but not more than maximum
continuous power;
(3) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(4) Landing gear retracted;
(5) Flaps in the approach position;
and
(6) Maximum landing weight.
(b) Directional control; airplanes with
four or more engines. Airplanes with
four or more engines must meet the re-
quirements of paragraph (a) of this sec-
tion except that—
(1) The two critical engines must be
inoperative with their propellers (if ap-
plicable) in the minimum drag posi-
tion;
(2) [Reserved]
(3) The flaps must be in the most fa-
vorable climb position.
(c) Lateral control; general. It must be
possible to make 20° banked turns, with
and against the inoperative engine,
from steady flight at a speed equal to
1.4 VS1, with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative
and its propeller (if applicable) in the
minimum drag position;
(2) The remaining engines at maxi-
mum continuous power;
(3) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(4) Landing gear (i) retracted and (ii)
extended;
(5) Flaps in the most favorable climb
position; and
(6) Maximum takeoff weight.
(d) Lateral control; airplanes with four
or more engines. Airplanes with four or
more engines must be able to make 20°
banked turns, with and against the in-
operative engines, from steady flight at
a speed equal to 1.4 VS1, with maximum
continuous power, and with the air-
plane in the configuration prescribed
by paragraph (b) of this section.
(e) Lateral control; all engines operat-
ing. With the engines operating, roll re-
sponse must allow normal maneuvers
343
§ 25.149
(such as recovery from upsets produced
by gusts and the initiation of evasive
maneuvers). There must be enough ex-
cess lateral control in sideslips (up to
sideslip angles that might be required
in normal operation), to allow a lim-
ited amount of maneuvering and to
correct for gusts. Lateral control must
be enough at any speed up to VFC/MFC
to provide a peak roll rate necessary
for safety, without excessive control
forces or travel.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2321, Jan. 16,
1978; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.149 Minimum control speed.
(a) In establishing the minimum con-
trol speeds required by this section, the
method used to simulate critical en-
gine failure must represent the most
critical mode of powerplant failure
with respect to controllability ex-
pected in service.
(b) VMC is the calibrated airspeed at
which, when the critical engine is sud-
denly made inoperative, it is possible
to maintain control of the airplane
with that engine still inoperative and
maintain straight flight with an angle
of bank of not more than 5 degrees.
(c) VMC may not exceed 1.2 VS with—
(1) Maximum available takeoff power
or thrust on the engines;
(2) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(3) The airplane trimmed for takeoff;
(4) The maximum sea level takeoff
weight (or any lesser weight necessary
to show VMC);
(5) The airplane in the most critical
takeoff configuration existing along
the flight path after the airplane be-
comes airborne, except with the land-
ing gear retracted;
(6) The airplane airborne and the
ground effect negligible; and
(7) If applicable, the propeller of the
inoperative engine—
(i) Windmilling;
(ii) In the most probable position for
the specific design of the propeller con-
trol; or
(iii) Feathered, if the airplane has an
automatic feathering device acceptable
for showing compliance with the climb
requirements of § 25.121.
§ 25.149
(d) The rudder forces required to
maintain control at VMC may not ex-
ceed 150 pounds nor may it be nec-
essary to reduce power or thrust of the
operative engines. During recovery, the
airplane may not assume any dan-
gerous attitude or require exceptional
piloting skill, alertness, or strength to
prevent a heading change of more than
20 degrees.
(e) VMCG, the minimum control speed
on the ground, is the calibrated air-
speed during the takeoff run at which,
when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to
maintain control of the airplane using
the rudder control alone (without the
use of nosewheel steering), as limited
by 150 pounds of force, and the lateral
control to the extent of keeping the
wings level to enable the takeoff to be
safely continued using normal piloting
skill. In the determination of VMCG, as-
suming that the path of the airplane
accelerating with all engines operating
is along the centerline of the runway,
its path from the point at which the
critical engine is made inoperative to
the point at which recovery to a direc-
tion parallel to the centerline is com-
pleted may not deviate more than 30
feet laterally from the centerline at
any point. VMCG must be established
with—
(1) The airplane in each takeoff con-
figuration or, at the option of the ap-
plicant, in the most critical takeoff
configuration;
(2) Maximum available takeoff power
or thrust on the operating engines;
(3) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(4) The airplane trimmed for takeoff;
and
(5) The most unfavorable weight in
the range of takeoff weights.
(f) VMCL, the minimum control speed
during approach and landing with all
engines operating, is the calibrated air-
speed at which, when the critical en-
gine is suddenly made inoperative, it is
possible to maintain control of the air-
plane with that engine still inoper-
ative, and maintain straight flight
with an angle of bank of not more than
5 degrees. VMCL must be established
with—
(1) The airplane in the most critical
configuration (or, at the option of the
344
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
applicant, each configuration) for ap-
proach and landing with all engines op-
erating;
(2) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(3) The airplane trimmed for ap-
proach with all engines operating;
(4) The most favorable weight, or, at
the option of the applicant, as a func-
tion of weight;
(5) For propeller airplanes, the pro-
peller of the inoperative engine in the
position it achieves without pilot ac-
tion, assuming the engine fails while at
the power or thrust necessary to main-
tain a three degree approach path
angle; and
(6) Go-around power or thrust setting
on the operating engine(s).
(g) For airplanes with three or more
engines, VMCL-2, the minimum control
speed during approach and landing
with one critical engine inoperative, is
the calibrated airspeed at which, when
a second critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to
maintain control of the airplane with
both engines still inoperative, and
maintain straight flight with an angle
of bank of not more than 5 degrees.
VMCL-2 must be established with—
(1) The airplane in the most critical
configuration (or, at the option of the
applicant, each configuration) for ap-
proach and landing with one critical
engine inoperative;
(2) The most unfavorable center of
gravity;
(3) The airplane trimmed for ap-
proach with one critical engine inoper-
ative;
(4) The most unfavorable weight, or,
at the option of the applicant, as a
function of weight;
(5) For propeller airplanes, the pro-
peller of the more critical inoperative
engine in the position it achieves with-
out pilot action, assuming the engine
fails while at the power or thrust nec-
essary to maintain a three degree ap-
proach path angle, and the propeller of
the other inoperative engine feathered;
(6) The power or thrust on the operat-
ing engine(s) necessary to maintain an
approach path angle of three degrees
when one critical engine is inoperative;
and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(7) The power or thrust on the operat-
ing engine(s) rapidly changed, imme-
diately after the second critical engine
is made inoperative, from the power or
thrust prescribed in paragraph (g)(6) of
this section to—
(i) Minimum power or thrust; and
(ii) Go-around power or thrust set-
ting.
(h) In demonstrations of VMCL and
VMCL-2—
(1) The rudder force may not exceed
150 pounds;
(2) The airplane may not exhibit haz-
ardous flight characteristics or require
exceptional piloting skill, alertness, or
strength;
(3) Lateral control must be sufficient
to roll the airplane, from an initial
condition of steady flight, through an
angle of 20 degrees in the direction nec-
essary to initiate a turn away from the
inoperative engine(s), in not more than
5 seconds; and
(4) For propeller airplanes, hazardous
flight characteristics must not be ex-
hibited due to any propeller position
achieved when the engine fails or dur-
ing any likely subsequent movements
of the engine or propeller controls.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2321, Jan. 16,
1978; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990; 55
FR 37607, Sept. 12, 1990; Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR
30749, June 9, 1995]
TRIM
§ 25.161 Trim.
(a) General. Each airplane must meet
the trim requirements of this section
after being trimmed, and without fur-
ther pressure upon, or movement of, ei-
ther the primary controls or their cor-
responding trim controls by the pilot
or the automatic pilot.
(b) Lateral and directional trim. The
airplane must maintain lateral and di-
rectional trim with the most adverse
lateral displacement of the center of
gravity within the relevant operating
limitations, during normally expected
conditions of operation (including op-
eration at any speed from 1.4 VS1 to
VMO/MMO).
(c) Longitudinal trim. The airplane
must maintain longitudinal trim dur-
ing—
345
§ 25.171
(1) A climb with maximum continu-
ous power at a speed not more than 1.4
VS1, with the landing gear retracted,
and the flaps (i) retracted and (ii) in
the takeoff position;
(2) A glide with power off at a speed
not more than 1.4 VS1, with the landing
gear extended, the wing flaps (i) re-
tracted and (ii) extended, the most un-
favorable center of gravity position ap-
proved for landing with the maximum
landing weight, and with the most un-
favorable center of gravity position ap-
proved for landing regardless of weight;
and
(3) Level flight at any speed from 1.4
VS1, to VMO/MMO, with the landing gear
and flaps retracted, and from 1.4 VS1 to
VLE with the landing gear extended.
(d) Longitudinal, directional, and lat-
eral trim. The airplane must maintain
longitudinal, directional, and lateral
trim (and for the lateral trim, the
angle of bank may not exceed five de-
grees) at 1.4 VS1 during climbing flight
with—
(1) The critical engine inoperative;
(2) The remaining engines at maxi-
mum continuous power; and
(3) The landing gear and flaps re-
tracted.
(e) Airplanes with four or more engines.
Each airplane with four or more en-
gines must maintain trim in rectilin-
ear flight—
(1) At the climb speed, configuration,
and power required by § 25.123(a) for the
purpose of establishing the rate of
climb;
(2) With the most unfavorable center
of gravity position; and
(3) At the weight at which the two-
engine-inoperative climb is equal to at
least 0.013 VS02 at an altitude of 5,000
feet.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976]
STABILITY
§ 25.171 General.
The airplane must be longitudinally,
directionally, and laterally stable in
accordance with the provisions of
§§ 25.173 through 25.177. In addition,
suitable stability and control feel
(static stability) is required in any con-
dition normally encountered in service,
§ 25.173
if flight tests show it is necessary for
safe operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–7, 30 FR 13117, Oct. 15,
1965]
§ 25.173 Static longitudinal stability.
Under the conditions specified in
§ 25.175, the characteristics of the eleva-
tor control forces (including friction)
must be as follows:
(a) A pull must be required to obtain
and maintain speeds below the speci-
fied trim speed, and a push must be re-
quired to obtain and maintain speeds
above the specified trim speed. This
must be shown at any speed that can be
obtained except speeds higher than the
landing gear or wing flap operating
limit speeds or VFC/MFC, whichever is
appropriate, or lower than the mini-
mum speed for steady unstalled flight.
(b) The airspeed must return to with-
in 10 percent of the original trim speed
for the climb, approach, and landing
conditions specified in § 25.175 (a), (c),
and (d), and must return to within 7.5
percent of the original trim speed for
the cruising condition specified in
§ 25.175(b), when the control force is
slowly released from any speed within
the range specified in paragraph (a) of
this section.
(c) The average gradient of the stable
slope of the stick force versus speed
curve may not be less than 1 pound for
each 6 knots.
(d) Within the free return speed range
specified in paragraph (b) of this sec-
tion, it is permissible for the airplane,
without control forces, to stabilize on
speeds above or below the desired trim
speeds if exceptional attention on the
part of the pilot is not required to re-
turn to and maintain the desired trim
speed and altitude.
[Amdt. 25–7, 30 FR 13117, Oct. 15, 1965]
§ 25.175 Demonstration of static longi-
tudinal stability.
Static longitudinal stability must be
shown as follows:
(a) Climb. The stick force curve must
have a stable slope at speeds between
85 and 115 percent of the speed at which
the airplane—
(1) Is trimmed, with—
(i) Wing flaps retracted;
(ii) Landing gear retracted;
346
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(iii) Maximum takeoff weight; and
(iv) 75 percent of maximum continu-
ous power for reciprocating engines or
the maximum power or thrust selected
by the applicant as an operating limi-
tation for use during climb for turbine
engines; and
(2) Is trimmed at the speed for best
rate-of-climb except that the speed
need not be less than 1.4 VS1.
(b) Cruise. Static longitudinal stabil-
ity must be shown in the cruise condi-
tion as follows:
(1) With the landing gear retracted at
high speed, the stick force curve must
have a stable slope at all speeds within
a range which is the greater of 15 per-
cent of the trim speed plus the result-
ing free return speed range, or 50 knots
plus the resulting free return speed
range, above and below the trim speed
(except that the speed range need not
include speeds less than 1.4 VS1, nor
speeds greater than VFC/MFC, nor
speeds that require a stick force of
more than 50 pounds), with—
(i) The wing flaps retracted;
(ii) The center of gravity in the most
adverse position (see § 25.27);
(iii) The most critical weight be-
tween the maximum takeoff and maxi-
mum landing weights;
(iv) 75 percent of maximum continu-
ous power for reciprocating engines or
for turbine engines, the maximum
cruising power selected by the appli-
cant as an operating limitation (see
§ 25.1521), except that the power need
not exceed that required at VMO/MMO;
and
(v) The airplane trimmed for level
flight with the power required in para-
graph (b)(1)(iv) of this section.
(2) With the landing gear retracted at
low speed, the stick force curve must
have a stable slope at all speeds within
a range which is the greater of 15 per-
cent of the trim speed plus the result-
ing free return speed range, or 50 knots
plus the resulting free return speed
range, above and below the trim speed
(except that the speed range need not
include speeds less than 1.4 VS1, nor
speeds greater than the minimum
speed of the applicable speed range pre-
scribed in paragraph (b)(1), nor speeds
that require a stick force of more than
50 pounds), with—
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(i) Wing flaps, center of gravity posi-
tion, and weight as specified in para-
graph (b)(1) of this section;
(ii) Power required for level flight at
a speed equal to VMO + 1.4 VS1/2; and
(iii) The airplane trimmed for level
flight with the power required in para-
graph (b)(2)(ii) of this section.
(3) With the landing gear extended,
the stick force curve must have a sta-
ble slope at all speeds within a range
which is the greater of 15 percent of the
trim speed plus the resulting free re-
turn speed range, or 50 knots plus the
resulting free return speed range,
above and below the trim speed (except
that the speed range need not include
speeds less than 1.4 VS1, nor speeds
greater than VLE, nor speeds that re-
quire a stick force of more than 50
pounds), with—
(i) Wing flap, center of gravity posi-
tion, and weight as specified in para-
graph (b)(1) of this section;
(ii) 75 percent of maximum continu-
ous power for reciprocating engines or,
for turbine engines, the maximum
cruising power selected by the appli-
cant as an operating limitation, except
that the power need not exceed that re-
quired for level flight at VLE; and
(iii) The aircraft trimmed for level
flight with the power required in para-
graph (b)(3)(ii) of this section.
(c) Approach. The stick force curve
must have a stable slope at speeds be-
tween 1.1 VS1 and 1.8 VS1, with—
(1) Wing flaps in the approach posi-
tion;
(2) Landing gear retracted;
(3) Maximum landing weight; and
(4) The airplane trimmed at 1.4 VS1
with enough power to maintain level
flight at this speed.
(d) Landing. The stick force curve
must have a stable slope, and the stick
force may not exceed 80 pounds, at
speeds between 1.1 VS0 and 1.3 VS0
with—
(1) Wing flaps in the landing position;
(2) Landing gear extended;
(3) Maximum landing weight;
(4) Power or thrust off on the en-
gines; and
(5) The airplane trimmed at 1.4 VS0
with power or thrust off.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–7, 30 FR 13117, Oct. 15,
1965]
347
§ 25.181
§ 25.177 Static lateral-directional sta-
bility.
(a)–(b) [Reserved]
(c) In straight, steady sideslips, the
aileron and rudder control movements
and forces must be substantially pro-
portional to the angle of sideslip in a
stable sense; and the factor of propor-
tionality must lie between limits found
necessary for safe operation through-
out the range of sideslip angles appro-
priate to the operation of the airplane.
At greater angles, up to the angle at
which full rudder is used or a rudder
force of 180 pounds is obtained, the rud-
der pedal forces may not reverse; and
increased rudder deflection must be
needed for increased angles of sideslip.
Compliance with this paragraph must
be demonstrated for all landing gear
and flap positions and symmetrical
power conditions at speeds from 1.2 VS1
to VFE, VLE, or VFC/MFC, as appropriate.
(d) The rudder gradients must meet
the requirements of paragraph (c) at
speeds between VMO/MMO and VFC/MFC
except that the dihedral effect (aileron
deflection opposite the corresponding
rudder input) may be negative provided
the divergence is gradual, easily recog-
nized, and easily controlled by the
pilot.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29774, July 20, 1990; 55 FR
37607, Sept. 12, 1990]
§ 25.181 Dynamic stability.
(a) Any short period oscillation, not
including combined lateral-directional
oscillations, occurring between 1.2 VS
and maximum allowable speed appro-
priate to the configuration of the air-
plane must be heavily damped with the
primary controls—
(1) Free; and
(2) In a fixed position.
(b) Any combined lateral-directional
oscillations (‘‘Dutch roll’’) occurring
between 1.2 VS and maximum allowable
speed appropriate to the configuration
of the airplane must be positively
damped with controls free, and must be
controllable with normal use of the pri-
mary controls without requiring excep-
tional pilot skill.
[Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2322, Jan. 16, 1978, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29775, July 20,
1990; 55 FR 37607, Sept. 12, 1990]
§ 25.201
STALLS
§ 25.201 Stall demonstration.
(a) Stalls must be shown in straight
flight and in 30 degree banked turns
with—
(1) Power off; and
(2) The power necessary to maintain
level flight at 1.6 VS1 (where VS1 cor-
responds to the stalling speed with
flaps in the approach position, the
landing gear retracted, and maximum
landing weight).
(b) In each condition required by
paragraph (a) of this section, it must
be possible to meet the applicable re-
quirements of § 25.203 with—
(1) Flaps, landing gear, and decelera-
tion devices in any likely combination
of positions approved for operation;
(2) Representative weights within the
range for which certification is re-
quested;
(3) The most adverse center of grav-
ity for recovery; and
(4) The airplane trimmed for straight
flight at the speed prescribed in
§ 25.103(b)(1).
(c) The following procedures must be
used to show compliance with § 25.203;
(1) Starting at a speed sufficiently
above the stalling speed to ensure that
a steady rate of speed reduction can be
established, apply the longitudinal
control so that the speed reduction
does not exceed one knot per second
until the airplane is stalled.
(2) In addition, for turning flight
stalls, apply the longitudinal control
to achieve airspeed deceleration rates
up to 3 knots per second.
(3) As soon as the airplane is stalled,
recover by normal recovery techniques.
(d) The airplane is considered stalled
when the behavior of the airplane gives
the pilot a clear and distinctive indica-
tion of an acceptable nature that the
airplane is stalled. Acceptable indica-
tions of a stall, occurring either indi-
vidually or in combination, are—
(1) A nose-down pitch that cannot be
readily arrested;
(2) Buffeting, of a magnitude and se-
verity that is a strong and effective de-
terrent to further speed reduction; or
(3) The pitch control reaches the aft
stop and no further increase in pitch
attitude occurs when the control is
348
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
held full aft for a short time before re-
covery is initiated.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR 30750, June 9,
1995]
§ 25.203 Stall characteristics.
(a) It must be possible to produce and
to correct roll and yaw by unreversed
use of the aileron and rudder controls,
up to the time the airplane is stalled.
No abnormal nose-up pitching may
occur. The longitudinal control force
must be positive up to and throughout
the stall. In addition, it must be pos-
sible to promptly prevent stalling and
to recover from a stall by normal use
of the controls.
(b) For level wing stalls, the roll oc-
curring between the stall and the com-
pletion of the recovery may not exceed
approximately 20 degrees.
(c) For turning flight stalls, the ac-
tion of the airplane after the stall may
not be so violent or extreme as to
make it difficult, with normal piloting
skill, to effect a prompt recovery and
to regain control of the airplane. The
maximum bank angle that occurs dur-
ing the recovery may not exceed—
(1) Approximately 60 degrees in the
original direction of the turn, or 30 de-
grees in the opposite direction, for de-
celeration rates up to 1 knot per sec-
ond; and
(2) Approximately 90 degrees in the
original direction of the turn, or 60 de-
grees in the opposite direction, for de-
celeration rates in excess of 1 knot per
second.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–84, 60 FR 30750, June 9,
1995]
§ 25.207 Stall warning.
(a) Stall warning with sufficient mar-
gin to prevent inadvertent stalling
with the flaps and landing gear in any
normal position must be clear and dis-
tinctive to the pilot in straight and
turning flight.
(b) The warning may be furnished ei-
ther through the inherent aerodynamic
qualities of the airplane or by a device
that will give clearly distinguishable
indications under expected conditions
of flight. However, a visual stall warn-
ing device that requires the attention
of the crew within the cockpit is not
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
acceptable by itself. If a warning de-
vice is used, it must provide a warning
in each of the airplane configuations
prescribed in paragraph (a) of this sec-
tion at the speed prescribed in para-
graph (c) of this section.
(c) The stall warning must begin at a
speed exceeding the stalling speed (i.e.,
the speed at which the airplane stalls
or the minimum speed demonstrated,
whichever is applicable under the pro-
visions of § 25.201(d)) by seven percent
or at any lesser margin if the stall
warning has enough clarity, duration,
distinctiveness, or similar properties.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–7, 30 FR 13118, Oct. 15,
1965; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2322, Jan. 16, 1978]
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
§ 25.231 Longitudinal stability and
control.
(a) Landplanes may have no uncon-
trollable tendency to nose over in any
reasonably expected operating condi-
tion or when rebound occurs during
landing or takeoff. In addition—
(1) Wheel brakes must operate
smoothly and may not cause any undue
tendency to nose over; and
(2) If a tail-wheel landing gear is
used, it must be possible, during the
takeoff ground run on concrete, to
maintain any altitude up to thrust line
level, at 80 percent of VS1.
(b) For seaplanes and amphibians,
the most adverse water conditions safe
for takeoff, taxiing, and landing, must
be established.
§ 25.233 Directional stability and con-
trol.
(a) There may be no uncontrollable
ground-looping tendency in 90° cross
winds, up to a wind velocity of 20 knots
or 0.2 VS0, whichever is greater, except
that the wind velocity need not exceed
25 knots at any speed at which the air-
plane may be expected to be operated
on the ground. This may be shown
while establishing the 90° cross compo-
nent of wind velocity required by
§ 25.237.
(b) Landplanes must be satisfactorily
controllable, without exceptional pilot-
ing skill or alertness, in power-off land-
ings at normal landing speed, without
349
§ 25.239
using brakes or engine power to main-
tain a straight path. This may be
shown during power-off landings made
in conjunction with other tests.
(c) The airplane must have adequate
directional control during taxiing. This
may be shown during taxiing prior to
takeoffs made in conjunction with
other tests.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2322, Jan. 16, 1978;
Amdt. 25–94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]
§ 25.235 Taxiing condition.
The shock absorbing mechanism may
not damage the structure of the air-
plane when the airplane is taxied on
the roughest ground that may reason-
ably be expected in normal operation.
§ 25.237 Wind velocities.
(a) For landplanes and amphibians, a
90-degree cross component of wind ve-
locity, demonstrated to be safe for
takeoff and landing, must be estab-
lished for dry runways and must be at
least 20 knots or 0.2 VS0, whichever is
greater, except that it need not exceed
25 knots.
(b) For seaplanes and amphibians,
the following applies:
(1) A 90-degree cross component of
wind velocity, up to which takeoff and
landing is safe under all water condi-
tions that may reasonably be expected
in normal operation, must be estab-
lished and must be at least 20 knots or
0.2 Vs0, whichever is greater, except
that it need not exceed 25 knots.
(2) A wind velocity, for which taxiing
is safe in any direction under all water
conditions that may reasonably be ex-
pected in normal operation, must be es-
tablished and must be at least 20 knots
or 0.2 VS0, whichever is greater, except
that it need not exceed 25 knots.
[Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2322, Jan. 16, 1978]
§ 25.239 Spray characteristics, control,
and stability on water.
(a) For seaplanes and amphibians,
during takeoff, taxiing, and landing,
and in the conditions set forth in para-
graph (b) of this section, there may be
no—
(1) Spray characteristics that would
impair the pilot’s view, cause damage,
§ 25.251
or result in the taking in of an undue
quantity of water;
(2) Dangerously uncontrollable
porpoising, bounding, or swinging tend-
ency; or
(3) Immersion of auxiliary floats or
sponsons, wing tips, propeller blades,
or other parts not designed to with-
stand the resulting water loads.
(b) Compliance with the require-
ments of paragraph (a) of this section
must be shown—
(1) In water conditions, from smooth
to the most adverse condition estab-
lished in accordance with § 25.231;
(2) In wind and cross-wind velocities,
water currents, and associated waves
and swells that may reasonably be ex-
pected in operation on water;
(3) At speeds that may reasonably be
expected in operation on water;
(4) With sudden failure of the critical
engine at any time while on water; and
(5) At each weight and center of grav-
ity position, relevant to each operating
condition, within the range of loading
conditions for which certification is re-
quested.
(c) In the water conditions of para-
graph (b) of this section, and in the
corresponding wind conditions, the sea-
plane or amphibian must be able to
drift for five minutes with engines in-
operative, aided, if necessary, by a sea
anchor.
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
§ 25.251 Vibration and buffeting.
(a) The airplane must be dem-
onstrated in flight to be free from any
vibration and buffeting that would pre-
vent continued safe flight in any likely
operating condition.
(b) Each part of the airplane must be
demonstrated in flight to be free from
excessive vibration under any appro-
priate speed and power conditions up to
VDF/MDF. The maximum speeds shown
must be used in establishing the oper-
ating limitations of the airplane in ac-
cordance with § 25.1505.
(c) Except as provided in paragraph
(d) of this section, there may be no buf-
feting condition, in normal flight, in-
cluding configuration changes during
cruise, severe enough to interfere with
the control of the airplane, to cause ex-
cessive fatigue to the crew, or to cause
350
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
structural damage. Stall warning buf-
feting within these limits is allowable.
(d) There may be no perceptible buf-
feting condition in the cruise configu-
ration in straight flight at any speed
up to VMO/MMO, except that stall warn-
ing buffeting is allowable.
(e) For an airplane with MD greater
than .6 or with a maximum operating
altitude greater than 25,000 feet, the
positive maneuvering load factors at
which the onset of perceptible buffet-
ing occurs must be determined with
the airplane in the cruise configuration
for the ranges of airspeed or Mach
number, weight, and altitude for which
the airplane is to be certificated. The
envelopes of load factor, speed, alti-
tude, and weight must provide a suffi-
cient range of speeds and load factors
for normal operations. Probable inad-
vertent excursions beyond the bound-
aries of the buffet onset envelopes may
not result in unsafe conditions.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29775, July 20, 1990;
Amdt. 25–77, 57 FR 28949, June 29, 1992]
§ 25.253 High-speed characteristics.
(a) Speed increase and recovery charac-
teristics. The following speed increase
and recovery characteristics must be
met:
(1) Operating conditions and charac-
teristics likely to cause inadvertent
speed increases (including upsets in
pitch and roll) must be simulated with
the airplane trimmed at any likely
cruise speed up to VMO/MMO. These con-
ditions and characteristics include gust
upsets, inadvertent control move-
ments, low stick force gradient in rela-
tion to control friction, passenger
movement, leveling off from climb, and
descent from Mach to airspeed limit al-
titudes.
(2) Allowing for pilot reaction time
after effective inherent or artificial
speed warning occurs, it must be shown
that the airplane can be recovered to a
normal attitude and its speed reduced
to VMO/MMO, without–
(i) Exceptional piloting strength or
skill;
(ii) Exceeding VD/MD, VDF/MDF, or the
structural limitations; and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(iii) Buffeting that would impair the
pilot’s ability to read the instruments
or control the airplane for recovery.
(3) With the airplane trimmed at any
speed up to VMO /MMO, there must be no
reversal of the response to control
input about any axis at any speed up to
VDF/MDF. Any tendency to pitch, roll,
or yaw must be mild and readily con-
trollable, using normal piloting tech-
niques. When the airplane is trimmed
at VMO/MMO, the slope of the elevator
control force versus speed curve need
not be stable at speeds greater than
VFC/MFC, but there must be a push force
at all speeds up to VDF/MDF and there
must be no sudden or excessive reduc-
tion of elevator control force as VDF/
MDF is reached.
(b) Maximum speed for stability charac-
teristics, VFC/MFC. VFC/MFC is the maxi-
mum speed at which the requirements
of §§ 25.143(f), 25.147(e), 25.175(b)(1),
25.177, and 25.181 must be met with
flaps and landing gear retracted. It
may not be less than a speed midway
between VMO/MMO and VDF/MDF, except
that for altitudes where Mach number
is the limiting factor, MFC need not ex-
ceed the Mach number at which effec-
tive speed warning occurs.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5671, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60172, Sept. 11, 1980;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29775, July 20, 1990; Amdt.
25–84, 60 FR 30750, June 9, 1995]
§ 25.255 Out-of-trim characteristics.
(a) From an initial condition with
the airplane trimmed at cruise speeds
up to VMO/MMO, the airplane must have
satisfactory maneuvering stability and
controllability with the degree of out-
of-trim in both the airplane nose-up
and nose-down directions, which re-
sults from the greater of—
(1) A three-second movement of the
longitudinal trim system at its normal
rate for the particular flight condition
with no aerodynamic load (or an equiv-
alent degree of trim for airplanes that
do not have a power-operated trim sys-
tem), except as limited by stops in the
trim system, including those required
by § 25.655(b) for adjustable stabilizers;
or
(2) The maximum mistrim that can
be sustained by the autopilot while
351
§ 25.255
maintaining level flight in the high
speed cruising condition.
(b) In the out-of-trim condition speci-
fied in paragraph (a) of this section,
when the normal acceleration is varied
from +1 g to the positive and negative
values specified in paragraph (c) of this
section—
(1) The stick force vs. g curve must
have a positive slope at any speed up to
and including VFC/MFC; and
(2) At speeds between VFC/MFC and
VDF/MDF the direction of the primary
longitudinal control force may not re-
verse.
(c) Except as provided in paragraphs
(d) and (e) of this section, compliance
with the provisions of paragraph (a) of
this section must be demonstrated in
flight over the acceleration range—
(1) ¥1 g to +2.5 g; or
(2) 0 g to 2.0 g, and extrapolating by
an acceptable method to ¥1 g and +2.5
g.
(d) If the procedure set forth in para-
graph (c)(2) of this section is used to
demonstrate compliance and marginal
conditions exist during flight test with
regard to reversal of primary longitu-
dinal control force, flight tests must be
accomplished from the normal accel-
eration at which a marginal condition
is found to exist to the applicable limit
specified in paragraph (b)(1) of this sec-
tion.
(e) During flight tests required by
paragraph (a) of this section, the limit
maneuvering load factors prescribed in
§§ 25.333(b) and 25.337, and the maneu-
vering load factors associated with
probable inadvertent excursions be-
yond the boundaries of the buffet onset
envelopes determined under § 25.251(e),
need not be exceeded. In addition, the
entry speeds for flight test demonstra-
tions at normal acceleration values
less than 1 g must be limited to the ex-
tent necessary to accomplish a recov-
ery without exceeding VDF/MDF.
(f) In the out-of-trim condition speci-
fied in paragraph (a) of this section, it
must be possible from an overspeed
condition at VDF/MDF to produce at
least 1.5 g for recovery by applying not
more than 125 pounds of longitudinal
control force using either the primary
§ 25.301
longitudinal control alone or the pri-
mary longitudinal control and the lon-
gitudinal trim system. If the longitu-
dinal trim is used to assist in produc-
ing the required load factor, it must be
shown at VDF/MDF that the longitu-
dinal trim can be actuated in the air-
plane nose-up direction with the pri-
mary surface loaded to correspond to
the least of the following airplane
nose-up control forces:
(1) The maximum control forces ex-
pected in service as specified in §§ 25.301
and 25.397.
(2) The control force required to
produce 1.5 g.
(3) The control force corresponding to
buffeting or other phenomena of such
intensity that it is a strong deterrent
to further application of primary longi-
tudinal control force.
[Amdt. No. 25–42, 43 FR 2322, Jan. 16, 1978]
Subpart C—Structure
GENERAL
§ 25.301 Loads.
(a) Strength requirements are speci-
fied in terms of limit loads (the maxi-
mum loads to be expected in service)
and ultimate loads (limit loads multi-
plied by prescribed factors of safety).
Unless otherwise provided, prescribed
loads are limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the
specified air, ground, and water loads
must be placed in equilibrium with in-
ertia forces, considering each item of
mass in the airplane. These loads must
be distributed to conservatively ap-
proximate or closely represent actual
conditions. Methods used to determine
load intensities and distribution must
be validated by flight load measure-
ment unless the methods used for de-
termining those loading conditions are
shown to be reliable.
(c) If deflections under load would
significantly change the distribution of
external or internal loads, this redis-
tribution must be taken into account.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970]
352
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
§ 25.303 Factor of safety.
Unless otherwise specified, a factor of
safety of 1.5 must be applied to the pre-
scribed limit load which are considered
external loads on the structure. When a
loading condition is prescribed in
terms of ultimate loads, a factor of
safety need not be applied unless other-
wise specified.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.305 Strength and deformation.
(a) The structure must be able to
support limit loads without detrimen-
tal permanent deformation. At any
load up to limit loads, the deformation
may not interfere with safe operation.
(b) The structure must be able to
support ultimate loads without failure
for at least 3 seconds. However, when
proof of strength is shown by dynamic
tests simulating actual load condi-
tions, the 3-second limit does not
apply. Static tests conducted to ulti-
mate load must include the ultimate
deflections and ultimate deformation
induced by the loading. When analyt-
ical methods are used to show compli-
ance with the ultimate load strength
requirements, it must be shown that—
(1) The effects of deformation are not
significant;
(2) The deformations involved are
fully accounted for in the analysis; or
(3) The methods and assumptions
used are sufficient to cover the effects
of these deformations.
(c) Where structural flexibility is
such that any rate of load application
likely to occur in the operating condi-
tions might produce transient stresses
appreciably higher than those cor-
responding to static loads, the effects
of this rate of application must be con-
sidered.
(d) [Reserved]
(e) The airplane must be designed to
withstand any vibration and buffeting
that might occur in any likely operat-
ing condition up to VD/MD, including
stall and probable inadvertent excur-
sions beyond the boundaries of the buf-
fet onset envelope. This must be shown
by analysis, flight tests, or other tests
found necessary by the Administrator.
(f) Unless shown to be extremely im-
probable, the airplane must be designed
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
to withstand any forced structural vi-
bration resulting from any failure,
malfunction or adverse condition in
the flight control system. These must
be considered limit loads and must be
investigated at airspeeds up to VC/MC.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60172, Sept. 11, 1980;
Amdt. 25–77, 57 FR 28949, June 29, 1992; Amdt.
25–86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 25.307 Proof of structure.
(a) Compliance with the strength and
deformation requirements of this sub-
part must be shown for each critical
loading condition. Structural analysis
may be used only if the structure con-
forms to that for which experience has
shown this method to be reliable. The
Administrator may require ultimate
load tests in cases where limit load
tests may be inadequate.
(b)–(c) [Reserved]
(d) When static or dynamic tests are
used to show compliance with the re-
quirements of § 25.305(b) for flight
structures, appropriate material cor-
rection factors must be applied to the
test results, unless the structure, or
part thereof, being tested has features
such that a number of elements con-
tribute to the total strength of the
structure and the failure of one ele-
ment results in the redistribution of
the load through alternate load paths.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60172, Sept. 11, 1980;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29775, July 20, 1990]
FLIGHT LOADS
§ 25.321 General.
(a) Flight load factors represent the
ratio of the aerodynamic force compo-
nent (acting normal to the assumed
longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the
weight of the airplane. A positive load
factor is one in which the aerodynamic
force acts upward with respect to the
airplane.
(b) Considering compressibility ef-
fects at each speed, compliance with
the flight load requirements of this
subpart must be shown—
(1) At each critical altitude within
the range of altitudes selected by the
applicant;
353
§ 25.331
(2) At each weight from the design
minimum weight to the design maxi-
mum weight appropriate to each par-
ticular flight load condition; and
(3) For each required altitude and
weight, for any practicable distribution
of disposable load within the operating
limitations recorded in the Airplane
Flight Manual.
(c) Enough points on and within the
boundaries of the design envelope must
be investigated to ensure that the max-
imum load for each part of the airplane
structure is obtained.
(d) The significant forces acting on
the airplane must be placed in equi-
librium in a rational or conservative
manner. The linear inertia forces must
be considered in equilibrium with the
thrust and all aerodynamic loads,
while the angular (pitching) inertia
forces must be considered in equi-
librium with thrust and all aero-
dynamic moments, including moments
due to loads on components such as
tail surfaces and nacelles. Critical
thrust values in the range from zero to
maximum continuous thrust must be
considered.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996]
FLIGHT MANEUVER AND GUST
CONDITIONS
§ 25.331 Symmetric maneuvering con-
ditions.
(a) Procedure. For the analysis of the
maneuvering flight conditions specified
in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this sec-
tion, the following provisions apply:
(1) Where sudden displacement of a
control is specified, the assumed rate
of control surface displacement may
not be less than the rate that could be
applied by the pilot through the con-
trol system.
(2) In determining elevator angles
and chordwise load distribution in the
maneuvering conditions of paragraphs
(b) and (c) of this section, the effect of
corresponding pitching velocities must
be taken into account. The in-trim and
out-of-trim flight conditions specified
in § 25.255 must be considered.
§ 25.333
(b) Maneuvering balanced conditions.
Assuming the airplane to be in equi-
librium with zero pitching accelera-
tion, the maneuvering conditions A
through I on the maneuvering envelope
in § 25.333(b) must be investigated.
(c) Pitch maneuver conditions. The
conditions specified in paragraphs
(c)(1) and (2) of this section must be in-
vestigated. The movement of the pitch
control surfaces may be adjusted to
take into account limitations imposed
by the maximum pilot effort specified
by § 25.397(b), control system stops and
any indirect effect imposed by limita-
tions in the output side of the control
system (for example, stalling torque or
maximum rate obtainable by a power
control system.)
(1) Maximum pitch control displacement
at VA. The airplane is assumed to be
flying in steady level flight (point A1,
§ 25.333(b)) and the cockpit pitch con-
trol is suddenly moved to obtain ex-
treme nose up pitching acceleration. In
defining the tail load, the response of
the airplane must be taken into ac-
count. Airplane loads that occur subse-
quent to the time when normal accel-
eration at the c.g. exceeds the positive
limit maneuvering load factor (at point
A2 in § 25.333(b)), or the resulting
tailplane normal load reaches its maxi-
mum, whichever occurs first, need not
be considered.
(2) Specified control displacement. A
checked maneuver, based on a rational
pitching control motion vs. time pro-
file, must be established in which the
design limit load factor specified in
§ 25.337 will not be exceeded. Unless
lesser values cannot be exceeded, the
airplane response must result in pitch-
ing accelerations not less than the fol-
lowing:
(i) A positive pitching acceleration
(nose up) is assumed to be reached con-
354
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
currently with the airplane load factor
of 1.0 (Points A1 to D1, § 25.333(b)). The
positive acceleration must be equal to
at least
39n
v
(
( n − 1.5), Radians/sec.2 )
where—
n is the positive load factor at the speed
under consideration, and V is the air-
plane equivalent speed in knots.
(ii) A negative pitching acceleration
(nose down) is assumed to be reached
concurrently with the positive maneu-
vering load factor (points A2 to D2,
§ 25.333(b)). This negative pitching ac-
celeration must be equal to at least
−26n
( )
( n − 1.5), Radians/sec.2
v
where—
n is the positive load factor at the speed
under consideration; and V is the air-
plane equivalent speed in knots.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50594, Oct. 30, 1978; 43
FR 52495, Nov. 13, 1978; 43 FR 54082, Nov. 20,
1978; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29775, July 20, 1990; 55
FR 37607, Sept. 12, 1990; Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR
5220, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40704,
July 29, 1997]
§ 25.333 Flight maneuvering envelope.
(a) General. The strength require-
ments must be met at each combina-
tion of airspeed and load factor on and
within the boundaries of the represent-
ative maneuvering envelope (V-n dia-
gram) of paragraph (b) of this section.
This envelope must also be used in de-
termining the airplane structural oper-
ating limitations as specified in
§ 25.1501.
(b) Maneuvering envelope.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9,
1996]
§ 25.335 Design airspeeds.
The selected design airspeeds are
equivalent airspeeds (EAS). Estimated
values of VS0 and VS1 must be conserv-
ative.
(a) Design cruising speed, VC. For VC,
the following apply:
(1) The minimum value of VC must be
sufficiently greater than VB to provide
for inadvertent speed increases likely
to occur as a result of severe atmos-
pheric turbulence.
(2) Except as provided in § 25.335(d)(2),
VC may not be less than VB + 1.32 U REF
(with UREF as specified in
§ 25.341(a)(5)(i)). However VC need not
exceed the maximum speed in level
flight at maximum continuous power
for the corresponding altitude.
(3) At altitudes where VD is limited
by Mach number, VC may be limited to
a selected Mach number.
(b) Design dive speed, VD. VD must be
selected so that VC/MC is not greater
than 0.8 VD/MD, or so that the mini-
mum speed margin between VC/MC and
355
§ 25.335
VD/MD is the greater of the following
values:
(1) From an initial condition of sta-
bilized flight at VC/MC, the airplane is
upset, flown for 20 seconds along a
flight path 7.5° below the initial path,
and then pulled up at a load factor of
1.5 g (0.5 g acceleration increment). The
speed increase occurring in this maneu-
ver may be calculated if reliable or
conservative aerodynamic data is used.
Power as specified in § 25.175(b)(1)(iv) is
assumed until the pullup is initiated,
at which time power reduction and the
use of pilot controlled drag devices
may be assumed;
(2) The minimum speed margin must
be enough to provide for atmospheric
variations (such as horizontal gusts,
and penetration of jet streams and cold
fronts) and for instrument errors and
airframe production variations. These
factors may be considered on a prob-
ability basis. The margin at altitude
where MC is limited by compressibility
effects must not less than 0.07M unless
a lower margin is determined using a
rational analysis that includes the ef-
fects of any automatic systems. In any
§ 25.337
case, the margin may not be reduced to
less than 0.05M.
(c) Design maneuvering speed VA. For
VA, the following apply:
(1) VA may not be less than VS1 √n
where—
(i) n is the limit positive maneuver-
ing load factor at VC; and
(ii) VS1 is the stalling speed with
flaps retracted.
(2) VA and VS must be evaluated at
the design weight and altitude under
consideration.
(3) VA need not be more than VC or
the speed at which the positive CN max
curve intersects the positive maneuver
load factor line, whichever is less.
(d) Design speed for maximum gust in-
tensity, VB.
(1) VB may not be less than
12
 K g U ref Vc a 
VS1 1 +  position at maximum landing weight.
 498w 
where—
VS1=the 1-g stalling speed based on
CNAmax with the flaps retracted at
the particular weight under consid-
eration;
Vc=design cruise speed (knots equiva-
lent airspeed);
Uref=the reference gust velocity (feet
per second equivalent airspeed)
from § 25.341(a)(5)(i);
w=average wing loading (pounds per
square foot) at the particular
weight under consideration.
.88 µ
Kg =
5.3 + µ
2w
µ=
ρcag
ρ=density of air (slugs/ft3);
c=mean geometric chord of the wing
(feet);
g=acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2);
a=slope of the airplane normal force
coefficient curve, CNA per radian;
(2) At altitudes where VC is limited
by Mach number—
(i) VB may be chosen to provide an
optimum margin between low and high
speed buffet boundaries; and,
(ii) VB need not be greater than VC.
356
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(e) Design flap speeds, VF. For VF, the
following apply:
(1) The design flap speed for each flap
position (established in accordance
with § 25.697(a)) must be sufficiently
greater than the operating speed rec-
ommended for the corresponding stage
of flight (including balked landings) to
allow for probable variations in control
of airspeed and for transition from one
flap position to another.
(2) If an automatic flap positioning or
load limiting device is used, the speeds
and corresponding flap positions pro-
grammed or allowed by the device may
be used.
(3) VF may not be less than—
(i) 1.6 VS1 with the flaps in takeoff po-
sition at maximum takeoff weight;
(ii) 1.8 VS1 with the flaps in approach
position at maximum landing weight,
and
(iii) 1.8 VS0 with the flaps in landing
(f) Design drag device speeds, VDD. The
selected design speed for each drag de-
vice must be sufficiently greater than
the speed recommended for the oper-
ation of the device to allow for prob-
able variations in speed control. For
drag devices intended for use in high
speed descents, VDD may not be less
than VD. When an automatic drag de-
vice positioning or load limiting means
is used, the speeds and corresponding
drag device positions programmed or
allowed by the automatic means must
be used for design.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996;
Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]
§ 25.337 Limit maneuvering load fac-
tors.
(a) Except where limited by maxi-
mum (static) lift coefficients, the air-
plane is assumed to be subjected to
symmetrical maneuvers resulting in
the limit maneuvering load factors pre-
scribed in this section. Pitching veloci-
ties appropriate to the corresponding
pull-up and steady turn maneuvers
must be taken into account.
(b) The positive limit maneuvering
load factor ‘‘n’’ for any speed up to Vn
may not be less than 2.1+24,000/ (W
+10,000) except that ‘‘n’’ may not be
less than 2.5 and need not be greater
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
than 3.8—where ‘‘W’’ is the design max-
imum takeoff weight.
(c) The negative limit maneuvering
load factor—
(1) May not be less than ¥1.0 at
speeds up to VC; and
(2) Must vary linearly with speed
from the value at VC to zero at VD.
(d) Maneuvering load factors lower
than those specified in this section
may be used if the airplane has design
features that make it impossible to ex-
ceed these values in flight.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.341 Gust and turbulence loads.
(a) Discrete Gust Design Criteria. The
airplane is assumed to be subjected to
symmetrical vertical and lateral gusts
in level flight. Limit gust loads must
be determined in accordance with the
provisions:
(1) Loads on each part of the struc-
ture must be determined by dynamic
analysis. The analysis must take into
account unsteady aerodynamic charac-
teristics and all significant structural
degrees of freedom including rigid body
motions.
(2) The shape of the gust must be:
U ds   πs  
U= 1- Cos  
2   H 
for 0 ≤ s ≤ 2H
where—
s=distance penetrated into the gust
(feet);
Uds=the design gust velocity in equiva-
lent airspeed specified in paragraph
(a)(4) of this section; and
H=the gust gradient which is the dis-
tance (feet) parallel to the air-
plane’s flight path for the gust to
reach its peak velocity.
(3) A sufficient number of gust gra-
dient distances in the range 30 feet to
350 feet must be investigated to find
the critical response for each load
quantity.
(4) The design gust velocity must be:
( )
16
U ds = U ref Fg H 350
where—
357
§ 25.341
Uref=the reference gust velocity in
equivalent airspeed defined in para-
graph (a)(5) of this section.
Fg=the flight profile alleviation factor
defined in paragraph (a)(6) of this
section.
(5) The following reference gust ve-
locities apply:
(i) At the airplane design speed VC™
Positive and negative gusts with ref-
erence gust velocities of 56.0 ft/sec EAS
must be considered at sea level. The
reference gust velocity may be reduced
linearly from 56.0 ft/sec EAS at sea
level to 44.0 ft/sec EAS at 15000 feet.
The reference gust velocity may be fur-
ther reduced linearly from 44.0 ft/sec
EAS at 15000 feet to 26.0 ft/sec EAS at
50000 feet.
(ii) At the airplane design speed VD™
The reference gust velocity must be 0.5
times the value obtained under
§ 25.341(a)(5)(i).
(6) The flight profile alleviation fac-
tor, Fg, must be increased linearly from
the sea level value to a value of 1.0 at
the maximum operating altitude de-
fined in § 25.1527. At sea level, the flight
profile alleviation factor is determined
by the following equation:
( )
Fg = 0.5 Fgz + Fgm
Where:
Z mo
Fgz = 1 − ;
250000
πR1 
Fgm = R 2 Tan  4;

Maximum Landing Weight
R1 = ;
Maximum Take-off Weight
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight
R2 = ;
Maximum Take-off Weight
Zmo=Maximum operating altitude de-
fined in § 25.1527.
(7) When a stability augmentation
system is included in the analysis, the
effect of any significant system non-
linearities should be accounted for
when deriving limit loads from limit
gust conditions.
§ 25.343
(b) Continuous Gust Design Criteria.
The dynamic response of the airplane
to vertical and lateral continuous tur-
bulence must be taken into account.
The continuous gust design criteria of
appendix G of this part must be used to
establish the dynamic response unless
more rational criteria are shown.
[Doc. No. 27902, 61 FR 5221, Feb. 9, 1996; 61 FR
9533, Mar. 8, 1996]
§ 25.343 Design fuel and oil loads.
(a) The disposable load combinations
must include each fuel and oil load in
the range from zero fuel and oil to the
selected maximum fuel and oil load. A
structural reserve fuel condition, not
exceeding 45 minutes of fuel under the
operating conditions in § 25.1001(e) and
(f), as applicable, may be selected.
(b) If a structural reserve fuel condi-
tion is selected, it must be used as the
minimum fuel weight condition for
showing compliance with the flight
load requirements as prescribed in this
subpart. In addition—
(1) The structure must be designed
for a condition of zero fuel and oil in
the wing at limit loads corresponding
to—
(i) A maneuvering load factor of
+2.25; and
(ii) The gust conditions of § 25.341(a)
but assuming 85% of the design veloci-
ties prescribed in § 25.341(a)(4).
(2) Fatigue evaluation of the struc-
ture must account for any increase in
operating stresses resulting from the
design condition of paragraph (b)(1) of
this section; and
(3) The flutter, deformation, and vi-
bration requirements must also be met
with zero fuel.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–18, 33 FR 12226, Aug. 30,
1968; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 37607, Sept. 12, 1990;
Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5221, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 25.345 High lift devices.
(a) If wing flaps are to be used during
takeoff, approach, or landing, at the
design flap speeds established for these
stages of flight under § 25.335(e) and
with the wing flaps in the correspond-
ing positions, the airplane is assumed
to be subjected to symmetrical maneu-
vers and gusts. The resulting limit
loads must correspond to the condi-
tions determined as follows:
358
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(1) Maneuvering to a positive limit
load factor of 2.0; and
(2) Positive and negative gusts of 25
ft/sec EAS acting normal to the flight
path in level flight. Gust loads result-
ing on each part of the structure must
be determined by rational analysis.
The analysis must take into account
the unsteady aerodynamic characteris-
tics and rigid body motions of the air-
craft. The shape of the gust must be as
described in § 25.341(a)(2) except that—
Uds=25 ft/sec EAS;
H=12.5 c; and
c=mean geometric chord of the wing
(feet).
(b) The airplane must be designed for
the conditions prescribed in paragraph
(a) of this section, except that the air-
plane load factor need not exceed 1.0,
taking into account, as separate condi-
tions, the effects of—
(1) Propeller slipstream correspond-
ing to maximum continuous power at
the design flap speeds VF, and with
takeoff power at not less than 1.4 times
the stalling speed for the particular
flap position and associated maximum
weight; and
(2) A head-on gust of 25 feet per sec-
ond velocity (EAS).
(c) If flaps or other high lift devices
are to be used in en route conditions,
and with flaps in the appropriate posi-
tion at speeds up to the flap design
speed chosen for these conditions, the
airplane is assumed to be subjected to
symmetrical maneuvers and gusts
within the range determined by—
(1) Maneuvering to a positive limit
load factor as prescribed in § 25.337(b);
and
(2) The discrete vertical gust criteria
in § 25.341(a).
(d) The airplane must be designed for
a maneuvering load factor of 1.5 g at
the maximum take-off weight with the
wing-flaps and similar high lift devices
in the landing configurations.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30,
1978; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 37607, Sept. 17, 1990;
Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5221, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt.
25–91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]
§ 25.349 Rolling conditions.
The airplane must be designed for
loads resulting from the rolling condi-
tions specified in paragraphs (a) and (b)
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
of this section. Unbalanced aero-
dynamic moments about the center of
gravity must be reacted in a rational
or conservative manner, considering
the principal masses furnishing the re-
acting inertia forces.
(a) Maneuvering. The following condi-
tions, speeds, and aileron deflections
(except as the deflections may be lim-
ited by pilot effort) must be considered
in combination with an airplane load
factor of zero and of two-thirds of the
positive maneuvering factor used in de-
sign. In determining the required aile-
ron deflections, the torsional flexibil-
ity of the wing must be considered in
accordance with § 25.301(b):
(1) Conditions corresponding to
steady rolling velocities must be inves-
tigated. In addition, conditions cor-
responding to maximum angular accel-
eration must be investigated for air-
planes with engines or other weight
concentrations outboard of the fuse-
lage. For the angular acceleration con-
ditions, zero rolling velocity may be
assumed in the absence of a rational
time history investigation of the ma-
neuver.
(2) At VA, a sudden deflection of the
aileron to the stop is assumed.
(3) At VC, the aileron deflection must
be that required to produce a rate of
roll not less than that obtained in
paragraph (a)(2) of this section.
(4) At VD, the aileron deflection must
be that required to produce a rate of
roll not less than one-third of that in
paragraph (a)(2) of this section.
(b) Unsymmetrical gusts. The airplane
is assumed to be subjected to unsym-
metrical vertical gusts in level flight.
The resulting limit loads must be de-
termined from either the wing maxi-
mum airload derived directly from
§ 25.341(a), or the wing maximum air-
load derived indirectly from the verti-
cal load factor calculated from
§ 25.341(a). It must be assumed that 100
percent of the wing air load acts on one
side of the airplane and 80 percent of
the wing air load acts on the other
side.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996;
Amdt. 25–94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]
359
§ 25.361
§ 25.351 Yaw maneuver conditions.
The airplane must be designed for
loads resulting from the yaw maneuver
conditions specified in paragraphs (a)
through (d) of this section at speeds
from VMC to VD. Unbalanced aero-
dynamic moments about the center of
gravity must be reacted in a rational
or conservative manner considering the
airplane inertia forces. In computing
the tail loads the yawing velocity may
be assumed to be zero.
(a) With the airplane in unacceler-
ated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed
that the cockpit rudder control is sud-
denly displaced to achieve the result-
ing rudder deflection, as limited by:
(1) The control system on control
surface stops; or
(2) A limit pilot force of 300 pounds
from VMC to VA and 200 pounds from VC/
MC to VD/MD, with a linear variation
between VA and VC/MC.
(b) With the cockpit rudder control
deflected so as always to maintain the
maximum rudder deflection available
within the limitations specified in
paragraph (a) of this section, it is as-
sumed that the airplane yaws to the
overswing sideslip angle.
(c) With the airplane yawed to the
static equilibrium sideslip angle, it is
assumed that the cockpit rudder con-
trol is held so as to achieve the maxi-
mum rudder deflection available with-
in the limitations specified in para-
graph (a) of this section.
(d) With the airplane yawed to the
static equilibrium sideslip angle of
paragraph (c) of this section, it is as-
sumed that the cockpit rudder control
is suddenly returned to neutral.
[Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]
SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS
§ 25.361 Engine torque.
(a) Each engine mount and its sup-
porting structure must be designed for
the effects of—
(1) A limit engine torque correspond-
ing to takeoff power and propeller
speed acting simultaneously with 75
percent of the limit loads from flight
condition A of § 25.333(b);
(2) A limit torque corresponding to
the maximum continuous power and
propeller speed, acting simultaneously
§ 25.363
with the limit loads from flight condi-
tion A of § 25.333(b); and
(3) For turbopropeller installations,
in addition to the conditions specified
in paragraphs (a)(1) and (2) of this sec-
tion, a limit engine torque correspond-
ing to takeoff power and propeller
speed, multiplied by a factor account-
ing for propeller control system mal-
function, including quick feathering,
acting simultaneously with 1g level
flight loads. In the absence of a ration-
al analysis, a factor of 1.6 must be
used.
(b) For turbine engine installations,
the engine mounts and supporting
structure must be designed to with-
stand each of the following:
(1) A limit engine torque load im-
posed by sudden engine stoppage due to
malfunction or structural failure (such
as compressor jamming).
(2) A limit engine torque load im-
posed by the maximum acceleration of
the engine.
(c) The limit engine torque to be con-
sidered under paragraph (a) of this sec-
tion must be obtained by multiplying
mean torque for the specified power
and speed by a factor of—
(1) 1.25 for turbopropeller installa-
tions;
(2) 1.33 for reciprocating engines with
five or more cylinders; or
(3) Two, three, or four, for engines
with four, three, or two cylinders, re-
spectively.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.363 Side load on engine and auxil-
iary power unit mounts.
(a) Each engine and auxiliary power
unit mount and its supporting struc-
ture must be designed for a limit load
factor in lateral direction, for the side
load on the engine and auxiliary power
unit mount, at least equal to the maxi-
mum load factor obtained in the yaw-
ing conditions but not less than—
(1) 1.33; or
(2) One-third of the limit load factor
for flight condition A as prescribed in
§ 25.333(b).
(b) The side load prescribed in para-
graph (a) of this section may be as-
360
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
sumed to be independent of other flight
conditions.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]
§ 25.365 Pressurized compartment
loads.
For airplanes with one or more pres-
surized compartments the following
apply:
(a) The airplane structure must be
strong enough to withstand the flight
loads combined with pressure differen-
tial loads from zero up to the maxi-
mum relief valve setting.
(b) The external pressure distribution
in flight, and stress concentrations and
fatigue effects must be accounted for.
(c) If landings may be made with the
compartment pressurized, landing
loads must be combined with pressure
differential loads from zero up to the
maximum allowed during landing.
(d) The airplane structure must be
designed to be able to withstand the
pressure differential loads correspond-
ing to the maximum relief valve set-
ting multiplied by a factor of 1.33 for
airplanes to be approved for operation
to 45,000 feet or by a factor of 1.67 for
airplanes to be approved for operation
above 45,000 feet, omitting other loads.
(e) Any structure, component or part,
inside or outside a pressurized com-
partment, the failure of which could
interfere with continued safe flight and
landing, must be designed to withstand
the effects of a sudden release of pres-
sure through an opening in any com-
partment at any operating altitude re-
sulting from each of the following con-
ditions:
(1) The penetration of the compart-
ment by a portion of an engine follow-
ing an engine disintegration;
(2) Any opening in any pressurized
compartment up to the size Ho in
square feet; however, small compart-
ments may be combined with an adja-
cent pressurized compartment and both
considered as a single compartment for
openings that cannot reasonably be ex-
pected to be confined to the small com-
partment. The size Ho must be com-
puted by the following formula:
Ho=PAs
where,
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
Ho=Maximum opening in square feet, need
not exceed 20 square feet.
As
P= +.024
6240
As=Maximum cross-sectional area of the
pressurized shell normal to the longitudinal
axis, in square feet; and
(3) The maximum opening caused by
airplane or equipment failures not
shown to be extremely improbable.
(f) In complying with paragraph (e) of
this section, the fail-safe features of
the design may be considered in deter-
mining the probability of failure or
penetration and probable size of open-
ings, provided that possible improper
operation of closure devices and inad-
vertent door openings are also consid-
ered. Furthermore, the resulting dif-
ferential pressure loads must be com-
bined in a rational and conservative
manner with 1–g level flight loads and
any loads arising from emergency de-
pressurization conditions. These loads
may be considered as ultimate condi-
tions; however, any deformations asso-
ciated with these conditions must not
interfere with continued safe flight and
landing. The pressure relief provided by
intercompartment venting may also be
considered.
(g) Bulkheads, floors, and partitions
in pressurized compartments for occu-
pants must be designed to withstand
the conditions specified in paragraph
(e) of this section. In addition, reason-
able design precautions must be taken
to minimize the probability of parts
becoming detached and injuring occu-
pants while in their seats.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60172, Sept.
11, 1980; Amdt. 25–71, 55 FR 13477, Apr. 10,
1990; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990;
Amdt. 25–87, 61 FR 28695, June 5, 1996]
§ 25.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to
engine failure.
(a) The airplane must be designed for
the unsymmetrical loads resulting
from the failure of the critical engine.
Turbopropeller airplanes must be de-
signed for the following conditions in
combination with a single malfunction
of the propeller drag limiting system,
361
§ 25.371
considering the probable pilot correc-
tive action on the flight controls:
(1) At speeds between VMC and VD,
the loads resulting from power failure
because of fuel flow interruption are
considered to be limit loads.
(2) At speeds between VMC and VC,
the loads resulting from the disconnec-
tion of the engine compressor from the
turbine or from loss of the turbine
blades are considered to be ultimate
loads.
(3) The time history of the thrust
decay and drag build-up occurring as a
result of the prescribed engine failures
must be substantiated by test or other
data applicable to the particular en-
gine-propeller combination.
(4) The timing and magnitude of the
probable pilot corrective action must
be conservatively estimated, consider-
ing the characteristics of the particu-
lar engine-propeller-airplane combina-
tion.
(b) Pilot corrective action may be as-
sumed to be initiated at the time maxi-
mum yawing velocity is reached, but
not earlier than two seconds after the
engine failure. The magnitude of the
corrective action may be based on the
control forces specified in § 25.397(b) ex-
cept that lower forces may be assumed
where it is shown by anaylsis or test
that these forces can control the yaw
and roll resulting from the prescribed
engine failure conditions.
§ 25.371 Gyroscopic loads.
The structure supporting any engine
or auxiliary power unit must be de-
signed for the loads including the gyro-
scopic loads arising from the condi-
tions specified in §§ 25.331, 25.341(a),
25.349, 25.351, 25.473, 25.479, and 25.481,
with the engine or auxiliary power unit
at the maximum rpm appropriate to
the condition. For the purposes of com-
pliance with this section, the pitch ma-
neuver in § 25.331(c)(1) must be carried
out until the positive limit maneuver-
ing load factor (point A2 in § 25.333(b))
is reached.
[Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]
§ 25.373
§ 25.373 Speed control devices.
If speed control devices (such as
spoilers and drag flaps) are installed
for use in en route conditions—
(a) The airplane must be designed for
the symmetrical maneuvers prescribed
in § 25.333 and § 25.337, the yawing ma-
neuvers prescribed in § 25.351, and the
vertical and later gust conditions pre-
scribed in § 25.341(a), at each setting
and the maximum speed associated
with that setting; and
(b) If the device has automatic oper-
ating or load limiting features, the air-
plane must be designed for the maneu-
ver and gust conditions prescribed in
paragraph (a) of this section, at the
speeds and corresponding device posi-
tions that the mechanism allows.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20,
1990; Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996]
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS
§ 25.391 Control surface loads: general.
The control surfaces must be de-
signed for the limit loads resulting
from the flight conditions in §§ 25.331,
25.341(a), 25.349 and 25.351 and the
ground gust conditions in § 25.415, con-
sidering the requirements for—
(a) Loads parallel to hinge line, in
§ 25.393;
(b) Pilot effort effects, in § 25.397;
(c) Trim tab effects, in § 25.407;
(d) Unsymmetrical loads, in § 25.427;
and
(e) Auxiliary aerodynamic surfaces,
in § 25.445.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9,
1996]
§ 25.393 Loads parallel to hinge line.
(a) Control surfaces and supporting
hinge brackets must be designed for in-
ertia loads acting parallel to the hinge
line.
(b) In the absence of more rational
data, the inertia loads may be assumed
to be equal to KW, where—
(1) K=24 for vertical surfaces;
(2) K=12 for horizontal surfaces; and
(3) W= weight of the movable surfaces.
362
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
§ 25.395 Control system.
(a) Longitudinal, lateral, directional,
and drag control system and their sup-
porting structures must be designed for
loads corresponding to 125 percent of
the computed hinge moments of the
movable control surface in the condi-
tions prescribed in § 25.391.
(b) The system limit loads, except
the loads resulting from ground gusts,
need not exceed the loads that can be
produced by the pilot (or pilots) and by
automatic or power devices operating
the controls.
(c) The loads must not be less than
those resulting from application of the
minimum forces prescribed in
§ 25.397(c).
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.397 Control system loads.
(a) General. The maximum and mini-
mum pilot forces, specified in para-
graph (c) of this section, are assumed
to act at the appropriate control grips
or pads (in a manner simulating flight
conditions) and to be reacted at the at-
tachment of the control system to the
control surface horn.
(b) Pilot effort effects. In the control
surface flight loading condition, the air
loads on movable surfaces and the cor-
responding deflections need not exceed
those that would result in flight from
the application of any pilot force with-
in the ranges specified in paragraph (c)
of this section. Two-thirds of the maxi-
mum values specified for the aileron
and elevator may be used if control
surface hinge moments are based on re-
liable data. In applying this criterion,
the effects of servo mechanisms, tabs,
and automatic pilot systems, must be
considered.
(c) Limit pilot forces and torques. The
limit pilot forces and torques are as
follows:
Maximum Minimum
Control forces or forces or
torques torques
Aileron:
Stick ............................... 100 lbs ............ 40 lbs.
Wheel 1 .......................... 80 D in.-lbs 2 ... 40 D in.-lbs.
Elevator:
Stick ............................... 250 lbs ............ 100 lbs.
Wheel (symmetrical) ..... 300 lbs ............ 100 lbs.
Wheel (unsymmetrical) 3 ......................... 100 lbs.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT § 25.415

Maximum Minimum sidered to be deflected in the direction

Control forces or forces or that would assist the pilot, and the de-
torques torques
flections are—
Rudder .............................. 300 lbs ............ 130 lbs. (a) For elevator trim tabs, those re-
1 The critical parts of the aileron control system must be de- quired to trim the airplane at any
signed for a single tangential force with a limit value equal to point within the positive portion of the
1.25 times the couple force determined from these criteria.
2 D= wheel diameter (inches). pertinent flight envelope in § 25.333(b),
3 The unsymmetrical forces must be applied at one of the
except as limited by the stops; and
normal handgrip points on the periphery of the control wheel.
(b) For aileron and rudder trim tabs,
[Doc. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as those required to trim the airplane in
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, the critical unsymmetrical power and
1976; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990] loading conditions, with appropriate
allowance for rigging tolerances.
§ 25.399 Dual control system.
(a) Each dual control system must be § 25.409 Tabs.
designed for the pilots operating in op- (a) Trim tabs. Trim tabs must be de-
position, using individual pilot forces signed to withstand loads arising from
not less than— all likely combinations of tab setting,
(1) 0.75 times those obtained under primary control position, and airplane
§ 25.395; or speed (obtainable without exceeding
(2) The minimum forces specified in the flight load conditions prescribed
§ 25.397(c). for the airplane as a whole), when the
(b) The control system must be de- effect of the tab is opposed by pilot ef-
signed for pilot forces applied in the fort forces up to those specified in
same direction, using individual pilot § 25.397(b).
forces not less than 0.75 times those ob- (b) Balancing tabs. Balancing tabs
tained under § 25.395. must be designed for deflections con-
sistent with the primary control sur-
§ 25.405 Secondary control system. face loading conditions.
Secondary controls, such as wheel (c) Servo tabs. Servo tabs must be de-
brake, spoiler, and tab controls, must signed for deflections consistent with
be designed for the maximum forces the primary control surface loading
that a pilot is likely to apply to those conditions obtainable within the pilot
controls. The following values may be maneuvering effort, considering pos-
used: sible opposition from the trim tabs.
§ 25.415 Ground gust conditions.
PILOT CONTROL FORCE LIMITS (SECONDARY (a) The control system must be de-
CONTROLS) signed as follows for control surface
loads due to ground gusts and taxiing
Control Limit pilot forces downwind:
(1) The control system between the
Miscellaneous: 1+R stops nearest the surfaces and the
*Crank, wheel, or )———* × 50 lbs., but
lever. 3 cockpit controls must be designed for
loads corresponding to the limit hinge
not less than 50 lbs. nor more moments H of paragraph (a)(2) of this
than 150 lbs. (R=radius). (Ap- section. These loads need not exceed—
plicable to any angle within
20° of plane of control).
(i) The loads corresponding to the
Twist .................................. 133 in.–lbs. maximum pilot loads in § 25.397(c) for
Push–pull ........................... To be chosen by applicant. each pilot alone; or
*Limited to flap, tab, stabilizer, spoiler, and landing gear op- (ii) 0.75 times these maximum loads
eration controls. for each pilot when the pilot forces are
applied in the same direction.
§ 25.407 Trim tab effects. (2) The control system stops nearest
The effects of trim tabs on the con- the surfaces, the control system locks,
trol surface design conditions must be and the parts of the systems (if any)
accounted for only where the surface between these stops and locks and the
loads are limited by maximum pilot ef- control surface horns, must be designed
fort. In these cases, the tabs are con- for limit hinge moments H, in foot

363
§ 25.427
pounds, obtained from the formula,
H=.0034KV2cS, where—
V=65 (wind speed in knots)
K=limit hinge moment factor for ground
gusts derived in paragraph (b) of this sec-
tion.
c=mean chord of the control surface aft of
the hinge line (ft);
S=area of the control surface aft of the hinge
line (sq ft);
(b) The limit hinge moment factor K
for ground gusts must be derived as fol-
lows:
Surface K Position of controls
(a) Aileron ..................... 0.75
1 1 ±0.50
(b) ......do .......................
(c) Elevator .................... 1 1 ±0.75
1 1 ±0.75
(d) ......do .......................
(e) Rudder ..................... 0.75
(f) ......do ........................ 0.75
1 A positive value of K indicates a moment tending to de-
press the surface, while a negative value of K indicates a mo-
ment tending to raise the surface.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20,
1990; Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997]
§ 25.427 Unsymmetrical loads.
(a) In designing the airplane for lat-
eral gust, yaw maneuver and roll ma-
neuver conditions, account must be
taken of unsymmetrical loads on the
empennage arising from effects such as
slipstream and aerodynamic inter-
ference with the wing, vertical fin and
other aerodynamic surfaces.
(b) The horizontal tail must be as-
sumed to be subjected to unsymmet-
rical loading conditions determined as
follows:
(1) 100 percent of the maximum load-
ing from the symmetrical maneuver
conditions of § 25.331 and the vertical
gust conditions of § 25.341(a) acting sep-
arately on the surface on one side of
the plane of symmetry; and
(2) 80 percent of these loadings acting
on the other side.
(c) For empennage arrangements
where the horizontal tail surfaces have
dihedral angles greater than plus or
minus 10 degrees, or are supported by
the vertical tail surfaces, the surfaces
and the supporting structure must be
designed for gust velocities specified in
§ 25.341(a) acting in any orientation at
right angles to the flight path.
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(d) Unsymmetrical loading on the
empennage arising from buffet condi-
tions of § 25.305(e) must be taken into
account.
[Doc. No. 27902, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 25.445 Auxiliary aerodynamic sur-
faces.
(a) When significant, the aero-
dynamic influence between auxiliary
aerodynamic surfaces, such as out-
board fins and winglets, and their sup-
porting aerodynamic surfaces, must be
taken into account for all loading con-
ditions including pitch, roll, and yaw
Control column locked
or lashed in mid-posi- maneuvers, and gusts as specified in
tion. § 25.341(a) acting at any orientation at
Ailerons at full throw. right angles to the flight path.
(c) Elevator full down.
(b) To provide for unsymmetrical
(d) Elevator full up.
(e) Rudder in neutral. loading when outboard fins extend
(f) Rudder at full throw. above and below the horizontal surface,
the critical vertical surface loading
(load per unit area) determined under
§ 25.391 must also be applied as follows:
(1) 100 percent to the area of the ver-
tical surfaces above (or below) the hor-
izontal surface.
(2) 80 percent to the area below (or
above) the horizontal surface.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9,
1996]
§ 25.457 Wing flaps.
Wing flaps, their operating mecha-
nisms, and their supporting structures
must be designed for critical loads oc-
curring in the conditions prescribed in
§ 25.345, accounting for the loads occur-
ring during transition from one flap po-
sition and airspeed to another.
§ 25.459 Special devices.
The loading for special devices using
aerodynamic surfaces (such as slots,
slats and spoilers) must be determined
from test data.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20,
1990]
GROUND LOADS
§ 25.471 General.
(a) Loads and equilibrium. For limit
ground loads—
(1) Limit ground loads obtained
under this subpart are considered to be
364
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
external forces applied to the airplane
structure; and
(2) In each specified ground load con-
dition, the external loads must be
placed in equilibrium with the linear
and angular inertia loads in a rational
or conservative manner.
(b) Critical centers of gravity. The crit-
ical centers of gravity within the range
for which certification is requested
must be selected so that the maximum
design loads are obtained in each land-
ing gear element. Fore and aft, verti-
cal, and lateral airplane centers of
gravity must be considered. Lateral
displacements of the c.g. from the air-
plane centerline which would result in
main gear loads not greater than 103
percent of the critical design load for
symmetrical loading conditions may be
selected without considering the ef-
fects of these lateral c.g. displacements
on the loading of the main gear ele-
ments, or on the airplane structure
provided—
(1) The lateral displacement of the
c.g. results from random passenger or
cargo disposition within the fuselage or
from random unsymmetrical fuel load-
ing or fuel usage; and
(2) Appropriate loading instructions
for random disposable loads are in-
cluded under the provisions of
§ 25.1583(c)(1) to ensure that the lateral
displacement of the center of gravity is
maintained within these limits.
(c) Landing gear dimension data. Fig-
ure 1 of appendix A contains the basic
landing gear dimension data.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.473 Landing load conditions and
assumptions.
(a) For the landing conditions speci-
fied in § 25.479 to § 25.485 the airplane is
assumed to contact the ground—
(1) In the attitudes defined in § 25.479
and § 25.481;
(2) With a limit descent velocity of 10
fps at the design landing weight (the
maximum weight for landing condi-
tions at maximum descent velocity);
and
(3) With a limit descent velocity of 6
fps at the design take-off weight (the
maximum weight for landing condi-
tions at a reduced descent velocity).
(4) The prescribed descent velocities
may be modified if it is shown that the
365
§ 25.479
airplane has design features that make
it impossible to develop these veloci-
ties.
(b) Airplane lift, not exceeding air-
plane weight, may be assumed unless
the presence of systems or procedures
significantly affects the lift.
(c) The method of analysis of air-
plane and landing gear loads must take
into account at least the following ele-
ments:
(1) Landing gear dynamic character-
istics.
(2) Spin-up and springback.
(3) Rigid body response.
(4) Structural dynamic response of
the airframe, if significant.
(d) The limit inertia load factors cor-
responding to the required limit de-
scent velocities must be validated by
tests as defined in § 25.723(a).
(e) The coefficient of friction between
the tires and the ground may be estab-
lished by considering the effects of
skidding velocity and tire pressure.
However, this coefficient of friction
need not be more than 0.8.
[Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997; Amdt.
25–91, 62 FR 45481, Aug. 27, 1997]
§ 25.477 Landing gear arrangement.
Sections 25.479 through 25.485 apply
to airplanes with conventional ar-
rangements of main and nose gears, or
main and tail gears, when normal oper-
ating techniques are used.
§ 25.479 Level landing conditions.
(a) In the level attitude, the airplane
is assumed to contact the ground at
forward velocity components, ranging
from VL1 to 1.25 VL2 parallel to the
ground under the conditions prescribed
in § 25.473 with—
(1) VL1 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the ap-
propriate landing weight and in stand-
ard sea level conditions; and
(2) VL2 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the ap-
propriate landing weight and altitudes
in a hot day temperature of 41 degrees
F. above standard.
(3) The effects of increased contact
speed must be investigated if approval
of downwind landings exceeding 10
knots is requested.
(b) For the level landing attitude for
airplanes with tail wheels, the condi-
tions specified in this section must be
§ 25.481
investigated with the airplane hori-
zontal reference line horizontal in ac-
cordance with Figure 2 of Appendix A
of this part.
(c) For the level landing attitude for
airplanes with nose wheels, shown in
Figure 2 of Appendix A of this part, the
conditions specified in this section
must be investigated assuming the fol-
lowing attitudes:
(1) An attitude in which the main
wheels are assumed to contact the
ground with the nose wheel just clear
of the ground; and
(2) If reasonably attainable at the
specified descent and forward veloci-
ties, an attitude in which the nose and
main wheels are assumed to contact
the ground simultaneously.
(d) In addition to the loading condi-
tions prescribed in paragraph (a) of this
section, but with maximum vertical
ground reactions calculated from para-
graph (a), the following apply:
(1) The landing gear and directly af-
fected attaching structure must be de-
signed for the maximum vertical
ground reaction combined with an aft
acting drag component of not less than
25% of this maximum vertical ground
reaction.
(2) The most severe combination of
loads that are likely to arise during a
lateral drift landing must be taken
into account. In absence of a more ra-
tional analysis of this condition, the
following must be investigated:
(i) A vertical load equal to 75% of the
maximum ground reaction of § 25.473
must be considered in combination
with a drag and side load of 40% and
25% respectively of that vertical load.
(ii) The shock absorber and tire de-
flections must be assumed to be 75% of
the deflection corresponding to the
maximum ground reaction of
§ 25.473(a)(2). This load case need not be
considered in combination with flat
tires.
(3) The combination of vertical and
drag components is considered to be
acting at the wheel axle centerline.
[Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997; Amdt.
25–91, 62 FR 45481, Aug. 27, 1997]
§ 25.481 Tail-down landing conditions.
(a) In the tail-down attitude, the air-
plane is assumed to contact the ground
at forward velocity components, rang-
366
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
ing from VL1 to VL2 parallel to the
ground under the conditions prescribed
in § 25.473 with—
(1) VL1 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the ap-
propriate landing weight and in stand-
ard sea level conditions; and
(2) VL2 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the ap-
propriate landing weight and altitudes
in a hot day temperature of 41 degrees
F. above standard.
(3) The combination of vertical and
drag components considered to be act-
ing at the main wheel axle centerline.
(b) For the tail-down landing condi-
tion for airplanes with tail wheels, the
main and tail wheels are assumed to
contact the ground simultaneously, in
accordance with figure 3 of appendix A.
Ground reaction conditions on the tail
wheel are assumed to act—
(1) Vertically; and
(2) Up and aft through the axle at 45
degrees to the ground line.
(c) For the tail-down landing condi-
tion for airplanes with nose wheels, the
airplane is assumed to be at an atti-
tude corresponding to either the stall-
ing angle or the maximum angle allow-
ing clearance with the ground by each
part of the airplane other than the
main wheels, in accordance with figure
3 of appendix A, whichever is less.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29,
1997; Amdt. 25–94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]
§ 25.483 One-gear landing conditions.
For the one-gear landing conditions,
the airplane is assumed to be in the
level attitude and to contact the
ground on one main landing gear, in
accordance with Figure 4 of Appendix
A of this part. In this attitude—
(a) The ground reactions must be the
same as those obtained on that side
under § 25.479(d)(1), and
(b) Each unbalanced external load
must be reacted by airplane inertia in
a rational or conservative manner.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29,
1997]
§ 25.485 Side load conditions.
In addition to § 25.479(d)(2) the follow-
ing conditions must be considered:
(a) For the side load condition, the
airplane is assumed to be in the level
attitude with only the main wheels
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
contacting the ground, in accordance
with figure 5 of appendix A.
(b) Side loads of 0.8 of the vertical re-
action (on one side) acting inward and
0.6 of the vertical reaction (on the
other side) acting outward must be
combined with one-half of the maxi-
mum vertical ground reactions ob-
tained in the level landing conditions.
These loads are assumed to be applied
at the ground contact point and to be
resisted by the inertia of the airplane.
The drag loads may be assumed to be
zero.
[Docket No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29,
1997]
§ 25.487 Rebound landing condition.
(a) The landing gear and its support-
ing structure must be investigated for
the loads occurring during rebound of
the airplane from the landing surface.
(b) With the landing gear fully ex-
tended and not in contact with the
ground, a load factor of 20.0 must act
on the unsprung weights of the landing
gear. This load factor must act in the
direction of motion of the unsprung
weights as they reach their limiting
positions in extending with relation to
the sprung parts of the landing gear.
§ 25.489 Ground handling conditions.
Unless otherwise prescribed, the
landing gear and airplane structure
must be investigated for the conditions
in §§ 25.491 through 25.509 with the air-
plane at the design ramp weight (the
maximum weight for ground handling
conditions). No wing lift may be con-
sidered. The shock absorbers and tires
may be assumed to be in their static
position.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.491 Taxi, takeoff and landing roll.
Within the range of appropriate
ground speeds and approved weights,
the airplane structure and landing gear
are assumed to be subjected to loads
not less than those obtained when the
aircraft is operating over the roughest
ground that may reasonably be ex-
pected in normal operation.
[Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997]
367
§ 25.493
§ 25.493 Braked roll conditions.
(a) An airplane with a tail wheel is
assumed to be in the level attitude
with the load on the main wheels, in
accordance with figure 6 of appendix A.
The limit vertical load factor is 1.2 at
the design landing weight and 1.0 at
the design ramp weight. A drag reac-
tion equal to the vertical reaction mul-
tiplied by a coefficient of friction of
0.8, must be combined with the vertical
ground reaction and applied at the
ground contact point.
(b) For an airplane with a nose wheel
the limit vertical load factor is 1.2 at
the design landing weight, and 1.0 at
the design ramp weight. A drag reac-
tion equal to the vertical reaction,
multiplied by a coefficient of friction
of 0.8, must be combined with the verti-
cal reaction and applied at the ground
contact point of each wheel with
brakes. The following two attitudes, in
accordance with figure 6 of appendix A,
must be considered:
(1) The level attitude with the wheels
contacting the ground and the loads
distributed between the main and nose
gear. Zero pitching acceleration is as-
sumed.
(2) The level attitude with only the
main gear contacting the ground and
with the pitching moment resisted by
angular acceleration.
(c) A drag reaction lower than that
prescribed in this section may be used
if it is substantiated that an effective
drag force of 0.8 times the vertical re-
action cannot be attained under any
likely loading condition.
(d) An airplane equipped with a nose
gear must be designed to withstand the
loads arising from the dynamic pitch-
ing motion of the airplane due to sud-
den application of maximum braking
force. The airplane is considered to be
at design takeoff weight with the nose
and main gears in contact with the
ground, and with a steady-state verti-
cal load factor of 1.0. The steady-state
nose gear reaction must be combined
with the maximum incremental nose
gear vertical reaction caused by the
sudden application of maximum brak-
ing force as described in paragraphs (b)
and (c) of this section.
(e) In the absence of a more rational
analysis, the nose gear vertical reac-
tion prescribed in paragraph (d) of this
§ 25.495
section must be calculated according
to the following formula:
WT  fµAE 
VN = B +  also assumed to be in the trailing posi-
A+B A + B + µE 
Where:
VN=Nose gear vertical reaction.
WT=Design takeoff weight.
A=Horizontal distance between the c.g.
of the airplane and the nose wheel.
B=Horizontal distance between the c.g.
of the airplane and the line joining
the centers of the main wheels.
E=Vertical height of the c.g. of the air-
plane above the ground in the 1.0 g
static condition.
µ=Coefficient of friction of 0.80.
f=Dynamic response factor; 2.0 is to be
used unless a lower factor is sub-
stantiated. In the absence of other
information, the dynamic response
factor f may be defined by the
equation:
 −πξ  (2) A forward acting load at the air-
f = 1 + exp 
 1− ξ2  vertical load on one main gear.
 
Where:
ξ is the effective critical damping ratio
of the rigid body pitching mode
about the main landing gear effec-
tive ground contact point.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–97, 63 FR 29072, May 27, 1998]
§ 25.495 Turning.
In the static position, in accordance
with figure 7 of appendix A, the air-
plane is assumed to execute a steady
turn by nose gear steering, or by appli-
cation of sufficient differential power,
so that the limit load factors applied at
the center of gravity are 1.0 vertically
and 0.5 laterally. The side ground reac-
tion of each wheel must be 0.5 of the
vertical reaction.
§ 25.497 Tail-wheel yawing.
(a) A vertical ground reaction equal
to the static load on the tail wheel, in
combination with a side component of
equal magnitude, is assumed.
(b) If there is a swivel, the tail wheel
is assumed to be swiveled 90° to the air-
368
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
plane longitudinal axis with the result-
ant load passing through the axle.
(c) If there is a lock, steering device,
or shimmy damper the tail wheel is
tion with the side load acting at the
ground contact point.
§ 25.499 Nose-wheel yaw and steering.
(a) A vertical load factor of 1.0 at the
airplane center of gravity, and a side
component at the nose wheel ground
contact equal to 0.8 of the vertical
ground reaction at that point are as-
sumed.
(b) With the airplane assumed to be
in static equilibrium with the loads re-
sulting from the use of brakes on one
side of the main landing gear, the nose
gear, its attaching structure, and the
fuselage structure forward of the cen-
ter of gravity must be designed for the
following loads:
(1) A vertical load factor at the cen-
ter of gravity of 1.0.
plane center of gravity of 0.8 times the
(3) Side and vertical loads at the
ground contact point on the nose gear
that are required for static equi-
librium.
(4) A side load factor at the airplane
center of gravity of zero.
(c) If the loads prescribed in para-
graph (b) of this section result in a
nose gear side load higher than 0.8
times the vertical nose gear load, the
design nose gear side load may be lim-
ited to 0.8 times the vertical load, with
unbalanced yawing moments assumed
to be resisted by airplane inertia
forces.
(d) For other than the nose gear, its
attaching structure, and the forward
fuselage structure, the loading condi-
tions are those prescribed in paragraph
(b) of this section, except that—
(1) A lower drag reaction may be used
if an effective drag force of 0.8 times
the vertical reaction cannot be reached
under any likely loading condition; and
(2) The forward acting load at the
center of gravity need not exceed the
maximum drag reaction on one main
gear, determined in accordance with
§ 25.493(b).
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT § 25.509

(e) With the airplane at design ramp
weight, and the nose gear in any steer-
able position, the combined application
of full normal steering torque and ver-
tical force equal to 1.33 times the maxi-
mum static reaction on the nose gear
must be considered in designing the
nose gear, its attaching structure, and
the forward fuselage structure.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978;
Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997]
§ 25.503 Pivoting.
(a) The airplane is assumed to pivot
about one side of the main gear with
the brakes on that side locked. The
limit vertical load factor must be 1.0
and the coefficient of friction 0.8.
(b) The airplane is assumed to be in
static equilibrium, with the loads being
applied at the ground contact points,
in accordance with figure 8 of appendix
A.
§ 25.507 Reversed braking.
(a) The airplane must be in a three
point static ground attitude. Hori-
zontal reactions parallel to the ground
and directed forward must be applied
at the ground contact point of each
wheel with brakes. The limit loads
must be equal to 0.55 times the vertical
load at each wheel or to the load devel-
oped by 1.2 times the nominal maxi-
mum static brake torque, whichever is
less.
(b) For airplanes with nose wheels,
the pitching moment must be balanced
by rotational inertia.
(c) For airplanes with tail wheels, the
resultant of the ground reactions must
pass through the center of gravity of
the airplane.
§ 25.509 Towing loads.
(a) The towing loads specified in
paragraph (d) of this section must be
considered separately. These loads
Tow point
must be applied at the towing fittings
and must act parallel to the ground. In
addition—
(1) A vertical load factor equal to 1.0
must be considered acting at the center
of gravity;
(2) The shock struts and tires must
be in their static positions; and
(3) With WT as the design ramp
weight, the towing load, FTOW, is—
(i) 0.3 WT for WT less than 30,000
pounds;
(ii) (6WT+450,000)/7 for WT between
30,000 and 100,000 pounds; and
(iii) 0.15 WT for WT over 100,000
pounds.
(b) For towing points not on the
landing gear but near the plane of sym-
metry of the airplane, the drag and
side tow load components specified for
the auxiliary gear apply. For towing
points located outboard of the main
gear, the drag and side tow load compo-
nents specified for the main gear apply.
Where the specified angle of swivel
cannot be reached, the maximum ob-
tainable angle must be used.
(c) The towing loads specified in
paragraph (d) of this section must be
reacted as follows:
(1) The side component of the towing
load at the main gear must be reacted
by a side force at the static ground line
of the wheel to which the load is ap-
plied.
(2) The towing loads at the auxiliary
gear and the drag components of the
towing loads at the main gear must be
reacted as follows:
(i) A reaction with a maximum value
equal to the vertical reaction must be
applied at the axle of the wheel to
which the load is applied. Enough air-
plane inertia to achieve equilibrium
must be applied.
(ii) The loads must be reacted by air-
plane inertia.
(d) The prescribed towing loads are as
follows:
Load
Position
Magnitude No. Direction

Main gear .............................
Auxiliary gear .......................
.................................................
Swiveled forward ....................
0.75 FTOW per main
gear unit.
1.0 FTOW ..................
1 Forward, parallel to drag axis.
2 Forward, at 30° to drag axis.
3 Aft, parallel to drag axis.
4 Aft, at 30° to drag axis.
5 Forward.
6 Aft.

369
§ 25.511
Tow point Position
Swiveled aft ............................
Swiveled 45° from forward .....
Swiveled 45° from aft .............
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.511 Ground load: unsymmetrical
loads on multiple-wheel units.
(a) General. Multiple-wheel landing
gear units are assumed to be subjected
to the limit ground loads prescribed in
this subpart under paragraphs (b)
through (f) of this section. In addi-
tion—
(1) A tandem strut gear arrangement
is a multiple-wheel unit; and
(2) In determining the total load on a
gear unit with respect to the provisions
of paragraphs (b) through (f) of this
section, the transverse shift in the load
centroid, due to unsymmetrical load
distribution on the wheels, may be ne-
glected.
(b) Distribution of limit loads to wheels;
tires inflated. The distribution of the
limit loads among the wheels of the
landing gear must be established for
each landing, taxiing, and ground han-
dling condition, taking into account
the effects of the following factors:
(1) The number of wheels and their
physical arrangements. For truck type
landing gear units, the effects of any
seesaw motion of the truck during the
landing impact must be considered in
determining the maximum design loads
for the fore and aft wheel pairs.
(2) Any differentials in tire diameters
resulting from a combination of manu-
facturing tolerances, tire growth, and
tire wear. A maximum tire-diameter
differential equal to 2⁄3 of the most un-
favorable combination of diameter
variations that is obtained when tak-
ing into account manufacturing toler-
ances, tire growth, and tire wear, may
be assumed.
(3) Any unequal tire inflation pres-
sure, assuming the maximum variation
to be ±5 percent of the nominal tire in-
flation pressure.
(4) A runway crown of zero and a run-
way crown having a convex upward
370
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
Load
Magnitude No. Direction
......do ........................ 7 Forward.
8 Aft.
0.5 FTOW .................. 9 Forward, in plane of wheel.
10 Aft, in plane of wheel.
......do ........................ 11 Forward, in plane of wheel.
12 Aft, in plane of wheel.
shape that may be approximated by a
slope of 11⁄2 percent with the hori-
zontal. Runway crown effects must be
considered with the nose gear unit on
either slope of the crown.
(5) The airplane attitude.
(6) Any structural deflections.
(c) Deflated tires. The effect of de-
flated tires on the structure must be
considered with respect to the loading
conditions specified in paragraphs (d)
through (f) of this section, taking into
account the physical arrangement of
the gear components. In addition—
(1) The deflation of any one tire for
each multiple wheel landing gear unit,
and the deflation of any two critical
tires for each landing gear unit using
four or more wheels per unit, must be
considered; and
(2) The ground reactions must be ap-
plied to the wheels with inflated tires
except that, for multiple-wheel gear
units with more than one shock strut,
a rational distribution of the ground
reactions between the deflated and in-
flated tires, accounting for the dif-
ferences in shock strut extensions re-
sulting from a deflated tire, may be
used.
(d) Landing conditions. For one and
for two deflated tires, the applied load
to each gear unit is assumed to be 60
percent and 50 percent, respectively, of
the limit load applied to each gear for
each of the prescribed landing condi-
tions. However, for the drift landing
condition of § 25.485, 100 percent of the
vertical load must be applied.
(e) Taxiing and ground handling condi-
tions. For one and for two deflated
tires—
(1) The applied side or drag load fac-
tor, or both factors, at the center of
gravity must be the most critical value
up to 50 percent and 40 percent, respec-
tively, of the limit side or drag load
factors, or both factors, corresponding
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
to the most severe condition resulting
from consideration of the prescribed
taxiing and ground handling condi-
tions;
(2) For the braked roll conditions of
§ 25.493 (a) and (b)(2), the drag loads on
each inflated tire may not be less than
those at each tire for the symmetrical
load distribution with no deflated tires;
(3) The vertical load factor at the
center of gravity must be 60 percent
and 50 percent, respectively, of the fac-
tor with no deflated tires, except that
it may not be less than 1g; and
(4) Pivoting need not be considered.
(f) Towing conditions. For one and for
two deflated tires, the towing load,
FTOW, must be 60 percent and 50 per-
cent, respectively, of the load pre-
scribed.
§ 25.519 Jacking and tie-down provi-
sions.
(a) General. The airplane must be de-
signed to withstand the limit load con-
ditions resulting from the static
ground load conditions of paragraph (b)
of this section and, if applicable, para-
graph (c) of this section at the most
critical combinations of airplane
weight and center of gravity. The max-
imum allowable load at each jack pad
must be specified.
(b) Jacking. The airplane must have
provisions for jacking and must with-
stand the following limit loads when
the airplane is supported on jacks—
(1) For jacking by the landing gear at
the maximum ramp weight of the air-
plane, the airplane structure must be
designed for a vertical load of 1.33
times the vertical static reaction at
each jacking point acting singly and in
combination with a horizontal load of
0.33 times the vertical static reaction
applied in any direction.
(2) For jacking by other airplane
structure at maximum approved jack-
ing weight:
(i) The airplane structure must be de-
signed for a vertical load of 1.33 times
the vertical reaction at each jacking
point acting singly and in combination
with a horizontal load of 0.33 times the
vertical static reaction applied in any
direction.
(ii) The jacking pads and local struc-
ture must be designed for a vertical
load of 2.0 times the vertical static re-
371
§ 25.525
action at each jacking point, acting
singly and in combination with a hori-
zontal load of 0.33 times the vertical
static reaction applied in any direc-
tion.
(c) Tie-down. If tie-down points are
provided, the main tie-down points and
local structure must withstand the
limit loads resulting from a 65-knot
horizontal wind from any direction.
[Doc. No. 26129, 59 FR 22102, Apr. 28, 1994]
WATER LOADS
§ 25.521 General.
(a) Seaplanes must be designed for
the water loads developed during take-
off and landing, with the seaplane in
any attitude likely to occur in normal
operation, and at the appropriate for-
ward and sinking velocities under the
most severe sea conditions likely to be
encountered.
(b) Unless a more rational analysis of
the water loads is made, or the stand-
ards in ANC–3 are used, §§ 25.523
through 25.537 apply.
(c) The requirements of this section
and §§ 25.523 through 25.537 apply also to
amphibians.
§ 25.523 Design weights and center of
gravity positions.
(a) Design weights. The water load re-
quirements must be met at each oper-
ating weight up to the design landing
weight except that, for the takeoff con-
dition prescribed in § 25.531, the design
water takeoff weight (the maximum
weight for water taxi and takeoff run)
must be used.
(b) Center of gravity positions. The
critical centers of gravity within the
limits for which certification is re-
quested must be considered to reach
maximum design loads for each part of
the seaplane structure.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.525 Application of loads.
(a) Unless otherwise prescribed, the
seaplane as a whole is assumed to be
subjected to the loads corresponding to
the load factors specified in § 25.527.
(b) In applying the loads resulting
from the load factors prescribed in
§ 25.527, the loads may be distributed
§ 25.527
over the hull or main float bottom (in
order to avoid excessive local shear
loads and bending moments at the lo-
cation of water load application) using
pressures not less than those pre-
scribed in § 25.533(b).
(c) For twin float seaplanes, each
float must be treated as an equivalent
hull on a fictitious seaplane with a
weight equal to one-half the weight of
the twin float seaplane.
(d) Except in the takeoff condition of
§ 25.531, the aerodynamic lift on the
seaplane during the impact is assumed
to be 2⁄3 of the weight of the seaplane.
§ 25.527 Hull and main float load fac-
tors.
(a) Water reaction load factors nW
must be computed in the following
manner:
(1) For the step landing case
C1VS 0 2
nw =
 Tan 23 β  W 13
 
(2) For the bow and stern landing
cases
C1VS 0 2 K1
nw = 1 ×
 Tan β  W
2 (2) For symmetrical bow landings,
(1 + rx )
3 3
3 2
 
(b) The following values are used:
(1) nW=water reaction load factor
(that is, the water reaction divided by
seaplane weight).
(2) C1=empirical seaplane operations
factor equal to 0.012 (except that this
factor may not be less than that nec-
essary to obtain the minimum value of
step load factor of 2.33).
(3) VS0=seaplane stalling speed in
knots with flaps extended in the appro-
priate landing position and with no
slipstream effect.
(4) β=angle of dead rise at the longi-
tudinal station at which the load fac-
tor is being determined in accordance
with figure 1 of appendix B.
(5) W= seaplane design landing
weight in pounds.
(6) K1=empirical hull station weigh-
ing factor, in accordance with figure 2
of appendix B.
(7) rx=ratio of distance, measured
parallel to hull reference axis, from the
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
center of gravity of the seaplane to the
hull longitudinal station at which the
load factor is being computed to the ra-
dius of gyration in pitch of the sea-
plane, the hull reference axis being a
straight line, in the plane of symme-
try, tangential to the keel at the main
step.
(c) For a twin float seaplane, because
of the effect of flexibility of the attach-
ment of the floats to the seaplane, the
factor K1 may be reduced at the bow
and stern to 0.8 of the value shown in
figure 2 of appendix B. This reduction
applies only to the design of the carry-
through and seaplane structure.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.529 Hull and main float landing
conditions.
(a) Symmetrical step, bow, and stern
landing. For symmetrical step, bow,
and stern landings, the limit water re-
action load factors are those computed
under § 25.527. In addition—
(1) For symmetrical step landings,
the resultant water load must be ap-
plied at the keel, through the center of
gravity, and must be directed per-
2
pendicularly to the keel line;
the resultant water load must be ap-
plied at the keel, one-fifth of the longi-
tudinal distance from the bow to the
step, and must be directed perpendicu-
larly to the keel line; and
(3) For symmetrical stern landings,
the resultant water load must be ap-
plied at the keel, at a point 85 percent
of the longitudinal distance from the
step to the stern post, and must be di-
rected perpendicularly to the keel line.
(b) Unsymmetrical landing for hull and
single float seaplanes. Unsymmetrical
step, bow, and stern landing conditions
must be investigated. In addition—
(1) The loading for each condition
consists of an upward component and a
side component equal, respectively, to
0.75 and 0.25 tan β times the resultant
load in the corresponding symmetrical
landing condition; and
(2) The point of application and di-
rection of the upward component of the
load is the same as that in the sym-
metrical condition, and the point of ap-
plication of the side component is at
372
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
the same longitudinal station as the
upward component but is directed in-
ward perpendicularly to the plane of
symmetry at a point midway between
the keel and chine lines.
(c) Unsymmetrical landing; twin float
seaplanes. The unsymmetrical loading
consists of an upward load at the step
of each float of 0.75 and a side load of
0.25 tan β at one float times the step
landing load reached under § 25.527. The
side load is directed inboard, per-
pendicularly to the plane of symmetry
midway between the keel and chine
lines of the float, at the same longitu-
dinal station as the upward load.
§ 25.531 Hull and main float takeoff
condition.
For the wing and its attachment to
the hull or main float—
(a) The aerodynamic wing lift is as-
sumed to be zero; and
(b) A downward inertia load, cor-
responding to a load factor computed
from the following formula, must be
applied:
C TO VS12
n=
 tan 23 β  W 13
 
where—
n= inertia load factor;
CTO=empirical seaplane operations factor
equal to 0.004;
VS1=seaplane stalling speed (knots) at the de-
sign takeoff weight with the flaps ex-
tended in the appropriate takeoff posi-
tion;
β=angle of dead rise at the main step (de-
grees); and
W= design water takeoff weight in pounds.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.533 Hull and main float bottom
pressures.
(a) General. The hull and main float
structure, including frames and bulk-
heads, stringers, and bottom plating,
must be designed under this section.
(b) Local pressures. For the design of
the bottom plating and stringers and
their attachments to the supporting
structure, the following pressure dis-
tributions must be applied:
(1) For an unflared bottom, the pres-
sure at the chine is 0.75 times the pres-
373
§ 25.533
sure at the keel, and the pressures be-
tween the keel and chine vary linearly,
in accordance with figure 3 of appendix
B. The pressure at the keel (psi) is
computed as follows:
K 2 VS12
Pk = C2 ×
tan β k
where—
Pk=pressure (p.s.i.) at the keel;
C2=0.00213;
K2=hull station weighing factor, in accord-
ance with figure 2 of appendix B;
VS1=seaplane stalling speed (Knots) at the
design water takeoff weight with flaps
extended in the appropriate takeoff posi-
tion; and
βK=angle of dead rise at keel, in accordance
with figure 1 of appendix B.
(2) For a flared bottom, the pressure
at the beginning of the flare is the
same as that for an unflared bottom,
and the pressure between the chine and
the beginning of the flare varies lin-
early, in accordance with figure 3 of ap-
pendix B. The pressure distribution is
the same as that prescribed in para-
graph (b)(1) of this section for an
unflared bottom except that the pres-
sure at the chine is computed as fol-
lows:
K 2 VS12
Pch = C3 ×
tan β
where—
Pch=pressure (p.s.i.) at the chine;
C3=0.0016;
K2=hull station weighing factor, in accord-
ance with figure 2 of appendix B;
VS1=seaplane stalling speed at the design
water takeoff weight with flaps extended
in the appropriate takeoff position; and
β=angle of dead rise at appropriate station.
The area over which these pressures
are applied must simulate pressures oc-
curring during high localized impacts
on the hull or float, but need not ex-
tend over an area that would induce
critical stresses in the frames or in the
overall structure.
(c) Distributed pressures. For the de-
sign of the frames, keel, and chine
structure, the following pressure dis-
tributions apply:
(1) Symmetrical pressures are com-
puted as follows:
§ 25.535
K 2 VS 0 2
P = C4 ×
tan β
where—
P=pressure (p.s.i.);
C4 =0.078 C1(with C1 computed under § 25.527);
K2 =hull station weighing factor, determined
in accordance with figure 2 of appendix
B;
VS0 =seaplane stalling speed (Knots) with
landing flaps extended in the appropriate
position and with no slipstream effect;
and
VS0 =seaplane stalling speed with landing
flaps extended in the appropriate posi-
tion and with no slipstream effect; and
β=angle of dead rise at appropriate sta-
tion.
(2) The unsymmetrical pressure dis-
tribution consists of the pressures pre-
scribed in paragraph (c)(1) of this sec-
tion on one side of the hull or main
float centerline and one-half of that
pressure on the other side of the hull or
main float centerline, in accordance
with figure 3 of appendix B.
These pressures are uniform and must
be applied simultaneously over the en-
tire hull or main float bottom. The
loads obtained must be carried into the
sidewall structure of the hull proper,
but need not be transmitted in a fore
and aft direction as shear and bending
loads.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.535 Auxiliary float loads.
(a) General. Auxiliary floats and their
attachments and supporting structures
must be designed for the conditions
prescribed in this section. In the cases
specified in paragraphs (b) through (e)
of this section, the prescribed water
loads may be distributed over the float
bottom to avoid excessive local loads,
using bottom pressures not less than
those prescribed in paragraph (g) of
this section.
(b) Step loading. The resultant water
load must be applied in the plane of
symmetry of the float at a point three-
fourths of the distance from the bow to
the step and must be perpendicular to
the keel. The resultant limit load is
computed as follows, except that the
value of L need not exceed three times
374
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
the weight of the displaced water when
the float is completely submerged:
2
C5 VS 2 W 3
L = 0
( )
2 2
tan β s 1 + ry
3 2 3
where—
L=limit load (lbs.);
C5 =0.0053;
VS0 =seaplane stalling speed (knots) with
landing flaps extended in the appropriate
position and with no slipstream effect;
W=seaplane design landing weight in pounds;
βS=angle of dead rise at a station 3⁄4 of the
distance from the bow to the step, but
need not be less than 15 degrees; and
ry=ratio of the lateral distance between the
center of gravity and the plane of sym-
metry of the float to the radius of gyra-
tion in roll.
(c) Bow loading. The resultant limit
load must be applied in the plane of
symmetry of the float at a point one-
fourth of the distance from the bow to
the step and must be perpendicular to
the tangent to the keel line at that
point. The magnitude of the resultant
load is that specified in paragraph (b)
of this section.
(d) Unsymmetrical step loading. The re-
sultant water load consists of a compo-
nent equal to 0.75 times the load speci-
fied in paragraph (a) of this section and
a side component equal to 3.25 tan β
times the load specified in paragraph
(b) of this section. The side load must
be applied perpendicularly to the plane
of symmetry of the float at a point
midway between the keel and the
chine.
(e) Unsymmetrical bow loading. The re-
sultant water load consists of a compo-
nent equal to 0.75 times the load speci-
fied in paragraph (b) of this section and
a side component equal to 0.25 tan β
times the load specified in paragraph
(c) of this section. The side load must
be applied perpendicularly to the plane
of symmetry at a point midway be-
tween the keel and the chine.
(f) Immersed float condition. The re-
sultant load must be applied at the
centroid of the cross section of the
float at a point one-third of the dis-
tance from the bow to the step. The
limit load components are as follows:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
vertical= ρgV
2 2
aft = Cx 2ρ V  KVS 
3
 0 
2 2
side = Cy 2ρ V  KVS 
3 (v) Rearward, 1.5g
 0 
where—
ρ=mass density of water (slugs/ft.2);
V=volume of float (ft.2);
Cx =coefficient of drag force, equal to 0.133;
Cy =coefficient of side force, equal to 0.106;
K=0.8, except that lower values may be used
if it is shown that the floats are incapa-
ble of submerging at a speed of 0.8 VS0 in
normal operations;
VS0 =seaplane stalling speed (knots) with
landing flaps extended in the appropriate
position and with no slipstream effect;
and
g=acceleration due to gravity (ft./sec.2).
(g) Float bottom pressures. The float
bottom pressures must be established
under § 25.533, except that the value of
K2 in the formulae may be taken as 1.0.
The angle of dead rise to be used in de-
termining the float bottom pressures is
set forth in paragraph (b) of this sec-
tion.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.537 Seawing loads.
Seawing design loads must be based
on applicable test data.
EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
§ 25.561 General.
(a) The airplane, although it may be
damaged in emergency landing condi-
tions on land or water, must be de-
signed as prescribed in this section to
protect each occupant under those con-
ditions.
(b) The structure must be designed to
give each occupant every reasonable
chance of escaping serious injury in a
minor crash landing when—
(1) Proper use is made of seats, belts,
and all other safety design provisions;
(2) The wheels are retracted (where
applicable); and
(3) The occupant experiences the fol-
lowing ultimate inertia forces acting
separately relative to the surrounding
structure:
375
§ 25.562
(i) Upward, 3.0g
(ii) Forward, 9.0g
(iii) Sideward, 3.0g on the airframe;
and 4.0g on the seats and their attach-
ments.
(iv) Downward, 6.0g
(c) For equipment, cargo in the pas-
senger compartments and any other
large masses, the following apply:
(1) Except as provided in paragraph
(c)(2) of this section, these items must
be positioned so that if they break
loose they will be unlikely to:
(i) Cause direct injury to occupants;
(ii) Penetrate fuel tanks or lines or
cause fire or explosion hazard by dam-
age to adjacent systems; or
(iii) Nullify any of the escape facili-
ties provided for use after an emer-
gency landing.
(2) When such positioning is not prac-
tical (e.g. fuselage mounted engines or
auxiliary power units) each such item
of mass shall be restrained under all
loads up to those specified in paragraph
(b)(3) of this section. The local attach-
ments for these items should be de-
signed to withstand 1.33 times the spec-
ified loads if these items are subject to
severe wear and tear through frequent
removal (e.g. quick change interior
items).
(d) Seats and items of mass (and
their supporting structure) must not
deform under any loads up to those
specified in paragraph (b)(3) of this sec-
tion in any manner that would impede
subsequent rapid evacuation of occu-
pants.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–64, 53 FR 17646, May 17, 1988;
Amdt. 25–91, 62 FR 40706, July 29, 1997]
§ 25.562 Emergency landing dynamic
conditions.
(a) The seat and restraint system in
the airplane must be designed as pre-
scribed in this section to protect each
occupant during an emergency landing
condition when—
(1) Proper use is made of seats, safety
belts, and shoulder harnesses provided
for in the design; and
(2) The occupant is exposed to loads
resulting from the conditions pre-
scribed in this section.
§ 25.562
(b) Each seat type design approved
for crew or passenger occupancy during
takeoff and landing must successfully
complete dynamic tests or be dem-
onstrated by rational analysis based on
dynamic tests of a similar type seat, in
accordance with each of the following
emergency landing conditions. The
tests must be conducted with an occu-
pant simulated by a 170-pound
anthropomorphic test dummy, as de-
fined by 49 CFR Part 572, Subpart B, or
its equivalent, sitting in the normal
upright position.
(1) A change in downward vertical ve-
locity (∆ v) of not less than 35 feet per
second, with the airplane’s longitu-
dinal axis canted downward 30 degrees
with respect to the horizontal plane
and with the wings level. Peak floor de-
celeration must occur in not more than
0.08 seconds after impact and must
reach a minimum of 14g.
(2) A change in forward longitudinal
velocity (∆ v) of not less than 44 feet
per second, with the airplane’s longitu-
dinal axis horizontal and yawed 10 de-
grees either right or left, whichever
would cause the greatest likelihood of
the upper torso restraint system
(where installed) moving off the occu-
pant’s shoulder, and with the wings
level. Peak floor deceleration must
occur in not more than 0.09 seconds
after impact and must reach a mini-
mum of 16g. Where floor rails or floor
fittings are used to attach the seating
  1

HIC = ( t 2 − t 1 )
 ( t 2 − t 1 ) t1

Where:
t1 is the initial integration time,
t2 is the final integration time, and
a(t) is the total acceleration vs. time curve
for the head strike, and where
(t) is in seconds, and (a) is in units of gravity
(g).
(6) Where leg injuries may result
from contact with seats or other struc-
ture, protection must be provided to
prevent axially compressive loads ex-
ceeding 2,250 pounds in each femur.
376
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
devices to the test fixture, the rails or
fittings must be misaligned with re-
spect to the adjacent set of rails or fit-
tings by at least 10 degrees vertically
(i.e., out of Parallel) with one rolled 10
degrees.
(c) The following performance meas-
ures must not be exceeded during the
dynamic tests conducted in accordance
with paragraph (b) of this section:
(1) Where upper torso straps are used
for crewmembers, tension loads in indi-
vidual straps must not exceed 1,750
pounds. If dual straps are used for re-
straining the upper torso, the total
strap tension loads must not exceed
2,000 pounds.
(2) The maximum compressive load
measured between the pelvis and the
lumbar column of the anthropomorphic
dummy must not exceed 1,500 pounds.
(3) The upper torso restraint straps
(where installed) must remain on the
occupant’s shoulder during the impact.
(4) The lap safety belt must remain
on the occupant’s pelvis during the im-
pact.
(5) Each occupant must be protected
from serious head injury under the con-
ditions prescribed in paragraph (b) of
this section. Where head contact with
seats or other structure can occur, pro-
tection must be provided so that the
head impact does not exceed a Head In-
jury Criterion (HIC) of 1,000 units. The
level of HIC is defined by the equation:
 
2 .5
t2
∫ a(t )dt  
  max
(7) The seat must remain attached at
all points of attachment, although the
structure may have yielded.
(8) Seats must not yield under the
tests specified in paragraphs (b)(1) and
(b)(2) of this section to the extent they
would impede rapid evacuation of the
airplane occupants.
[Amdt. 25–64, 53 FR 17646, May 17, 1988]
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
§ 25.563 Structural ditching provi-
sions.
Structural strength considerations of
ditching provisions must be in accord-
ance with § 25.801(e).
FATIGUE EVALUATION
§ 25.571 Damage—tolerance and fa-
tigue evaluation of structure.
(a) General. An evaluation of the
strength, detail design, and fabrication
must show that catastrophic failure
due to fatigue, corrosion, manufactur-
ing defects, or accidental damage, will
be avoided throughout the operational
life of the airplane. This evaluation
must be conducted in accordance with
the provisions of paragraphs (b) and (e)
of this section, except as specified in
paragraph (c) of this section, for each
part of the structure that could con-
tribute to a catastrophic failure (such
as wing, empennage, control surfaces
and their systems, the fuselage, engine
mounting, landing gear, and their re-
lated primary attachments). For turbo-
jet powered airplanes, those parts that
could contribute to a catastrophic fail-
ure must also be evaluated under para-
graph (d) of this section. In addition,
the following apply:
(1) Each evaluation required by this
section must include—
(i) The typical loading spectra, tem-
peratures, and humidities expected in
service;
(ii) The identification of principal
structural elements and detail design
points, the failure of which could cause
catastrophic failure of the airplane;
and
(iii) An analysis, supported by test
evidence, of the principal structural
elements and detail design points iden-
tified in paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of this sec-
tion.
(2) The service history of airplanes of
similar structural design, taking due
account of differences in operating con-
ditions and procedures, may be used in
the evaluations required by this sec-
tion.
(3) Based on the evaluations required
by this section, inspections or other
procedures must be established, as nec-
essary, to prevent catastrophic failure,
and must be included in the Airworthi-
ness Limitations Section of the In-
377
§ 25.571
structions for Continued Airworthiness
required by § 25.1529. Inspection thresh-
olds for the following types of struc-
ture must be established based on
crack growth analyses and/or tests, as-
suming the structure contains an ini-
tial flaw of the maximum probable size
that could exist as a result of manufac-
turing or service-induced damage:
(i) Single load path structure, and
(ii) Multiple load path ‘‘fail-safe’’
structure and crack arrest ‘‘fail-safe’’
structure, where it cannot be dem-
onstrated that load path failure, par-
tial failure, or crack arrest will be de-
tected and repaired during normal
maintenance, inspection, or operation
of an airplane prior to failure of the re-
maining structure.
(b) Damage-tolerance evaluation. The
evaluation must include a determina-
tion of the probable locations and
modes of damage due to fatigue, corro-
sion, or accidental damage. Repeated
load and static analyses supported by
test evidence and (if available) service
experience must also be incorporated
in the evaluation. Special consider-
ation for widespread fatigue damage
must be included where the design is
such that this type of damage could
occur. It must be demonstrated with
sufficient full-scale fatigue test evi-
dence that widespread fatigue damage
will not occur within the design service
goal of the airplane. The type certifi-
cate may be issued prior to completion
of full-scale fatigue testing, provided
the Administrator has approved a plan
for completing the required tests, and
the airworthiness limitations section
of the instructions for continued air-
worthiness required by § 25.1529 of this
part specifies that no airplane may be
operated beyond a number of cycles
equal to 1⁄2 the number of cycles accu-
mulated on the fatigue test article,
until such testing is completed. The ex-
tent of damage for residual strength
evaluation at any time within the
operational life of the airplane must be
consistent with the initial detect-
ability and subsequent growth under
repeated loads. The residual strength
evaluation must show that the remain-
ing structure is able to withstand loads
(considered as static ultimate loads)
corresponding to the following condi-
tions:
§ 25.581
(1) The limit symmetrical maneuver-
ing conditions specified in § 25.337 at all
speeds up to Vc and in § 25.345.
(2) The limit gust conditions speci-
fied in § 25.341 at the specified speeds up
to VC and in § 25.345.
(3) The limit rolling conditions speci-
fied in § 25.349 and the limit unsymmet-
rical conditions specified in §§ 25.367
and 25.427 (a) through (c), at speeds up
to VC.
(4) The limit yaw maneuvering condi-
tions specified in § 25.351(a) at the spec-
ified speeds up to VC.
(5) For pressurized cabins, the follow-
ing conditions:
(i) The normal operating differential
pressure combined with the expected
external aerodynamic pressures applied
simultaneously with the flight loading
conditions specified in paragraphs
(b)(1) through (4) of this section, if they
have a significant effect.
(ii) The maximum value of normal
operating differential pressure (includ-
ing the expected external aerodynamic
pressures during 1 g level flight) multi-
plied by a factor of 1.15, omitting other
loads.
(6) For landing gear and directly-af-
fected airframe structure, the limit
ground loading conditions specified in
§§ 25.473, 25.491, and 25.493.
If significant changes in structural
stiffness or geometry, or both, follow
from a structural failure, or partial
failure, the effect on damage tolerance
must be further investigated.
(c) Fatigue (safe-life) evaluation. Com-
pliance with the damage-tolerance re-
quirements of paragraph (b) of this sec-
tion is not required if the applicant es-
tablishes that their application for par-
ticular structure is impractical. This
structure must be shown by analysis,
supported by test evidence, to be able
to withstand the repeated loads of vari-
able magnitude expected during its
service life without detectable cracks.
Appropriate safe-life scatter factors
must be applied.
(d) Sonic fatigue strength. It must be
shown by analysis, supported by test
evidence, or by the service history of
airplanes of similar structural design
and sonic excitation environment,
that—
378
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(1) Sonic fatigue cracks are not prob-
able in any part of the flight structure
subject to sonic excitation; or
(2) Catastrophic failure caused by
sonic cracks is not probable assuming
that the loads prescribed in paragraph
(b) of this section are applied to all
areas affected by those cracks.
(e) Damage-tolerance (discrete source)
evaluation. The airplane must be capa-
ble of successfully completing a flight
during which likely structural damage
occurs as a result of—
(1) Impact with a 4-pound bird when
the velocity of the airplane relative to
the bird along the airplane’s flight
path is equal to Vc at sea level or 0.85Vc
at 8,000 feet, whichever is more critical;
(2) Uncontained fan blade impact;
(3) Uncontained engine failure; or
(4) Uncontained high energy rotating
machinery failure.
The damaged structure must be able to
withstand the static loads (considered
as ultimate loads) which are reason-
ably expected to occur on the flight.
Dynamic effects on these static loads
need not be considered. Corrective ac-
tion to be taken by the pilot following
the incident, such as limiting maneu-
vers, avoiding turbulence, and reducing
speed, must be considered. If signifi-
cant changes in structural stiffness or
geometry, or both, follow from a struc-
tural failure or partial failure, the ef-
fect on damage tolerance must be fur-
ther investigated.
[Amdt. 25–45, 43 FR 46242, Oct. 5, 1978, as
amended by Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept.
11, 1980; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20,
1990; Amdt. 25–86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996;
Amdt. 25–96, 63 FR 15714, Mar. 31, 1998; 63 FR
23338, Apr. 28, 1998]
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
§ 25.581 Lightning protection.
(a) The airplane must be protected
against catastrophic effects from light-
ning.
(b) For metallic components, compli-
ance with paragraph (a) of this section
may be shown by—
(1) Bonding the components properly
to the airframe; or
(2) Designing the components so that
a strike will not endanger the airplane.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(c) For nonmetallic components,
compliance with paragraph (a) of this
section may be shown by—
(1) Designing the components to min-
imize the effect of a strike; or
(2) Incorporating acceptable means of
diverting the resulting electrical cur-
rent so as not to endanger the airplane.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
Subpart D—Design and
Construction
GENERAL
§ 25.601 General.
The airplane may not have design
features or details that experience has
shown to be hazardous or unreliable.
The suitability of each questionable
design detail and part must be estab-
lished by tests.
§ 25.603 Materials.
The suitability and durability of ma-
terials used for parts, the failure of
which could adversely affect safety,
must—
(a) Be established on the basis of ex-
perience or tests;
(b) Conform to approved specifica-
tions (such as industry or military
specifications, or Technical Standard
Orders) that ensure their having the
strength and other properties assumed
in the design data; and
(c) Take into account the effects of
environmental conditions, such as tem-
perature and humidity, expected in
service.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20
1976; Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978]
§ 25.605 Fabrication methods.
(a) The methods of fabrication used
must produce a consistently sound
structure. If a fabrication process (such
as gluing, spot welding, or heat treat-
ing) requires close control to reach this
objective, the process must be per-
formed under an approved process spec-
ification.
379
§ 25.611
(b) Each new aircraft fabrication
method must be substantiated by a
test program.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30,
1978]
§ 25.607 Fasteners.
(a) Each removable bolt, screw, nut,
pin, or other removable fastener must
incorporate two separate locking de-
vices if—
(1) Its loss could preclude continued
flight and landing within the design
limitations of the airplane using nor-
mal pilot skill and strength; or
(2) Its loss could result in reduction
in pitch, yaw, or roll control capability
or response below that required by
Subpart B of this chapter.
(b) The fasteners specified in para-
graph (a) of this section and their lock-
ing devices may not be adversely af-
fected by the environmental conditions
associated with the particular installa-
tion.
(c) No self-locking nut may be used
on any bolt subject to rotation in oper-
ation unless a nonfriction locking de-
vice is used in addition to the self-lock-
ing device.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.609 Protection of structure.
Each part of the structure must—
(a) Be suitably protected against de-
terioration or loss of strength in serv-
ice due to any cause, including—
(1) Weathering;
(2) Corrosion; and
(3) Abrasion; and
(b) Have provisions for ventilation
and drainage where necessary for pro-
tection.
§ 25.611 Accessibility provisions.
Means must be provided to allow in-
spection (including inspection of prin-
cipal structural elements and control
systems), replacement of parts nor-
mally requiring replacement, adjust-
ment, and lubrication as necessary for
continued airworthiness. The inspec-
tion means for each item must be prac-
ticable for the inspection interval for
the item. Nondestructive inspection
aids may be used to inspect structural
elements where it is impracticable to
§ 25.613
provide means for direct visual inspec-
tion if it is shown that the inspection
is effective and the inspection proce-
dures are specified in the maintenance
manual required by § 25.1529.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.613 Material strength properties
and design values.
(a) Material strength properties must
be based on enough tests of material
meeting approved specifications to es-
tablish design values on a statistical
basis.
(b) Design values must be chosen to
minimize the probability of structural
failures due to material variability.
Except as provided in paragraph (e) of
this section, compliance with this
paragraph must be shown by selecting
design values which assure material
strength with the following prob-
ability:
(1) Where applied loads are eventu-
ally distributed through a single mem-
ber within an assembly, the failure of
which would result in loss of structural
integrity of the component, 99 percent
probability with 95 percent confidence.
(2) For redundant structure, in which
the failure of individual elements
would result in applied loads being
safely distributed to other load carry-
ing members, 90 percent probability
with 95 percent confidence.
(c) The effects of temperature on al-
lowable stresses used for design in an
essential component or structure must
be considered where thermal effects are
significant under normal operating
conditions.
(d) The strength, detail design, and
fabrication of the structure must mini-
mize the probability of disastrous fa-
tigue failure, particularly at points of
stress concentration.
(e) Greater design values may be used
if a ‘‘premium selection’’ of the mate-
rial is made in which a specimen of
each individual item is tested before
use to determine that the actual
strength properties of that particular
item will equal or exceed those used in
design.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30,
1978; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990]
380
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
§ 25.619 Special factors.
The factor of safety prescribed in
§ 25.303 must be multiplied by the high-
est pertinent special factor of safety
prescribed in §§ 25.621 through 25.625 for
each part of the structure whose
strength is—
(a) Uncertain;
(b) Likely to deteriorate in service
before normal replacement; or
(c) Subject to appreciable variability
because of uncertainties in manufac-
turing processes or inspection methods.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.621 Casting factors.
(a) General. The factors, tests, and in-
spections specified in paragraphs (b)
through (d) of this section must be ap-
plied in addition to those necessary to
establish foundry quality control. The
inspections must meet approved speci-
fications. Paragraphs (c) and (d) of this
section apply to any structural cast-
ings except castings that are pressure
tested as parts of hydraulic or other
fluid systems and do not support struc-
tural loads.
(b) Bearing stresses and surfaces. The
casting factors specified in paragraphs
(c) and (d) of this section—
(1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect
to bearing stresses regardless of the
method of inspection used; and
(2) Need not be used with respect to
the bearing surfaces of a part whose
bearing factor is larger than the appli-
cable casting factor.
(c) Critical castings. For each casting
whose failure would preclude continued
safe flight and landing of the airplane
or result in serious injury to occu-
pants, the following apply:
(1) Each critical casting must—
(i) Have a casting factor of not less
than 1.25; and
(ii) Receive 100 percent inspection by
visual, radiographic, and magnetic par-
ticle or penetrant inspection methods
or approved equivalent nondestructive
inspection methods.
(2) For each critical casting with a
casting factor less than 1.50, three sam-
ple castings must be static tested and
shown to meet—
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT § 25.629

(i) The strength requirements of for the effects of normal relative mo-
§ 25.305 at an ultimate load correspond- tion.
ing to a casting factor of 1.25; and (b) No bearing factor need be used for
(ii) The deformation requirements of a part for which any larger special fac-
§ 25.305 at a load of 1.15 times the limit tor is prescribed.
load.
(3) Examples of these castings are § 25.625 Fitting factors.
structural attachment fittings, parts of For each fitting (a part or terminal
flight control systems, control surface used to join one structural member to
hinges and balance weight attach- another), the following apply:
ments, seat, berth, safety belt, and fuel (a) For each fitting whose strength is
and oil tank supports and attachments, not proven by limit and ultimate load
and cabin pressure valves. tests in which actual stress conditions
(d) Noncritical castings. For each cast- are simulated in the fitting and sur-
ing other than those specified in para- rounding structures, a fitting factor of
graph (c) of this section, the following at least 1.15 must be applied to each
apply: part of—
(1) Except as provided in paragraphs (1) The fitting;
(d)(2) and (3) of this section, the casting (2) The means of attachment; and
factors and corresponding inspections (3) The bearing on the joined mem-
must meet the following table: bers.
(b) No fitting factor need be used—
Casting factor Inspection
(1) For joints made under approved
2.0 or more .................... 100 percent visual. practices and based on comprehensive
Less than 2.0 but more 100 percent visual, and magnetic test data (such as continuous joints in
than 1.5. particle or penetrant or equiva-
lent nondestructive inspection
metal plating, welded joints, and scarf
methods. joints in wood); or
1.25 through 1.50 .......... 100 percent visual, magnetic par- (2) With respect to any bearing sur-
ticle or penetrant, and radio- face for which a larger special factor is
graphic, or approved equivalent
nondestructive inspection meth- used.
ods. (c) For each integral fitting, the part
must be treated as a fitting up to the
(2) The percentage of castings in- point at which the section properties
spected by nonvisual methods may be become typical of the member.
reduced below that specified in para- (d) For each seat, berth, safety belt,
graph (d)(1) of this section when an ap- and harness, the fitting factor specified
proved quality control procedure is es- in § 25.785(f)(3) applies.
tablished. [Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
(3) For castings procured to a speci- amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8,
fication that guarantees the mechani- 1970; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990]
cal properties of the material in the
casting and provides for demonstration § 25.629 Aeroelastic stability require-
of these properties by test of coupons ments.
cut from the castings on a sampling (a) General. The aeroelastic stability
basis— evaluations required under this section
(i) A casting factor of 1.0 may be include flutter, divergence, control re-
used; and versal and any undue loss of stability
(ii) The castings must be inspected as and control as a result of structural de-
provided in paragraph (d)(1) of this sec- formation. The aeroelastic evaluation
tion for casting factors of ‘‘1.25 through must include whirl modes associated
1.50’’ and tested under paragraph (c)(2) with any propeller or rotating device
of this section. that contributes significant dynamic
forces. Compliance with this section
§ 25.623 Bearing factors. must be shown by analyses, wind tun-
(a) Except as provided in paragraph nel tests, ground vibration tests, flight
(b) of this section, each part that has tests, or other means found necessary
clearance (free fit), and that is subject by the Administrator.
to pounding or vibration, must have a (b) Aeroelastic stability envelopes. The
bearing factor large enough to provide airplane must be designed to be free

381
§ 25.629
from aeroelastic instability for all con-
figurations and design conditions with-
in the aeroelastic stability envelopes
as follows:
(1) For normal conditions without
failures, malfunctions, or adverse con-
ditions, all combinations of altitudes
and speeds encompassed by the VD/MD
versus altitude envelope enlarged at all
points by an increase of 15 percent in
equivalent airspeed at both constant
Mach number and constant altitude. In
addition, a proper margin of stability
must exist at all speeds up to VD/MD
and, there must be no large and rapid
reduction in stability as VD/MD is ap-
proached. The enlarged envelope may
be limited to Mach 1.0 when MD is less
than 1.0 at all design altitudes, and
(2) For the conditions described in
§ 25.629(d) below, for all approved alti-
tudes, any airspeed up to the greater
airspeed defined by;
(i) The VD/MD envelope determined by
§ 25.335(b); or,
(ii) An altitude-airspeed envelope de-
fined by a 15 percent increase in equiv-
alent airspeed above VC at constant al-
titude, from sea level to the altitude of
the intersection of 1.15 VC with the ex-
tension of the constant cruise Mach
number line, MC, then a linear vari-
ation in equivalent airspeed to MC+.05
at the altitude of the lowest VC/MC
intersection; then, at higher altitudes,
up to the maximum flight altitude, the
boundary defined by a .05 Mach in-
crease in MC at constant altitude.
(c) Balance weights. If concentrated
balance weights are used, their effec-
tiveness and strength, including sup-
porting structure, must be substan-
tiated.
(d) Failures, malfunctions, and adverse
conditions. The failures, malfunctions,
and adverse conditions which must be
considered in showing compliance with
this section are:
(1) Any critical fuel loading condi-
tions, not shown to be extremely im-
probable, which may result from mis-
management of fuel.
(2) Any single failure in any flutter
damper system.
(3) For airplanes not approved for op-
eration in icing conditions, the maxi-
mum likely ice accumulation expected
as a result of an inadvertent encounter.
382
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(4) Failure of any single element of
the structure supporting any engine,
independently mounted propeller shaft,
large auxiliary power unit, or large ex-
ternally mounted aerodynamic body
(such as an external fuel tank).
(5) For airplanes with engines that
have propellers or large rotating de-
vices capable of significant dynamic
forces, any single failure of the engine
structure that would reduce the rigid-
ity of the rotational axis.
(6) The absence of aerodynamic or gy-
roscopic forces resulting from the most
adverse combination of feathered pro-
pellers or other rotating devices capa-
ble of significant dynamic forces. In
addition, the effect of a single feath-
ered propeller or rotating device must
be coupled with the failures of para-
graphs (d)(4) and (d)(5) of this section.
(7) Any single propeller or rotating
device capable of significant dynamic
forces rotating at the highest likely
overspeed.
(8) Any damage or failure condition,
required or selected for investigation
by § 25.571. The single structural fail-
ures described in paragraphs (d)(4) and
(d)(5) of this section need not be consid-
ered in showing compliance with this
section if;
(i) The structural element could not
fail due to discrete source damage re-
sulting from the conditions described
in § 25.571(e), and
(ii) A damage tolerance investigation
in accordance with § 25.571(b) shows
that the maximum extent of damage
assumed for the purpose of residual
strength evaluation does not involve
complete failure of the structural ele-
ment.
(9) Any damage, failure, or malfunc-
tion considered under §§ 25.631, 25.671,
25.672, and 25.1309.
(10) Any other combination of fail-
ures, malfunctions, or adverse condi-
tions not shown to be extremely im-
probable.
(e) Flight flutter testing. Full scale
flight flutter tests at speeds up to VDF/
MDF must be conducted for new type
designs and for modifications to a type
design unless the modifications have
been shown to have an insignificant ef-
fect on the aeroelastic stability. These
tests must demonstrate that the air-
plane has a proper margin of damping
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
at all speeds up to VDF/MDF, and that
there is no large and rapid reduction in
damping as VDF/MDF, is approached. If a
failure, malfunction, or adverse condi-
tion is simulated during flight test in
showing compliance with paragraph (d)
of this section, the maximum speed in-
vestigated need not exceed VFC/MFC if it
is shown, by correlation of the flight
test data with other test data or analy-
ses, that the airplane is free from any
aeroelastic instability at all speeds
within the altitude-airspeed envelope
described in paragraph (b)(2) of this
section.
[Doc. No. 26007, 57 FR 28949, June 29, 1992]
§ 25.631 Bird strike damage.
The empennage structure must be de-
signed to assure capability of contin-
ued safe flight and landing of the air-
plane after impact with an 8-pound bird
when the velocity of the airplane (rel-
ative to the bird along the airplane’s
flight path) is equal to VC at sea level,
selected under § 25.335(a). Compliance
with this section by provision of redun-
dant structure and protected location
of control system elements or protec-
tive devices such as splitter plates or
energy absorbing material is accept-
able. Where compliance is shown by
analysis, tests, or both, use of data on
airplanes having similar structural de-
sign is acceptable.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
CONTROL SURFACES
§ 25.651 Proof of strength.
(a) Limit load tests of control sur-
faces are required. These tests must in-
clude the horn or fitting to which the
control system is attached.
(b) Compliance with the special fac-
tors requirements of §§ 25.619 through
25.625 and 25.657 for control surface
hinges must be shown by analysis or
individual load tests.
§ 25.655 Installation.
(a) Movable tail surfaces must be in-
stalled so that there is no interference
between any surfaces when one is held
in its extreme position and the others
are operated through their full angular
movement.
383
§ 25.671
(b) If an adjustable stabilizer is used,
it must have stops that will limit its
range of travel to the maximum for
which the airplane is shown to meet
the trim requirements of § 25.161.
§ 25.657 Hinges.
(a) For control surface hinges, in-
cluding ball, roller, and self-lubricated
bearing hinges, the approved rating of
the bearing may not be exceeded. For
nonstandard bearing hinge configura-
tions, the rating must be established
on the basis of experience or tests and,
in the absence of a rational investiga-
tion, a factor of safety of not less than
6.67 must be used with respect to the
ultimate bearing strength of the soft-
est material used as a bearing.
(b) Hinges must have enough
strength and rigidity for loads parallel
to the hinge line.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]
CONTROL SYSTEMS
§ 25.671 General.
(a) Each control and control system
must operate with the ease, smooth-
ness, and positiveness appropriate to
its function.
(b) Each element of each flight con-
trol system must be designed, or dis-
tinctively and permanently marked, to
minimize the probability of incorrect
assembly that could result in the mal-
functioning of the system.
(c) The airplane must be shown by
analysis, tests, or both, to be capable
of continued safe flight and landing
after any of the following failures or
jamming in the flight control system
and surfaces (including trim, lift, drag,
and feel systems), within the normal
flight envelope, without requiring ex-
ceptional piloting skill or strength.
Probable malfunctions must have only
minor effects on control system oper-
ation and must be capable of being
readily counteracted by the pilot.
(1) Any single failure, excluding jam-
ming (for example, disconnection or
failure of mechanical elements, or
structural failure of hydraulic compo-
nents, such as actuators, control spool
housing, and valves).
(2) Any combination of failures not
shown to be extremely improbable, ex-
cluding jamming (for example, dual
§ 25.672
electrical or hydraulic system failures,
or any single failure in combination
with any probable hydraulic or elec-
trical failure).
(3) Any jam in a control position nor-
mally encountered during takeoff,
climb, cruise, normal turns, descent,
and landing unless the jam is shown to
be extremely improbable, or can be al-
leviated. A runaway of a flight control
to an adverse position and jam must be
accounted for if such runaway and sub-
sequent jamming is not extremely im-
probable.
(d) The airplane must be designed so
that it is controllable if all engines
fail. Compliance with this requirement
may be shown by analysis where that
method has been shown to be reliable.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.672 Stability augmentation and
automatic and power-operated sys-
tems.
If the functioning of stability aug-
mentation or other automatic or
power-operated systems is necessary to
show compliance with the flight char-
acteristics requirements of this part,
such systems must comply with § 25.671
and the following:
(a) A warning which is clearly distin-
guishable to the pilot under expected
flight conditions without requiring his
attention must be provided for any
failure in the stability augmentation
system or in any other automatic or
power-operated system which could re-
sult in an unsafe condition if the pilot
were not aware of the failure. Warning
systems must not activate the control
systems.
(b) The design of the stability aug-
mentation system or of any other auto-
matic or power-operated system must
permit initial counteraction of failures
of the type specified in § 25.671(c) with-
out requiring exceptional pilot skill or
strength, by either the deactivation of
the system, or a failed portion thereof,
or by overriding the failure by move-
ment of the flight controls in the nor-
mal sense.
(c) It must be shown that after any
single failure of the stability aug-
mentation system or any other auto-
matic or power-operated system—
384
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(1) The airplane is safely controllable
when the failure or malfunction occurs
at any speed or altitude within the ap-
proved operating limitations that is
critical for the type of failure being
considered;
(2) The controllability and maneuver-
ability requirements of this part are
met within a practical operational
flight envelope (for example, speed, al-
titude, normal acceleration, and air-
plane configurations) which is de-
scribed in the Airplane Flight Manual;
and
(3) The trim, stability, and stall char-
acteristics are not impaired below a
level needed to permit continued safe
flight and landing.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675 Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.675 Stops.
(a) Each control system must have
stops that positively limit the range of
motion of each movable aerodynamic
surface controlled by the system.
(b) Each stop must be located so that
wear, slackness, or take-up adjust-
ments will not adversely affect the
control characteristics of the airplane
because of a change in the range of sur-
face travel.
(c) Each stop must be able to with-
stand any loads corresponding to the
design conditions for the control sys-
tem.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.677 Trim systems.
(a) Trim controls must be designed to
prevent inadvertent or abrupt oper-
ation and to operate in the plane, and
with the sense of motion, of the air-
plane.
(b) There must be means adjacent to
the trim control to indicate the direc-
tion of the control movement relative
to the airplane motion. In addition,
there must be clearly visible means to
indicate the position of the trim device
with respect to the range of adjust-
ment.
(c) Trim control systems must be de-
signed to prevent creeping in flight.
Trim tab controls must be irreversible
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
unless the tab is appropriately bal-
anced and shown to be free from flut-
ter.
(d) If an irreversible tab control sys-
tem is used, the part from the tab to
the attachment of the irreversible unit
to the airplane structure must consist
of a rigid connection.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.679 Control system gust locks.
(a) There must be a device to prevent
damage to the control surfaces (includ-
ing tabs), and to the control system,
from gusts striking the airplane while
it is on the ground or water. If the de-
vice, when engaged, prevents normal
operation of the control surfaces by the
pilot, it must—
(1) Automatically disengage when the
pilot operates the primary flight con-
trols in a normal manner; or
(2) Limit the operation of the air-
plane so that the pilot receives unmis-
takable warning at the start of takeoff.
(b) The device must have means to
preclude the possibility of it becoming
inadvertently engaged in flight.
§ 25.681 Limit load static tests.
(a) Compliance with the limit load
requirements of this Part must be
shown by tests in which—
(1) The direction of the test loads
produces the most severe loading in the
control system; and
(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket
used in attaching the system to the
main structure is included.
(b) Compliance must be shown (by
analyses or individual load tests) with
the special factor requirements for
control system joints subject to angu-
lar motion.
§ 25.683 Operation tests.
It must be shown by operation tests
that when portions of the control sys-
tem subject to pilot effort loads are
loaded to 80 percent of the limit load
specified for the system and the pow-
ered portions of the control system are
loaded to the maximum load expected
in normal operation, the system is free
from—
(a) Jamming;
(b) Excessive friction; and
385
§ 25.689
(c) Excessive deflection.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.685 Control system details.
(a) Each detail of each control sys-
tem must be designed and installed to
prevent jamming, chafing, and inter-
ference from cargo, passengers, loose
objects, or the freezing of moisture.
(b) There must be means in the cock-
pit to prevent the entry of foreign ob-
jects into places where they would jam
the system.
(c) There must be means to prevent
the slapping of cables or tubes against
other parts.
(d) Sections 25.689 and 25.693 apply to
cable systems and joints.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.689 Cable systems.
(a) Each cable, cable fitting, turn-
buckle, splice, and pulley must be ap-
proved. In addition—
(1) No cable smaller than 1⁄8 inch in
diameter may be used in the aileron,
elevator, or rudder systems; and
(2) Each cable system must be de-
signed so that there will be no hazard-
ous change in cable tension throughout
the range of travel under operating
conditions and temperature variations.
(b) Each kind and size of pulley must
correspond to the cable with which it is
used. Pulleys and sprockets must have
closely fitted guards to prevent the ca-
bles and chains from being displaced or
fouled. Each pulley must lie in the
plane passing through the cable so that
the cable does not rub against the pul-
ley flange.
(c) Fairleads must be installed so
that they do not cause a change in
cable direction of more than three de-
grees.
(d) Clevis pins subject to load or mo-
tion and retained only by cotter pins
may not be used in the control system.
(e) Turnbuckles must be attached to
parts having angular motion in a man-
ner that will positively prevent binding
throughout the range of travel.
(f) There must be provisions for vis-
ual inspection of fairleads, pulleys, ter-
minals, and turnbuckles.
§ 25.693
§ 25.693 Joints.
Control system joints (in push-pull
systems) that are subject to angular
motion, except those in ball and roller
bearing systems, must have a special
factor of safety of not less than 3.33
with respect to the ultimate bearing
strength of the softest material used as
a bearing. This factor may be reduced
to 2.0 for joints in cable control sys-
tems. For ball or roller bearings, the
approved ratings may not be exceeded.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.697 Lift and drag devices, con-
trols.
(a) Each lift device control must be
designed so that the pilots can place
the device in any takeoff, en route, ap-
proach, or landing position established
under § 25.101(d). Lift and drag devices
must maintain the selected positions,
except for movement produced by an
automatic positioning or load limiting
device, without further attention by
the pilots.
(b) Each lift and drag device control
must be designed and located to make
inadvertent operation improbable. Lift
and drag devices intended for ground
operation only must have means to
prevent the inadvertant operation of
their controls in flight if that oper-
ation could be hazardous.
(c) The rate of motion of the surfaces
in response to the operation of the con-
trol and the characteristics of the
automatic positioning or load limiting
device must give satisfactory flight
and performance characteristics under
steady or changing conditions of air-
speed, engine power, and airplane atti-
tude.
(d) The lift device control must be
designed to retract the surfaces from
the fully extended position, during
steady flight at maximum continuous
engine power at any speed below VF
+9.0 (knots).
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30,
1978; Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 25.699 Lift and drag device indicator.
(a) There must be means to indicate
to the pilots the position of each lift or
drag device having a separate control
in the cockpit to adjust its position. In
386
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
addition, an indication of unsymmet-
rical operation or other malfunction in
the lift or drag device systems must be
provided when such indication is nec-
essary to enable the pilots to prevent
or counteract an unsafe flight or
ground condition, considering the ef-
fects on flight characteristics and per-
formance.
(b) There must be means to indicate
to the pilots the takeoff, en route, ap-
proach, and landing lift device posi-
tions.
(c) If any extension of the lift and
drag devices beyond the landing posi-
tion is possible, the controls must be
clearly marked to identify this range
of extension.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.701 Flap and slat interconnection.
(a) Unless the airplane has safe flight
characteristics with the flaps or slats
retracted on one side and extended on
the other, the motion of flaps or slats
on opposite sides of the plane of sym-
metry must be synchronized by a me-
chanical interconnection or approved
equivalent means.
(b) If a wing flap or slat interconnec-
tion or equivalent means is used, it
must be designed to account for the ap-
plicable unsymmetrical loads, includ-
ing those resulting from flight with the
engines on one side of the plane of sym-
metry inoperative and the remaining
engines at takeoff power.
(c) For airplanes with flaps or slats
that are not subjected to slipstream
conditions, the structure must be de-
signed for the loads imposed when the
wing flaps or slats on one side are car-
rying the most severe load occurring in
the prescribed symmetrical conditions
and those on the other side are carry-
ing not more than 80 percent of that
load.
(d) The interconnection must be de-
signed for the loads resulting when
interconnected flap or slat surfaces on
one side of the plane of symmetry are
jammed and immovable while the sur-
faces on the other side are free to move
and the full power of the surface actu-
ating system is applied.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990]
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
§ 25.703 Takeoff warning system.
A takeoff warning system must be in-
stalled and must meet the following re-
quirements:
(a) The system must provide to the
pilots an aural warning that is auto-
matically activated during the initial
portion of the takeoff roll if the air-
plane is in a configuration, including
any of the following, that would not
allow a safe takeoff:
(1) The wing flaps or leading edge de-
vices are not within the approved range
of takeoff positions.
(2) Wing spoilers (except lateral con-
trol spoilers meeting the requirements
of § 25.671), speed brakes, or longitu-
dinal trim devices are in a position
that would not allow a safe takeoff.
(b) The warning required by para-
graph (a) of this section must continue
until—
(1) The configuration is changed to
allow a safe takeoff;
(2) Action is taken by the pilot to
terminate the takeoff roll;
(3) The airplane is rotated for take-
off; or
(4) The warning is manually deacti-
vated by the pilot.
(c) The means used to activate the
system must function properly
throughout the ranges of takeoff
weights, altitudes, and temperatures
for which certification is requested.
[Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978]
LANDING GEAR
§ 25.721 General.
(a) The main landing gear system
must be designed so that if it fails due
to overloads during takeoff and landing
(assuming the overloads to act in the
upward and aft directions), the failure
mode is not likely to cause—
(1) For airplanes that have passenger
seating configuration, excluding pilots
seats, of nine seats or less, the spillage
of enough fuel from any fuel system in
the fuselage to constitute a fire hazard;
and
(2) For airplanes that have a pas-
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilots seats, of 10 seats or more, the
spillage of enough fuel from any part of
the fuel system to constitute a fire
hazard.
387
§ 25.725
(b) Each airplane that has a pas-
senger seating configuration excluding
pilots seats, of 10 seats or more must
be designed so that with the airplane
under control it can be landed on a
paved runway with any one or more
landing gear legs not extended without
sustaining a structural component fail-
ure that is likely to cause the spillage
of enough fuel to constitute a fire haz-
ard.
(c) Compliance with the provisions of
this section may be shown by analysis
or tests, or both.
[Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3969, Feb. 24, 1972]
§ 25.723 Shock absorption tests.
(a) It must be shown that the limit
load factors selected for design in ac-
cordance with § 25.473 for takeoff and
landing weights, respectively, will not
be exceeded. This must be shown by en-
ergy absorption tests except that anal-
yses based on earlier tests conducted
on the same basic landing gear system
which has similar energy absorption
characteristics may be used for in-
creases in previously approved takeoff
and landing weights.
(b) The landing gear may not fail in
a test, demonstrating its reserve en-
ergy absorption capacity, simulating a
descent velocity of 12 f.p.s. at design
landing weight, assuming airplane lift
not greater than the airplane weight
acting during the landing impact.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30,
1978; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.725 Limit drop tests.
(a) If compliance with § 25.723(a) is
shown by free drop tests, these tests
must be made on the complete air-
plane, or on units consisting of a
wheel, tire, and shock absorber, in
their proper positions, from free drop
heights not less than—
(1) 18.7 inches for the design landing
weight conditions; and
(2) 6.7 inches for the design takeoff
weight conditions.
(b) If airplane lift is simulated by air
cylinders or by other mechanical
means, the weight used for the drop
must be equal to W. If the effect of air-
plane lift is represented in free drop
tests by an equivalent reduced mass,
§ 25.727
the landing gear must be dropped with
an effective mass equal to
h + ( 1 − L )d
We = W ×
h+d
where—
We= the effective weight to be used in the
drop test (lbs.);
h =specified free drop height (inches);
d =deflection under impact of the tire (at the
approved inflation pressure) plus the ver-
tical component of the axle travel rel-
ative to the drop mass (inches);
W=WM for main gear units (lbs.), equal to the
static weight on that unit with the air-
plane in the level attitude (with the nose
wheel clear in the case of nose wheel
type airplanes);
W=WT for tail gear units (lbs.), equal to the
static weight on the tail unit with the
airplane in the tail-down attitude;
W=WN for nose wheel units (lbs.), equal to
the vertical component of the static re-
action that would exist at the nose
wheel, assuming that the mass of the air-
plane acts at the center of gravity and
exerts a force of 1.0 g downward and 0.25
g forward; and
L = ratio of the assumed airplane lift to the
airplane weight, but not more than 1.0.
(c) The drop test attitude of the land-
ing gear unit and the application of ap-
propriate drag loads during the test
must simulate the airplane landing
conditions in a manner consistent with
the development of a rational or con-
servative limit load factor value.
(d) The value of d used in the com-
putation of We in paragraph (b) of this
section may not exceed the value actu-
ally obtained in the drop test.
(e) The limit inertia load factor n
must be determined from the free drop
test in paragraph (b) of this section ac-
cording to the following formula:
We
n = nj × +L
W and extension at any airspeed up to 1.6
where—
nj =the load factor developed in the drop test
(that is, the acceleration dv/dt in g’s re-
corded in the drop test) plus 1.0; and
We, W, and L are the same as in the drop test
computation.
(f) The value of n determined in para-
graph (e) of this section may not be
more than the limit inertia load factor
388
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
used in the landing conditions in
§ 25.473.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.727 Reserve energy absorption
drop tests.
(a) If compliance with the reserve en-
ergy absorption condition specified in
§ 25.723(b) is shown by free drop tests,
the drop height may not be less than 27
inches.
(b) If airplane lift is simulated by air
cylinders or by other mechanical
means, the weight used for the drop
must be equal to W. If the effect of air-
plane lift is represented in free drop
tests by an equivalent reduced mass,
the landing gear must be dropped with
an effective mass,
Wh
We =
h+d
where the symbols and other details
are the same as in § 25.725(b).
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8,
1970]
§ 25.729 Retracting mechanism.
(a) General. For airplanes with re-
tractable landing gear, the following
apply:
(1) The landing gear retracting mech-
anism, wheel well doors, and support-
ing structure, must be designed for—
(i) The loads occurring in the flight
conditions when the gear is in the re-
tracted position,
(ii) The combination of friction
loads, inertia loads, brake torque loads,
air loads, and gyroscopic loads result-
ing from the wheels rotating at a pe-
ripheral speed equal to 1.3 Vs (with the
flaps in takeoff position at design take-
off weight), occurring during retraction
Vs1 (with the flaps in the approach posi-
tion at design landing weight), and
(iii) Any load factor up to those spec-
ified in § 25.345(a) for the flaps extended
condition.
(2) Unless there are other means to
decelerate the airplane in flight at this
speed, the landing gear, the retracting
mechanism, and the airplane structure
(including wheel well doors) must be
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
designed to withstand the flight loads
occurring with the landing gear in the
extended position at any speed up to
0.67 VC.
(3) Landing gear doors, their operat-
ing mechanism, and their supporting
structures must be designed for the
yawing maneuvers prescribed for the
airplane in addition to the conditions
of airspeed and load factor prescribed
in paragraphs (a)(1) and (2) of this sec-
tion.
(b) Landing gear lock. There must be
positive means to keep the landing
gear extended, in flight and on the
ground.
(c) Emergency operation. There must
be an emergency means for extending
the landing gear in the event of—
(1) Any reasonably probable failure in
the normal retraction system; or
(2) The failure of any single source of
hydraulic, electric, or equivalent en-
ergy supply.
(d) Operation test. The proper func-
tioning of the retracting mechanism
must be shown by operation tests.
(e) Position indicator and warning de-
vice. If a retractable landing gear is
used, there must be a landing gear po-
sition indicator (as well as necessary
switches to actuate the indicator) or
other means to inform the pilot that
the gear is secured in the extended (or
retracted) position. This means must
be designed as follows:
(1) If switches are used, they must be
located and coupled to the landing gear
mechanical systems in a manner that
prevents an erroneous indication of
‘‘down and locked’’ if the landing gear
is not in a fully extended position, or of
‘‘up and locked’’ if the landing gear is
not in the fully retracted position. The
switches may be located where they
are operated by the actual landing gear
locking latch or device.
(2) The flightcrew must be given an
aural warning that functions continu-
ously, or is periodically repeated, if a
landing is attempted when the landing
gear is not locked down.
(3) The warning must be given in suf-
ficient time to allow the landing gear
to be locked down or a go-around to be
made.
(4) There must not be a manual shut-
off means readily available to the
flightcrew for the warning required by
389
§ 25.733
paragraph (e)(2) of this section such
that it could be operated instinctively,
inadvertently, or by habitual reflexive
action.
(5) The system used to generate the
aural warning must be designed to
eliminate false or inappropriate alerts.
(6) Failures of systems used to in-
hibit the landing gear aural warning,
that would prevent the warning system
from operating, must be improbable.
(f) Protection of equipment in wheel
wells. Equipment that is essential to
safe operation of the airplane and that
is located in wheel wells must be pro-
tected from the damaging effects of—
(1) A bursting tire, unless it is shown
that a tire cannot burst from overheat;
and
(2) A loose tire tread, unless it is
shown that a loose tire tread cannot
cause damage.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990; Amdt.
25–75, 56 FR 63762, Dec. 5, 1991]
§ 25.731 Wheels.
(a) Each main and nose wheel must
be approved.
(b) The maximum static load rating
of each wheel may not be less than the
corresponding static ground reaction
with—
(1) Design maximum weight; and
(2) Critical center of gravity.
(c) The maximum limit load rating of
each wheel must equal or exceed the
maximum radial limit load determined
under the applicable ground load re-
quirements of this part.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29777, July 20,
1990]
§ 25.733 Tires.
(a) When a landing gear axle is fitted
with a single wheel and tire assembly,
the wheel must be fitted with a suit-
able tire of proper fit with a speed rat-
ing approved by the Administrator
that is not exceeded under critical con-
ditions and with a load rating approved
by the Administrator that is not ex-
ceeded under—
(1) The loads on the main wheel tire,
corresponding to the most critical
combination of airplane weight (up to
§ 25.735
maximum weight) and center of grav-
ity position, and
(2) The loads corresponding to the
ground reactions in paragraph (b) of
this section, on the nose wheel tire, ex-
cept as provided in paragraphs (b)(2)
and (b)(3) of this section.
(b) The applicable ground reactions
for nose wheel tires are as follows:
(1) The static ground reaction for the
tire corresponding to the most critical
combination of airplane weight (up to
maximum ramp weight) and center of
gravity position with a force of 1.0g
acting downward at the center of grav-
ity. This load may not exceed the load
rating of the tire.
(2) The ground reaction of the tire
corresponding to the most critical
combination of airplane weight (up to
maximum landing weight) and center
of gravity position combined with
forces of 1.0g downward and 0.31g for-
ward acting at the center of gravity.
The reactions in this case must be dis-
tributed to the nose and main wheels
by the principles of statics with a drag
reaction equal to 0.31 times the verti-
cal load at each wheel with brakes ca-
pable of producing this ground reac-
tion. This nose tire load may not ex-
ceed 1.5 times the load rating of the
tire.
(3) The ground reaction of the tire
corresponding to the most critical
combination of airplane weight (up to
maximum ramp weight) and center of
gravity position combined with forces
of 1.0g downward and 0.20g forward act-
ing at the center of gravity. The reac-
tions in this case must be distributed
to the nose and main wheels by the
principles of statics with a drag reac-
tion equal to 0.20 times the vertical
load at each wheel with brakes capable
of producing this ground reaction. This
nose tire load may not exceed 1.5 times
the load rating of the tire.
(c) When a landing gear axle is fitted
with more than one wheel and tire as-
sembly, such as dual or dual-tandem,
each wheel must be fitted with a suit-
able tire of proper fit with a speed rat-
ing approved by the Administrator
that is not exceeded under critical con-
ditions, and with a load rating ap-
proved by the Administrator that is
not exceeded by—
390
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(1) The loads on each main wheel
tire, corresponding to the most critical
combination of airplane weight (up to
maximum weight) and center of grav-
ity position, when multiplied by a fac-
tor of 1.07; and
(2) Loads specified in paragraphs
(a)(2), (b)(1), (b)(2), and (b)(3) of this
section on each nose wheel tire.
(d) Each tire installed on a retract-
able landing gear system must, at the
maximum size of the tire type expected
in service, have a clearance to sur-
rounding structure and systems that is
adequate to prevent unintended con-
tact between the tire and any part of
the structure or systems.
(e) For an airplane with a maximum
certificated takeoff weight of more
than 75,000 pounds, tires mounted on
braked wheels must be inflated with
dry nitrogen or other gases shown to be
inert so that the gas mixture in the
tire does not contain oxygen in excess
of 5 percent by volume, unless it can be
shown that the tire liner material will
not produce a volatile gas when heated
or that means are provided to prevent
tire temperatures from reaching unsafe
levels.
[Amdt. 25–48, 44 FR 68752, Nov. 29, 1979; Amdt.
25–72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990, as amended
by Amdt. 25–78, 58 FR 11781, Feb. 26, 1993]
§ 25.735 Brakes.
(a) Each brake must be approved.
(b) The brake system and associated
systems must be designed and con-
structed so that if any electrical, pneu-
matic, hydraulic, or mechanical con-
necting or transmitting element (ex-
cluding the operating pedal or handle)
fails, or if any single source of hydrau-
lic or other brake operating energy
supply is lost, it is possible to bring the
airplane to rest under conditions speci-
fied in § 25.125, with a mean decelera-
tion during the landing roll of at least
50 percent of that obtained in deter-
mining the landing distance as pre-
scribed in that section. Subcomponents
within the brake assembly, such as
brake drum, shoes, and actuators (or
their equivalents), shall be considered
as connecting or transmitting ele-
ments, unless it is shown that leakage
of hydraulic fluid resulting from fail-
ure of the sealing elements in these
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
subcomponents within the brake as-
sembly would not reduce the braking
effectiveness below that specified in
this paragraph.
(c) Brake controls may not require
excessive control force in their oper-
ation.
(d) The airplane must have a parking
control that, when set by the pilot, will
without further attention, prevent the
airplane from rolling on a paved, level
runway with takeoff power on the crit-
ical engine.
(e) If antiskid devices are installed,
the devices and associated systems
must be designed so that no single
probable malfunction will result in a
hazardous loss of braking ability or di-
rectional control of the airplane.
(f) The design landing brake kinetic
energy capacity rating of each main
wheel-brake assembly shall be used
during qualification testing of the
brake to the applicable Technical
Standard Order (TSO) or an acceptable
equivalent. This kinetic energy rating
may not be less than the kinetic en-
ergy absorption requirements deter-
mined under either of the following
methods:
(1) The brake kinetic energy absorp-
tion requirements must be based on a
rational analysis of the sequence of
events expected during operational
landings at maximum landing weight.
This analysis must include conserv-
ative values of airplane speed at which
the brakes are applied, braking coeffi-
cient of friction between tires and run-
way, aerodynamic drag, propeller drag
or power-plant forward thrust, and (if
more critical) the most adverse single
engine or propeller malfunction.
(2) Instead of a rational analysis, the
kinetic energy absorption require-
ments for each main wheel-brake as-
sembly may be derived from the follow-
ing formula, which must be modified in
cases of designed unequal braking dis-
tributions.
0.0443WV 2
KE =
N KE =
Where—
KE=Kinetic energy per wheel (ft.-lb.);
W=Design landing weight (lb.);
V=Airplane speed in knots. V must not
be less than VS0, the power off stall-
391
§ 25.735
ing speed of the airplane at sea
level, at the design landing weight,
and in the landing configuration;
and
N=Number of main wheels with brakes.
(g) The minimum stalling speed rat-
ing of each main wheel-brake assembly
(that is, the initial speed used in the
dynamometer tests) may not be more
than the V used in the determination
of kinetic energy in accordance with
paragraph (f) of this section, assuming
that the test procedures for wheel-
brake assemblies involve a specified
rate of deceleration, and, therefore, for
the same amount of kinetic energy, the
rate of energy absorption (the power
absorbing ability of the brake) varies
inversely with the initial speed.
(h) The rejected takeoff brake ki-
netic energy capacity rating of each
main wheel-brake assembly that is at
the fully worn limit of its allowable
wear range shall be used during quali-
fication testing of the brake to the ap-
plicable Technical Standard Order
(TSO) or an acceptable equivalent.
This kinetic energy rating may not be
less than the kinetic energy absorption
requirements determined under either
of the following methods:
(1) The brake kinetic energy absorp-
tion requirements must be based on a
rational analysis of the sequence of
events expected during an accelerate-
stop maneuver. This analysis must in-
clude conservative values of airplane
speed at which the brakes are applied,
braking coefficient of friction between
tires and runway, aerodynamic drag,
propeller drag or powerplant forward
thrust, and (if more critical) the most
adverse single engine or propeller mal-
function.
(2) Instead of a rational analysis, the
kinetic energy absorption require-
ments for each main wheel brake as-
sembly may be derived from the follow-
ing formula, which must be modified in
cases of designed unequal braking dis-
tributions:
0.0443WV 2
N
Where—
KE=Kinetic energy per wheel (ft.-lb.);
W=Airplane weight (lb.);
V=Airplane speed (knots);
§ 25.737
N=Number of main wheels with brakes;
and
W and V are the most critical combina-
tion of takeoff weight and ground
speed obtained in a rejected take-
off.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–48, 44 FR 68742, Nov. 29, 1979;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990; Amdt.
25–92, 63 FR 8320, Feb. 18, 1998]
§ 25.737 Skis.
Each ski must be approved. The max-
imum limit load rating of each ski
must equal or exceed the maximum
limit load determined under the appli-
cable ground load requirements of this
part.
FLOATS AND HULLS
§ 25.751 Main float buoyancy.
Each main float must have—
(a) A buoyancy of 80 percent in excess
of that required to support the maxi-
mum weight of the seaplane or amphib-
ian in fresh water; and
(b) Not less than five watertight com-
partments approximately equal in vol-
ume.
§ 25.753 Main float design.
Each main float must be approved
and must meet the requirements of
§ 25.521.
§ 25.755 Hulls.
(a) Each hull must have enough wa-
tertight compartments so that, with
any two adjacent compartments flood-
ed, the buoyancy of the hull and auxil-
iary floats (and wheel tires, if used)
provides a margin of positive stability
great enough to minimize the prob-
ability of capsizing in rough, fresh
water.
(b) Bulkheads with watertight doors
may be used for communication be-
tween compartments.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO
ACCOMMODATIONS
§ 25.771 Pilot compartment.
(a) Each pilot compartment and its
equipment must allow the minimum
flight crew (established under § 25.1523)
392
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
to perform their duties without unrea-
sonable concentration or fatigue.
(b) The primary controls listed in
§ 25.779(a), excluding cables and control
rods, must be located with respect to
the propellers so that no member of the
minimum flight crew (established
under § 25.1523), or part of the controls,
lies in the region between the plane of
rotation of any inboard propeller and
the surface generated by a line passing
through the center of the propeller hub
making an angle of five degrees for-
ward or aft of the plane of rotation of
the propeller.
(c) If provision is made for a second
pilot, the airplane must be controllable
with equal safety from either pilot
seat.
(d) The pilot compartment must be
constructed so that, when flying in
rain or snow, it will not leak in a man-
ner that will distract the crew or harm
the structure.
(e) Vibration and noise characteris-
tics of cockpit equipment may not
interfere with safe operation of the air-
plane.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–4, 30 FR 6113, Apr. 30,
1965]
§ 25.772 Pilot compartment doors.
For an airplane that has a maximum
passenger seating configuration of
more than 20 seats and that has a lock-
able door installed between the pilot
compartment and the passenger com-
partment:
(a) The emergency exit configuration
must be designed so that neither crew-
members nor passengers need use that
door in order to reach the emergency
exits provided for them; and
(b) Means must be provided to enable
flight crewmembers to directly enter
the passenger compartment from the
pilot compartment if the cockpit door
becomes jammed.
[Doc. No. 24344, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.773 Pilot compartment view.
(a) Nonprecipitation conditions. For
nonprecipitation conditions, the fol-
lowing apply:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(1) Each pilot compartment must be
arranged to give the pilots a suffi-
ciently extensive, clear, and undis-
torted view, to enable them to safely
perform any maneuvers within the op-
erating limitations of the airplane, in-
cluding taxiing takeoff, approach, and
landing.
(2) Each pilot compartment must be
free of glare and reflection that could
interfere with the normal duties of the
minimum flight crew (established
under § 25.1523). This must be shown in
day and night flight tests under non-
precipitation conditions.
(b) Precipitation conditions. For pre-
cipitation conditions, the following
apply:
(1) The airplane must have a means
to maintain a clear portion of the
windshield, during precipitation condi-
tions, sufficient for both pilots to have
a sufficiently extensive view along the
flight path in normal flight attitudes
of the airplane. This means must be de-
signed to function, without continuous
attention on the part of the crew, in—
(i) Heavy rain at speeds up to 1.6 Vs1
with lift and drag devices retracted;
and
(ii) The icing conditions specified in
§ 25.1419 if certification with ice protec-
tion provisions is requested.
(2) The first pilot must have—
(i) A window that is openable under
the conditions prescribed in paragraph
(b)(1) of this section when the cabin is
not pressurized, provides the view spec-
ified in that paragraph, and gives suffi-
cient protection from the elements
against impairment of the pilot’s vi-
sion; or
(ii) An alternate means to maintain a
clear view under the conditions speci-
fied in paragraph (b)(1) of this section,
considering the probable damage due to
a severe hail encounter.
(c) Internal windshield and window
fogging. The airplane must have a
means to prevent fogging of the inter-
nal portions of the windshield and win-
dow panels over an area which would
provide the visibility specified in para-
graph (a) of this section under all in-
ternal and external ambient condi-
tions, including precipitation condi-
tions, in which the airplane is intended
to be operated.
393
§ 25.775
(d) Fixed markers or other guides
must be installed at each pilot station
to enable the pilots to position them-
selves in their seats for an optimum
combination of outside visibility and
instrument scan. If lighted markers or
guides are used they must comply with
the requirements specified in § 25.1381.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29778, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.775 Windshields and windows.
(a) Internal panes must be made of
nonsplintering material.
(b) Windshield panes directly in front
of the pilots in the normal conduct of
their duties, and the supporting struc-
tures for these panes, must withstand,
without penetration, the impact of a
four-pound bird when the velocity of
the airplane (relative to the bird along
the airplane’s flight path) is equal to
the value of VC, at sea level, selected
under § 25.335(a).
(c) Unless it can be shown by analysis
or tests that the probability of occur-
rence of a critical windshield frag-
mentation condition is of a low order,
the airplane must have a means to
minimize the danger to the pilots from
flying windshield fragments due to bird
impact. This must be shown for each
transparent pane in the cockpit that—
(1) Appears in the front view of the
airplane;
(2) Is inclined 15 degrees or more to
the longitudinal axis of the airplane;
and
(3) Has any part of the pane located
where its fragmentation will constitute
a hazard to the pilots.
(d) The design of windshields and
windows in pressurized airplanes must
be based on factors peculiar to high al-
titude operation, including the effects
of continuous and cyclic pressurization
loadings, the inherent characteristics
of the material used, and the effects of
temperatures and temperature dif-
ferentials. The windshield and window
panels must be capable of withstanding
the maximum cabin pressure differen-
tial loads combined with critical aero-
dynamic pressure and temperature ef-
fects after any single failure in the in-
stallation or associated systems. It
may be assumed that, after a single
§ 25.777
failure that is obvious to the flight
crew (established under § 25.1523), the
cabin pressure differential is reduced
from the maximum, in accordance with
appropriate operating limitations, to
allow continued safe flight of the air-
plane with a cabin pressure altitude of
not more than 15,000 feet.
(e) The windshield panels in front of
the pilots must be arranged so that, as-
suming the loss of vision through any
one panel, one or more panels remain
available for use by a pilot seated at a
pilot station to permit continued safe
flight and landing.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976]
§ 25.777 Cockpit controls.
(a) Each cockpit control must be lo-
cated to provide convenient operation
and to prevent confusion and inadvert-
ent operation.
(b) The direction of movement of
cockpit controls must meet the re-
quirements of § 25.779. Wherever prac-
ticable, the sense of motion involved in
the operation of other controls must
correspond to the sense of the effect of
the operation upon the airplane or
upon the part operated. Controls of a
variable nature using a rotary motion
must move clockwise from the off posi-
tion, through an increasing range, to
the full on position.
(c) The controls must be located and
arranged, with respect to the pilots’
seats, so that there is full and unre-
stricted movement of each control
without interference from the cockpit
structure or the clothing of the mini-
mum flight crew (established under
§ 25.1523) when any member of this
flight crew, from 5′2″ to 6′3″ in height,
is seated with the seat belt and shoul-
der harness (if provided) fastened.
(d) Identical powerplant controls for
each engine must be located to prevent
confusion as to the engines they con-
trol.
(e) Wing flap controls and other aux-
iliary lift device controls must be lo-
cated on top of the pedestal, aft of the
throttles, centrally or to the right of
the pedestal centerline, and not less
than 10 inches aft of the landing gear
control.
394
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(f) The landing gear control must be
located forward of the throttles and
must be operable by each pilot when
seated with seat belt and shoulder har-
ness (if provided) fastened.
(g) Control knobs must be shaped in
accordance with § 25.781. In addition,
the knobs must be of the same color,
and this color must contrast with the
color of control knobs for other pur-
poses and the surrounding cockpit.
(h) If a flight engineer is required as
part of the minimum flight crew (es-
tablished under § 25.1523), the airplane
must have a flight engineer station lo-
cated and arranged so that the flight
crewmembers can perform their func-
tions efficiently and without interfer-
ing with each other.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50596, Oct. 30,
1978]
§ 25.779 Motion and effect of cockpit
controls.
Cockpit controls must be designed so
that they operate in accordance with
the following movement and actuation:
(a) Aerodynamic controls:
(1) Primary.
Controls Motion and effect
Aileron .......................... Right (clockwise) for right wing
down.
Elevator ........................ Rearward for nose up.
Rudder ......................... Right pedal forward for nose right.
(2) Secondary.
Controls Motion and effect
Flaps (or auxiliary lift Forward for flaps up; rearward for
devices). flaps down.
Trim tabs (or equiva- Rotate to produce similar rotation of
lent). the airplane about an axis par-
allel to the axis of the control.
(b) Powerplant and auxiliary con-
trols:
(1) Powerplant.
Controls Motion and effect
Power or thrust ............ Forward to increase forward thrust
and rearward to increase rear-
ward thrust.
Propellers ..................... Forward to increase rpm.
Mixture ......................... Forward or upward for rich.
Carburetor air heat ...... Forward or upward for cold.
Supercharger ............... Forward or upward for low blower.
For turbosuperchargers, forward,
upward, or clockwise, to increase
pressure.
(2) Auxiliary.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT § 25.781

Controls Motion and effect [Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29778, July 20,
Landing gear ................ Down to extend. 1990]

§ 25.781 Cockpit control knob shape.

Cockpit control knobs must conform to the general shapes (but not necessarily
the exact sizes or specific proportions) in the following figure:

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29779, July 20, 1990]

395
§ 25.783
§ 25.783 Doors.
(a) Each cabin must have at least one
easily accessible external door.
(b) There must be a means to lock
and safeguard each external door
against opening in flight (either inad-
vertently by persons or as a result of
mechanical failure or failure of a single
structural element either during or
after closure). Each external door must
be openable from both the inside and
the outside, even though persons may
be crowded against the door on the in-
side of the airplane. Inward opening
doors may be used if there are means
to prevent occupants from crowding
against the door to an extent that
would interfere with the opening of the
door. The means of opening must be
simple and obvious and must be ar-
ranged and marked so that it can be
readily located and operated, even in
darkness. Auxiliary locking devices
may be used.
(c) Each external door must be rea-
sonably free from jamming as a result
of fuselage deformation in a minor
crash.
(d) Each external door must be lo-
cated where persons using them will
not be endangered by the propellers
when appropriate operating procedures
are used.
(e) There must be a provision for di-
rect visual inspection of the locking
mechanism to determine if external
doors, for which the initial opening
movement is not inward (including pas-
senger, crew, service, and cargo doors),
are fully closed and locked. The provi-
sion must be discernible under oper-
ational lighting conditions by appro-
priate crewmembers using a flashlight
or equivalent lighting source. In addi-
tion, there must be a visual warning
means to signal the appropriate flight
crewmembers if any external door is
not fully closed and locked. The means
must be designed such that any failure
or combination of failures that would
result in an erroneous closed and
locked indication is improbable for
doors for which the initial opening
movement is not inward.
(f) External doors must have provi-
sions to prevent the initiation of pres-
surization of the airplane to an unsafe
level if the door is not fully closed and
locked. In addition, it must be shown
396
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
by safety analysis that inadvertent
opening is extemely improbable.
(g) Cargo and service doors not suit-
able for use as emergency exits need
only meet paragraphs (e) and (f) of this
section and be safeguarded against
opening in flight as a result of mechan-
ical failure or failure of a single struc-
tural element.
(h) Each passenger entry door in the
side of the fuselage must meet the ap-
plicable requirements of §§ 25.807
through 25.813 for a Type II or larger
passenger emergency exit.
(i) If an integral stair is installed in
a passenger entry door that is qualified
as a passenger emergency exit, the
stair must be designed so that under
the following conditions the effective-
ness of passenger emergency egress will
not be impaired:
(1) The door, integral stair, and oper-
ating mechanism have been subjected
to the inertia forces specified in
§ 25.561(b)(3), acting separately relative
to the surrounding structure.
(2) The airplane is in the normal
ground attitude and in each of the atti-
tudes corresponding to collapse of one
or more legs of the landing gear.
(j) All lavatory doors must be de-
signed to preclude anyone from becom-
ing trapped inside the lavatory, and if
a locking mechanism is installed, it be
capable of being unlocked from the
outside without the aid of special tools.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13262, Sept.
20, 1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970;
Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt.
25–72, 55 FR 29780, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25–88,
61 FR 57956, Nov. 8, 1996]
§ 25.785 Seats, berths, safety belts, and
harnesses.
(a) A seat (or berth for a nonambu-
lant person) must be provided for each
occupant who has reached his or her
second birthday.
(b) Each seat, berth, safety belt, har-
ness, and adjacent part of the airplane
at each station designated as occupi-
able during takeoff and landing must
be designed so that a person making
proper use of these facilities will not
suffer serious injury in an emergency
landing as a result of the inertia forces
specified in §§ 25.561 and 25.562.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(c) Each seat or berth must be ap-
proved.
(d) Each occupant of a seat that
makes more than an 18-degree angle
with the vertical plane containing the
airplane centerline must be protected
from head injury by a safety belt and
an energy absorbing rest that will sup-
port the arms, shoulders, head, and
spine, or by a safety belt and shoulder
harness that will prevent the head
from contacting any injurious object.
Each occupant of any other seat must
be protected from head injury by a
safety belt and, as appropriate to the
type, location, and angle of facing of
each seat, by one or more of the follow-
ing:
(1) A shoulder harness that will pre-
vent the head from contacting any in-
jurious object.
(2) The elimination of any injurious
object within striking radius of the
head.
(3) An energy absorbing rest that will
support the arms, shoulders, head, and
spine.
(e) Each berth must be designed so
that the forward part has a padded end
board, canvas diaphragm, or equivalent
means, that can withstand the static
load reaction of the occupant when
subjected to the forward inertia force
specified in § 25.561. Berths must be free
from corners and protuberances likely
to cause injury to a person occupying
the berth during emergency conditions.
(f) Each seat or berth, and its sup-
porting structure, and each safety belt
or harness and its anchorage must be
designed for an occupant weight of 170
pounds, considering the maximum load
factors, inertia forces, and reactions
among the occupant, seat, safety belt,
and harness for each relevant flight
and ground load condition (including
the emergency landing conditions pre-
scribed in § 25.561). In addition—
(1) The structural analysis and test-
ing of the seats, berths, and their sup-
porting structures may be determined
by assuming that the critical load in
the forward, sideward, downward, up-
ward, and rearward directions (as de-
termined from the prescribed flight,
ground, and emergency landing condi-
tions) acts separately or using selected
combinations of loads if the required
strength in each specified direction is
397
§ 25.785
substantiated. The forward load factor
need not be applied to safety belts for
berths.
(2) Each pilot seat must be designed
for the reactions resulting from the ap-
plication of the pilot forces prescribed
in § 25.395.
(3) The inertia forces specified in
§ 25.561 must be multiplied by a factor
of 1.33 (instead of the fitting factor pre-
scribed in § 25.625) in determining the
strength of the attachment of each
seat to the structure and each belt or
harness to the seat or structure.
(g) Each seat at a flight deck station
must have a restraint system consist-
ing of a combined safety belt and
shoulder harness with a single-point re-
lease that permits the flight deck occu-
pant, when seated with the restraint
system fastened, to perform all of the
occupant’s necessary flight deck func-
tions. There must be a means to secure
each combined restraint system when
not in use to prevent interference with
the operation of the airplane and with
rapid egress in an emergency.
(h) Each seat located in the pas-
senger compartment and designated for
use during takeoff and landing by a
flight attendant required by the oper-
ating rules of this chapter must be:
(1) Near a required floor level emer-
gency exit, except that another loca-
tion is acceptable if the emergency
egress of passengers would be enhanced
with that location. A flight attendant
seat must be located adjacent to each
Type A or B emergency exit. Other
flight attendant seats must be evenly
distributed among the required floor-
level emergency exits to the extent
feasible.
(2) To the extent possible, without
compromising proximity to a required
floor level emergency exit, located to
provide a direct view of the cabin area
for which the flight attendant is re-
sponsible.
(3) Positioned so that the seat will
not interfere with the use of a passage-
way or exit when the seat is not in use.
(4) Located to minimize the prob-
ability that occupants would suffer in-
jury by being struck by items dislodged
from service areas, stowage compart-
ments, or service equipment.
(5) Either forward or rearward facing
with an energy absorbing rest that is
§ 25.787
designed to support the arms, shoul-
ders, head, and spine.
(6) Equipped with a restraint system
consisting of a combined safety belt
and shoulder harness unit with a single
point release. There must be means to
secure each restraint system when not
in use to prevent interference with
rapid egress in an emergency.
(i) Each safety belt must be equipped
with a metal to metal latching device.
(j) If the seat backs do not provide a
firm handhold, there must be a hand-
grip or rail along each aisle to enable
persons to steady themselves while
using the aisles in moderately rough
air.
(k) Each projecting object that would
injure persons seated or moving about
the airplane in normal flight must be
padded.
(l) Each forward observer’s seat re-
quired by the operating rules must be
shown to be suitable for use in con-
ducting the necessary enroute inspec-
tion.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29780, July 20, 1990, as
amended by Amdt. 25–88, 61 FR 57956, Nov. 8,
1996]
§ 25.787 Stowage compartments.
(a) Each compartment for the stow-
age of cargo, baggage, carry-on arti-
cles, and equipment (such as life rafts),
and any other stowage compartment
must be designed for its placarded max-
imum weight of contents and for the
critical load distribution at the appro-
priate maximum load factors cor-
responding to the specified flight and
ground load conditions, and to the
emergency landing conditions of
§ 25.561(b), except that the forces speci-
fied in the emergency landing condi-
tions need not be applied to compart-
ments located below, or forward, of all
occupants in the airplane. If the air-
plane has a passenger seating configu-
ration, excluding pilots seats, of 10
seats or more, each stowage compart-
ment in the passenger cabin, except for
underseat and overhead compartments
for passenger convenience, must be
completely enclosed.
(b) There must be a means to prevent
the contents in the compartments from
becoming a hazard by shifting, under
the loads specified in paragraph (a) of
this section. For stowage compart-
398
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
ments in the passenger and crew cabin,
if the means used is a latched door, the
design must take into consideration
the wear and deterioration expected in
service.
(c) If cargo compartment lamps are
installed, each lamp must be installed
so as to prevent contact between lamp
bulb and cargo.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3969, Feb. 24,
1972; Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976;
Amdt. 25–51, 45 FR 7755, Feb. 4, 1980]
§ 25.789 Retention of items of mass in
passenger and crew compartments
and galleys.
(a) Means must be provided to pre-
vent each item of mass (that is part of
the airplane type design) in a passenger
or crew compartment or galley from
becoming a hazard by shifting under
the appropriate maximum load factors
corresponding to the specified flight
and ground load conditions, and to the
emergency landing conditions of
§ 25.561(b).
(b) Each interphone restraint system
must be designed so that when sub-
jected to the load factors specified in
§ 25.561(b)(3), the interphone will re-
main in its stowed position.
[Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3969, Feb. 24, 1972, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50596, Oct. 30,
1978]
§ 25.791 Passenger information signs
and placards.
(a) If smoking is to be prohibited,
there must be at least one placard so
stating that is legible to each person
seated in the cabin. If smoking is to be
allowed, and if the crew compartment
is separated from the passenger com-
partment, there must be at least one
sign notifying when smoking is prohib-
ited. Signs which notify when smoking
is prohibited must be operable by a
member of the flightcrew and, when il-
luminated, must be legible under all
probable conditions of cabin illumina-
tion to each person seated in the cabin.
(b) Signs that notify when seat belts
should be fastened and that are in-
stalled to comply with the operating
rules of this chapter must be operable
by a member of the flightcrew and,
when illuminated, must be legible
under all probable conditions of cabin
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
illumination to each person seated in
the cabin.
(c) A placard must be located on or
adjacent to the door of each receptacle
used for the disposal of flammable
waste materials to indicate that use of
the receptacle for disposal of ciga-
rettes, etc., is prohibited.
(d) Lavatories must have ‘‘No Smok-
ing’’ or ‘‘No Smoking in Lavatory’’
placards conspicuously located on or
adjacent to each side of the entry door.
(e) Symbols that clearly express the
intent of the sign or placard may be
used in lieu of letters.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29780, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.793 Floor surfaces.
The floor surface of all areas which
are likely to become wet in service
must have slip resistant properties.
[Amdt. 25–51, 45 FR 7755, Feb. 4, 1980]
EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
§ 25.801 Ditching.
(a) If certification with ditching pro-
visions is requested, the airplane must
meet the requirements of this section
and §§ 25.807(e), 25.1411, and 25.1415(a).
(b) Each practicable design measure,
compatible with the general character-
istics of the airplane, must be taken to
minimize the probability that in an
emergency landing on water, the be-
havior of the airplane would cause im-
mediate injury to the occupants or
would make it impossible for them to
escape.
(c) The probable behavior of the air-
plane in a water landing must be inves-
tigated by model tests or by compari-
son with airplanes of similar configura-
tion for which the ditching characteris-
tics are known. Scoops, flaps, projec-
tions, and any other factor likely to af-
fect the hydrodynamic characteristics
of the airplane, must be considered.
(d) It must be shown that, under rea-
sonably probable water conditions, the
flotation time and trim of the airplane
will allow the occupants to leave the
airplane and enter the liferafts re-
quired by § 25.1415. If compliance with
this provision is shown by buoyancy
and trim computations, appropriate al-
lowances must be made for probable
structural damage and leakage. If the
399
§ 25.807
airplane has fuel tanks (with fuel jet-
tisoning provisions) that can reason-
ably be expected to withstand a ditch-
ing without leakage, the jettisonable
volume of fuel may be considered as
buoyancy volume.
(e) Unless the effects of the collapse
of external doors and windows are ac-
counted for in the investigation of the
probable behavior of the airplane in a
water landing (as prescribed in para-
graphs (c) and (d) of this section), the
external doors and windows must be
designed to withstand the probable
maximum local pressures.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29781, July 20,
1990]
§ 25.803 Emergency evacuation.
(a) Each crew and passenger area
must have emergency means to allow
rapid evacuation in crash landings,
with the landing gear extended as well
as with the landing gear retracted, con-
sidering the possibility of the airplane
being on fire.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) For airplanes having a seating ca-
pacity of more than 44 passengers, it
must be shown that the maximum
seating capacity, including the number
of crewmembers required by the oper-
ating rules for which certification is
requested, can be evacuated from the
airplane to the ground under simulated
emergency conditions within 90 sec-
onds. Compliance with this require-
ment must be shown by actual dem-
onstration using the test criteria out-
lined in appendix J of this part unless
the Administrator finds that a com-
bination of analysis and testing will
provide data equivalent to that which
would be obtained by actual dem-
onstration.
(d)–(e) [Reserved]
[Doc. No. 24344, 55 FR 29781, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.807 Emergency exits.
(a) Type. For the purpose of this part,
the types of exits are defined as fol-
lows:
(1) Type I. This type is a floor-level
exit with a rectangular opening of not
less than 24 inches wide by 48 inches
high, with corner radii not greater
than eight inches.
§ 25.807
(2) Type II. This type is a rectangular
opening of not less than 20 inches wide
by 44 inches high, with corner radii not
greater than seven inches. Type II exits
must be floor-level exits unless located
over the wing, in which case they must
not have a step-up inside the airplane
of more than 10 inches nor a step-down
outside the airplane of more than 17
inches.
(3) Type III. This type is a rectangu-
lar opening of not less than 20 inches
wide by 36 inches high with corner
radii not greater than seven inches,
and with a step-up inside the airplane
of not more than 20 inches. If the exit
is located over the wing, the step-down
outside the airplane may not exceed 27
inches.
(4) Type IV. This type is a rectangu-
lar opening of not less than 19 inches
wide by 26 inches high, with corner
radii not greater than 6.3 inches, lo-
cated over the wing, with a step-up in-
side the airplane of not more than 29
inches and a step-down outside the air-
plane of not more than 36 inches.
(5) Ventral. This type is an exit from
the passenger compartment through
the pressure shell and the bottom fuse-
lage skin. The dimensions and physical
configuration of this type of exit must
allow at least the same rate of egress
as a Type I exit with the airplane in
the normal ground attitude, with land-
ing gear extended.
(6) Tailcone. This type is an aft exit
from the passenger compartment
through the pressure shell and through
an openable cone of the fuselage aft of
the pressure shell. The means of open-
ing the tailcone must be simple and ob-
vious and must employ a single oper-
ation.
(7) Type A. This type is a floor-level
exit with a rectangular opening of not
less than 42 inches wide by 72 inches
high, with corner radii not greater
than seven inches.
(8) Type B. This type is a floor-level
exit with a rectangular opening of not
less than 32 inches wide by 72 inches
high, with corner radii not greater
than six inches.
(9) Type C. This type is a floor-level
exit with a rectangular opening of not
less than 30 inches wide by 48 inches
high, with corner radii not greater
than 10 inches.
400
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(b) Step down distance. Step down dis-
tance, as used in this section, means
the actual distance between the bot-
tom of the required opening and a usa-
ble foot hold, extending out from the
fuselage, that is large enough to be ef-
fective without searching by sight or
feel.
(c) Over-sized exits. Openings larger
than those specified in this section,
whether or not of rectangular shape,
may be used if the specified rectangu-
lar opening can be inscribed within the
opening and the base of the inscribed
rectangular opening meets the speci-
fied step-up and step-down heights.
(d) Asymmetry. Exits of an exit pair
need not be diametrically opposite
each other nor of the same size; how-
ever, the number of passenger seats
permitted under paragraph (g) of this
section is based on the smaller of the
two exits.
(e) Uniformity. Exits must be distrib-
uted as uniformly as practical, taking
into account passenger seat distribu-
tion.
(f) Location. (1) Each required pas-
senger emergency exit must be acces-
sible to the passengers and located
where it will afford the most effective
means of passenger evacuation.
(2) If only one floor-level exit per side
is prescribed, and the airplane does not
have a tailcone or ventral emergency
exit, the floor-level exits must be in
the rearward part of the passenger
compartment unless another location
affords a more effective means of pas-
senger evacuation.
(3) If more than one floor-level exit
per side is prescribed, and the airplane
does not have a combination cargo and
passenger configuration, at least one
floor-level exit must be located in each
side near each end of the cabin.
(4) For an airplane that is required to
have more than one passenger emer-
gency exit for each side of the fuselage,
no passenger emergency exit shall be
more than 60 feet from any adjacent
passenger emergency exit on the same
side of the same deck of the fuselage,
as measured parallel to the airplane’s
longitudinal axis between the nearest
exit edges.
(g) Type and number required. The
maximum number of passenger seats
permitted depends on the type and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
number of exits installed in each side
of the fuselage. Except as further re-
stricted in paragraphs (g)(1) through
(g)(9) of this section, the maximum
number of passenger seats permitted
for each exit of a specific type installed
in each side of the fuselage is as fol-
lows:
Type A 110
Type B 75
Type C 55
Type I 45
Type II 40
Type III 35
Type IV 9
(1) For a passenger seating configura-
tion of 1 to 9 seats, there must be at
least one Type IV or larger overwing
exit in each side of the fuselage or, if
overwing exits are not provided, at
least one exit in each side that meets
the minimum dimensions of a Type III
exit.
(2) For a passenger seating configura-
tion of more than 9 seats, each exit
must be a Type III or larger exit.
(3) For a passenger seating configura-
tion of 10 to 19 seats, there must be at
least one Type III or larger exit in each
side of the fuselage.
(4) For a passenger seating configura-
tion of 20 to 40 seats, there must be at
least two exits, one of which must be a
Type II or larger exit, in each side of
the fuselage.
(5) For a passenger seating configura-
tion of 41 to 110 seats, there must be at
least two exits, one of which must be a
Type I or larger exit, in each side of
the fuselage.
(6) For a passenger seating configura-
tion of more than 110 seats, the emer-
gency exits in each side of the fuselage
must include at least two Type I or
larger exits.
(7) The combined maximum number
of passenger seats permitted for all
Type III exits is 70, and the combined
maximum number of passenger seats
permitted for two Type III exits in
each side of the fuselage that are sepa-
rated by fewer than three passenger
seat rows is 65.
(8) If a Type A, Type B, or Type C
exit is installed, there must be at least
two Type C or larger exits in each side
of the fuselage.
(9) If a passenger ventral or tailcone
exit is installed and that exit provides
401
§ 25.807
at least the same rate of egress as a
Type III exit with the airplane in the
most adverse exit opening condition
that would result from the collapse of
one or more legs of the landing gear, an
increase in the passenger seating con-
figuration is permitted as follows:
(i) For a ventral exit, 12 additional
passenger seats.
(ii) For a tailcone exit incorporating
a floor level opening of not less than 20
inches wide by 60 inches high, with cor-
ner radii not greater than seven inches,
in the pressure shell and incorporating
an approved assist means in accordance
with § 25.810(a), 25 additional passenger
seats.
(iii) For a tailcone exit incorporating
an opening in the pressure shell which
is at least equivalent to a Type III
emergency exit with respect to dimen-
sions, step-up and step-down distance,
and with the top of the opening not
less than 56 inches from the passenger
compartment floor, 15 additional pas-
senger seats.
(h) Excess exits. Each emergency exit
in the passenger compartment in ex-
cess of the minimum number of re-
quired emergency exits must meet the
applicable requirements of § 25.809
through § 25.812, and must be readily
accessible.
(i) Ditching emergency exits for pas-
sengers. Whether or not ditching cer-
tification is requested, ditching emer-
gency exits must be provided in accord-
ance with the following requirements,
unless the emergency exits required by
paragraph (g) of this section already
meet them:
(1) For airplanes that have a pas-
senger seating configuration of nine or
fewer seats, excluding pilot seats, one
exit above the waterline in each side of
the airplane, meeting at least the di-
mensions of a Type IV exit.
(2) For airplanes that have a pas-
senger seating configuration of 10 of
more seats, excluding pilot seats, one
exit above the waterline in a side of the
airplane, meeting at least the dimen-
sions of a Type III exit for each unit (or
part of a unit) of 35 passenger seats,
but no less than two such exits in the
passenger cabin, with one on each side
of the airplane. The passenger seat/
exit ratio may be increased through
the use of larger exits, or other means,
§ 25.809
provided it is shown that the evacu-
ation capability during ditching has
been improved accordingly.
(3) If it is impractical to locate side
exits above the waterline, the side
exits must be replaced by an equal
number of readily accessible overhead
hatches of not less than the dimensions
of a Type III exit, except that for air-
planes with a passenger configuration
of 35 or fewer seats, excluding pilot
seats, the two required Type III side
exits need be replaced by only one
overhead hatch.
(j) Flightcrew emergency exits. For air-
planes in which the proximity of pas-
senger emergency exits to the
flightcrew area does not offer a conven-
ient and readily accessible means of
evacuation of the flightcrew, and for
all airplanes having a passenger seat-
ing capacity greater than 20, flightcrew
exits shall be located in the flightcrew
area. Such exits shall be of sufficient
size and so located as to permit rapid
evacuation by the crew. One exit shall
be provided on each side of the air-
plane; or, alternatively, a top hatch
shall be provided. Each exit must en-
compass an unobstructed rectangular
opening of at least 19 by 20 inches un-
less satisfactory exit utility can be
demonstrated by a typical crew-
member.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29781, July 20, 1990, as
amended by Amdt. 25–88, 61 FR 57956, Nov. 8,
1996; 62 FR 1817, Jan. 13, 1997; Amdt. 25–94, 63
FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998; 63 FR 12862, Mar. 16,
1998]
§ 25.809 Emergency exit arrangement.
(a) Each emergency exit, including a
flight crew emergency exit, must be a
movable door or hatch in the external
walls of the fuselage, allowing unob-
structed opening to the outside.
(b) Each emergency exit must be
openable from the inside and the out-
side except that sliding window emer-
gency exits in the flight crew area need
not be openable from the outside if
other approved exits are convenient
and readily accessible to the flight
crew area. Each emergency exit must
be capable of being opened, when there
is no fuselage deformation—
(1) With the airplane in the normal
ground attitude and in each of the atti-
402
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
tudes corresponding to collapse of one
or more legs of the landing gear; and
(2) Within 10 seconds measured from
the time when the opening means is ac-
tuated to the time when the exit is
fully opened.
(c) The means of opening emergency
exits must be simple and obvious and
may not require exceptional effort. In-
ternal exit-opening means involving se-
quence operations (such as operation of
two handles or latches or the release of
safety catches) may be used for flight
crew emergency exits if it can be rea-
sonably established that these means
are simple and obvious to crew-
members trained in their use.
(d) If a single power-boost or single
power-operated system is the primary
system for operating more than one
exit in an emergency, each exit must
be capable of meeting the requirements
of paragraph (b) of this section in the
event of failure of the primary system.
Manual operation of the exit (after
failure of the primary system) is ac-
ceptable.
(e) Each emergency exit must be
shown by tests, or by a combination of
analysis and tests, to meet the require-
ments of paragraphs (b) and (c) of this
section.
(f) There must be a means to lock
each emergency exit and to safeguard
against its opening in flight, either in-
advertently by persons or as a result of
mechanical failure. In addition, there
must be a means for direct visual in-
spection of the locking mechanism by
crewmembers to determine that each
emergency exit, for which the initial
opening movement is outward, is fully
locked.
(g) There must be provisions to mini-
mize the probability of jamming of the
emergency exits resulting from fuse-
lage deformation in a minor crash
landing.
(h) When required by the operating
rules for any large passenger-carrying
turbojet-powered airplane, each ven-
tral exit and tailcone exit must be—
(1) Designed and constructed so that
it cannot be opened during flight; and
(2) Marked with a placard readable
from a distance of 30 inches and in-
stalled at a conspicuous location near
the means of opening the exit, stating
that the exit has been designed and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
constructed so that it cannot be opened
during flight.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13264, Sept.
20, 1967; Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3970, Feb. 24, 1972;
Amdt. 25–34, 37 FR 25355, Nov. 30, 1972; Amdt.
25–46, 43 FR 50597, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 25–47,
44 FR 61325, Oct. 25, 1979; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR
29782, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.810 Emergency egress assist
means and escape routes.
(a) Each non over-wing Type A, Type
B or Type C exit, and any other non
over-wing landplane emergency exit
more than 6 feet from the ground with
the airplane on the ground and the
landing gear extended, must have an
approved means to assist the occupants
in descending to the ground.
(1) The assisting means for each pas-
senger emergency exit must be a self-
supporting slide or equivalent; and, in
the case of Type A or Type B exits, it
must be capable of carrying simulta-
neously two parallel lines of evacuees.
In addition, the assisting means must
be designed to meet the following re-
quirements—
(i) It must be automatically deployed
and deployment must begin during the
interval between the time the exit
opening means is actuated from inside
the airplane and the time the exit is
fully opened. However, each passenger
emergency exit which is also a pas-
senger entrance door or a service door
must be provided with means to pre-
vent deployment of the assisting means
when it is opened from either the in-
side or the outside under non-
emergency conditions for normal use.
(ii) Except for assisting means in-
stalled at Type C exits, it must be
automatically erected within 6 seconds
after deployment is begun. Assisting
means installed at Type C exits must
be automatically erected within 10 sec-
onds from the time the opening means
of the exit is actuated.
(iii) It must be of such length after
full deployment that the lower end is
self-supporting on the ground and pro-
vides safe evacuation of occupants to
the ground after collapse of one or
more legs of the landing gear.
(iv) It must have the capability, in
25-knot winds directed from the most
critical angle, to deploy and, with the
403
§ 25.810
assistance of only one person, to re-
main usable after full deployment to
evacuate occupants safely to the
ground.
(v) For each system installation
(mockup or airplane installed), five
consecutive deployment and inflation
tests must be conducted (per exit)
without failure, and at least three tests
of each such five-test series must be
conducted using a single representative
sample of the device. The sample de-
vices must be deployed and inflated by
the system’s primary means after
being subjected to the inertia forces
specified in § 25.561(b). If any part of the
system fails or does not function prop-
erly during the required tests, the
cause of the failure or malfunction
must be corrected by positive means
and after that, the full series of five
consecutive deployment and inflation
tests must be conducted without fail-
ure.
(2) The assisting means for flightcrew
emergency exits may be a rope or any
other means demonstrated to be suit-
able for the purpose. If the assisting
means is a rope, or an approved device
equivalent to a rope, it must be—
(i) Attached to the fuselage structure
at or above the top of the emergency
exit opening, or, for a device at a pi-
lot’s emergency exit window, at an-
other approved location if the stowed
device, or its attachment, would reduce
the pilot’s view in flight;
(ii) Able (with its attachment) to
withstand a 400-pound static load.
(b) Assist means from the cabin to
the wing are required for each type A
or Type B exit located above the wing
and having a stepdown unless the exit
without an assist-means can be shown
to have a rate of passenger egress at
least equal to that of the same type of
non over-wing exit. If an assist means
is required, it must be automatically
deployed and automatically erected
concurrent with the opening of the
exit. In the case of assist means in-
stalled at Type C exits, it must be self-
supporting within 10 seconds from the
time the opening means of the exits is
actuated. For all other exit types, it
must be self-supporting 6 seconds after
deployment is begun.
(c) An escape route must be estab-
lished from each overwing emergency
§ 25.811
exit, and (except for flap surfaces suit-
able as slides) covered with a slip re-
sistant surface. Except where a means
for channeling the flow of evacuees is
provided—
(1) The escape route from each Type
A or Type B passenger emergency exit,
or any common escape route from two
Type III passenger emergency exits,
must be at least 42 inches wide; that
from any other passenger emergency
exit must be at least 24 inches wide;
and
(2) The escape route surface must
have a reflectance of at least 80 per-
cent, and must be defined by markings
with a surface-to-marking contrast
ratio of at least 5:1.
(d) Means must be provided to assist
evacuees to reach the ground for all
Type C exits located over the wing and,
if the place on the airplane structure
at which the escape route required in
paragraph (c) of this section termi-
nates is more than 6 feet from the
ground with the airplane on the ground
and the landing gear extended, for all
other exit types.
(1) If the escape route is over the
flap, the height of the terminal edge
must be measured with the flap in the
takeoff or landing position, whichever
is higher from the ground.
(2) The assisting means must be usa-
ble and self-supporting with one or
more landing gear legs collapsed and
under a 25-knot wind directed from the
most critical angle.
(3) The assisting means provided for
each escape route leading from a Type
A or B emergency exit must be capable
of carrying simultaneously two par-
allel lines of evacuees; and, the assist-
ing means leading from any other exit
type must be capable of carrying as
many parallel lines of evacuees as
there are required escape routes.
(4) The assisting means provided for
each escape route leading from a Type
C exit must be automatically erected
within 10 seconds from the time the
opening means of the exit is actuated,
and that provided for the escape route
leading from any other exit type must
be automatically erected within 10 sec-
404
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
onds after actuation of the erection
system.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29782, July 20, 1990, as
amended by Amdt. 25–88, 61 FR 57958, Nov. 8,
1996; 62 FR 1817, Jan. 13, 1997]
§ 25.811 Emergency exit marking.
(a) Each passenger emergency exit,
its means of access, and its means of
opening must be conspicuously
marked.
(b) The identity and location of each
passenger emergency exit must be rec-
ognizable from a distance equal to the
width of the cabin.
(c) Means must be provided to assist
the occupants in locating the exits in
conditions of dense smoke.
(d) The location of each passenger
emergency exit must be indicated by a
sign visible to occupants approaching
along the main passenger aisle (or
aisles). There must be—
(1) A passenger emergency exit loca-
tor sign above the aisle (or aisles) near
each passenger emergency exit, or at
another overhead location if it is more
practical because of low headroom, ex-
cept that one sign may serve more
than one exit if each exit can be seen
readily from the sign;
(2) A passenger emergency exit mark-
ing sign next to each passenger emer-
gency exit, except that one sign may
serve two such exits if they both can be
seen readily from the sign; and
(3) A sign on each bulkhead or divider
that prevents fore and aft vision along
the passenger cabin to indicate emer-
gency exits beyond and obscured by the
bulkhead or divider, except that if this
is not possible the sign may be placed
at another appropriate location.
(e) The location of the operating han-
dle and instructions for opening exits
from the inside of the airplane must be
shown in the following manner:
(1) Each passenger emergency exit
must have, on or near the exit, a mark-
ing that is readable from a distance of
30 inches.
(2) Each Type A, Type B, Type C or
Type I passenger emergency exit oper-
ating handle must—
(i) Be self-illuminated with an initial
brightness of at least 160 micro-
lamberts; or
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(ii) Be conspicuously located and well
illuminated by the emergency lighting
even in conditions of occupant crowd-
ing at the exit.
(3) [Reserved]
(4) Each Type A, Type B, Type C,
Type I, or Type II passenger emergency
exit with a locking mechanism re-
leased by rotary motion of the handle
must be marked—
(i) With a red arrow, with a shaft at
least three-fourths of an inch wide and
a head twice the width of the shaft, ex-
tending along at least 70 degrees of arc
at a radius approximately equal to
three-fourths of the handle length.
(ii) So that the centerline of the exit
handle is within ±1 inch of the pro-
jected point of the arrow when the han-
dle has reached full travel and has re-
leased the locking mechanism, and
(iii) With the word ‘‘open’’ in red let-
ters 1 inch high, placed horizontally
near the head of the arrow.
(f) Each emergency exit that is re-
quired to be openable from the outside,
and its means of opening, must be
marked on the outside of the airplane.
In addition, the following apply:
(1) The outside marking for each pas-
senger emergency exit in the side of
the fuselage must include a 2-inch col-
ored band outlining the exit.
(2) Each outside marking including
the band, must have color contrast to
be readily distinguishable from the sur-
rounding fuselage surface. The contrast
must be such that if the reflectance of
the darker color is 15 percent or less,
the reflectance of the lighter color
must be at least 45 percent. ‘‘Reflec-
tance’’ is the ratio of the luminous flux
reflected by a body to the luminous
flux it receives. When the reflectance
of the darker color is greater than 15
percent, at least a 30-percent difference
between its reflectance and the reflec-
tance of the lighter color must be pro-
vided.
(3) In the case of exists other than
those in the side of the fuselage, such
as ventral or tailcone exists, the exter-
nal means of opening, including in-
structions if applicable, must be con-
spicuously marked in red, or bright
chrome yellow if the background color
is such that red is inconspicuous. When
the opening means is located on only
one side of the fuselage, a conspicuous
405
§ 25.812
marking to that effect must be pro-
vided on the other side.
(g) Each sign required by paragraph
(d) of this section may use the word
‘‘exit’’ in its legend in place of the
term ‘‘emergency exit’’.
[Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13264, Sept. 20, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3970, Feb. 24,
1972; Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50597, Oct. 30, 1978; 43
FR 52495, Nov. 13, 1978; Amdt. 25–79, 58 FR
45229, Aug. 26, 1993; Amdt. 25–88, 61 FR 57958,
Nov. 8, 1996]
§ 25.812 Emergency lighting.
(a) An emergency lighting system,
independent of the main lighting sys-
tem, must be installed. However, the
sources of general cabin illumination
may be common to both the emergency
and the main lighting systems if the
power supply to the emergency light-
ing system is independent of the power
supply to the main lighting system.
The emergency lighting system must
include:
(1) Illuminated emergency exit mark-
ing and locating signs, sources of gen-
eral cabin illumination, interior light-
ing in emergency exit areas, and floor
proximity escape path marking.
(2) Exterior emergency lighting.
(b) Emergency exit signs—
(1) For airplanes that have a pas-
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilot seats, of 10 seats or more must
meet the following requirements:
(i) Each passenger emergency exit lo-
cator sign required by § 25.811(d)(1) and
each passenger emergency exit mark-
ing sign required by § 25.811(d)(2) must
have red letters at least 11⁄2 inches high
on an illuminated white background,
and must have an area of at least 21
square inches excluding the letters.
The lighted background-to-letter con-
trast must be at least 10 : 1. The letter
height to stroke-width ratio may not
be more than 7 : 1 nor less than 6 : 1.
These signs must be internally elec-
trically illuminated with a background
brightness of at least 25 foot-lamberts
and a high-to-low background contrast
no greater than 3 : 1.
(ii) Each passenger emergency exit
sign required by § 25.811(d)(3) must have
red letters at least 11⁄2 inches high on a
white background having an area of at
least 21 square inches excluding the
letters. These signs must be internally
§ 25.812
electrically illuminated or self-illumi-
nated by other than electrical means
and must have an initial brightness of
at least 400 microlamberts. The colors
may be reversed in the case of a sign
that is self-illuminated by other than
electrical means.
(2) For airplanes that have a pas-
senger seating configuration, excluding
pilot seats, of nine seats or less, that
are required by § 25.811(d)(1), (2), and (3)
must have red letters at least 1 inch
high on a white background at least 2
inches high. These signs may be inter-
nally electrically illuminated, or self-
illuminated by other than electrical
means, with an initial brightness of at
least 160 microlamberts. The colors
may be reversed in the case of a sign
that is self-illuminated by other than
electrical means.
(c) General illumination in the pas-
senger cabin must be provided so that
when measured along the centerline of
main passenger aisle(s), and cross
aisle(s) between main aisles, at seat
arm-rest height and at 40-inch inter-
vals, the average illumination is not
less than 0.05 foot-candle and the illu-
mination at each 40-inch interval is not
less than 0.01 foot-candle. A main pas-
senger aisle(s) is considered to extend
along the fuselage from the most for-
ward passenger emergency exit or
cabin occupant seat, whichever is far-
ther forward, to the most rearward pas-
senger emergency exit or cabin occu-
pant seat, whichever is farther aft.
(d) The floor of the passageway lead-
ing to each floor-level passenger emer-
gency exit, between the main aisles
and the exit openings, must be pro-
vided with illumination that is not less
than 0.02 foot-candle measured along a
line that is within 6 inches of and par-
allel to the floor and is centered on the
passenger evacuation path.
(e) Floor proximity emergency es-
cape path marking must provide emer-
gency evacuation guidance for pas-
sengers when all sources of illumina-
tion more than 4 feet above the cabin
aisle floor are totally obscured. In the
dark of the night, the floor proximity
emergency escape path marking must
enable each passenger to—
(1) After leaving the passenger seat,
visually identify the emergency escape
path along the cabin aisle floor to the
406
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
first exits or pair of exits forward and
aft of the seat; and
(2) Readily identify each exit from
the emergency escape path by ref-
erence only to markings and visual fea-
tures not more than 4 feet above the
cabin floor.
(f) Except for subsystems provided in
accordance with paragraph (h) of this
section that serve no more than one as-
sist means, are independent of the air-
plane’s main emergency lighting sys-
tem, and are automatically activated
when the assist means is erected, the
emergency lighting system must be de-
signed as follows.
(1) The lights must be operable
manually from the flight crew station
and from a point in the passenger com-
partment that is readily accessible to a
normal flight attendant seat.
(2) There must be a flight crew warn-
ing light which illuminates when power
is on in the airplane and the emergency
lighting control device is not armed.
(3) The cockpit control device must
have an ‘‘on,’’ ‘‘off,’’ and ‘‘armed’’ posi-
tion so that when armed in the cockpit
or turned on at either the cockpit or
flight attendant station the lights will
either light or remain lighted upon
interruption (except an interruption
caused by a transverse vertical separa-
tion of the fuselage during crash land-
ing) of the airplane’s normal electric
power. There must be a means to safe-
guard against inadvertent operation of
the control device from the ‘‘armed’’ or
‘‘on’’ positions.
(g) Exterior emergency lighting must
be provided as follows:
(1) At each overwing emergency exit
the illumination must be—
(i) Not less than 0.03 foot-candle
(measured normal to the direction of
the incident light) on a 2-square-foot
area where an evacuee is likely to
make his first step outside the cabin;
(ii) Not less than 0.05 foot-candle
(measured normal to the direction of
incident light) along the 30 percent of
the slip-resistant portion of the escape
route required in § 25.810(c) that is far-
thest from the exit for the minimum
required width of the escape route; and
(iii) Not less than 0.03 foot-candle on
the ground surface with the landing
gear extended (measured normal to the
direction of the incident light) where
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
an evacuee using the established escape
route would normally make first con-
tact with the ground.
(2) At each non-overwing emergency
exit not required by § 25.809(f) to have
descent assist means the illumination
must be not less than 0.03 foot-candle
(measured normal to the direction of
the incident light) on the ground sur-
face with the landing gear extended
where an evacuee is likely to make his
first contact with the ground outside
the cabin.
(h) The means required in § 25.809
(f)(1) and (h) to assist the occupants in
descending to the ground must be illu-
minated so that the erected assist
means is visible from the airplane.
(1) If the assist means is illuminated
by exterior emergency lighting, it
must provide illumination of not less
than 0.03 foot-candle (measured normal
to the direction of the incident light)
at the ground end of the erected assist
means where an evacuee using the es-
tablished escape route would normally
make first contact with the ground,
with the airplane in each of the atti-
tudes corresponding to the collapse of
one or more legs of the landing gear.
(2) If the emergency lighting sub-
system illuminating the assist means
serves no other assist means, is inde-
pendent of the airplane’s main emer-
gency lighting system, and is auto-
matically activated when the assist
means is erected, the lighting provi-
sions—
(i) May not be adversely affected by
stowage; and
(ii) Must provide illumination of not
less than 0.03 foot-candle (measured
normal to the direction of incident
light) at the ground and of the erected
assist means where an evacuee would
normally make first contact with the
ground, with the airplane in each of
the attitudes corresponding to the col-
lapse of one or more legs of the landing
gear.
(i) The energy supply to each emer-
gency lighting unit must provide the
required level of illumination for at
least 10 minutes at the critical ambient
conditions after emergency landing.
(j) If storage batteries are used as the
energy supply for the emergency light-
ing system, they may be recharged
from the airplane’s main electric power
407
§ 25.813
system: Provided, That, the charging
circuit is designed to preclude inad-
vertent battery discharge into charg-
ing circuit faults.
(k) Components of the emergency
lighting system, including batteries,
wiring relays, lamps, and switches
must be capable of normal operation
after having been subjected to the iner-
tia forces listed in § 25.561(b).
(l) The emergency lighting system
must be designed so that after any sin-
gle transverse vertical separation of
the fuselage during crash landing—
(1) Not more than 25 percent of all
electrically illuminated emergency
lights required by this section are ren-
dered inoperative, in addition to the
lights that are directly damaged by the
separation;
(2) Each electrically illuminated exit
sign required under § 25.811(d)(2) re-
mains operative exclusive of those that
are directly damaged by the separa-
tion; and
(3) At least one required exterior
emergency light for each side of the
airplane remains operative exclusive of
those that are directly damaged by the
separation.
[Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13265, Sept. 20, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–28, 36 FR 16899, Aug. 26,
1971; Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3971, Feb. 24, 1972;
Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50597, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt.
25–58, 49 FR 43186, Oct. 26, 1984; Amdt. 25–88,
61 FR 57958, Nov. 8, 1996]
§ 25.813 Emergency exit access.
Each required emergency exit must
be accessible to the passengers and lo-
cated where it will afford an effective
means of evacuation. Emergency exit
distribution must be as uniform as
practical, taking passenger distribu-
tion into account; however, the size
and location of exits on both sides of
the cabin need not be symmetrical. If
only one floor level exit per side is pre-
scribed, and the airplane does not have
a tailcone or ventral emergency exit,
the floor level exit must be in the rear-
ward part of the passenger compart-
ment, unless another location affords a
more effective means of passenger
evacuation. Where more than one floor
level exit per side is prescribed, at
least one floor level exit per side must
be located near each end of the cabin,
except that this provision does not
§ 25.813
apply to combination cargo/passenger
configurations. In addition—
(a) There must be a passageway lead-
ing from the nearest main aisle to each
Type A, Type B, Type C, Type I, or
Type II emergency exit and between in-
dividual passenger areas. Each passage-
way leading to a Type A or Type B exit
must be unobstructed and at least 36
inches wide. Passageways between indi-
vidual passenger areas and those lead-
ing to Type I, Type II, or Type C emer-
gency exits must be unobstructed and
at least 20 inches wide. Unless there
are two or more main aisles, each Type
A or B exit must be located so that
there is passenger flow along the main
aisle to that exit from both the forward
and aft directions. If two or more main
aisles are provided, there must be un-
obstructed cross-aisles at least 20
inches wide between main aisles. There
must be—
(1) A cross-aisle which leads directly
to each passageway between the near-
est main aisle and a Type A or B exit;
and
(2) A cross-aisle which leads to the
immediate vicinity of each passageway
between the nearest main aisle and a
Type 1, Type II, or Type III exit; except
that when two Type III exits are lo-
cated within three passenger rows of
each other, a single cross-aisle may be
used if it leads to the vicinity between
the passageways from the nearest main
aisle to each exit.
(b) Adequate space to allow crew-
member(s) to assist in the evacuation
of passengers must be provided as fol-
lows:
(1) The assist space must not reduce
the unobstructed width of the passage-
way below that required for the exit.
(2) For each Type A or Type B exit,
assist space must be provided at each
side of the exit regardless of whether a
means is required by § 25.810(a) to assist
passengers in descending to the ground
from that exit.
(3) Assist space must be provided at
one side of any other type exit required
by § 25.810(a) to have a means to assist
passengers in descending to the ground
from that exit.
(c) The following must be provided
for each Type III or Type IV exit—(1)
There must be access from the nearest
aisle to each exit. In addition, for each
408
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
Type III exit in an airplane that has a
passenger seating configuration of 60 or
more—
(i) Except as provided in paragraph
(c)(1)(ii), the access must be provided
by an unobstructed passageway that is
at least 10 inches in width for interior
arrangements in which the adjacent
seat rows on the exit side of the aisle
contain no more than two seats, or 20
inches in width for interior arrange-
ments in which those rows contain
three seats. The width of the passage-
way must be measured with adjacent
seats adjusted to their most adverse
position. The centerline of the required
passageway width must not be dis-
placed more than 5 inches horizontally
from that of the exit.
(ii) In lieu of one 10- or 20-inch pas-
sageway, there may be two passage-
ways, between seat rows only, that
must be at least 6 inches in width and
lead to an unobstructed space adjacent
to each exit. (Adjacent exits must not
share a common passageway.) The
width of the passageways must be
measured with adjacent seats adjusted
to their most adverse position. The un-
obstructed space adjacent to the exit
must extend vertically from the floor
to the ceiling (or bottom of sidewall
stowage bins), inboard from the exit for
a distance not less than the width of
the narrowest passenger seat installed
on the airplane, and from the forward
edge of the forward passageway to the
aft edge of the aft passageway. The exit
opening must be totally within the fore
and aft bounds of the unobstructed
space.
(2) In addition to the access—
(i) For airplanes that have a pas-
senger seating configuration of 20 or
more, the projected opening of the exit
provided must not be obstructed and
there must be no interference in open-
ing the exit by seats, berths, or other
protrusions (including any seatback in
the most adverse position) for a dis-
tance from that exit not less than the
width of the narrowest passenger seat
installed on the airplane.
(ii) For airplanes that have a pas-
senger seating configuration of 19 or
fewer, there may be minor obstructions
in this region, if there are compensat-
ing factors to maintain the effective-
ness of the exit.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(3) For each Type III exit, regardless
of the passenger capacity of the air-
plane in which it is installed, there
must be placards that—
(i) Are readable by all persons seated
adjacent to and facing a passageway to
the exit;
(ii) Accurately state or illustrate the
proper method of opening the exit, in-
cluding the use of handholds; and
(iii) If the exit is a removable hatch,
state the weight of the hatch and indi-
cate an appropriate location to place
the hatch after removal.
(d) If it is necessary to pass through
a passageway between passenger com-
partments to reach any required emer-
gency exit from any seat in the pas-
senger cabin, the passageway must be
unobstructed. However, curtains may
be used if they allow free entry
through the passageway.
(e) No door may be installed in any
partition between passenger compart-
ments.
(f) If it is necessary to pass through a
doorway separating the passenger
cabin from other areas to reach any re-
quired emergency exit from any pas-
senger seat, the door must have a
means to latch it in open position. The
latching means must be able to with-
stand the loads imposed upon it when
the door is subjected to the ultimate
inertia forces, relative to the surround-
ing structure, listed in § 25.561(b).
[Amdt. 25–1, 30 FR 3204, Mar. 9, 1965, as
amended by Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13265, Sept.
20, 1967; Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3971, Feb. 24, 1972;
Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50597, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt.
25–72, 55 FR 29783, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25–76,
57 FR 19244, May 4, 1992; Amdt. 25–76, 57 FR
29120, June 30, 1992; Amdt. 25–88, 61 FR 57958,
Nov. 8, 1996]
§ 25.815 Width of aisle.
The passenger aisle width at any
point between seats must equal or ex-
ceed the values in the following table:
Passenger seating capacity
10 or less .......................................
11 through 19 .................................
20 or more .....................................
1 A narrower width not less than 9 inches may be approved
when substantiated by tests found necessary by the
Administrator.
§ 25.819
[Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13265, Sept. 20, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.817 Maximum number of seats
abreast.
On airplanes having only one pas-
senger aisle, no more than three seats
abreast may be placed on each side of
the aisle in any one row.
[Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13265, Sept. 20, 1967]
§ 25.819 Lower deck service compart-
ments (including galleys).
For airplanes with a service compart-
ment located below the main deck,
which may be occupied during taxi or
flight but not during takeoff or land-
ing, the following apply:
(a) There must be at least two emer-
gency evacuation routes, one at each
end of each lower deck service com-
partment or two having sufficient sepa-
ration within each compartment,
which could be used by each occupant
of the lower deck service compartment
to rapidly evacuate to the main deck
under normal and emergency lighting
conditions. The routes must provide for
the evacuation of incapacitated per-
sons, with assistance. The use of the
evacuation routes may not be depend-
ent on any powered device. The routes
must be designed to minimize the pos-
sibility of blockage which might result
from fire, mechanical or structural
failure, or persons standing on top of or
against the escape routes. In the event
the airplane’s main power system or
compartment main lighting system
should fail, emergency illumination for
each lower deck service compartment
must be automatically provided.
(b) There must be a means for two-
way voice communication between the
flight deck and each lower deck service
compartment.
Minimum passenger
(c) There must be an aural emer-
aisle width (inches) gency alarm system, audible during
Less than 25 in. and
normal and emergency conditions, to
25 in. from more from enable crewmembers on the flight deck
floor floor
and at each required floor level emer-
1 12 15 gency exit to alert occupants of each
12 20 lower deck service compartment of an
15 20
emergency situation.
(d) There must be a means, readily
detectable by occupants of each lower
409
§ 25.831
deck service compartment, that indi-
cates when seat belts should be fas-
tened.
(e) If a public address system is in-
stalled in the airplane, speakers must
be provided in each lower deck service
compartment.
(f) For each occupant permitted in a
lower deck service compartment, there
must be a forward or aft facing seat
which meets the requirements of
§ 25.785(c) and must be able to with-
stand maximum flight loads when oc-
cupied.
(g) For each powered lift system in-
stalled between a lower deck service
compartment and the main deck for
the carriage of persons or equipment,
or both, the system must meet the fol-
lowing requirements:
(1) Each lift control switch outside
the lift, except emergency stop but-
tons, must be designed to prevent the
activation of the life if the lift door, or
the hatch required by paragraph (g)(3)
of this section, or both are open.
(2) An emergency stop button, that
when activated will immediately stop
the lift, must be installed within the
lift and at each entrance to the lift.
(3) There must be a hatch capable of
being used for evacuating persons from
the lift that is openable from inside
and outside the lift without tools, with
the lift in any position.
[Amdt. 25–53, 45 FR 41593, June 19, 1980; 45 FR
43154, June 26, 1980]
VENTILATION AND HEATING
§ 25.831 Ventilation.
(a) Under normal operating condi-
tions and in the event of any probable
failure conditions of any system which
would adversely affect the ventilating
air, the ventilation system must be de-
signed to provide a sufficient amount
of uncontaminated air to enable the
crewmembers to perform their duties
without undue discomfort or fatigue
and to provide reasonable passenger
comfort. For normal operating condi-
tions, the ventilation system must be
designed to provide each occupant with
an airflow containing at least 0.55
pounds of fresh air per minute.
(b) Crew and passenger compartment
air must be free from harmful or haz-
ardous concentrations of gases or va-
410
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
pors. In meeting this requirement, the
following apply:
(1) Carbon monoxide concentrations
in excess of 1 part in 20,000 parts of air
are considered hazardous. For test pur-
poses, any acceptable carbon monoxide
detection method may be used.
(2) Carbon dioxide concentration dur-
ing flight must be shown not to exceed
0.5 percent by volume (sea level equiva-
lent) in compartments normally occu-
pied by passengers or crewmembers.
(c) There must be provisions made to
ensure that the conditions prescribed
in paragraph (b) of this section are met
after reasonably probable failures or
malfunctioning of the ventilating,
heating, pressurization, or other sys-
tems and equipment.
(d) If accumulation of hazardous
quantities of smoke in the cockpit area
is reasonably probable, smoke evacu-
ation must be readily accomplished,
starting with full pressurization and
without depressurizing beyond safe
limits.
(e) Except as provided in paragraph
(f) of this section, means must be pro-
vided to enable the occupants of the
following compartments and areas to
control the temperature and quantity
of ventilating air supplied to their
compartment or area independently of
the temperature and quantity of air
supplied to other compartments and
areas:
(1) The flight crew compartment.
(2) Crewmember compartments and
areas other than the flight crew com-
partment unless the crewmember com-
partment or area is ventilated by air
interchange with other compartments
or areas under all operating conditions.
(f) Means to enable the flight crew to
control the temperature and quantity
of ventilating air supplied to the flight
crew compartment independently of
the temperature and quantity of ven-
tilating air supplied to other compart-
ments are not required if all of the fol-
lowing conditions are met:
(1) The total volume of the flight
crew and passenger compartments is
800 cubic feet or less.
(2) The air inlets and passages for air
to flow between flight crew and pas-
senger compartments are arranged to
provide compartment temperatures
within 5 degrees F. of each other and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
adequate ventilation to occupants in
both compartments.
(3) The temperature and ventilation
controls are accessible to the flight
crew.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18,
1977; Amdt. 25–87, 61 FR 28695, June 5, 1996;
Amdt. 25–89, 61 FR 63956, Dec. 2, 1996]
§ 25.832 Cabin ozone concentration.
(a) The airplane cabin ozone con-
centration during flight must be shown
not to exceed—
(1) 0.25 parts per million by volume,
sea level equivalent, at any time above
flight level 320; and
(2) 0.1 parts per million by volume,
sea level equivalent, time-weighted av-
erage during any 3-hour interval above
flight level 270.
(b) For the purpose of this section,
‘‘sea level equivalent’’ refers to condi-
tions of 25° C and 760 millimeters of
mercury pressure.
(c) Compliance with this section
must be shown by analysis or tests
based on airplane operational proce-
dures and performance limitations,
that demonstrate that either—
(1) The airplane cannot be operated
at an altitude which would result in
cabin ozone concentrations exceeding
the limits prescribed by paragraph (a)
of this section; or
411
§ 25.841
(g) The exposure time at any given
temperature must not exceed the val-
ues shown in the following graph after
any improbable failure condition.
(2) The airplane ventilation system,
including any ozone control equipment,
will maintain cabin ozone concentra-
tions at or below the limits prescribed
by paragraph (a) of this section.
[Amdt. 25–50, 45 FR 3883, Jan. 1, 1980, as
amended by Amdt. 25–56, 47 FR 58489, Dec. 30,
1982; Amdt. 25–94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]
§ 25.833 Combustion heating systems.
Combustion heaters must be ap-
proved.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29783, July 20, 1990]
PRESSURIZATION
§ 25.841 Pressurized cabins.
(a) Pressurized cabins and compart-
ments to be occupied must be equipped
to provide a cabin pressure altitude of
not more than 8,000 feet at the maxi-
mum operating altitude of the airplane
under normal operating conditions.
(1) If certification for operation
above 25,000 feet is requested, the air-
plane must be designed so that occu-
pants will not be exposed to cabin pres-
sure altitudes in excess of 15,000 feet
§ 25.843
after any probable failure condition in
the pressurization system.
(2) The airplane must be designed so
that occupants will not be exposed to a
cabin pressure altitude that exceeds
the following after decompression from
any failure condition not shown to be
extremely improbable:
(i) Twenty-five thousand (25,000) feet
for more than 2 minutes; or
(ii) Forty thousand (40,000) feet for
any duration.
(3) Fuselage structure, engine and
system failures are to be considered in
evaluating the cabin decompression.
(b) Pressurized cabins must have at
least the following valves, controls,
and indicators for controlling cabin
pressure:
(1) Two pressure relief valves to auto-
matically limit the positive pressure
differential to a predetermined value
at the maximum rate of flow delivered
by the pressure source. The combined
capacity of the relief valves must be
large enough so that the failure of any
one valve would not cause an appre-
ciable rise in the pressure differential.
The pressure differential is positive
when the internal pressure is greater
than the external.
(2) Two reverse pressure differential
relief valves (or their equivalents) to
automatically prevent a negative pres-
sure differential that would damage
the structure. One valve is enough,
however, if it is of a design that rea-
sonably precludes its malfunctioning.
(3) A means by which the pressure
differential can be rapidly equalized.
(4) An automatic or manual regulator
for controlling the intake or exhaust
airflow, or both, for maintaining the
required internal pressures and airflow
rates.
(5) Instruments at the pilot or flight
engineer station to show the pressure
differential, the cabin pressure alti-
tude, and the rate of change of the
cabin pressure altitude.
(6) Warning indication at the pilot or
flight engineer station to indicate
when the safe or preset pressure dif-
ferential and cabin pressure altitude
limits are exceeded. Appropriate warn-
ing markings on the cabin pressure dif-
ferential indicator meet the warning
requirement for pressure differential
limits and an aural or visual signal (in
412
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
addition to cabin altitude indicating
means) meets the warning requirement
for cabin pressure altitude limits if it
warns the flight crew when the cabin
pressure altitude exceeds 10,000 feet.
(7) A warning placard at the pilot or
flight engineer station if the structure
is not designed for pressure differen-
tials up to the maximum relief valve
setting in combination with landing
loads.
(8) The pressure sensors necessary to
meet the requirements of paragraphs
(b)(5) and (b)(6) of this section and
§ 25.1447(c), must be located and the
sensing system designed so that, in the
event of loss of cabin pressure in any
passenger or crew compartment (in-
cluding upper and lower lobe galleys),
the warning and automatic presen-
tation devices, required by those provi-
sions, will be actuated without any
delay that would significantly increase
the hazards resulting from decompres-
sion.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–87, 61 FR 28696, June 5, 1996]
§ 25.843 Tests for pressurized cabins.
(a) Strength test. The complete pres-
surized cabin, including doors, win-
dows, and valves, must be tested as a
pressure vessel for the pressure dif-
ferential specified in § 25.365(d).
(b) Functional tests. The following
functional tests must be performed:
(1) Tests of the functioning and ca-
pacity of the positive and negative
pressure differential valves, and of the
emergency release valve, to stimulate
the effects of closed regulator valves.
(2) Tests of the pressurization system
to show proper functioning under each
possible condition of pressure, tem-
perature, and moisture, up to the maxi-
mum altitude for which certification is
requested.
(3) Flight tests, to show the perform-
ance of the pressure supply, pressure
and flow regulators, indicators, and
warning signals, in steady and stepped
climbs and descents at rates cor-
responding to the maximum attainable
within the operating limitations of the
airplane, up to the maximum altitude
for which certification is requested.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT § 25.853

(4) Tests of each door and emergency quired by this section must be appro-
exit, to show that they operate prop- priate for the kinds of fires likely to
erly after being subjected to the flight occur where used.
tests prescribed in paragraph (b)(3) of (8) Each extinguisher intended for
this section. use in a personnel compartment must
be designed to minimize the hazard of
FIRE PROTECTION toxic gas concentration.
(b) Built-in fire extinguishers. If a
§ 25.851 Fire extinguishers. built-in fire extinguisher is provided—
(a) Hand fire extinguishers. (1) The fol- (1) Each built-in fire extinguishing
lowing minimum number of hand fire system must be installed so that—
extinguishers must be conveniently lo- (i) No extinguishing agent likely to
cated and evenly distributed in pas- enter personnel compartments will be
senger compartments: hazardous to the occupants; and
(ii) No discharge of the extinguisher
No. of extin- can cause structural damage.
Passenger capacity guishers
(2) The capacity of each required
7 through 30 ............................................ 1 built-in fire extinguishing system must
31 through 60 ............................................ 2
61 through 200 .......................................... 3
be adequate for any fire likely to occur
201 through 300 .......................................... 4 in the compartment where used, con-
301 through 400 .......................................... 5 sidering the volume of the compart-
401 through 500 .......................................... 6 ment and the ventilation rate.
501 through 600 .......................................... 7
601 through 700 .......................................... 8 [Amdt. 25–74, 56 FR 15456, Apr. 16, 1991]

(2) At least one hand fire extin- § 25.853 Compartment interiors.

guisher must be conveniently located For each compartment occupied by
in the pilot compartment. the crew or passengers, the following
(3) At least one readily accessible apply:
hand fire extinguisher must be avail- (a) Materials (including finishes or
able for use in each Class A or Class B decorative surfaces applied to the ma-
cargo or baggage compartment and in terials) must meet the applicable test
each Class E cargo or baggage compart- criteria prescribed in part I of appendix
ment that is accessible to crew- F of this part, or other approved equiv-
members in flight. alent methods, regardless of the pas-
(4) At least one hand fire extin- senger capacity of the airplane.
guisher must be located in, or readily (b) [Reserved]
accessible for use in, each galley lo- (c) In addition to meeting the re-
cated above or below the passenger quirements of paragraph (a) of this sec-
compartment. tion, seat cushions, except those on
(5) Each hand fire extinguisher must flight crewmember seats, must meet
be approved. the test requirements of part II of ap-
(6) At least one of the required fire pendix F of this part, or other equiva-
extinguishers located in the passenger lent methods, regardless of the pas-
compartment of an airplane with a pas- senger capacity of the airplane.
senger capacity of at least 31 and not (d) Except as provided in paragraph
more than 60, and at least two of the (e) of this section, the following inte-
fire extinguishers located in the pas- rior components of airplanes with pas-
senger compartment of an airplane senger capacities of 20 or more must
with a passenger capacity of 61 or more also meet the test requirements of
must contain Halon 1211 parts IV and V of appendix F of this
(bromochlorodifluoromethane CBrC1 part, or other approved equivalent
F2), or equivalent, as the extinguishing method, in addition to the flammabil-
agent. The type of extinguishing agent ity requirements prescribed in para-
used in any other extinguisher required graph (a) of this section:
by this section must be appropriate for (1) Interior ceiling and wall panels,
the kinds of fires likely to occur where other than lighting lenses and win-
used. dows;
(7) The quantity of extinguishing (2) Partitions, other than transparent
agent used in each extinguisher re- panels needed to enhance cabin safety;

413
§ 25.854
(3) Galley structure, including ex-
posed surfaces of stowed carts and
standard containers and the cavity
walls that are exposed when a full com-
plement of such carts or containers is
not carried; and
(4) Large cabinets and cabin stowage
compartments, other than underseat
stowage compartments for stowing
small items such as magazines and
maps.
(e) The interiors of compartments,
such as pilot compartments, galleys,
lavatories, crew rest quarters, cabinets
and stowage compartments, need not
meet the standards of paragraph (d) of
this section, provided the interiors of
such compartments are isolated from
the main passenger cabin by doors or
equivalent means that would normally
be closed during an emergency landing
condition.
(f) Smoking is not to be allowed in
lavatories. If smoking is to be allowed
in any other compartment occupied by
the crew or passengers, an adequate
number of self-contained, removable
ashtrays must be provided for all seat-
ed occupants.
(g) Regardless of whether smoking is
allowed in any other part of the air-
plane, lavatories must have self-con-
tained, removable ashtrays located
conspicuously on or near the entry side
of each lavatory door, except that one
ashtray may serve more than one lava-
tory door if the ashtray can be seen
readily from the cabin side of each lav-
atory served.
(h) Each receptacle used for the dis-
posal of flammable waste material
must be fully enclosed, constructed of
at least fire resistant materials, and
must contain fires likely to occur in it
under normal use. The capability of the
receptacle to contain those fires under
all probable conditions of wear, mis-
alignment, and ventilation expected in
service must be demonstrated by test.
[Amdt. 25–83, 60 FR 6623, Feb. 2, 1995]
§ 25.854 Lavatory fire protection.
For airplanes with a passenger capac-
ity of 20 or more:
(a) Each lavatory must be equipped
with a smoke detector system or equiv-
alent that provides a warning light in
the cockpit, or provides a warning
light or audible warning in the pas-
414
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
senger cabin that would be readily de-
tected by a flight attendant; and
(b) Each lavatory must be equipped
with a built-in fire extinguisher for
each disposal receptacle for towels,
paper, or waste, located within the lav-
atory. The extinguisher must be de-
signed to discharge automatically into
each disposal receptacle upon occur-
rence of a fire in that receptacle.
[Amdt. 25–74, 56 FR 15456, Apr. 16, 1991]
§ 25.855 Cargo or baggage compart-
ments.
For each cargo and baggage compart-
ment not occupied by crew or pas-
sengers, the following apply:
(a) The compartment must meet one
of the class requirements of § 25.857.
(b) Class B through Class E cargo or
baggage compartments, as defined in
§ 25.857, must have a liner, and the liner
must be separate from (but may be at-
tached to) the airplane structure.
(c) Ceiling and sidewall liner panels
of Class C compartments must meet
the test requirements of part III of ap-
pendix F of this part or other approved
equivalent methods.
(d) All other materials used in the
construction of the cargo or baggage
compartment must meet the applicable
test criteria prescribed in part I of ap-
pendix F of this part or other approved
equivalent methods.
(e) No compartment may contain any
controls, wiring, lines, equipment, or
accessories whose damage or failure
would affect safe operation, unless
those items are protected so that—
(1) They cannot be damaged by the
movement of cargo in the compart-
ment, and
(2) Their breakage or failure will not
create a fire hazard.
(f) There must be means to prevent
cargo or baggage from interfering with
the functioning of the fire protective
features of the compartment.
(g) Sources of heat within the com-
partment must be shielded and insu-
lated to prevent igniting the cargo or
baggage.
(h) Flight tests must be conducted to
show compliance with the provisions of
§ 25.857 concerning—
(1) Compartment accessibility,
(2) The entries of hazardous quan-
tities of smoke or extinguishing agent
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
into compartments occupied by the
crew or passengers, and
(3) The dissipation of the extinguish-
ing agent in Class C compartments.
(i) During the above tests, it must be
shown that no inadvertent operation of
smoke or fire detectors in any com-
partment would occur as a result of
fire contained in any other compart-
ment, either during or after extin-
guishment, unless the extinguishing
system floods each such compartment
simultaneously.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29784, July 20, 1990, as
amended by Amdt. 25–93, 63 FR 8048, Feb. 17,
1998]
§ 25.857 Cargo compartment classifica-
tion.
(a) Class A; A Class A cargo or bag-
gage compartment is one in which—
(1) The presence of a fire would be
easily discovered by a crewmember
while at his station; and
(2) Each part of the compartment is
easily accessible in flight.
(b) Class B. A Class B cargo or bag-
gage compartment is one in which—
(1) There is sufficient access in flight
to enable a crewmember to effectively
reach any part of the compartment
with the contents of a hand fire extin-
guisher;
(2) When the access provisions are
being used, no hazardous quantity of
smoke, flames, or extinguishing agent,
will enter any compartment occupied
by the crew or passengers;
(3) There is a separate approved
smoke detector or fire detector system
to give warning at the pilot or flight
engineer station.
(c) Class C. A Class C cargo or bag-
gage compartment is one not meeting
the requirements for either a Class A
or B compartment but in which—
(1) There is a separate approved
smoke detector or fire detector system
to give warning at the pilot or flight
engineer station;
(2) There is an approved built-in fire
extinguishing or suppression system
controllable from the cockpit.
(3) There are means to exclude haz-
ardous quantities of smoke, flames, or
extinguishing agent, from any com-
partment occupied by the crew or pas-
sengers;
415
§ 25.858
(4) There are means to control ven-
tilation and drafts within the compart-
ment so that the extinguishing agent
used can control any fire that may
start within the compartment.
(d) [Reserved]
(e) Class E. A Class E cargo compart-
ment is one on airplanes used only for
the carriage of cargo and in which—
(1) [Reserved]
(2) There is a separate approved
smoke or fire detector system to give
warning at the pilot or flight engineer
station;
(3) There are means to shut off the
ventilating airflow to, or within, the
compartment, and the controls for
these means are accessible to the flight
crew in the crew compartment;
(4) There are means to exclude haz-
ardous quantities of smoke, flames, or
noxious gases, from the flight crew
compartment; and
(5) The required crew emergency
exits are accessible under any cargo
loading condition.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3972, Feb. 24,
1972; Amdt. 25–60, 51 FR 18243, May 16, 1986;
Amdt. 25–93, 63 FR 8048, Feb. 17, 1998]
§ 25.858 Cargo or baggage compart-
ment smoke or fire detection sys-
tems.
If certification with cargo or baggage
compartment smoke or fire detection
provisions is requested, the following
must be met for each cargo or baggage
compartment with those provisions:
(a) The detection system must pro-
vide a visual indication to the flight
crew within one minute after the start
of a fire.
(b) The system must be capable of de-
tecting a fire at a temperature signifi-
cantly below that at which the struc-
tural integrity of the airplane is sub-
stantially decreased.
(c) There must be means to allow the
crew to check in flight, the functioning
of each fire detector circuit.
(d) The effectiveness of the detection
system must be shown for all approved
operating configurations and condi-
tions.
[Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept. 11, 1980, as
amended by Amdt. 25–93, 63 FR 8048, Feb. 17,
1998]
§ 25.859
§ 25.859 Combustion heater fire pro-
tection.
(a) Combustion heater fire zones. The
following combustion heater fire zones
must be protected from fire in accord-
ance with the applicable provisions of
§§ 25.1181 through 25.1191 and §§ 25.1195
through 25.1203;
(1) The region surrounding the heat-
er, if this region contains any flam-
mable fluid system components (ex-
cluding the heater fuel system), that
could—
(i) Be damaged by heater malfunc-
tioning; or
(ii) Allow flammable fluids or vapors
to reach the heater in case of leakage.
(2) The region surrounding the heat-
er, if the heater fuel system has fit-
tings that, if they leaked, would allow
fuel or vapors to enter this region.
(3) The part of the ventilating air
passage that surrounds the combustion
chamber. However, no fire extinguish-
ment is required in cabin ventilating
air passages.
(b) Ventilating air ducts. Each ven-
tilating air duct passing through any
fire zone must be fireproof. In addi-
tion—
(1) Unless isolation is provided by
fireproof valves or by equally effective
means, the ventilating air duct down-
stream of each heater must be fireproof
for a distance great enough to ensure
that any fire originating in the heater
can be contained in the duct; and
(2) Each part of any ventilating duct
passing through any region having a
flammable fluid system must be con-
structed or isolated from that system
so that the malfunctioning of any com-
ponent of that system cannot intro-
duce flammable fluids or vapors into
the ventilating airstream.
(c) Combustion air ducts. Each com-
bustion air duct must be fireproof for a
distance great enough to prevent dam-
age from backfiring or reverse flame
propagation. In addition—
(1) No combustion air duct may have
a common opening with the ventilating
airstream unless flames from backfires
or reverse burning cannot enter the
ventilating airstream under any oper-
ating condition, including reverse flow
or malfunctioning of the heater or its
associated components; and
416
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(2) No combustion air duct may re-
strict the prompt relief of any backfire
that, if so restricted, could cause heat-
er failure.
(d) Heater controls; general. Provision
must be made to prevent the hazardous
accumulation of water or ice on or in
any heater control component, control
system tubing, or safety control.
(e) Heater safety controls. For each
combustion heater there must be the
following safety control means:
(1) Means independent of the compo-
nents provided for the normal continu-
ous control of air temperature, airflow,
and fuel flow must be provided, for
each heater, to automatically shut off
the ignition and fuel supply to that
heater at a point remote from that
heater when any of the following oc-
curs:
(i) The heat exchanger temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(ii) The ventilating air temperature
exceeds safe limits.
(iii) The combustion airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(iv) The ventilating airflow becomes
inadequate for safe operation.
(2) The means of complying with
paragraph (e)(1) of this section for any
individual heater must—
(i) Be independent of components
serving any other heater whose heat
output is essential for safe operation;
and
(ii) Keep the heater off until re-
started by the crew.
(3) There must be means to warn the
crew when any heater whose heat out-
put is essential for safe operation has
been shut off by the automatic means
prescribed in paragraph (e)(1) of this
section.
(f) Air intakes. Each combustion and
ventilating air intake must be located
so that no flammable fluids or vapors
can enter the heater system under any
operating condition—
(1) During normal operation; or
(2) As a result of the malfunctioning
of any other component.
(g) Heater exhaust. Heater exhaust
systems must meet the provisions of
§§ 25.1121 and 25.1123. In addition, there
must be provisions in the design of the
heater exhaust system to safely expel
the products of combustion to prevent
the occurrence of—
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(1) Fuel leakage from the exhaust to
surrounding compartments;
(2) Exhaust gas impingement on sur-
rounding equipment or structure;
(3) Ignition of flammable fluids by
the exhaust, if the exhaust is in a com-
partment containing flammable fluid
lines; and
(4) Restriction by the exhaust of the
prompt relief of backfires that, if so re-
stricted, could cause heater failure.
(h) Heater fuel systems. Each heater
fuel system must meet each power-
plant fuel system requirement affect-
ing safe heater operation. Each heater
fuel system component within the ven-
tilating airstream must be protected
by shrouds so that no leakage from
those components can enter the ven-
tilating airstream.
(i) Drains. There must be means to
safely drain fuel that might accumu-
late within the combustion chamber or
the heat exchanger. In addition—
(1) Each part of any drain that oper-
ates at high temperatures must be pro-
tected in the same manner as heater
exhausts; and
(2) Each drain must be protected
from hazardous ice accumulation under
any operating condition.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6912, May 5,
1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.863 Flammable fluid fire protec-
tion.
(a) In each area where flammable
fluids or vapors might escape by leak-
age of a fluid system, there must be
means to minimize the probability of
ignition of the fluids and vapors, and
the resultant hazards if ignition does
occur.
(b) Compliance with paragraph (a) of
this section must be shown by analysis
or tests, and the following factors must
be considered:
(1) Possible sources and paths of fluid
leakage, and means of detecting leak-
age.
(2) Flammability characteristics of
fluids, including effects of any combus-
tible or absorbing materials.
(3) Possible ignition sources, includ-
ing electrical faults, overheating of
equipment, and malfunctioning of pro-
tective devices.
417
§ 25.869
(4) Means available for controlling or
extinguishing a fire, such as stopping
flow of fluids, shutting down equip-
ment, fireproof containment, or use of
extinguishing agents.
(5) Ability of airplane components
that are critical to safety of flight to
withstand fire and heat.
(c) If action by the flight crew is re-
quired to prevent or counteract a fluid
fire (e.g., equipment shutdown or actu-
ation of a fire extinguisher) quick act-
ing means must be provided to alert
the crew.
(d) Each area where flammable fluids
or vapors might escape by leakage of a
fluid system must be identified and de-
fined.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50597, Oct. 30,
1978]
§ 25.865 Fire protection of flight con-
trols, engine mounts, and other
flight structure.
Essential flight controls, engine
mounts, and other flight structures lo-
cated in designated fire zones or in ad-
jacent areas which would be subjected
to the effects of fire in the fire zone
must be constructed of fireproof mate-
rial or shielded so that they are capa-
ble of withstanding the effects of fire.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.867 Fire protection: other compo-
nents.
(a) Surfaces to the rear of the na-
celles, within one nacelle diameter of
the nacelle centerline, must be at least
fire-resistant.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does
not apply to tail surfaces to the rear of
the nacelles that could not be readily
affected by heat, flames, or sparks
coming from a designated fire zone or
engine compartment of any nacelle.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.869 Fire protection: systems.
(a) Electrical system components:
(1) Components of the electrical sys-
tem must meet the applicable fire and
smoke protection requirements of
§§ 25.831(c) and 25.863.
(2) Electrical cables, terminals, and
equipment in designated fire zones,
§ 25.871
that are used during emergency proce-
dures, must be at least fire resistant.
(3) Main power cables (including gen-
erator cables) in the fuselage must be
designed to allow a reasonable degree
of deformation and stretching without
failure and must be—
(i) Isolated from flammable fluid
lines; or
(ii) Shrouded by means of electrically
insulated, flexible conduit, or equiva-
lent, which is in addition to the normal
cable insulation.
(4) Insulation on electrical wire and
electrical cable installed in any area of
the fuselage must be self-extinguishing
when tested in accordance with the ap-
plicable portions of part I, appendix F
of this part.
(b) Each vacuum air system line and
fitting on the discharge side of the
pump that might contain flammable
vapors or fluids must meet the require-
ments of § 25.1183 if the line or fitting is
in a designated fire zone. Other vacuum
air systems components in designated
fire zones must be at least fire resist-
ant.
(c) Oxygen equipment and lines
must—
(1) Not be located in any designated
fire zone,
(2) Be protected from heat that may
be generated in, or escape from, any
designated fire zone, and
(3) Be installed so that escaping oxy-
gen cannot cause ignition of grease,
fluid, or vapor accumulations that are
present in normal operation or as a re-
sult of failure or malfunction of any
system.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29784, July 20, 1990]
MISCELLANEOUS
§ 25.871 Leveling means.
There must be means for determining
when the airplane is in a level position
on the ground.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.875 Reinforcement near
lers.
(a) Each part of the airplane near the
propeller tips must be strong and stiff
enough to withstand the effects of the
induced vibration and of ice thrown
from the propeller.
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(b) No window may be near the pro-
peller tips unless it can withstand the
most severe ice impact likely to occur.
Subpart E—Powerplant
GENERAL
§ 25.901 Installation.
(a) For the purpose of this part, the
airplane powerplant installation in-
cludes each component that—
(1) Is necessary for propulsion;
(2) Affects the control of the major
propulsive units; or
(3) Affects the safety of the major
propulsive units between normal in-
spections or overhauls.
(b) For each powerplant—
(1) The installation must comply
with—
(i) The installation instructions pro-
vided under § 33.5 of this chapter; and
(ii) The applicable provisions of this
subpart;
(2) The components of the installa-
tion must be constructed, arranged,
and installed so as to ensure their con-
tinued safe operation between normal
inspections or overhauls;
(3) The installation must be acces-
sible for necessary inspections and
maintenance; and
(4) The major components of the in-
stallation must be electrically bonded
to the other parts of the airplane.
(c) For each powerplant and auxiliary
power unit installation, it must be es-
tablished that no single failure or mal-
function or probable combination of
failures will jeopardize the safe oper-
ation of the airplane except that the
failure of structural elements need not
be considered if the probability of such
failure is extremely remote.
(d) Each auxiliary power unit instal-
lation must meet the applicable provi-
sions of this subpart.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977;
Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50597, Oct. 30, 1978]
propel-
§ 25.903 Engines.
(a) Engine type certificate. (1) Each en-
gine must have a type certificate and
must meet the applicable requirements
of part 34 of this chapter.
(2) Each turbine engine must either—
418
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(i) Comply with §§ 33.77 and 33.78 of
this chapter in effect on April 30, 1998
or as subsequently amended; or
(ii) Comply with § 33.77 of this chap-
ter in effect on October 31, 1974, or as
subsequently amended prior to April
30, 1998, and must have a foreign object
ingestion service history that has not
resulted in any unsafe condition; or
(iii) Be shown to have a foreign ob-
ject ingestion service history in simi-
lar installation locations which has not
resulted in any unsafe condition.
NOTE: § 33.77 of this chapter in effect on Oc-
tober 31, 1974, was published in 14 CFR parts
1 to 59, Revised as of January 1, 1975. See 39
FR 35467, October 1, 1974.
(b) Engine isolation. The powerplants
must be arranged and isolated from
each other to allow operation, in at
least one configuration, so that the
failure or malfunction of any engine, or
of any system that can affect the en-
gine, will not—
(1) Prevent the continued safe oper-
ation of the remaining engines; or
(2) Require immediate action by any
crewmember for continued safe oper-
ation.
(c) Control of engine rotation. There
must be means for stopping the rota-
tion of any engine individually in
flight, except that, for turbine engine
installations, the means for stopping
the rotation of any engine need be pro-
vided only where continued rotation
could jeopardize the safety of the air-
plane. Each component of the stopping
system on the engine side of the fire-
wall that might be exposed to fire must
be at least fire-resistant. If hydraulic
propeller feathering systems are used
for this purpose, the feathering lines
must be at least fire resistant under
the operating conditions that may be
expected to exist during feathering.
(d) Turbine engine installations. For
turbine engine installations—
(1) Design precautions must be taken
to minimize the hazards to the airplane
in the event of an engine rotor failure
or of a fire originating within the en-
gine which burns through the engine
case.
(2) The powerplant systems associ-
ated with engine control devices, sys-
tems, and instrumentation, must be de-
signed to give reasonable assurance
that those engine operating limitations
419
§ 25.905
that adversely affect turbine rotor
structural integrity will not be exceed-
ed in service.
(e) Restart capability. (1) Means to re-
start any engine in flight must be pro-
vided.
(2) An altitude and airspeed envelope
must be established for in-flight engine
restarting, and each engine must have
a restart capability within that enve-
lope.
(3) For turbine engine powered air-
planes, if the minimum windmilling
speed of the engines, following the
inflight shutdown of all engines, is in-
sufficient to provide the necessary
electrical power for engine ignition, a
power source independent of the en-
gine-driven electrical power generating
system must be provided to permit in-
flight engine ignition for restarting.
(f) Auxiliary Power Unit. Each auxil-
iary power unit must be approved or
meet the requirements of the category
for its intended use.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15042, Mar. 17, 1977;
Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt.
25–72, 55 FR 29784, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25–73,
55 FR 32861, Aug. 10, 1990; Amdt. 25–94, 63 FR
8848, Feb. 23, 1998; Amdt. 25–95, 63 FR 14798,
Mar. 26, 1998]
§ 25.904 Automatic takeoff thrust con-
trol system (ATTCS).
Each applicant seeking approval for
installation of an engine power control
system that automatically resets the
power or thrust on the operating en-
gine(s) when any engine fails during
the takeoff must comply with the re-
quirements of appendix I of this part.
[Amdt. 25–62, 52 FR 43156, Nov. 9, 1987]
§ 25.905 Propellers.
(a) Each propeller must have a type
certificate.
(b) Engine power and propeller shaft
rotational speed may not exceed the
limits for which the propeller is certifi-
cated.
(c) Each component of the propeller
blade pitch control system must meet
the requirements of § 35.42 of this chap-
ter.
(d) Design precautions must be taken
to minimize the hazards to the airplane
in the event a propeller blade fails or is
§ 25.907
released by a hub failure. The hazards
which must be considered include dam-
age to structure and vital systems due
to impact of a failed or released blade
and the unbalance created by such fail-
ure or release.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept.
11, 1980; Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29784, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.907 Propeller vibration.
(a) The magnitude of the propeller
blade vibration stresses under any nor-
mal condition of operation must be de-
termined by actual measurement or by
comparison with similar installations
for which these measurements have
been made.
(b) The determined vibration stresses
may not exceed values that have been
shown to be safe for continuous oper-
ation.
§ 25.925 Propeller clearance.
Unless smaller clearances are sub-
stantiated, propeller clearances with
the airplane at maximum weight, with
the most adverse center of gravity, and
with the propeller in the most adverse
pitch position, may not be less than
the following:
(a) Ground clearance. There must be a
clearance of at least seven inches (for
each airplane with nose wheel landing
gear) or nine inches (for each airplane
with tail wheel landing gear) between
each propeller and the ground with the
landing gear statically deflected and in
the level takeoff, or taxiing attitude,
whichever is most critical. In addition,
there must be positive clearance be-
tween the propeller and the ground
when in the level takeoff attitude with
the critical tire(s) completely deflated
and the corresponding landing gear
strut bottomed.
(b) Water clearance. There must be a
clearance of at least 18 inches between
each propeller and the water, unless
compliance with § 25.239(a) can be
shown with a lesser clearance.
(c) Structural clearance. There must
be—
(1) At least one inch radial clearance
between the blade tips and the airplane
structure, plus any additional radial
clearance necessary to prevent harmful
vibration;
420
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(2) At least one-half inch longitudinal
clearance between the propeller blades
or cuffs and stationary parts of the air-
plane; and
(3) Positive clearance between other
rotating parts of the propeller or spin-
ner and stationary parts of the air-
plane.
Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29784, July 20,
1990]
§ 25.929 Propeller deicing.
(a) For airplanes intended for use
where icing may be expected, there
must be a means to prevent or remove
hazardous ice accumulation on propel-
lers or on accessories where ice accu-
mulation would jeopardize engine per-
formance.
(b) If combustible fluid is used for
propeller deicing, §§ 25.1181 through
25.1185 and 25.1189 apply.
§ 25.933 Reversing systems.
(a) For turbojet reversing systems—
(1) Each system intended for ground
operation only must be designed so
that during any reversal in flight the
engine will produce no more than flight
idle thrust. In addition, it must be
shown by analysis or test, or both,
that—
(i) Each operable reverser can be re-
stored to the forward thrust position;
and
(ii) The airplane is capable of contin-
ued safe flight and landing under any
possible position of the thrust reverser.
(2) Each system intended for inflight
use must be designed so that no unsafe
condition will result during normal op-
eration of the system, or from any fail-
ure (or reasonably likely combination
of failures) of the reversing system,
under any anticipated condition of op-
eration of the airplane including
ground operation. Failure of structural
elements need not be considered if the
probability of this kind of failure is ex-
tremely remote.
(3) Each system must have means to
prevent the engine from producing
more than idle thrust when the revers-
ing system malfunctions, except that it
may produce any greater forward
thrust that is shown to allow direc-
tional control to be maintained, with
aerodynamic means alone, under the
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
most critical reversing condition ex-
pected in operation.
(b) For propeller reversing systems—
(1) Each system intended for ground
operation only must be designed so
that no single failure (or reasonably
likely combination of failures) or mal-
function of the system will result in
unwanted reverse thrust under any ex-
pected operating condition. Failure of
structural elements need not be consid-
ered if this kind of failure is extremely
remote.
(2) Compliance with this section may
be shown by failure analysis or testing,
or both, for propeller systems that
allow propeller blades to move from
the flight low-pitch position to a posi-
tion that is substantially less than
that at the normal flight low-pitch po-
sition. The analysis may include or be
supported by the analysis made to
show compliance with the require-
ments of § 35.21 of this chapter for the
propeller and associated installation
components.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29784, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.934 Turbojet engine thrust
verser system tests.
Thrust reversers installed on turbo-
jet engines must meet the require-
ments of § 33.97 of this chapter.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.937 Turbopropeller-drag limiting
systems.
Turbopropeller power airplane pro-
peller-drag limiting systems must be
designed so that no single failure or
malfunction of any of the systems dur-
ing normal or emergency operation re-
sults in propeller drag in excess of that
for which the airplane was designed
under § 25.367. Failure of structural ele-
ments of the drag limiting systems
need not be considered if the prob-
ability of this kind of failure is ex-
tremely remote.
§ 25.939 Turbine engine operating
characteristics.
(a) Turbine engine operating charac-
teristics must be investigated in flight
to determine that no adverse charac-
teristics (such as stall, surge, or
flameout) are present, to a hazardous
degree, during normal and emergency
§ 25.943
operation within the range of operating
limitations of the airplane and of the
engine.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) The turbine engine air inlet sys-
tem may not, as a result of air flow dis-
tortion during normal operation, cause
vibration harmful to the engine.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6912, May 5, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17,
1977]
§ 25.941 Inlet, engine, and exhaust
compatibility.
For airplanes using variable inlet or
exhaust system geometry, or both—
(a) The system comprised of the
inlet, engine (including thrust aug-
mentation systems, if incorporated),
and exhaust must be shown to function
properly under all operating conditions
for which approval is sought, including
all engine rotating speeds and power
settings, and engine inlet and exhaust
configurations;
(b) The dynamic effects of the oper-
ation of these (including consideration
re- of probable malfunctions) upon the aer-
odynamic control of the airplane may
not result in any condition that would
require exceptional skill, alertness, or
strength on the part of the pilot to
avoid exceeding an operational or
structural limitation of the airplane;
and
(c) In showing compliance with para-
graph (b) of this section, the pilot
strength required may not exceed the
limits set forth in § 25.143(c), subject to
the conditions set forth in paragraphs
(d) and (e) of § 25.143.
[Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20, 1976]
§ 25.943 Negative acceleration.
No hazardous malfunction of an en-
gine, an auxiliary power unit approved
for use in flight, or any component or
system associated with the powerplant
or auxiliary power unit may occur
when the airplane is operated at the
negative accelerations within the
flight envelopes prescribed in § 25.333.
This must be shown for the greatest
duration expected for the acceleration.
[Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17, 1977]
421
§ 25.945
§ 25.945 Thrust or power augmentation
system.
(a) General. Each fluid injection sys-
tem must provide a flow of fluid at the
rate and pressure established for proper
engine functioning under each intended
operating condition. If the fluid can
freeze, fluid freezing may not damage
the airplane or adversely affect air-
plane performance.
(b) Fluid tanks. Each augmentation
system fluid tank must meet the fol-
lowing requirements:
(1) Each tank must be able to with-
stand without failure the vibration, in-
ertia, fluid, and structural loads that it
may be subject to in operation.
(2) The tanks as mounted in the air-
plane must be able to withstand with-
out failure or leakage an internal pres-
sure 1.5 times the maximum operating
pressure.
(3) If a vent is provided, the venting
must be effective under all normal
flight conditions.
(4) [Reserved]
(c) Augmentation system drains
must be designed and located in ac-
cordance with § 25.1455 if—
(1) The augmentation system fluid is
subject to freezing; and
(2) The fluid may be drained in flight
or during ground operation.
(d) The augmentation liquid tank ca-
pacity available for the use of each en-
gine must be large enough to allow op-
eration of the airplane under the ap-
proved procedures for the use of liquid-
augmented power. The computation of
liquid consumption must be based on
the maximum approved rate appro-
priate for the desired engine output
and must include the effect of tempera-
ture on engine performance as well as
any other factors that might vary the
amount of liquid required.
(e) This section does not apply to fuel
injection systems.
[Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17, 1977, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20,
1990]
FUEL SYSTEM
§ 25.951 General.
(a) Each fuel system must be con-
structed and arranged to ensure a flow
of fuel at a rate and pressure estab-
lished for proper engine and auxiliary
422
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
power unit functioning under each
likely operating condition, including
any maneuver for which certification is
requested and during which the engine
or auxiliary power unit is permitted to
be in operation.
(b) Each fuel system must be ar-
ranged so that any air which is intro-
duced into the system will not result
in—
(1) Power interruption for more than
20 seconds for reciprocating engines; or
(2) Flameout for turbine engines.
(c) Each fuel system for a turbine en-
gine must be capable of sustained oper-
ation throughout its flow and pressure
range with fuel initially saturated with
water at 80° F and having 0.75cc of free
water per gallon added and cooled to
the most critical condition for icing
likely to be encountered in operation.
(d) Each fuel system for a turbine en-
gine powered airplane must meet the
applicable fuel venting requirements of
part 34 of this chapter.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–36, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, 1974;
Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20, 1976; Amdt.
25–73, 55 FR 32861, Aug. 10, 1990]
§ 25.952 Fuel system analysis and test.
(a) Proper fuel system functioning
under all probable operating conditions
must be shown by analysis and those
tests found necessary by the Adminis-
trator. Tests, if required, must be made
using the airplane fuel system or a test
article that reproduces the operating
characteristics of the portion of the
fuel system to be tested.
(b) The likely failure of any heat ex-
changer using fuel as one of its fluids
may not result in a hazardous condi-
tion.
[Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17, 1977]
§ 25.953 Fuel system independence.
Each fuel system must meet the re-
quirements of § 25.903(b) by—
(a) Allowing the supply of fuel to
each engine through a system inde-
pendent of each part of the system sup-
plying fuel to any other engine; or
(b) Any other acceptable method.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
§ 25.954 Fuel system lightning protec-
tion.
The fuel system must be designed
and arranged to prevent the ignition of
fuel vapor within the system by—
(a) Direct lightning strikes to areas
having a high probability of stroke at-
tachment;
(b) Swept lightning strokes to areas
where swept strokes are highly prob-
able; and
(c) Corona and streamering at fuel
vent outlets.
[Amdt. 25–14, 32 FR 11629, Aug. 11, 1967]
§ 25.955 Fuel flow.
(a) Each fuel system must provide at
least 100 percent of the fuel flow re-
quired under each intended operating
condition and maneuver. Compliance
must be shown as follows:
(1) Fuel must be delivered to each en-
gine at a pressure within the limits
specified in the engine type certificate.
(2) The quantity of fuel in the tank
may not exceed the amount established
as the unusable fuel supply for that
tank under the requirements of § 25.959
plus that necessary to show compliance
with this section.
(3) Each main pump must be used
that is necessary for each operating
condition and attitude for which com-
pliance with this section is shown, and
the appropriate emergency pump must
be substituted for each main pump so
used.
(4) If there is a fuel flowmeter, it
must be blocked and the fuel must flow
through the meter or its bypass.
(b) If an engine can be supplied with
fuel from more than one tank, the fuel
system must—
(1) For each reciprocating engine,
supply the full fuel pressure to that en-
gine in not more than 20 seconds after
switching to any other fuel tank con-
taining usable fuel when engine mal-
functioning becomes apparent due to
the depletion of the fuel supply in any
tank from which the engine can be fed;
and
(2) For each turbine engine, in addi-
tion to having appropriate manual
switching capability, be designed to
prevent interruption of fuel flow to
that engine, without attention by the
flight crew, when any tank supplying
423
§ 25.961
fuel to that engine is depleted of usable
fuel during normal operation, and any
other tank, that normally supplies fuel
to that engine alone, contains usable
fuel.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6912, May 5,
1967]
§ 25.957 Flow between interconnected
tanks.
If fuel can be pumped from one tank
to another in flight, the fuel tank
vents and the fuel transfer system
must be designed so that no structural
damage to the tanks can occur because
of overfilling.
§ 25.959 Unusable fuel supply.
The unusable fuel quantity for each
fuel tank and its fuel system compo-
nents must be established at not less
than the quantity at which the first
evidence of engine malfunction occurs
under the most adverse fuel feed condi-
tion for all intended operations and
flight maneuvers involving fuel feeding
from that tank. Fuel system compo-
nent failures need not be considered.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17,
1977]
§ 25.961 Fuel system hot weather oper-
ation.
(a) The fuel system must perform
satisfactorily in hot weather operation.
This must be shown by showing that
the fuel system from the tank outlets
to each engine is pressurized, under all
intended operations, so as to prevent
vapor formation, or must be shown by
climbing from the altitude of the air-
port elected by the applicant to the
maximum altitude established as an
operating limitation under § 25.1527. If a
climb test is elected, there may be no
evidence of vapor lock or other mal-
functioning during the climb test con-
ducted under the following conditions:
(1) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, the engines must operate at
maximum continuous power, except
that takeoff power must be used for the
altitudes from 1,000 feet below the crit-
ical altitude through the critical alti-
tude. The time interval during which
takeoff power is used may not be less
than the takeoff time limitation.
§ 25.963
(2) For turbine engine powered air-
planes, the engines must operate at
takeoff power for the time interval se-
lected for showing the takeoff flight
path, and at maximum continuous
power for the rest of the climb.
(3) The weight of the airplane must
be the weight with full fuel tanks, min-
imum crew, and the ballast necessary
to maintain the center of gravity with-
in allowable limits.
(4) The climb airspeed may not ex-
ceed—
(i) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, the maximum airspeed es-
tablished for climbing from takeoff to
the maximum operating altitude with
the airplane in the following configura-
tion:
(A) Landing gear retracted.
(B) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position.
(C) Cowl flaps (or other means of con-
trolling the engine cooling supply) in
the position that provides adequate
cooling in the hot-day condition.
(D) Engine operating within the max-
imum continuous power limitations.
(E) Maximum takeoff weight; and
(ii) For turbine engine powered air-
planes, the maximum airspeed estab-
lished for climbing from takeoff to the
maximum operating altitude.
(5) The fuel temperature must be at
least 110° F.
(b) The test prescribed in paragraph
(a) of this section may be performed in
flight or on the ground under closely
simulated flight conditions. If a flight
test is performed in weather cold
enough to interfere with the proper
conduct of the test, the fuel tank sur-
faces, fuel lines, and other fuel system
parts subject to cold air must be insu-
lated to simulate, insofar as prac-
ticable, flight in hot weather.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6912, May 5, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23,
1984]
§ 25.963 Fuel tanks: general.
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to
withstand, without failure, the vibra-
tion, inertia, fluid, and structural loads
that it may be subjected to in oper-
ation.
(b) Flexible fuel tank liners must be
approved or must be shown to be suit-
able for the particular application.
424
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(c) Integral fuel tanks must have fa-
cilities for interior inspection and re-
pair.
(d) Fuel tanks within the fuselage
contour must be able to resist rupture
and to retain fuel, under the inertia
forces prescribed for the emergency
landing conditions in § 25.561. In addi-
tion, these tanks must be in a pro-
tected position so that exposure of the
tanks to scraping action with the
ground is unlikely.
(e) Fuel tank access covers must
comply with the following criteria in
order to avoid loss of hazardous quan-
tities of fuel:
(1) All covers located in an area
where experience or analysis indicates
a strike is likely must be shown by
analysis or tests to minimize penetra-
tion and deformation by tire frag-
ments, low energy engine debris, or
other likely debris.
(2) All covers must be fire resistant
as defined in part 1 of this chapter.
(f) For pressurized fuel tanks, a
means with fail-safe features must be
provided to prevent the buildup of an
excessive pressure difference between
the inside and the outside of the tank.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17,
1977; Amdt. 25–69, 54 FR 40354, Sept. 29, 1989]
§ 25.965 Fuel tank tests.
(a) It must be shown by tests that the
fuel tanks, as mounted in the airplane,
can withstand, without failure or leak-
age, the more critical of the pressures
resulting from the conditions specified
in paragraphs (a)(1) and (2) of this sec-
tion. In addition, it must be shown by
either analysis or tests, that tank sur-
faces subjected to more critical pres-
sures resulting from the condition of
paragraphs (a)(3) and (4) of this section,
are able to withstand the following
pressures:
(1) An internal pressure of 3.5 psi.
(2) 125 percent of the maximum air
pressure developed in the tank from
ram effect.
(3) Fluid pressures developed during
maximum limit accelerations, and de-
flections, of the airplane with a full
tank.
(4) Fluid pressures developed during
the most adverse combination of air-
plane roll and fuel load.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(b) Each metallic tank with large un-
supported or unstiffened flat surfaces,
whose failure or deformation could
cause fuel leakage, must be able to
withstand the following test, or its
equivalent, without leakage or exces-
sive deformation of the tank walls:
(1) Each complete tank assembly and
its supports must be vibration tested
while mounted to simulate the actual
installation.
(2) Except as specified in paragraph
(b)(4) of this section, the tank assembly
must be vibrated for 25 hours at an am-
plitude of not less than 1⁄32 of an inch
(unless another amplitude is substan-
tiated) while 2⁄3 filled with water or
other suitable test fluid.
(3) The test frequency of vibration
must be as follows:
(i) If no frequency of vibration result-
ing from any r.p.m. within the normal
operating range of engine speeds is
critical, the test frequency of vibration
must be 2,000 cycles per minute.
(ii) If only one frequency of vibration
resulting from any r.p.m. within the
normal operating range of engine
speeds is critical, that frequency of vi-
bration must be the test frequency.
(iii) If more than one frequency of vi-
bration resulting from any r.p.m. with-
in the normal operating range of en-
gine speeds is critical, the most criti-
cal of these frequencies must be the
test frequency.
(4) Under paragraphs (b)(3)(ii) and
(iii) of this section, the time of test
must be adjusted to accomplish the
same number of vibration cycles that
would be accomplished in 25 hours at
the frequency specified in paragraph
(b)(3)(i) of this section.
(5) During the test, the tank assem-
bly must be rocked at the rate of 16 to
20 complete cycles per minute, through
an angle of 15° on both sides of the hor-
izontal (30° total), about the most criti-
cal axis, for 25 hours. If motion about
more than one axis is likely to be criti-
cal, the tank must be rocked about
each critical axis for 121⁄2 hours.
(c) Except where satisfactory operat-
ing experience with a similar tank in a
similar installation is shown, non-
metallic tanks must withstand the test
specified in paragraph (b)(5) of this sec-
tion, with fuel at a temperature of 110°
F. During this test, a representative
425
§ 25.969
specimen of the tank must be installed
in a supporting structure simulating
the installation in the airplane.
(d) For pressurized fuel tanks, it
must be shown by analysis or tests
that the fuel tanks can withstand the
maximum pressure likely to occur on
the ground or in flight.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5,
1967; Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17, 1977]
§ 25.967 Fuel tank installations.
(a) Each fuel tank must be supported
so that tank loads (resulting from the
weight of the fuel in the tanks) are not
concentrated on unsupported tank sur-
faces. In addition—
(1) There must be pads, if necessary,
to prevent chafing between the tank
and its supports;
(2) Padding must be nonabsorbent or
treated to prevent the absorption of
fluids;
(3) If a flexible tank liner is used, it
must be supported so that it is not re-
quired to withstand fluid loads; and
(4) Each interior surface of the tank
compartment must be smooth and free
of projections that could cause wear of
the liner unless—
(i) Provisions are made for protection
of the liner at these points; or
(ii) The construction of the liner
itself provides that protection.
(b) Spaces adjacent to tank surfaces
must be ventilated to avoid fume accu-
mulation due to minor leakage. If the
tank is in a sealed compartment, ven-
tilation may be limited to drain holes
large enough to prevent excessive pres-
sure resulting from altitude changes.
(c) The location of each tank must
meet the requirements of § 25.1185(a).
(d) No engine nacelle skin imme-
diately behind a major air outlet from
the engine compartment may act as
the wall of an integral tank.
(e) Each fuel tank must be isolated
from personnel compartments by a
fumeproof and fuelproof enclosure.
§ 25.969 Fuel tank expansion space.
Each fuel tank must have an expan-
sion space of not less than 2 percent of
§ 25.971
the tank capacity. It must be impos-
sible to fill the expansion space inad-
vertently with the airplane in the nor-
mal ground attitude. For pressure fuel-
ing systems, compliance with this sec-
tion may be shown with the means pro-
vided to comply with § 25.979(b).
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.971 Fuel tank sump.
(a) Each fuel tank must have a sump
with an effective capacity, in the nor-
mal ground attitude, of not less than
the greater of 0.10 percent of the tank
capacity or one-sixteenth of a gallon
unless operating limitations are estab-
lished to ensure that the accumulation
of water in service will not exceed the
sump capacity.
(b) Each fuel tank must allow drain-
age of any hazardous quantity of water
from any part of the tank to its sump
with the airplane in the ground atti-
tude.
(c) Each fuel tank sump must have
an accessible drain that—
(1) Allows complete drainage of the
sump on the ground;
(2) Discharges clear of each part of
the airplane; and
(3) Has manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed posi-
tion.
§ 25.973 Fuel tank filler connection.
Each fuel tank filler connection must
prevent the entrance of fuel into any
part of the airplane other than the
tank itself. In addition—
(a) [Reserved]
(b) Each recessed filler connection
that can retain any appreciable quan-
tity of fuel must have a drain that dis-
charges clear of each part of the air-
plane;
(c) Each filler cap must provide a
fuel-tight seal; and
(d) Each fuel filling point, except
pressure fueling connection points,
must have a provision for electrically
bonding the airplane to ground fueling
equipment.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17,
1977; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
426
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
§ 25.975 Fuel tank vents and carbu-
retor vapor vents.
(a) Fuel tank vents. Each fuel tank
must be vented from the top part of the
expansion space so that venting is ef-
fective under any normal flight condi-
tion. In addition—
(1) Each vent must be arranged to
avoid stoppage by dirt or ice forma-
tion;
(2) The vent arrangement must pre-
vent siphoning of fuel during normal
operation;
(3) The venting capacity and vent
pressure levels must maintain accept-
able differences of pressure between
the interior and exterior of the tank,
during—
(i) Normal flight operation;
(ii) Maximum rate of ascent and de-
scent; and
(iii) Refueling and defueling (where
applicable);
(4) Airspaces of tanks with inter-
connected outlets must be inter-
connected;
(5) There may be no point in any vent
line where moisture can accumulate
with the airplane in the ground atti-
tude or the level flight attitude, unless
drainage is provided; and
(6) No vent or drainage provision may
end at any point—
(i) Where the discharge of fuel from
the vent outlet would constitute a fire
hazard; or
(ii) From which fumes could enter
personnel compartments.
(b) Carburetor vapor vents. Each car-
buretor with vapor elimination connec-
tions must have a vent line to lead va-
pors back to one of the fuel tanks. In
addition—
(1) Each vent system must have
means to avoid stoppage by ice; and
(2) If there is more than one fuel
tank, and it is necessary to use the
tanks in a definite sequence, each
vapor vent return line must lead back
to the fuel tank used for takeoff and
landing.
§ 25.977 Fuel tank outlet.
(a) There must be a fuel strainer for
the fuel tank outlet or for the booster
pump. This strainer must—
(1) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, have 8 to 16 meshes per inch;
and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(2) For turbine engine powered air-
planes, prevent the passage of any ob-
ject that could restrict fuel flow or
damage any fuel system component.
(b) [Reserved]
(c) The clear area of each fuel tank
outlet strainer must be at least five
times the area of the outlet line.
(d) The diameter of each strainer
must be at least that of the fuel tank
outlet.
(e) Each finger strainer must be ac-
cessible for inspection and cleaning.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–36, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1,
1974]
§ 25.979 Pressure fueling system.
For pressure fueling systems, the fol-
lowing apply:
(a) Each pressure fueling system fuel
manifold connection must have means
to prevent the escape of hazardous
quantities of fuel from the system if
the fuel entry valve fails.
(b) An automatic shutoff means must
be provided to prevent the quantity of
fuel in each tank from exceeding the
maximum quantity approved for that
tank. This means must—
(1) Allow checking for proper shutoff
operation before each fueling of the
tank; and
(2) Provide indication at each fueling
station of failure of the shutoff means
to stop the fuel flow at the maximum
quantity approved for that tank.
(c) A means must be provided to pre-
vent damage to the fuel system in the
event of failure of the automatic shut-
off means prescribed in paragraph (b)
of this section.
(d) The airplane pressure fueling sys-
tem (not including fuel tanks and fuel
tank vents) must withstand an ulti-
mate load that is 2.0 times the load
arising from the maximum pressures,
including surge, that is likely to occur
during fueling. The maximum surge
pressure must be established with any
combination of tank valves being ei-
ther intentionally or inadvertently
closed.
(e) The airplane defueling system
(not including fuel tanks and fuel tank
vents) must withstand an ultimate
load that is 2.0 times the load arising
from the maximum permissible
defueling pressure (positive or nega-
427
§ 25.993
tive) at the airplane fueling connec-
tion.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.981 Fuel tank temperature.
(a) The highest temperature allowing
a safe margin below the lowest ex-
pected auto ignition temperature of
the fuel in the fuel tanks must be de-
termined.
(b) No temperature at any place in-
side any fuel tank where fuel ignition
is possible may exceed the temperature
determined under paragraph (a) of this
section. This must be shown under all
probable operating, failure, and mal-
function conditions of any component
whose operation, failure, or malfunc-
tion could increase the temperature in-
side the tank.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5, 1967]
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
§ 25.991 Fuel pumps.
(a) Main pumps. Each fuel pump re-
quired for proper engine operation, or
required to meet the fuel system re-
quirements of this subpart (other than
those in paragraph (b) of this section,
is a main pump. For each main pump,
provision must be made to allow the
bypass of each positive displacement
fuel pump other than a fuel injection
pump (a pump that supplies the proper
flow and pressure for fuel injection
when the injection is not accomplished
in a carburetor) approved as part of the
engine.
(b) Emergency pumps. There must be
emergency pumps or another main
pump to feed each engine immediately
after failure of any main pump (other
than a fuel injection pump approved as
part of the engine).
§ 25.993 Fuel system lines and fittings.
(a) Each fuel line must be installed
and supported to prevent excessive vi-
bration and to withstand loads due to
fuel pressure and accelerated flight
conditions.
(b) Each fuel line connected to com-
ponents of the airplane between which
relative motion could exist must have
provisions for flexibility.
§ 25.994
(c) Each flexible connection in fuel
lines that may be under pressure and
subjected to axial loading must use
flexible hose assemblies.
(d) Flexible hose must be approved or
must be shown to be suitable for the
particular application.
(e) No flexible hose that might be ad-
versely affected by exposure to high
temperatures may be used where exces-
sive temperatures will exist during op-
eration or after engine shut-down.
(f) Each fuel line within the fuselage
must be designed and installed to allow
a reasonable degree of deformation and
stretching without leakage.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–15, 32 FR 13266, Sept.
20, 1967]
§ 25.994 Fuel system components.
Fuel system components in an engine
nacelle or in the fuselage must be pro-
tected from damage which could result
in spillage of enough fuel to constitute
a fire hazard as a result of a wheels-up
landing on a paved runway.
[Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 25.995 Fuel valves.
In addition to the requirements of
§ 25.1189 for shutoff means, each fuel
valve must—
(a) [Reserved]
(b) Be supported so that no loads re-
sulting from their operation or from
accelerated flight conditions are trans-
mitted to the lines attached to the
valve.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17,
1977]
§ 25.997 Fuel strainer or filter.
There must be a fuel strainer or filter
between the fuel tank outlet and the
inlet of either the fuel metering device
or an engine driven positive displace-
ment pump, whichever is nearer the
fuel tank outlet. This fuel strainer or
filter must—
(a) Be accessible for draining and
cleaning and must incorporate a screen
or element which is easily removable;
(b) Have a sediment trap and drain
except that it need not have a drain if
the strainer or filter is easily remov-
able for drain purposes;
428
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(c) Be mounted so that its weight is
not supported by the connecting lines
or by the inlet or outlet connections of
the strainer or filter itself, unless ade-
quate strength margins under all load-
ing conditions are provided in the lines
and connections; and
(d) Have the capacity (with respect to
operating limitations established for
the engine) to ensure that engine fuel
system functioning is not impaired,
with the fuel contaminated to a degree
(with respect to particle size and den-
sity) that is greater than that estab-
lished for the engine in Part 33 of this
chapter.
[Amdt. No. 25–36, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, 1974, as
amended by Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23,
1984]
§ 25.999 Fuel system drains.
(a) Drainage of the fuel system must
be accomplished by the use of fuel
strainer and fuel tank sump drains.
(b) Each drain required by paragraph
(a) of this section must—
(1) Discharge clear of all parts of the
airplane;
(2) Have manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed posi-
tion; and
(3) Have a drain valve—
(i) That is readily accessible and
which can be easily opened and closed;
and
(ii) That is either located or pro-
tected to prevent fuel spillage in the
event of a landing with landing gear re-
tracted.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.1001 Fuel jettisoning system.
(a) A fuel jettisoning system must be
installed on each airplane unless it is
shown that the airplane meets the
climb requirements of §§ 25.119 and
25.121(d) at maximum takeoff weight,
less the actual or computed weight of
fuel necessary for a 15-minute flight
comprised of a takeoff, go-around, and
landing at the airport of departure
with the airplane configuration, speed,
power, and thrust the same as that
used in meeting the applicable takeoff,
approach, and landing climb perform-
ance requirements of this part.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(b) If a fuel jettisoning system is re-
quired it must be capable of jettisoning
enough fuel within 15 minutes, starting
with the weight given in paragraph (a)
of this section, to enable the airplane
to meet the climb requirements of
§§ 25.119 and 25.121(d), assuming that the
fuel is jettisoned under the conditions,
except weight, found least favorable
during the flight tests prescribed in
paragraph (c) of this section.
(c) Fuel jettisoning must be dem-
onstrated beginning at maximum take-
off weight with flaps and landing gear
up and in—
(1) A power-off glide at 1.4 Vs1;
(2) A climb at the one-engine inoper-
ative best rate-of-climb speed, with the
critical engine inoperative and the re-
maining engines at maximum continu-
ous power; and
(3) Level flight at 1.4 Vs1; if the re-
sults of the tests in the conditions
specified in paragraphs (c)(1) and (2) of
this section show that this condition
could be critical.
(d) During the flight tests prescribed
in paragraph (c) of this section, it must
be shown that—
(1) The fuel jettisoning system and
its operation are free from fire hazard;
(2) The fuel discharges clear of any
part of the airplane;
(3) Fuel or fumes do not enter any
parts of the airplane; and
(4) The jettisoning operation does not
adversely affect the controllability of
the airplane.
(e) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, means must be provided to
prevent jettisoning the fuel in the
tanks used for takeoff and landing
below the level allowing 45 minutes
flight at 75 percent maximum continu-
ous power. However, if there is an aux-
iliary control independent of the main
jettisoning control, the system may be
designed to jettison the remaining fuel
by means of the auxiliary jettisoning
control.
(f) For turbine engine powered air-
planes, means must be provided to pre-
vent jettisoning the fuel in the tanks
used for takeoff and landing below the
level allowing climb from sea level to
10,000 feet and thereafter allowing 45
minutes cruise at a speed for maximum
range. However, if there is an auxiliary
control independent of the main jet-
429
§ 25.1011
tisoning control, the system may be
designed to jettison the remaining fuel
by means of the auxiliary jettisoning
control.
(g) The fuel jettisoning valve must be
designed to allow flight personnel to
close the valve during any part of the
jettisoning operation.
(h) Unless it is shown that using any
means (including flaps, slots, and slats)
for changing the airflow across or
around the wings does not adversely af-
fect fuel jettisoning, there must be a
placard, adjacent to the jettisoning
control, to warn flight crewmembers
against jettisoning fuel while the
means that change the airflow are
being used.
(i) The fuel jettisoning system must
be designed so that any reasonably
probable single malfunction in the sys-
tem will not result in a hazardous con-
dition due to unsymmetrical jettison-
ing of, or inability to jettison, fuel.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–18, 33 FR 12226, Aug. 30,
1968; Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984]
OIL SYSTEM
§ 25.1011 General.
(a) Each engine must have an inde-
pendent oil system that can supply it
with an appropriate quantity of oil at a
temperature not above that safe for
continuous operation.
(b) The usable oil capacity may not
be less than the product of the endur-
ance of the airplane under critical op-
erating conditions and the approved
maximum allowable oil consumption of
the engine under the same conditions,
plus a suitable margin to ensure sys-
tem circulation. Instead of a rational
analysis of airplane range for the pur-
pose of computing oil requirements for
reciprocating engine powered air-
planes, the following fuel/oil ratios
may be used:
(1) For airplanes without a reserve
oil or oil transfer system, a fuel/oil
ratio of 30:1 by volume.
(2) For airplanes with either a re-
serve oil or oil transfer system, a fuel/
oil ratio of 40:1 by volume.
(c) Fuel/oil ratios higher than those
prescribed in paragraphs (b)(1) and (2)
§ 25.1013
of this section may be used if substan-
tiated by data on actual engine oil con-
sumption.
§ 25.1013 Oil tanks.
(a) Installation. Each oil tank instal-
lation must meet the requirements of
§ 25.967.
(b) Expansion space. Oil tank expan-
sion space must be provided as follows:
(1) Each oil tank used with a recip-
rocating engine must have an expan-
sion space of not less than the greater
of 10 percent of the tank capacity or 0.5
gallon, and each oil tank used with a
turbine engine must have an expansion
space of not less than 10 percent of the
tank capacity.
(2) Each reserve oil tank not directly
connected to any engine may have an
expansion space of not less than two
percent of the tank capacity.
(3) It must be impossible to fill the
expansion space inadvertently with the
airplane in the normal ground attitude.
(c) Filler connection. Each recessed oil
tank filler connection that can retain
any appreciable quantity of oil must
have a drain that discharges clear of
each part of the airplane. In addition,
each oil tank filler cap must provide an
oil-tight seal.
(d) Vent. Oil tanks must be vented as
follows:
(1) Each oil tank must be vented
from the top part of the expansion
space so that venting is effective under
any normal flight condition.
(2) Oil tank vents must be arranged
so that condensed water vapor that
might freeze and obstruct the line can-
not accumulate at any point.
(e) Outlet. There must be means to
prevent entrance into the tank itself,
or into the tank outlet, of any object
that might obstruct the flow of oil
through the system. No oil tank outlet
may be enclosed by any screen or guard
that would reduce the flow of oil below
a safe value at any operating tempera-
ture. There must be a shutoff valve at
the outlet of each oil tank used with a
turbine engine, unless the external por-
tion of the oil system (including the oil
tank supports) is fireproof.
(f) Flexible oil tank liners. Each flexi-
ble oil tank liner must be approved or
430
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
must be shown to be suitable for the
particular application.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, as amend-
ed by Amdt. 25–19, 33 FR 15410, Oct. 17, 1968;
Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt.
25–36, 39 FR 35460, Oct. 1, 1974; Amdt. 25–57, 49
FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR
29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1015 Oil tank tests.
Each oil tank must be designed and
installed so that—
(a) It can withstand, without failure,
each vibration, inertia, and fluid load
that it may be subjected to in oper-
ation; and
(b) It meets the provisions of § 25.965,
except—
(1) The test pressure—
(i) For pressurized tanks used with a
turbine engine, may not be less than 5
p.s.i. plus the maximum operating
pressure of the tank instead of the
pressure specified in § 25.965(a); and
(ii) For all other tanks may not be
less than 5 p.s.i. instead of the pressure
specified in § 25.965(a); and
(2) The test fluid must be oil at 250°
F. instead of the fluid specified in
§ 25.965(c).
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–36, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1,
1974]
§ 25.1017 Oil lines and fittings.
(a) Each oil line must meet the re-
quirements of § 25.993 and each oil line
and fitting in any designated fire zone
must meet the requirements of
§ 25.1183.
(b) Breather lines must be arranged
so that—
(1) Condensed water vapor that might
freeze and obstruct the line cannot ac-
cumulate at any point;
(2) The breather discharge does not
constitute a fire hazard if foaming oc-
curs or causes emitted oil to strike the
pilot’s windshield; and
(3) The breather does not discharge
into the engine air induction system.
§ 25.1019 Oil strainer or filter.
(a) Each turbine engine installation
must incorporate an oil strainer or fil-
ter through which all of the engine oil
flows and which meets the following re-
quirements:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(1) Each oil strainer or filter that has
a bypass must be constructed and in-
stalled so that oil will flow at the nor-
mal rate through the rest of the sys-
tem with the strainer or filter com-
pletely blocked.
(2) The oil strainer or filter must
have the capacity (with respect to op-
erating limitations established for the
engine) to ensure that engine oil sys-
tem functioning is not impaired when
the oil is contaminated to a degree
(with respect to particle size and den-
sity) that is greater than that estab-
lished for the engine under Part 33 of
this chapter.
(3) The oil strainer or filter, unless it
is installed at an oil tank outlet, must
incorporate an indicator that will indi-
cate contamination before it reaches
the capacity established in accordance
with paragraph (a)(2) of this section.
(4) The bypass of a strainer or filter
must be constructed and installed so
that the release of collected contami-
nants is minimized by appropriate lo-
cation of the bypass to ensure that col-
lected contaminants are not in the by-
pass flow path.
(5) An oil strainer or filter that has
no bypass, except one that is installed
at an oil tank outlet, must have a
means to connect it to the warning
system required in § 25.1305(c)(7).
(b) Each oil strainer or filter in a
powerplant installation using recip-
rocating engines must be constructed
and installed so that oil will flow at
the normal rate through the rest of the
system with the strainer or filter ele-
ment completely blocked.
[Amdt. 25–36, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1, 1974, as
amended by Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23,
1984]
§ 25.1021 Oil system drains.
A drain (or drains) must be provided
to allow safe drainage of the oil sys-
tem. Each drain must—
(a) Be accessible; and
(b) Have manual or automatic means
for positive locking in the closed posi-
tion.
[Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 25.1023 Oil radiators.
(a) Each oil radiator must be able to
withstand, without failure, any vibra-
431
§ 25.1041
tion, inertia, and oil pressure load to
which it would be subjected in oper-
ation.
(b) Each oil radiator air duct must be
located so that, in case of fire, flames
coming from normal openings of the
engine nacelle cannot impinge directly
upon the radiator.
§ 25.1025 Oil valves.
(a) Each oil shutoff must meet the re-
quirements of § 25.1189.
(b) The closing of oil shutoff means
may not prevent propeller feathering.
(c) Each oil valve must have positive
stops or suitable index provisions in
the ‘‘on’’ and ‘‘off’’ positions and must
be supported so that no loads resulting
from its operation or from accelerated
flight conditions are transmitted to
the lines attached to the valve.
§ 25.1027 Propeller feathering system.
(a) If the propeller feathering system
depends on engine oil, there must be
means to trap an amount of oil in the
tank if the supply becomes depleted
due to failure of any part of the lubri-
cating system other than the tank
itself.
(b) The amount of trapped oil must
be enough to accomplish the feathering
operation and must be available only
to the feathering pump.
(c) The ability of the system to ac-
complish feathering with the trapped
oil must be shown. This may be done
on the ground using an auxiliary
source of oil for lubricating the engine
during operation.
(d) Provision must be made to pre-
vent sludge or other foreign matter
from affecting the safe operation of the
propeller feathering system.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976]
COOLING
§ 25.1041 General.
The powerplant and auxiliary power
unit cooling provisions must be able to
maintain the temperatures of power-
plant components, engine fluids, and
auxiliary power unit components and
fluids within the temperature limits
established for these components and
fluids, under ground, water, and flight
§ 25.1043
operating conditions, and after normal
engine or auxiliary power unit shut-
down, or both.
[Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20, 1976]
§ 25.1043 Cooling tests.
(a) General. Compliance with § 25.1041
must be shown by tests, under critical
ground, water, and flight operating
conditions. For these tests, the follow-
ing apply:
(1) If the tests are conducted under
conditions deviating from the maxi-
mum ambient atmospheric tempera-
ture, the recorded powerplant tempera-
tures must be corrected under para-
graphs (c) and (d) of this section.
(2) No corrected temperatures deter-
mined under paragraph (a)(1) of this
section may exceed established limits.
(3) For reciprocating engines, the fuel
used during the cooling tests must be
the minimum grade approved for the
engines, and the mixture settings must
be those normally used in the flight
stages for which the cooling tests are
conducted. The test procedures must be
as prescribed in § 25.1045.
(b) Maximum ambient atmospheric tem-
perature. A maximum ambient atmos-
pheric temperature corresponding to
sea level conditions of at least 100 de-
grees F must be established. The as-
sumed temperature lapse rate is 3.6 de-
grees F per thousand feet of altitude
above sea level until a temperature of
¥69.7 degrees F is reached, above which
altitude the temperature is considered
constant at ¥69.7 degrees F. However,
for winterization installations, the ap-
plicant may select a maximum ambi-
ent atmospheric temperature cor-
responding to sea level conditions of
less than 100 degrees F.
(c) Correction factor (except cylinder
barrels). Unless a more rational correc-
tion applies, temperatures of engine
fluids and powerplant components (ex-
cept cylinder barrels) for which tem-
perature limits are established, must
be corrected by adding to them the dif-
ference between the maximum ambient
atmospheric temperature and the tem-
perature of the ambient air at the time
of the first occurrence of the maximum
component or fluid temperature re-
corded during the cooling test.
(d) Correction factor for cylinder barrel
temperatures. Unless a more rational
432
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
correction applies, cylinder barrel tem-
peratures must be corrected by adding
to them 0.7 times the difference be-
tween the maximum ambient atmos-
pheric temperature and the tempera-
ture of the ambient air at the time of
the first occurrence of the maximum
cylinder barrel temperature recorded
during the cooling test.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16,
1978]
§ 25.1045 Cooling test procedures.
(a) Compliance with § 25.1041 must be
shown for the takeoff, climb, en route,
and landing stages of flight that cor-
respond to the applicable performance
requirements. The cooling tests must
be conducted with the airplane in the
configuration, and operating under the
conditions, that are critical relative to
cooling during each stage of flight. For
the cooling tests, a temperature is
‘‘stabilized’’ when its rate of change is
less than two degrees F. per minute.
(b) Temperatures must be stabilized
under the conditions from which entry
is made into each stage of flight being
investigated, unless the entry condi-
tion normally is not one during which
component and the engine fluid tem-
peratures would stabilize (in which
case, operation through the full entry
condition must be conducted before
entry into the stage of flight being in-
vestigated in order to allow tempera-
tures to reach their natural levels at
the time of entry). The takeoff cooling
test must be preceded by a period dur-
ing which the powerplant component
and engine fluid temperatures are sta-
bilized with the engines at ground idle.
(c) Cooling tests for each stage of
flight must be continued until—
(1) The component and engine fluid
temperatures stabilize;
(2) The stage of flight is completed;
or
(3) An operating limitation is
reached.
(d) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, it may be assumed, for cool-
ing test purposes, that the takeoff
stage of flight is complete when the
airplane reaches an altitude of 1,500
feet above the takeoff surface or
reaches a point in the takeoff where
the transition from the takeoff to the
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
en route configuration is completed
and a speed is reached at which compli-
ance with § 25.121(c) is shown, which-
ever point is at a higher altitude. The
airplane must be in the following con-
figuration:
(1) Landing gear retracted.
(2) Wing flaps in the most favorable
position.
(3) Cowl flaps (or other means of con-
trolling the engine cooling supply) in
the position that provides adequate
cooling in the hot-day condition.
(4) Critical engine inoperative and its
propeller stopped.
(5) Remaining engines at the maxi-
mum continuous power available for
the altitude.
(e) For hull seaplanes and amphib-
ians, cooling must be shown during
taxiing downwind for 10 minutes, at
five knots above step speed.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23,
1984]
INDUCTION SYSTEM
§ 25.1091 Air induction.
(a) The air induction system for each
engine and auxiliary power unit must
supply—
(1) The air required by that engine
and auxiliary power unit under each
operating condition for which certifi-
cation is requested; and
(2) The air for proper fuel metering
and mixture distribution with the in-
duction system valves in any position.
(b) Each reciprocating engine must
have an alternate air source that pre-
vents the entry of rain, ice, or any
other foreign matter.
(c) Air intakes may not open within
the cowling, unless—
(1) That part of the cowling is iso-
lated from the engine accessory section
by means of a fireproof diaphragm; or
(2) For reciprocating engines, there
are means to prevent the emergence of
backfire flames.
(d) For turbine engine powered air-
planes and airplanes incorporating aux-
iliary power units—
(1) There must be means to prevent
hazardous quantities of fuel leakage or
overflow from drains, vents, or other
components of flammable fluid systems
433
§ 25.1093
from entering the engine or auxiliary
power unit intake system; and
(2) The airplane must be designed to
prevent water or slush on the runway,
taxiway, or other airport operating
surfaces from being directed into the
engine or auxiliary power unit air inlet
ducts in hazardous quantities, and the
air inlet ducts must be located or pro-
tected so as to minimize the ingestion
of foreign matter during takeoff, land-
ing, and taxiing.
(e) If the engine induction system
contains parts or components that
could be damaged by foreign objects
entering the air inlet, it must be shown
by tests or, if appropriate, by analysis
that the induction system design can
withstand the foreign object ingestion
test conditions of § 33.77 of this chapter
without failure of parts or components
that could create a hazard.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17, 1977;
Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 25.1093 Induction system icing pro-
tection.
(a) Reciprocating engines. Each recip-
rocating engine air induction system
must have means to prevent and elimi-
nate icing. Unless this is done by other
means, it must be shown that, in air
free of visible moisture at a tempera-
ture of 30 F., each airplane with alti-
tude engines using—
(1) Conventional venturi carburetors
have a preheater that can provide a
heat rise of 120 F. with the engine at 60
percent of maximum continuous power;
or
(2) Carburetors tending to reduce the
probability of ice formation has a pre-
heater that can provide a heat rise of
100° F. with the engine at 60 percent of
maximum continuous power.
(b) Turbine engines. (1) Each turbine
engine must operate throughout the
flight power range of the engine (in-
cluding idling), without the accumula-
tion of ice on the engine, inlet system
components, or airframe components
that would adversely affect engine op-
eration or cause a serious loss of power
or thrust—
(i) Under the icing conditions speci-
fied in appendix C, and
§ 25.1101
(ii) In falling and blowing snow with-
in the limitations established for the
airplane for such operation.
(2) Each turbine engine must idle for
30 minutes on the ground, with the air
bleed available for engine icing protec-
tion at its critical condition, without
adverse effect, in an atmosphere that is
at a temperature between 15° and 30° F
(between ¥9° and ¥1° C) and has a liq-
uid water content not less than 0.3
grams per cubic meter in the form of
drops having a mean effective diameter
not less than 20 microns, followed by
momentary operation at takeoff power
or thrust. During the 30 minutes of idle
operation, the engine may be run up
periodically to a moderate power or
thrust setting in a manner acceptable
to the Administrator.
(c) Supercharged reciprocating engines.
For each engine having a supercharger
to pressurize the air before it enters
the carburetor, the heat rise in the air
caused by that supercharging at any
altitude may be utilized in determining
compliance with paragraph (a) of this
section if the heat rise utilized is that
which will be available, automatically,
for the applicable altitude and operat-
ing condition because of supercharging.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17, 1977;
Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984; Amdt.
25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1101 Carburetor air preheater de-
sign.
Each carburetor air preheater must
be designed and constructed to—
(a) Ensure ventilation of the pre-
heater when the engine is operated in
cold air;
(b) Allow inspection of the exhaust
manifold parts that it surrounds; and
(c) Allow inspection of critical parts
of the preheater itself.
§ 25.1103 Induction system ducts and
air duct systems.
(a) Each induction system duct up-
stream of the first stage of the engine
supercharger and of the auxiliary
power unit compressor must have a
drain to prevent the hazardous accu-
mulation of fuel and moisture in the
ground attitude. No drain may dis-
434
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
charge where it might cause a fire haz-
ard.
(b) Each induction system duct must
be—
(1) Strong enough to prevent induc-
tion system failures resulting from
normal backfire conditions; and
(2) Fire-resistant if it is in any fire
zone for which a fire-extinguishing sys-
tem is required, except that ducts for
auxiliary power units must be fireproof
within the auxiliary power unit fire
zone.
(c) Each duct connected to compo-
nents between which relative motion
could exist must have means for flexi-
bility.
(d) For turbine engine and auxiliary
power unit bleed air duct systems, no
hazard may result if a duct failure oc-
curs at any point between the air duct
source and the airplane unit served by
the air.
(e) Each auxiliary power unit induc-
tion system duct must be fireproof for
a sufficient distance upstream of the
auxiliary power unit compartment to
prevent hot gas reverse flow from burn-
ing through auxiliary power unit ducts
and entering any other compartment
or area of the airplane in which a haz-
ard would be created resulting from the
entry of hot gases. The materials used
to form the remainder of the induction
system duct and plenum chamber of
the auxiliary power unit must be capa-
ble of resisting the maximum heat con-
ditions likely to occur.
(f) Each auxiliary power unit induc-
tion system duct must be constructed
of materials that will not absorb or
trap hazardous quantities of flammable
fluids that could be ignited in the
event of a surge or reverse flow condi-
tion.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50597, Oct. 30,
1978]
§ 25.1105 Induction system screens.
If induction system screens are
used—
(a) Each screen must be upstream of
the carburetor;
(b) No screen may be in any part of
the induction system that is the only
passage through which air can reach
the engine, unless it can be deiced by
heated air;
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(c) No screen may be deiced by alco-
hol alone; and
(d) It must be impossible for fuel to
strike any screen.
§ 25.1107 Inter-coolers and after-cool-
ers.
Each inter-cooler and after-cooler
must be able to withstand any vibra-
tion, inertia, and air pressure load to
which it would be subjected in oper-
ation.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
§ 25.1121 General.
For powerplant and auxiliary power
unit installations the following apply:
(a) Each exhaust system must ensure
safe disposal of exhaust gases without
fire hazard or carbon monoxide con-
tamination in any personnel compart-
ment. For test purposes, any accept-
able carbon monoxide detection meth-
od may be used to show the absence of
carbon monoxide.
(b) Each exhaust system part with a
surface hot enough to ignite flammable
fluids or vapors must be located or
shielded so that leakage from any sys-
tem carrying flammable fluids or va-
pors will not result in a fire caused by
impingement of the fluids or vapors on
any part of the exhaust system includ-
ing shields for the exhaust system.
(c) Each component that hot exhaust
gases could strike, or that could be
subjected to high temperatures from
exhaust system parts, must be fire-
proof. All exhaust system components
must be separated by fireproof shields
from adjacent parts of the airplane
that are outside the engine and auxil-
iary power unit compartments.
(d) No exhaust gases may discharge
so as to cause a fire hazard with re-
spect to any flammable fluid vent or
drain.
(e) No exhaust gases may discharge
where they will cause a glare seriously
affecting pilot vision at night.
(f) Each exhaust system component
must be ventilated to prevent points of
excessively high temperature.
(g) Each exhaust shroud must be ven-
tilated or insulated to avoid, during
normal operation, a temperature high
435
§ 25.1125
enough to ignite any flammable fluids
or vapors external to the shroud.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15043, Mar. 17,
1977]
§ 25.1123 Exhaust piping.
For powerplant and auxiliary power
unit installations, the following apply:
(a) Exhaust piping must be heat and
corrosion resistant, and must have pro-
visions to prevent failure due to expan-
sion by operating temperatures.
(b) Piping must be supported to with-
stand any vibration and inertia loads
to which it would be subjected in oper-
ation; and
(c) Piping connected to components
between which relative motion could
exist must have means for flexibility.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17,
1977]
§ 25.1125 Exhaust heat exchangers.
For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, the following apply:
(a) Each exhaust heat exchanger
must be constructed and installed to
withstand each vibration, inertia, and
other load to which it would be sub-
jected in operation. In addition—
(1) Each exchanger must be suitable
for continued operation at high tem-
peratures and resistant to corrosion
from exhaust gases;
(2) There must be means for the in-
spection of the critical parts of each
exchanger;
(3) Each exchanger must have cooling
provisions wherever it is subject to
contact with exhaust gases; and
(4) No exhaust heat exchanger or
muff may have any stagnant areas or
liquid traps that would increase the
probability of ignition of flammable
fluids or vapors that might be present
in case of the failure or malfunction of
components carrying flammable fluids.
(b) If an exhaust heat exchanger is
used for heating ventilating air—
(1) There must be a secondary heat
exchanger between the primary ex-
haust gas heat exchanger and the ven-
tilating air system; or
§ 25.1127
(2) Other means must be used to pre-
clude the harmful contamination of the
ventilating air.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.1127 Exhaust driven turbo-super-
chargers.
(a) Each exhaust driven turbo-super-
charger must be approved or shown to
be suitable for the particular applica-
tion. It must be installed and sup-
ported to ensure safe operation be-
tween normal inspections and over-
hauls. In addition, there must be provi-
sions for expansion and flexibility be-
tween exhaust conduits and the tur-
bine.
(b) There must be provisions for lu-
bricating the turbine and for cooling
turbine parts where temperatures are
critical.
(c) If the normal turbo-supercharger
control system malfunctions, the tur-
bine speed may not exceed its maxi-
mum allowable value. Except for the
waste gate operating components, the
components provided for meeting this
requirement must be independent of
the normal turbo-supercharger con-
trols.
POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND
ACCESSORIES
§ 25.1141 Powerplant controls: general.
Each powerplant control must be lo-
cated, arranged, and designed under
§§ 25.777 through 25.781 and marked
under § 25.1555. In addition, it must
meet the following requirements:
(a) Each control must be located so
that it cannot be inadvertently oper-
ated by persons entering, leaving, or
moving normally in, the cockpit.
(b) Each flexible control must be ap-
proved or must be shown to be suitable
for the particular application.
(c) Each control must have sufficient
strength and rigidity to withstand op-
erating loads without failure and with-
out excessive deflection.
(d) Each control must be able to
maintain any set position without con-
stant attention by flight crewmembers
and without creep due to control loads
or vibration.
436
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(e) The portion of each powerplant
control located in a designated fire
zone that is required to be operated in
the event of fire must be at least fire
resistant.
(f) Powerplant valve controls located
in the cockpit must have—
(1) For manual valves, positive stops
or in the case of fuel valves suitable
index provisions, in the open and closed
position; and
(2) For power-assisted valves, a
means to indicate to the flight crew
when the valve—
(i) Is in the fully open or fully closed
position; or
(ii) Is moving between the fully open
and fully closed position.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17,
1977; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1142 Auxiliary power unit con-
trols.
Means must be provided on the flight
deck for starting, stopping, and emer-
gency shutdown of each installed auxil-
iary power unit.
[Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30, 1978]
§ 25.1143 Engine controls.
(a) There must be a separate power or
thrust control for each engine.
(b) Power and thrust controls must
be arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each engine;
and
(2) Simultaneous control of all en-
gines.
(c) Each power and thrust control
must provide a positive and imme-
diately responsive means of controlling
its engine.
(d) For each fluid injection (other
than fuel) system and its controls not
provided and approved as part of the
engine, the applicant must show that
the flow of the injection fluid is ade-
quately controlled.
(e) If a power or thrust control incor-
porates a fuel shutoff feature, the con-
trol must have a means to prevent the
inadvertent movement of the control
into the shutoff position. The means
must—
(1) Have a positive lock or stop at the
idle position; and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(2) Require a separate and distinct
operation to place the control in the
shutoff position.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 25.1145 Ignition switches.
(a) Ignition switches must control
each engine ignition circuit on each
engine.
(b) There must be means to quickly
shut off all ignition by the grouping of
switches or by a master ignition con-
trol.
(c) Each group of ignition switches,
except ignition switches for turbine en-
gines for which continuous ignition is
not required, and each master ignition
control must have a means to prevent
its inadvertent operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044 Mar. 17,
1977]
§ 25.1147 Mixture controls.
(a) If there are mixture controls,
each engine must have a separate con-
trol. The controls must be grouped and
arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each engine;
and
(2) Simultaneous control of all en-
gines.
(b) Each intermediate position of the
mixture controls that corresponds to a
normal operating setting must be iden-
tifiable by feel and sight.
(c) The mixture controls must be ac-
cessible to both pilots. However, if
there is a separate flight engineer sta-
tion with a control panel, the controls
need be accessible only to the flight en-
gineer.
§ 25.1149 Propeller speed and pitch
controls.
(a) There must be a separate propel-
ler speed and pitch control for each
propeller.
(b) The controls must be grouped and
arranged to allow—
(1) Separate control of each propel-
ler; and
(2) Simultaneous control of all pro-
pellers.
(c) The controls must allow synchro-
nization of all propellers.
437
§ 25.1161
(d) The propeller speed and pitch con-
trols must be to the right of, and at
least one inch below, the pilot’s throt-
tle controls.
§ 25.1153 Propeller feathering controls.
(a) There must be a separate propel-
ler feathering control for each propel-
ler. The control must have means to
prevent its inadvertent operation.
(b) If feathering is accomplished by
movement of the propeller pitch or
speed control lever, there must be
means to prevent the inadvertent
movement of this lever to the feather-
ing position during normal operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5,
1967]
§ 25.1155 Reverse thrust and propeller
pitch settings below the flight re-
gime.
Each control for reverse thrust and
for propeller pitch settings below the
flight regime must have means to pre-
vent its inadvertent operation. The
means must have a positive lock or
stop at the flight idle position and
must require a separate and distinct
operation by the crew to displace the
control from the flight regime (forward
thrust regime for turbojet powered air-
planes).
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.1157 Carburetor air temperature
controls.
There must be a separate carburetor
air temperature control for each en-
gine.
§ 25.1159 Supercharger controls.
Each supercharger control must be
accessible to the pilots or, if there is a
separate flight engineer station with a
control panel, to the flight engineer.
§ 25.1161 Fuel jettisoning system con-
trols.
Each fuel jettisoning system control
must have guards to prevent inadvert-
ent operation. No control may be near
any fire extinguisher control or other
control used to combat fire.
§ 25.1163
§ 25.1163 Powerplant accessories.
(a) Each engine mounted accessory
must—
(1) Be approved for mounting on the
engine involved;
(2) Use the provisions on the engine
for mounting; and
(3) Be sealed to prevent contamina-
tion of the engine oil system and the
accessory system.
(b) Electrical equipment subject to
arcing or sparking must be installed to
minimize the probability of contact
with any flammable fluids or vapors
that might be present in a free state.
(c) If continued rotation of an engine-
driven cabin supercharger or of any re-
mote accessory driven by the engine is
hazardous if malfunctioning occurs,
there must be means to prevent rota-
tion without interfering with the con-
tinued operation of the engine.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23,
1984]
§ 25.1165 Engine ignition systems.
(a) Each battery ignition system
must be supplemented by a generator
that is automatically available as an
alternate source of electrical energy to
allow continued engine operation if
any battery becomes depleted.
(b) The capacity of batteries and gen-
erators must be large enough to meet
the simultaneous demands of the en-
gine ignition system and the greatest
demands of any electrical system com-
ponents that draw electrical energy
from the same source.
(c) The design of the engine ignition
system must account for—
(1) The condition of an inoperative
generator;
(2) The condition of a completely de-
pleted battery with the generator run-
ning at its normal operating speed; and
(3) The condition of a completely de-
pleted battery with the generator oper-
ating at idling speed, if there is only
one battery.
(d) Magneto ground wiring (for sepa-
rate ignition circuits) that lies on the
engine side of the fire wall, must be in-
stalled, located, or protected, to mini-
mize the probability of simultaneous
failure of two or more wires as a result
of mechanical damage, electrical
faults, or other cause.
438
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(e) No ground wire for any engine
may be routed through a fire zone of
another engine unless each part of that
wire within that zone is fireproof.
(f) Each ignition system must be
independent of any electrical circuit,
not used for assisting, controlling, or
analyzing the operation of that system.
(g) There must be means to warn ap-
propriate flight crewmembers if the
malfunctioning of any part of the elec-
trical system is causing the continuous
discharge of any battery necessary for
engine ignition.
(h) Each engine ignition system of a
turbine powered airplane must be con-
sidered an essential electrical load.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1167 Accessory gearboxes.
For airplanes equipped with an acces-
sory gearbox that is not certificated as
part of an engine—
(a) The engine with gearbox and con-
necting transmissions and shafts at-
tached must be subjected to the tests
specified in § 33.49 or § 33.87 of this chap-
ter, as applicable;
(b) The accessory gearbox must meet
the requirements of §§ 33.25 and 33.53 or
33.91 of this chapter, as applicable; and
(c) Possible misalignments and tor-
sional loadings of the gearbox, trans-
mission, and shaft system, expected to
result under normal operating condi-
tions must be evaluated.
[Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20, 1976]
POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION
§ 25.1181 Designated fire zones; re-
gions included.
(a) Designated fire zones are—
(1) The engine power section;
(2) The engine accessory section;
(3) Except for reciprocating engines,
any complete powerplant compartment
in which no isolation is provided be-
tween the engine power section and the
engine accessory section;
(4) Any auxiliary power unit com-
partment;
(5) Any fuel-burning heater and other
combustion equipment installation de-
scribed in § 25.859;
(6) The compressor and accessory sec-
tions of turbine engines; and
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(7) Combustor, turbine, and tailpipe
sections of turbine engine installations
that contain lines or components car-
rying flammable fluids or gases.
(b) Each designated fire zone must
meet the requirements of §§ 25.867, and
25.1185 through 25.1203.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5,
1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8, 1970;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1182 Nacelle areas behind fire-
walls, and engine pod attaching
structures containing flammable
fluid lines.
(a) Each nacelle area immediately
behind the firewall, and each portion of
any engine pod attaching structure
containing flammable fluid lines, must
meet each requirement of §§ 25.1103(b),
25.1165 (d) and (e), 25.1183, 25.1185(c),
25.1187, 25.1189, and 25.1195 through
25.1203, including those concerning des-
ignated fire zones. However, engine pod
attaching structures need not contain
fire detection or extinguishing means.
(b) For each area covered by para-
graph (a) of this section that contains
a retractable landing gear, compliance
with that paragraph need only be
shown with the landing gear retracted.
[Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5, 1967]
§ 25.1183 Flammable fluid-carrying
components.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(b) of this section, each line, fitting,
and other component carrying flam-
mable fluid in any area subject to en-
gine fire conditions, and each compo-
nent which conveys or contains flam-
mable fluid in a designated fire zone
must be fire resistant, except that
flammable fluid tanks and supports in
a designated fire zone must be fireproof
or be enclosed by a fireproof shield un-
less damage by fire to any non-fire-
proof part will not cause leakage or
spillage of flammable fluid. Compo-
nents must be shielded or located to
safeguard against the ignition of leak-
ing flammable fluid. An integral oil
sump of less than 25-quart capacity on
a reciprocating engine need not be fire-
proof nor be enclosed by a fireproof
shield.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does
not apply to—
439
§ 25.1187
(1) Lines, fittings, and components
which are already approved as part of a
type certificated engine; and
(2) Vent and drain lines, and their fit-
tings, whose failure will not result in,
or add to, a fire hazard.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5,
1967; Amdt. 25–36, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1, 1974;
Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 25.1185 Flammable fluids.
(a) Except for the integral oil sumps
specified in § 25.1183(a), no tank or res-
ervoir that is a part of a system con-
taining flammable fluids or gases may
be in a designated fire zone unless the
fluid contained, the design of the sys-
tem, the materials used in the tank,
the shut-off means, and all connec-
tions, lines, and control provide a de-
gree of safety equal to that which
would exist if the tank or reservoir
were outside such a zone.
(b) There must be at least one-half
inch of clear airspace between each
tank or reservoir and each firewall or
shroud isolating a designated fire zone.
(c) Absorbent materials close to
flammable fluid system components
that might leak must be covered or
treated to prevent the absorption of
hazardous quantities of fluids.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964 as
amended by Amdt. 25–19, 33 FR 15410, Oct. 17,
1968; Amdt. 25–94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]
§ 25.1187 Drainage and ventilation of
fire zones.
(a) There must be complete drainage
of each part of each designated fire
zone to minimize the hazards resulting
from failure or malfunctioning of any
component containing flammable
fluids. The drainage means must be—
(1) Effective under conditions ex-
pected to prevail when drainage is
needed; and
(2) Arranged so that no discharged
fluid will cause an additional fire haz-
ard.
(b) Each designated fire zone must be
ventilated to prevent the accumulation
of flammable vapors.
(c) No ventilation opening may be
where it would allow the entry of flam-
mable fluids, vapors, or flame from
other zones.
§ 25.1189
(d) Each ventilation means must be
arranged so that no discharged vapors
will cause an additional fire hazard.
(e) Unless the extinguishing agent ca-
pacity and rate of discharge are based
on maximum air flow through a zone,
there must be means to allow the crew
to shut off sources of forced ventilation
to any fire zone except the engine
power section of the nacelle and the
combustion heater ventilating air
ducts.
§ 25.1189 Shutoff means.
(a) Each engine installation and each
fire zone specified in § 25.1181(a)(4) and
(5) must have a means to shut off or
otherwise prevent hazardous quantities
of fuel, oil, deicer, and other flammable
fluids, from flowing into, within, or
through any designated fire zone, ex-
cept that shutoff means are not re-
quired for—
(1) Lines, fittings, and components
forming an integral part of an engine;
and
(2) Oil systems for turbine engine in-
stallations in which all components of
the system in a designated fire zone,
including oil tanks, are fireproof or lo-
cated in areas not subject to engine
fire conditions.
(b) The closing of any fuel shutoff
valve for any engine may not make
fuel unavailable to the remaining en-
gines.
(c) Operation of any shutoff may not
interfere with the later emergency op-
eration of other equipment, such as the
means for feathering the propeller.
(d) Each flammable fluid shutoff
means and control must be fireproof or
must be located and protected so that
any fire in a fire zone will not affect its
operation.
(e) No hazardous quantity of flam-
mable fluid may drain into any des-
ignated fire zone after shutoff.
(f) There must be means to guard
against inadvertent operation of the
shutoff means and to make it possible
for the crew to reopen the shutoff
means in flight after it has been closed.
(g) Each tank-to-engine shutoff valve
must be located so that the operation
of the valve will not be affected by
powerplant or engine mount structural
failure.
440
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(h) Each shutoff valve must have a
means to relieve excessive pressure ac-
cumulation unless a means for pressure
relief is otherwise provided in the sys-
tem.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5677, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23, 1984]
§ 25.1191 Firewalls.
(a) Each engine, auxiliary power
unit, fuel-burning heater, other com-
bustion equipment intended for oper-
ation in flight, and the combustion,
turbine, and tailpipe sections of tur-
bine engines, must be isolated from the
rest of the airplane by firewalls,
shrouds, or equivalent means.
(b) Each firewall and shroud must
be—
(1) Fireproof;
(2) Constructed so that no hazardous
quantity of air, fluid, or flame can pass
from the compartment to other parts
of the airplane;
(3) Constructed so that each opening
is sealed with close fitting fireproof
grommets, bushings, or firewall fit-
tings; and
(4) Protected against corrosion.
§ 25.1192 Engine accessory section dia-
phragm.
For reciprocating engines, the engine
power section and all portions of the
exhaust system must be isolated from
the engine accessory compartment by a
diaphragm that complies with the fire-
wall requirements of § 25.1191.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1193 Cowling and nacelle skin.
(a) Each cowling must be constructed
and supported so that it can resist any
vibration, inertia, and air load to
which it may be subjected in operation.
(b) Cowling must meet the drainage
and ventilation requirements of
§ 25.1187.
(c) On airplanes with a diaphragm
isolating the engine power section from
the engine accessory section, each part
of the accessory section cowling sub-
ject to flame in case of fire in the en-
gine power section of the powerplant
must—
(1) Be fireproof; and
(2) Meet the requirements of § 25.1191.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(d) Each part of the cowling subject
to high temperatures due to its near-
ness to exhaust system parts or ex-
haust gas impingement must be fire-
proof.
(e) Each airplane must—
(1) Be designed and constructed so
that no fire originating in any fire zone
can enter, either through openings or
by burning through external skin, any
other zone or region where it would
create additional hazards;
(2) Meet paragraph (e)(1) of this sec-
tion with the landing gear retracted (if
applicable); and
(3) Have fireproof skin in areas sub-
ject to flame if a fire starts in the en-
gine power or accessory sections.
§ 25.1195 Fire extinguishing systems.
(a) Except for combustor, turbine,
and tail pipe sections of turbine engine
installations that contain lines or com-
ponents carrying flammable fluids or
gases for which it is shown that a fire
originating in these sections can be
controlled, there must be a fire extin-
guisher system serving each designated
fire zone.
(b) The fire extinguishing system, the
quantity of the extinguishing agent,
the rate of discharge, and the discharge
distribution must be adequate to extin-
guish fires. It must be shown by either
actual or simulated flights tests that
under critical airflow conditions in
flight the discharge of the extinguish-
ing agent in each designated fire zone
specified in paragraph (a) of this sec-
tion will provide an agent concentra-
tion capable of extinguishing fires in
that zone and of minimizing the prob-
ability of reignition. An individual
‘‘one-shot’’ system may be used for
auxiliary power units, fuel burning
heaters, and other combustion equip-
ment. For each other designated fire
zone, two discharges must be provided
each of which produces adequate agent
concentration.
(c) The fire extinguishing system for
a nacelle must be able to simulta-
neously protect each zone of the na-
celle for which protection is provided.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30,
1978]
441
§ 25.1199
§ 25.1197 Fire extinguishing agents.
(a) Fire extinguishing agents must—
(1) Be capable of extinguishing
flames emanating from any burning of
fluids or other combustible materials
in the area protected by the fire extin-
guishing system; and
(2) Have thermal stability over the
temperature range likely to be experi-
enced in the compartment in which
they are stored.
(b) If any toxic extinguishing agent is
used, provisions must be made to pre-
vent harmful concentrations of fluid or
fluid vapors (from leakage during nor-
mal operation of the airplane or as a
result of discharging the fire extin-
guisher on the ground or in flight) from
entering any personnel compartment,
even though a defect may exist in the
extinguishing system. This must be
shown by test except for built-in car-
bon dioxide fuselage compartment fire
extinguishing systems for which—
(1) Five pounds or less of carbon diox-
ide will be discharged, under estab-
lished fire control procedures, into any
fuselage compartment; or
(2) There is protective breathing
equipment for each flight crewmember
on flight deck duty.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17, 1977]
§ 25.1199 Extinguishing agent contain-
ers.
(a) Each extinguishing agent con-
tainer must have a pressure relief to
prevent bursting of the container by
excessive internal pressures.
(b) The discharge end of each dis-
charge line from a pressure relief con-
nection must be located so that dis-
charge of the fire extinguishing agent
would not damage the airplane. The
line must also be located or protected
to prevent clogging caused by ice or
other foreign matter.
(c) There must be a means for each
fire extinguishing agent container to
indicate that the container has dis-
charged or that the charging pressure
is below the established minimum nec-
essary for proper functioning.
(d) The temperature of each con-
tainer must be maintained, under in-
tended operating conditions, to prevent
the pressure in the container from—
§ 25.1201
(1) Falling below that necessary to
provide an adequate rate of discharge;
or
(2) Rising high enough to cause pre-
mature discharge.
(e) If a pyrotechnic capsule is used to
discharge the extinguishing agent,
each container must be installed so
that temperature conditions will not
cause hazardous deterioration of the
pyrotechnic capsule.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17, 1977]
§ 25.1201 Fire extinguishing system
materials.
(a) No material in any fire extin-
guishing system may react chemically
with any extinguishing agent so as to
create a hazard.
(b) Each system component in an en-
gine compartment must be fireproof.
§ 25.1203 Fire detector system.
(a) There must be approved, quick
acting fire or overheat detectors in
each designated fire zone, and in the
combustion, turbine, and tailpipe sec-
tions of turbine engine installations, in
numbers and locations ensuring
prompt detection of fire in those zones.
(b) Each fire detector system must be
constructed and installed so that—
(1) It will withstand the vibration, in-
ertia, and other loads to which it may
be subjected in operation;
(2) There is a means to warn the crew
in the event that the sensor or associ-
ated wiring within a designated fire
zone is severed at one point, unless the
system continues to function as a sat-
isfactory detection system after the
severing; and
(3) There is a means to warn the crew
in the event of a short circuit in the
sensor or associated wiring within a
designated fire zone, unless the system
continues to function as a satisfactory
detection system after the short cir-
cuit.
(c) No fire or overheat detector may
be affected by any oil, water, other
fluids or fumes that might be present.
(d) There must be means to allow the
crew to check, in flight, the function-
ing of each fire or overheat detector
electric circuit.
442
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(e) Wiring and other components of
each fire or overheat detector system
in a fire zone must be at least fire-re-
sistant.
(f) No fire or overheat detector sys-
tem component for any fire zone may
pass through another fire zone, un-
less—
(1) It is protected against the possi-
bility of false warnings resulting from
fires in zones through which it passes;
or
(2) Each zone involved is simulta-
neously protected by the same detector
and extinguishing system.
(g) Each fire detector system must be
constructed so that when it is in the
configuration for installation it will
not exceed the alarm activation time
approved for the detectors using the re-
sponse time criteria specified in the ap-
propriate Technical Standard Order for
the detector.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–26, 36 FR 5493, Mar. 24, 1971]
§ 25.1207 Compliance.
Unless otherwise specified, compli-
ance with the requirements of §§ 25.1181
through 25.1203 must be shown by a full
scale fire test or by one or more of the
following methods:
(a) Tests of similar powerplant con-
figurations;
(b) Tests of components;
(c) Service experience of aircraft
with similar powerplant configura-
tions;
(d) Analysis.
[Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30, 1978]
Subpart F—Equipment
GENERAL
§ 25.1301 Function and installation.
Each item of installed equipment
must—
(a) Be of a kind and design appro-
priate to its intended function;
(b) Be labeled as to its identification,
function, or operating limitations, or
any applicable combination of these
factors;
(c) Be installed according to limita-
tions specified for that equipment; and
(d) Function properly when installed.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
§ 25.1303 Flight and navigation instru-
ments.
(a) The following flight and naviga-
tion instruments must be installed so
that the instrument is visible from
each pilot station:
(1) A free air temperature indicator
or an air-temperature indicator which
provides indications that are convert-
ible to free-air temperature.
(2) A clock displaying hours, min-
utes, and seconds with a sweep-second
pointer or digital presentation.
(3) A direction indicator (non-
stabilized magnetic compass).
(b) The following flight and naviga-
tion instruments must be installed at
each pilot station:
(1) An airspeed indicator. If airspeed
limitations vary with altitude, the in-
dicator must have a maximum allow-
able airspeed indicator showing the
variation of VMO with altitude.
(2) An altimeter (sensitive).
(3) A rate-of-climb indicator (vertical
speed).
(4) A gyroscopic rate-of-turn indica-
tor combined with an integral slip-skid
indicator (turn-and-bank indicator) ex-
cept that only a slip-skid indicator is
required on large airplanes with a third
attitude instrument system useable
through flight attitudes of 360° of pitch
and roll and installed in accordance
with § 121.305(k) of this title.
(5) A bank and pitch indicator (gyro-
scopically stabilized).
(6) A direction indicator (gyroscop-
ically stabilized, magnetic or non-
magnetic).
(c) The following flight and naviga-
tion instruments are required as pre-
scribed in this paragraph:
(1) A speed warning device is required
for turbine engine powered airplanes
and for airplanes with VMO/MMO great-
er than 0.8 VDF/MDF or 0.8 V D/MD. The
speed warning device must give effec-
tive aural warning (differing distinc-
tively from aural warnings used for
other purposes) to the pilots, whenever
the speed exceeds VMO plus 6 knots or
MMO +0.01. The upper limit of the pro-
duction tolerance for the warning de-
vice may not exceed the prescribed
warning speed.
(2) A machmeter is required at each
pilot station for airplanes with com-
pressibility limitations not otherwise
443
§ 25.1305
indicated to the pilot by the airspeed
indicating system required under para-
graph (b)(1) of this section.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–24, 35 FR 7108, May 6,
1970; Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20, 1976;
Amdt. 25–90, 62 FR 13253, Mar. 19, 1997]
§ 25.1305 Powerplant instruments.
The following are required power-
plant instruments:
(a) For all airplanes. (1) A fuel pres-
sure warning means for each engine, or
a master warning means for all engines
with provision for isolating the individ-
ual warning means from the master
warning means.
(2) A fuel quantity indicator for each
fuel tank.
(3) An oil quantity indicator for each
oil tank.
(4) An oil pressure indicator for each
independent pressure oil system of
each engine.
(5) An oil pressure warning means for
each engine, or a master warning
means for all engines with provision
for isolating the individual warning
means from the master warning means.
(6) An oil temperature indicator for
each engine.
(7) Fire-warning indicators.
(8) An augmentation liquid quantity
indicator (appropriate for the manner
in which the liquid is to be used in op-
eration) for each tank.
(b) For reciprocating engine-powered
airplanes. In addition to the powerplant
instruments required by paragraph (a)
of this section, the following power-
plant instruments are required:
(1) A carburetor air temperature indi-
cator for each engine.
(2) A cylinder head temperature indi-
cator for each air-cooled engine.
(3) A manifold pressure indicator for
each engine.
(4) A fuel pressure indicator (to indi-
cate the pressure at which the fuel is
supplied) for each engine.
(5) A fuel flowmeter, or fuel mixture
indicator, for each engine without an
automatic altitude mixture control.
(6) A tachometer for each engine.
(7) A device that indicates, to the
flight crew (during flight), any change
in the power output, for each engine
with—
§ 25.1307
(i) An automatic propeller feathering
system, whose operation is initiated by
a power output measuring system; or
(ii) A total engine piston displace-
ment of 2,000 cubic inches or more.
(8) A means to indicate to the pilot
when the propeller is in reverse pitch,
for each reversing propeller.
(c) For turbine engine-powered air-
planes. In addition to the powerplant
instruments required by paragraph (a)
of this section, the following power-
plant instruments are required:
(1) A gas temperature indicator for
each engine.
(2) A fuel flowmeter indicator for
each engine.
(3) A tachometer (to indicate the
speed of the rotors with established
limiting speeds) for each engine.
(4) A means to indicate, to the flight
crew, the operation of each engine
starter that can be operated continu-
ously but that is neither designed for
continuous operation nor designed to
prevent hazard if it failed.
(5) An indicator to indicate the func-
tioning of the powerplant ice protec-
tion system for each engine.
(6) An indicator for the fuel strainer
or filter required by § 25.997 to indicate
the occurrence of contamination of the
strainer or filter before it reaches the
capacity established in accordance
with § 25.997(d).
(7) A warning means for the oil
strainer or filter required by § 25.1019, if
it has no bypass, to warn the pilot of
the occurrence of contamination of the
strainer or filter screen before it
reaches the capacity established in ac-
cordance with § 25.1019(a)(2).
(8) An indicator to indicate the prop-
er functioning of any heater used to
prevent ice clogging of fuel system
components.
(d) For turbojet engine powered air-
planes. In addition to the powerplant
instruments required by paragraphs (a)
and (c) of this section, the following
powerplant instruments are required:
(1) An indicator to indicate thrust, or
a parameter that is directly related to
thrust, to the pilot. The indication
must be based on the direct measure-
ment of thrust or of parameters that
are directly related to thrust. The indi-
cator must indicate a change in thrust
444
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
resulting from any engine malfunction,
damage, or deterioration.
(2) A position indicating means to in-
dicate to the flight crew when the
thrust reversing device is in the re-
verse thrust position, for each engine
using a thrust reversing device.
(3) An indicator to indicate rotor sys-
tem unbalance.
(e) For turbopropeller-powered air-
planes. In addition to the powerplant
instruments required by paragraphs (a)
and (c) of this section, the following
powerplant instruments are required:
(1) A torque indicator for each en-
gine.
(2) Position indicating means to indi-
cate to the flight crew when the propel-
ler blade angle is below the flight low
pitch position, for each propeller.
(f) For airplanes equipped with fluid
systems (other than fuel) for thrust or
power augmentation, an approved
means must be provided to indicate the
proper functioning of that system to
the flight crew.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–35, 39 FR 1831, Jan. 15,
1974; Amdt. 25–36, 39 FR 35461, Oct. 1, 1974;
Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20, 1976; Amdt.
25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt. 25–72,
55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1307 Miscellaneous equipment.
The following is required miscellane-
ous equipment:
(a) [Reserved]
(b) Two or more independent sources
of electrical energy.
(c) Electrical protective devices, as
prescribed in this part.
(d) Two systems for two-way radio
communications, with controls for
each accessible from each pilot station,
designed and installed so that failure of
one system will not preclude operation
of the other system. The use of a com-
mon antenna system is acceptable if
adequate reliability is shown.
(e) Two systems for radio navigation,
with controls for each accessible from
each pilot station, designed and in-
stalled so that failure of one system
will not preclude operation of the other
system. The use of a common antenna
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
system is acceptable if adequate reli-
ability is shown.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5678, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30,
1978; Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept. 11, 1980;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1309 Equipment, systems, and in-
stallations.
(a) The equipment, systems, and in-
stallations whose functioning is re-
quired by this subchapter, must be de-
signed to ensure that they perform
their intended functions under any
foreseeable operating condition.
(b) The airplane systems and associ-
ated components, considered sepa-
rately and in relation to other systems,
must be designed so that—
(1) The occurrence of any failure con-
dition which would prevent the contin-
ued safe flight and landing of the air-
plane is extremely improbable, and
(2) The occurrence of any other fail-
ure conditions which would reduce the
capability of the airplane or the ability
of the crew to cope with adverse oper-
ating conditions is improbable.
(c) Warning information must be pro-
vided to alert the crew to unsafe sys-
tem operating conditions, and to en-
able them to take appropriate correc-
tive action. Systems, controls, and as-
sociated monitoring and warning
means must be designed to minimize
crew errors which could create addi-
tional hazards.
(d) Compliance with the require-
ments of paragraph (b) of this section
must be shown by analysis, and where
necessary, by appropriate ground,
flight, or simulator tests. The analysis
must consider—
(1) Possible modes of failure, includ-
ing malfunctions and damage from ex-
ternal sources.
(2) The probability of multiple fail-
ures and undetected failures.
(3) The resulting effects on the air-
plane and occupants, considering the
stage of flight and operating condi-
tions, and
(4) The crew warning cues, corrective
action required, and the capability of
detecting faults.
(e) Each installation whose function-
ing is required by this subchapter, and
that requires a power supply, is an ‘‘es-
sential load’’ on the power supply. The
445
§ 25.1316
power sources and the system must be
able to supply the following power
loads in probable operating combina-
tions and for probable durations:
(1) Loads connected to the system
with the system functioning normally.
(2) Essential loads, after failure of
any one prime mover, power converter,
or energy storage device.
(3) Essential loads after failure of—
(i) Any one engine on two-engine air-
planes; and
(ii) Any two engines on three-or-
more-engine airplanes.
(4) Essential loads for which an alter-
nate source of power is required by this
chapter, after any failure or malfunc-
tion in any one power supply system,
distribution system, or other utiliza-
tion system.
(f) In determining compliance with
paragraphs (e)(2) and (3) of this section,
the power loads may be assumed to be
reduced under a monitoring procedure
consistent with safety in the kinds of
operation authorized. Loads not re-
quired in controlled flight need not be
considered for the two-engine-inoper-
ative condition on airplanes with three
or more engines.
(g) In showing compliance with para-
graphs (a) and (b) of this section with
regard to the electrical system and
equipment design and installation,
critical environmental conditions must
be considered. For electrical genera-
tion, distribution, and utilization
equipment required by or used in com-
plying with this chapter, except equip-
ment covered by Technical Standard
Orders containing environmental test
procedures, the ability to provide con-
tinuous, safe service under foreseeable
environmental conditions may be
shown by environmental tests, design
analysis, or reference to previous com-
parable service experience on other air-
craft.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5679, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18, 1977]
§ 25.1316 System lightning protection.
(a) For functions whose failure would
contribute to or cause a condition that
would prevent the continued safe flight
and landing of the airplane, each elec-
trical and electronic system that per-
forms these functions must be designed
§ 25.1321
and installed to ensure that the oper-
ation and operational capabilities of
the systems to perform these functions
are not adversely affected when the
airplane is exposed to lightning.
(b) For functions whose failure would
contribute to or cause a condition that
would reduce the capability of the air-
plane or the ability of the flightcrew to
cope with adverse operating conditions,
each electrical and electronic system
that performs these functions must be
designed and installed to ensure that
these functions can be recovered in a
timely manner after the airplane is ex-
posed to lightning.
(c) Compliance with the lightning
protection criteria prescribed in para-
graphs (a) and (b) of this section must
be shown for exposure to a severe light-
ning environment. The applicant must
design for and verify that aircraft elec-
trical/electronic systems are protected
against the effects of lightning by:
(1) Determining the lightning strike
zones for the airplane;
(2) Establishing the external light-
ning environment for the zones;
(3) Establishing the internal environ-
ment;
(4) Identifying all the electrical and
electronic systems that are subject to
the requirements of this section, and
their locations on or within the air-
plane;
(5) Establishing the susceptibility of
the systems to the internal and exter-
nal lightning environment;
(6) Designing protection; and
(7) Verifying that the protection is
adequate.
[Doc. No. 25912, 59 FR 22116, Apr. 28, 1994]
INSTRUMENTS: INSTALLATION
§ 25.1321 Arrangement and visibility.
(a) Each flight, navigation, and pow-
erplant instrument for use by any pilot
must be plainly visible to him from his
station with the minimum practicable
deviation from his normal position and
line of vision when he is looking for-
ward along the flight path.
(b) The flight instruments required
by § 25.1303 must be grouped on the in-
strument panel and centered as nearly
as practicable about the vertical plane
of the pilot’s forward vision. In addi-
tion—
446
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(1) The instrument that most effec-
tively indicates attitude must be on
the panel in the top center position;
(2) The instrument that most effec-
tively indicates airspeed must be adja-
cent to and directly to the left of the
instrument in the top center position:
(3) The instrument that most effec-
tively indicates altitude must be adja-
cent to and directly to the right of the
instrument in the top center position;
and
(4) The instrument that most effec-
tively indicates direction of flight
must be adjacent to and directly below
the instrument in the top center posi-
tion.
(c) Required powerplant instruments
must be closely grouped on the instru-
ment panel. In addition—
(1) The location of identical power-
plant instruments for the engines must
prevent confusion as to which engine
each instrument relates; and
(2) Powerplant instruments vital to
the safe operation of the airplane must
be plainly visible to the appropriate
crewmembers.
(d) Instrument panel vibration may
not damage or impair the accuracy of
any instrument.
(e) If a visual indicator is provided to
indicate malfunction of an instrument,
it must be effective under all probable
cockpit lighting conditions.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5679, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18,
1977]
§ 25.1322 Warning, caution, and advi-
sory lights.
If warning, caution or advisory lights
are installed in the cockpit, they must,
unless otherwise approved by the Ad-
ministrator, be—
(a) Red, for warning lights (lights in-
dicating a hazard which may require
immediate corrective action);
(b) Amber, for caution lights (lights
indicating the possible need for future
corrective action);
(c) Green, for safe operation lights;
and
(d) Any other color, including white,
for lights not described in paragraphs
(a) through (c) of this section, provided
the color differs sufficiently from the
colors prescribed in paragraphs (a)
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
through (c) of this section to avoid pos-
sible confusion.
[Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55467, Dec. 20, 1976]
§ 25.1323 Airspeed indicating system.
For each airspeed indicating system,
the following apply:
(a) Each airspeed indicating instru-
ment must be approved and must be
calibrated to indicate true airspeed (at
sea level with a standard atmosphere)
with a minimum practicable instru-
ment calibration error when the cor-
responding pitot and static pressures
are applied.
(b) Each system must be calibrated
to determine the system error (that is,
the relation between IAS and CAS) in
flight and during the accelerated take-
off ground run. The ground run calibra-
tion must be determined—
(1) From 0.8 of the minimum value of
V1 to the maximum value of V2, consid-
ering the approved ranges of altitude
and weight; and
(2) With the flaps and power settings
corresponding to the values determined
in the establishment of the takeoff
path under § 25.111 assuming that the
critical engine fails at the minimum
value of V1.
(c) The airspeed error of the installa-
tion, excluding the airspeed indicator
instrument calibration error, may not
exceed three percent or five knots,
whichever is greater, throughout the
speed range, from—
(1) VMO to 1.3 VS1, with flaps re-
tracted; and
(2) 1.3 VS0 to VFE with flaps in the
landing position.
(d) Each system must be arranged, so
far as practicable, to prevent malfunc-
tion or serious error due to the entry of
moisture, dirt, or other substances.
(e) Each system must have a heated
pitot tube or an equivalent means of
preventing malfunction due to icing.
(f) Where duplicate airspeed indica-
tors are required, their respective pitot
tubes must be far enough apart to
avoid damage to both tubes in a colli-
sion with a bird.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–57, 49 FR 6849, Feb. 23,
1984]
447
§ 25.1325
§ 25.1325 Static pressure systems.
(a) Each instrument with static air
case connections must be vented to the
outside atmosphere through an appro-
priate piping system.
(b) Each static port must be designed
and located in such manner that the
static pressure system performance is
least affected by airflow variation, or
by moisture or other foreign matter,
and that the correlation between air
pressure in the static pressure system
and true ambient atmospheric static
pressure is not changed when the air-
plane is exposed to the continuous and
intermittent maximum icing condi-
tions defined in appendix C of this part.
(c) The design and installation of the
static pressure system must be such
that—
(1) Positive drainage of moisture is
provided; chafing of the tubing and ex-
cessive distortion or restriction at
bends in the tubing is avoided; and the
materials used are durable, suitable for
the purpose intended, and protected
against corrosion; and
(2) It is airtight except for the port
into the atmosphere. A proof test must
be conducted to demonstrate the integ-
rity of the static pressure system in
the following manner:
(i) Unpressurized airplanes. Evacuate
the static pressure system to a pres-
sure differential of approximately 1
inch of mercury or to a reading on the
altimeter, 1,000 feet above the airplane
elevation at the time of the test. With-
out additional pumping for a period of
1 minute, the loss of indicated altitude
must not exceed 100 feet on the altim-
eter.
(ii) Pressurized airplanes. Evacuate
the static pressure system until a pres-
sure differential equivalent to the max-
imum cabin pressure differential for
which the airplane is type certificated
is achieved. Without additional pump-
ing for a period of 1 minute, the loss of
indicated altitude must not exceed 2
percent of the equivalent altitude of
the maximum cabin differential pres-
sure or 100 feet, whichever is greater.
(d) Each pressure altimeter must be
approved and must be calibrated to in-
dicate pressure altitude in a standard
atmosphere, with a minimum prac-
ticable calibration error when the cor-
responding static pressures are applied.
§ 25.1326
(e) Each system must be designed and
installed so that the error in indicated
pressure altitude, at sea level, with a
standard atmosphere, excluding instru-
ment calibration error, does not result
in an error of more than ±30 feet per 100
knots speed for the appropriate con-
figuration in the speed range between
1.3 VS0 with flaps extended and 1.8 VS1
with flaps retracted. However, the
error need not be less than ±30 feet.
(f) If an altimeter system is fitted
with a device that provides corrections
to the altimeter indication, the device
must be designed and installed in such
manner that it can be bypassed when it
malfunctions, unless an alternate al-
timeter system is provided. Each cor-
rection device must be fitted with a
means for indicating the occurrence of
reasonably probable malfunctions, in-
cluding power failure, to the flight
crew. The indicating means must be ef-
fective for any cockpit lighting condi-
tion likely to occur.
(g) Except as provided in paragraph
(h) of this section, if the static pressure
system incorporates both a primary
and an alternate static pressure source,
the means for selecting one or the
other source must be designed so
that—
(1) When either source is selected, the
other is blocked off; and
(2) Both sources cannot be blocked
off simultaneously.
(h) For unpressurized airplanes, para-
graph (g)(1) of this section does not
apply if it can be demonstrated that
the static pressure system calibration,
when either static pressure source is
selected, is not changed by the other
static pressure source being open or
blocked.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–5, 30 FR 8261, June 29,
1965; Amdt. 25–12, 32 FR 7587, May 24, 1967;
Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18, 1977]
§ 25.1326 Pitot heat indication systems.
If a flight instrument pitot heating
system is installed, an indication sys-
tem must be provided to indicate to
the flight crew when that pitot heating
system is not operating. The indication
system must comply with the following
requirements:
448
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(a) The indication provided must in-
corporate an amber light that is in
clear view of a flight crewmember.
(b) The indication provided must be
designed to alert the flight crew if ei-
ther of the following conditions exist:
(1) The pitot heating system is
switched ‘‘off’’.
(2) The pitot heating system is
switched ‘‘on’’ and any pitot tube heat-
ing element is inoperative.
[Amdt. 25–43, 43 FR 10339, Mar. 13, 1978]
§ 25.1327 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) Each magnetic direction indicator
must be installed so that its accuracy
is not excessively affected by the air-
plane’s vibration or magnetic fields.
(b) The compensated installation
may not have a deviation, in level
flight, greater than 10 degrees on any
heading.
§ 25.1329 Automatic pilot system.
(a) Each automatic pilot system
must be approved and must be designed
so that the automatic pilot can be
quickly and positively disengaged by
the pilots to prevent it from interfer-
ing with their control of the airplane.
(b) Unless there is automatic syn-
chronization, each system must have a
means to readily indicate to the pilot
the alignment of the actuating device
in relation to the control system it op-
erates.
(c) Each manually operated control
for the system must be readily acces-
sible to the pilots.
(d) Quick release (emergency) con-
trols must be on both control wheels,
on the side of each wheel opposite the
throttles.
(e) Attitude controls must operate in
the plane and sense of motion specified
in §§ 25.777(b) and 25.779(a) for cockpit
controls. The direction of motion must
be plainly indicated on, or adjacent to,
each control.
(f) The system must be designed and
adjusted so that, within the range of
adjustment available to the human
pilot, it cannot produce hazardous
loads on the airplane, or create hazard-
ous deviations in the flight path, under
any condition of flight appropriate to
its use, either during normal operation
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
or in the event of a malfunction, as-
suming that corrective action begins
within a reasonable period of time.
(g) If the automatic pilot integrates
signals from auxiliary controls or fur-
nishes signals for operation of other
equipment, there must be positive
interlocks and sequencing of engage-
ment to prevent improper operation.
Protection against adverse interaction
of integrated components, resulting
from a malfunction, is also required.
(h) If the automatic pilot system can
be coupled to airborne navigation
equipment, means must be provided to
indicate to the flight crew the current
mode of operation. Selector switch po-
sition is not acceptable as a means of
indication.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30,
1978]
§ 25.1331 Instruments using a power
supply.
(a) For each instrument required by
§ 25.1303(b) that uses a power supply,
the following apply:
(1) Each instrument must have a vis-
ual means integral with, the instru-
ment, to indicate when power adequate
to sustain proper instrument perform-
ance is not being supplied. The power
must be measured at or near the point
where it enters the instruments. For
electric instruments, the power is con-
sidered to be adequate when the volt-
age is within approved limits.
(2) Each instrument must, in the
event of the failure of one power
source, be supplied by another power
source. This may be accomplished
automatically or by manual means.
(3) If an instrument presenting navi-
gation data receives information from
sources external to that instrument
and loss of that information would
render the presented data unreliable,
the instrument must incorporate a vis-
ual means to warn the crew, when such
loss of information occurs, that the
presented data should not be relied
upon.
(b) As used in this section, ‘‘instru-
ment’’ includes devices that are phys-
ically contained in one unit, and de-
vices that are composed of two or more
physically separate units or compo-
nents connected together (such as a re-
449
§ 25.1337
mote indicating gyroscopic direction
indicator that includes a magnetic
sensing element, a gyroscopic unit, an
amplifier and an indicator connected
together).
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18,
1977]
§ 25.1333 Instrument systems.
For systems that operate the instru-
ments required by § 25.1303(b) which are
located at each pilot’s station—
(a) Means must be provided to con-
nect the required instruments at the
first pilot’s station to operating sys-
tems which are independent of the op-
erating systems at other flight crew
stations, or other equipment;
(b) The equipment, systems, and in-
stallations must be designed so that
one display of the information essen-
tial to the safety of flight which is pro-
vided by the instruments, including at-
titude, direction, airspeed, and altitude
will remain available to the pilots,
without additional crewmember ac-
tion, after any single failure or com-
bination of failures that is not shown
to be extremely improbable; and
(c) Additional instruments, systems,
or equipment may not be connected to
the operating systems for the required
instruments, unless provisions are
made to ensure the continued normal
functioning of the required instru-
ments in the event of any malfunction
of the additional instruments, systems,
or equipment which is not shown to be
extremely improbable.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5679, Apr. 8, 1970, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18,
1977]
§ 25.1335 Flight director systems.
If a flight director system is in-
stalled, means must be provided to in-
dicate to the flight crew its current
mode of operation. Selector switch po-
sition is not acceptable as a means of
indication.
[Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18, 1977]
§ 25.1337 Powerplant instruments.
(a) Instruments and instrument lines.
(1) Each powerplant and auxiliary
power unit instrument line must meet
the requirements of §§ 25.993 and 25.1183.
§ 25.1351
(2) Each line carrying flammable
fluids under pressure must—
(i) Have restricting orifices or other
safety devices at the source of pressure
to prevent the escape of excessive fluid
if the line fails; and
(ii) Be installed and located so that
the escape of fluids would not create a
hazard.
(3) Each powerplant and auxiliary
power unit instrument that utilizes
flammable fluids must be installed and
located so that the escape of fluid
would not create a hazard.
(b) Fuel quantity indicator. There
must be means to indicate to the flight
crewmembers, the quantity, in gallons
or equivalent units, of usable fuel in
each tank during flight. In addition—
(1) Each fuel quantity indicator must
be calibrated to read ‘‘zero’’ during
level flight when the quantity of fuel
remaining in the tank is equal to the
unusable fuel supply determined under
§ 25.959;
(2) Tanks with interconnected outlets
and airspaces may be treated as one
tank and need not have separate indi-
cators; and
(3) Each exposed sight gauge, used as
a fuel quantity indicator, must be pro-
tected against damage.
(c) Fuel flowmeter system. If a fuel
flowmeter system is installed, each
metering component must have a
means for bypassing the fuel supply if
malfunction of that component se-
verely restricts fuel flow.
(d) Oil quantity indicator. There must
be a stick gauge or equivalent means
to indicate the quantity of oil in each
tank. If an oil transfer or reserve oil
supply system is installed, there must
be a means to indicate to the flight
crew, in flight, the quantity of oil in
each tank.
(e) Turbopropeller blade position indi-
cator. Required turbopropeller blade
position indicators must begin indicat-
ing before the blade moves more than
eight degrees below the flight low pitch
stop. The source of indication must di-
rectly sense the blade position.
(f) Fuel pressure indicator. There must
be means to measure fuel pressure, in
each system supplying reciprocating
engines, at a point downstream of any
fuel pump except fuel injection pumps.
In addition—
450
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(1) If necessary for the maintenance
of proper fuel delivery pressure, there
must be a connection to transmit the
carburetor air intake static pressure to
the proper pump relief valve connec-
tion; and
(2) If a connection is required under
paragraph (f)(1) of this section, the
gauge balance lines must be independ-
ently connected to the carburetor inlet
pressure to avoid erroneous readings.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17,
1977]
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
§ 25.1351 General.
(a) Electrical system capacity. The re-
quired generating capacity, and num-
ber and kinds of power sources must—
(1) Be determined by an electrical
load analysis; and
(2) Meet the requirements of § 25.1309.
(b) Generating system. The generating
system includes electrical power
sources, main power busses, trans-
mission cables, and associated control,
regulation, and protective devices. It
must be designed so that—
(1) Power sources function properly
when independent and when connected
in combination;
(2) No failure or malfunction of any
power source can create a hazard or
impair the ability of remaining sources
to supply essential loads;
(3) The system voltage and frequency
(as applicable) at the terminals of all
essential load equipment can be main-
tained within the limits for which the
equipment is designed, during any
probable operating condition; and
(4) System transients due to switch-
ing, fault clearing, or other causes do
not make essential loads inoperative,
and do not cause a smoke or fire haz-
ard.
(5) There are means accessible, in
flight, to appropriate crewmembers for
the individual and collective dis-
connection of the electrical power
sources from the system.
(6) There are means to indicate to ap-
propriate crewmembers the generating
system quantities essential for the safe
operation of the system, such as the
voltage and current supplied by each
generator.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(c) External power. If provisions are
made for connecting external power to
the airplane, and that external power
can be electrically connected to equip-
ment other than that used for engine
starting, means must be provided to
ensure that no external power supply
having a reverse polarity, or a reverse
phase sequence, can supply power to
the airplane’s electrical system.
(d) Operation without normal electrical
power. It must be shown by analysis,
tests, or both, that the airplane can be
operated safely in VFR conditions, for
a period of not less than five minutes,
with the normal electrical power (elec-
trical power sources excluding the bat-
tery) inoperative, with critical type
fuel (from the standpoint of flameout
and restart capability), and with the
airplane initially at the maximum cer-
tificated altitude. Parts of the elec-
trical system may remain on if—
(1) A single malfunction, including a
wire bundle or junction box fire, can-
not result in loss of both the part
turned off and the part turned on; and
(2) The parts turned on are elec-
trically and mechanically isolated
from the parts turned off.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18,
1977; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1353 Electrical equipment and in-
stallations.
(a) Electrical equipment, controls,
and wiring must be installed so that
operation of any one unit or system of
units will not adversely affect the si-
multaneous operation of any other
electrical unit or system essential to
the safe operation.
(b) Cables must be grouped, routed,
and spaced so that damage to essential
circuits will be minimized if there are
faults in heavy current-carrying ca-
bles.
(c) Storage batteries must be de-
signed and installed as follows:
(1) Safe cell temperatures and pres-
sures must be maintained during any
probable charging or discharging con-
dition. No uncontrolled increase in cell
temperature may result when the bat-
tery is recharged (after previous com-
plete discharge)—
(i) At maximum regulated voltage or
power;
451
§ 25.1355
(ii) During a flight of maximum dura-
tion; and
(iii) Under the most adverse cooling
condition likely to occur in service.
(2) Compliance with paragraph (c)(1)
of this section must be shown by test
unless experience with similar bat-
teries and installations has shown that
maintaining safe cell temperatures and
pressures presents no problem.
(3) No explosive or toxic gases emit-
ted by any battery in normal oper-
ation, or as the result of any probable
malfunction in the charging system or
battery installation, may accumulate
in hazardous quantities within the air-
plane.
(4) No corrosive fluids or gases that
may escape from the battery may dam-
age surrounding airplane structures or
adjacent essential equipment.
(5) Each nickel cadmium battery in-
stallation capable of being used to
start an engine or auxiliary power unit
must have provisions to prevent any
hazardous effect on structure or essen-
tial systems that may be caused by the
maximum amount of heat the battery
can generate during a short circuit of
the battery or of its individual cells.
(6) Nickel cadmium battery installa-
tions capable of being used to start an
engine or auxiliary power unit must
have—
(i) A system to control the charging
rate of the battery automatically so as
to prevent battery overheating;
(ii) A battery temperature sensing
and over-temperature warning system
with a means for disconnecting the
battery from its charging source in the
event of an over-temperature condi-
tion; or
(iii) A battery failure sensing and
warning system with a means for dis-
connecting the battery from its charg-
ing source in the event of battery fail-
ure.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18,
1977; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978]
§ 25.1355 Distribution system.
(a) The distribution system includes
the distribution busses, their associ-
ated feeders, and each control and pro-
tective device.
(b) [Reserved]
§ 25.1357
(c) If two independent sources of elec-
trical power for particular equipment
or systems are required by this chap-
ter, in the event of the failure of one
power source for such equipment or
system, another power source (includ-
ing its separate feeder) must be auto-
matically provided or be manually se-
lectable to maintain equipment or sys-
tem operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5679, Apr. 8,
1970; Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20, 1976]
§ 25.1357 Circuit protective devices.
(a) Automatic protective devices
must be used to minimize distress to
the electrical system and hazard to the
airplane in the event of wiring faults or
serious malfunction of the system or
connected equipment.
(b) The protective and control de-
vices in the generating system must be
designed to de-energize and disconnect
faulty power sources and power trans-
mission equipment from their associ-
ated busses with sufficient rapidity to
provide protection from hazardous
over-voltage and other malfunctioning.
(c) Each resettable circuit protective
device must be designed so that, when
an overload or circuit fault exists, it
will open the circuit irrespective of the
position of the operating control.
(d) If the ability to reset a circuit
breaker or replace a fuse is essential to
safety in flight, that circuit breaker or
fuse must be located and identified so
that it can be readily reset or replaced
in flight.
(e) Each circuit for essential loads
must have individual circuit protec-
tion. However, individual protection
for each circuit in an essential load
system (such as each position light cir-
cuit in a system) is not required.
(f) If fuses are used, there must be
spare fuses for use in flight equal to at
least 50 percent of the number of fuses
of each rating required for complete
circuit protection.
(g) Automatic reset circuit breakers
may be used as integral protectors for
electrical equipment (such as thermal
cut-outs) if there is circuit protection
to protect the cable to the equipment.
452
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
§ 25.1363 Electrical system tests.
(a) When laboratory tests of the elec-
trical system are conducted—
(1) The tests must be performed on a
mock-up using the same generating
equipment used in the airplane;
(2) The equipment must simulate the
electrical characteristics of the dis-
tribution wiring and connected loads to
the extent necessary for valid test re-
sults; and
(3) Laboratory generator drives must
simulate the actual prime movers on
the airplane with respect to their reac-
tion to generator loading, including
loading due to faults.
(b) For each flight condition that
cannot be simulated adequately in the
laboratory or by ground tests on the
airplane, flight tests must be made.
LIGHTS
§ 25.1381 Instrument lights.
(a) The instrument lights must—
(1) Provide sufficient illumination to
make each instrument, switch and
other device necessary for safe oper-
ation easily readable unless sufficient
illumination is available from another
source; and
(2) Be installed so that—
(i) Their direct rays are shielded from
the pilot’s eyes; and
(ii) No objectionable reflections are
visible to the pilot.
(b) Unless undimmed instrument
lights are satisfactory under each ex-
pected flight condition, there must be a
means to control the intensity of illu-
mination.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20,
1990]
§ 25.1383 Landing lights.
(a) Each landing light must be ap-
proved, and must be installed so that—
(1) No objectionable glare is visible
to the pilot;
(2) The pilot is not adversely affected
by halation; and
(3) It provides enough light for night
landing.
(b) Except when one switch is used
for the lights of a multiple light instal-
lation at one location, there must be a
separate switch for each light.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(c) There must be a means to indicate
to the pilots when the landing lights
are extended.
§ 25.1385 Position light system installa-
tion.
(a) General. Each part of each posi-
tion light system must meet the appli-
cable requirements of this section and
each system as a whole must meet the
requirements of §§ 25.1387 through
25.1397.
(b) Forward position lights. Forward
position lights must consist of a red
and a green light spaced laterally as
far apart as practicable and installed
forward on the airplane so that, with
the airplane in the normal flying posi-
tion, the red light is on the left side
and the green light is on the right side.
Each light must be approved.
(c) Rear position light. The rear posi-
tion light must be a white light mount-
ed as far aft as practicable on the tail
or on each wing tip, and must be ap-
proved.
(d) Light covers and color filters. Each
light cover or color filter must be at
least flame resistant and may not
change color or shape or lose any ap-
preciable light transmission during
normal use.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.1387 Position light system dihe-
dral angles.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph
(e) of this section, each forward and
rear position light must, as installed,
show unbroken light within the dihe-
dral angles described in this section.
(b) Dihedral angle L (left) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the airplane, and the other at 110 de-
grees to the left of the first, as viewed
when looking forward along the longi-
tudinal axis.
(c) Dihedral angle R (right) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes, the
first parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the airplane, and the other at 110 de-
grees to the right of the first, as viewed
when looking forward along the longi-
tudinal axis.
(d) Dihedral angle A (aft) is formed
by two intersecting vertical planes
453
§ 25.1389
making angles of 70 degrees to the
right and to the left, respectively, to a
vertical plane passing through the lon-
gitudinal axis, as viewed when looking
aft along the longitudinal axis.
(e) If the rear position light, when
mounted as far aft as practicable in ac-
cordance with § 25.1385(c), cannot show
unbroken light within dihedral angle A
(as defined in paragraph (d) of this sec-
tion), a solid angle or angles of ob-
structed visibility totaling not more
than 0.04 steradians is allowable within
that dihedral angle, if such solid angle
is within a cone whose apex is at the
rear position light and whose elements
make an angle of 30° with a vertical
line passing through the rear position
light.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–30, 36 FR 21278, Nov. 5,
1971]
§ 25.1389 Position light distribution
and intensities.
(a) General. The intensities prescribed
in this section must be provided by new
equipment with light covers and color
filters in place. Intensities must be de-
termined with the light source operat-
ing at a steady value equal to the aver-
age luminous output of the source at
the normal operating voltage of the
airplane. The light distribution and in-
tensity of each position light must
meet the requirements of paragraph (b)
of this section.
(b) Forward and rear position lights.
The light distribution and intensities
of forward and rear position lights
must be expressed in terms of mini-
mum intensities in the horizontal
plane, minimum intensities in any ver-
tical plane, and maximum intensities
in overlapping beams, within dihedral
angles L, R, and A, and must meet the
following requirements:
(1) Intensities in the horizontal plane.
Each intensity in the horizontal plane
(the plane containing the longitudinal
axis of the airplane and perpendicular
to the plane of symmetry of the air-
plane) must equal or exceed the values
in § 25.1391.
(2) Intensities in any vertical plane.
Each intensity in any vertical plane
(the plane perpendicular to the hori-
zontal plane) must equal or exceed the
appropriate value in § 25.1393, where I is
§ 25.1391 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

the minimum intensity prescribed in § 25.1395 Maximum intensities in over-

§ 25.1391 for the corresponding angles in lapping beams of forward and rear
the horizontal plane. position lights.
(3) Intensities in overlaps between adja- No position light intensity may ex-
cent signals. No intensity in any over- ceed the applicable values in the fol-
lap between adjacent signals may ex- lowing table, except as provided in
ceed the values given in § 25.1395, except § 25.1389(b)(3).
that higher intensities in overlaps may
Maximum intensity
be used with main beam intensities
Overlaps
substantially greater than the minima Area A Area B
(candles) (candles)
specified in §§ 25.1391 and 25.1393 if the
overlap intensities in relation to the Green in dihedral angle L .............. 10 1
main beam intensities do not adversely Red in dihedral angle R ................. 10 1
affect signal clarity. When the peak in- Green in dihedral angle A .............. 5 1
Red in dihedral angle A ................. 5 1
tensity of the forward position lights is Rear white in dihedral angle L ....... 5 1
more than 100 candles, the maximum Rear white in dihedral angle R ...... 5 1
overlap intensities between them may
exceed the values given in § 25.1395 if Where—
the overlap intensity in Area A is not (a) Area A includes all directions in
more than 10 percent of peak position the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
light intensity and the overlap inten- through the light source and intersect
sity in Area B is not greater than 2.5 the common boundary plane at more
percent of peak position light inten- than 10 degrees but less than 20 de-
sity. grees; and
(b) Area B includes all directions in
§ 25.1391 Minimum intensities in the
the adjacent dihedral angle that pass
horizontal plane of forward and
rear position lights. through the light source and intersect
the common boundary plane at more
Each position light intensity must than 20 degrees.
equal or exceed the applicable values in
the following table: § 25.1397 Color specifications.
Angle from right Each position light color must have
Dihedral angle (light in- or left of longitu- Intensity the applicable International Commis-
dinal axis, meas-
cluded) ured from dead (candles) sion on Illumination chromaticity co-
ahead ordinates as follows:
L and R (forward red and 0° to 10° .............. 40
(a) Aviation red—
green). 10° to 20° ............ 30
‘‘y’’ is not greater than 0.335; and
20° to 110° .......... 5
A (rear white) ..................... 110° to 180° ........ 20 ‘‘z’’ is not greater than 0.002.
(b) Aviation green—
§ 25.1393 Minimum intensities in any ‘‘x’’ is not greater than 0.440–0.320 y ;
vertical plane of forward and rear ‘‘x’’ is not greater than y —0.170; and
position lights.
‘‘y’’ is not less than 0.390–0.170 x.
Each position light intensity must
equal or exceed the applicable values in (c) Aviation white—
the following table: ‘‘x’’ is not less than 0.300 and not greater
than 0.540;
Angle above or below the horizontal plane Intensity, l ‘‘y’’ is not less than ‘‘x —0.040’’ or ‘‘y0—
0.010’’, whichever is the smaller; and
0° .......................................................................... 1.00
0° to 5° ................................................................. 0.90 ‘‘y’’ is not greater than ‘‘x+0.020’’ nor
5° to 10° ............................................................... 0.80 ‘‘0.636–0.400 x’’;
10° to 15° ............................................................. 0.70 Where ‘‘y0’’ is the ‘‘y’’ coordinate of the
15° to 20° ............................................................. 0.50 Planckian radiator for the value of ‘‘x’’ con-
20° to 30° ............................................................. 0.30 sidered.
30° to 40° ............................................................. 0.10
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
40° to 90° ............................................................. 0.05
amended by Amdt. 25–27, 36 FR 12972, July 10,
1971]

454
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
§ 25.1399 Riding light.
(a) Each riding (anchor) light re-
quired for a seaplane or amphibian
must be installed so that it can—
(1) Show a white light for at least 2
nautical miles at night under clear at-
mospheric conditions; and
(2) Show the maximum unbroken
light practicable when the airplane is
moored or drifting on the water.
(b) Externally hung lights may be
used.
§ 25.1401 Anticollision light system.
(a) General. The airplane must have
an anticollision light system that—
(1) Consists of one or more approved
anticollision lights located so that
their light will not impair the crew’s
vision or detract from the conspicuity
of the position lights; and
(2) Meets the requirements of para-
graphs (b) through (f) of this section.
(b) Field of coverage. The system must
consist of enough lights to illuminate
the vital areas around the airplane
considering the physical configuration
and flight characteristics of the air-
plane. The field of coverage must ex-
tend in each direction within at least
75 degrees above and 75 degrees below
the horizontal plane of the airplane,
except that a solid angle or angles of
obstructed visibility totaling not more
than 0.03 steradians is allowable within
a solid angle equal to 0.15 steradians
centered about the longitudinal axis in
the rearward direction.
(c) Flashing characteristics. The ar-
rangement of the system, that is, the
number of light sources, beam width,
speed of rotation, and other character-
istics, must give an effective flash fre-
quency of not less than 40, nor more
than 100 cycles per minute. The effec-
tive flash frequency is the frequency at
which the airplane’s complete anti-
collision light system is observed from
a distance, and applies to each sector
of light including any overlaps that
exist when the system consists of more
than one light source. In overlaps,
flash frequencies may exceed 100, but
not 180 cycles per minute.
(d) Color. Each anticollision light
must be either aviation red or aviation
white and must meet the applicable re-
quirements of § 25.1397.
455
§ 25.1403
(e) Light intensity. The minimum
light intensities in all vertical planes,
measured with the red filter (if used)
and expressed in terms of ‘‘effective’’
intensities, must meet the require-
ments of paragraph (f) of this section.
The following relation must be as-
sumed:
t2
∫t I(t)dt
Ie = 1
0.2 + (t 2 − t 1 )
where:
Ie=effective intensity (candles).
I(t)=instantaneous intensity as a function
of time.
t2—t1=flash time interval (seconds).
Normally, the maximum value of effec-
tive intensity is obtained when t2 and t1
are chosen so that the effective inten-
sity is equal to the instantaneous in-
tensity at t2 and t1.
(f) Minimum effective intensities for
anticollision lights. Each anticollision
light effective intensity must equal or
exceed the applicable values in the fol-
lowing table.
Effective
Angle above or below the horizontal plane intensity
(candles)
0° to 5° ................................................................. 400
5° to 10° ............................................................... 240
10° to 20° ............................................................. 80
20° to 30° ............................................................. 40
30° to 75° ............................................................. 20
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–27, 36 FR 12972, July 10,
1971; Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18, 1977]
§ 25.1403 Wing icing detection lights.
Unless operations at night in known
or forecast icing conditions are prohib-
ited by an operating limitation, a
means must be provided for illuminat-
ing or otherwise determining the for-
mation of ice on the parts of the wings
that are critical from the standpoint of
ice accumulation. Any illumination
that is used must be of a type that will
not cause glare or reflection that
would handicap crewmembers in the
performance of their duties.
[Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20, 1976]
§ 25.1411
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
§ 25.1411 General.
(a) Accessibility. Required safety
equipment to be used by the crew in an
emergency must be readily accessible.
(b) Stowage provisions. Stowage provi-
sions for required emergency equip-
ment must be furnished and must—
(1) Be arranged so that the equip-
ment is directly accessible and its loca-
tion is obvious; and
(2) Protect the safety equipment
from inadvertent damage.
(c) Emergency exit descent device. The
stowage provisions for the emergency
exit descent device required by
§ 25.809(f) must be at the exits for which
they are intended.
(d) Liferafts. (1) The stowage provi-
sions for the liferafts described in
§ 25.1415 must accommodate enough
rafts for the maximum number of occu-
pants for which certification for ditch-
ing is requested.
(2) Liferafts must be stowed near
exits through which the rafts can be
launched during an unplanned ditch-
ing.
(3) Rafts automatically or remotely
released outside the airplane must be
attached to the airplane by means of
the static line prescribed in § 25.1415.
(4) The stowage provisions for each
portable liferaft must allow rapid de-
tachment and removal of the raft for
use at other than the intended exits.
(e) Long-range signaling device. The
stowage provisions for the long-range
signaling device required by § 25.1415
must be near an exit available during
an unplanned ditching.
(f) Life preserver stowage provisions.
The stowage provisions for life preserv-
ers described in § 25.1415 must accom-
modate one life preserver for each oc-
cupant for which certification for
ditching is requested. Each life pre-
server must be within easy reach of
each seated occupant.
(g) Life line stowage provisions. If cer-
tification for ditching under § 25.801 is
requested, there must be provisions to
store life lines. These provisions
must—
(1) Allow one life line to be attached
to each side of the fuselage; and
456
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(2) Be arranged to allow the life lines
to be used to enable the occupants to
stay on the wing after ditching.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3972, Feb. 24,
1972; Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30, 1978;
Amdt. 25–53, 45 FR 41593, June 19, 1980; Amdt.
25–70, 54 FR 43925, Oct. 27, 1989; Amdt. 25–79,
58 FR 45229, Aug. 26, 1993]
§ 25.1415 Ditching equipment.
(a) Ditching equipment used in air-
planes to be certificated for ditching
under § 25.801, and required by the oper-
ating rules of this chapter, must meet
the requirements of this section.
(b) Each liferaft and each life pre-
server must be approved. In addition—
(1) Unless excess rafts of enough ca-
pacity are provided, the buoyancy and
seating capacity beyond the rated ca-
pacity of the rafts must accommodate
all occupants of the airplane in the
event of a loss of one raft of the largest
rated capacity; and
(2) Each raft must have a trailing
line, and must have a static line de-
signed to hold the raft near the air-
plane but to release it if the airplane
becomes totally submerged.
(c) Approved survival equipment
must be attached to each liferaft.
(d) There must be an approved sur-
vival type emergency locator transmit-
ter for use in one life raft.
(e) For airplanes not certificated for
ditching under § 25.801 and not having
approved life preservers, there must be
an approved flotation means for each
occupant. This means must be within
easy reach of each seated occupant and
must be readily removable from the
airplane.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–29, 36 FR 18722, Sept.
21, 1971; Amdt 25–50, 45 FR 38348, June 9, 1980;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990; Amdt.
25–82, 59 FR 32057, June 21, 1994]
§ 25.1419 Ice protection.
If certification with ice protection
provisions is desired, the airplane must
be able to safely operate in the contin-
uous maximum and intermittent maxi-
mum icing conditions of appendix C. To
establish that the airplane can operate
within the continuous maximum and
intermittent maximum conditions of
appendix C:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(a) An analysis must be performed to
establish that the ice protection for
the various components of the airplane
is adequate, taking into account the
various airplane operational configura-
tions; and
(b) To verify the ice protection anal-
ysis, to check for icing anomalies, and
to demonstrate that the ice protection
system and its components are effec-
tive, the airplane or its components
must be flight tested in the various
operational configurations, in meas-
ured natural atmospheric icing condi-
tions and, as found necessary, by one
or more of the following means:
(1) Laboratory dry air or simulated
icing tests, or a combination of both, of
the components or models of the com-
ponents.
(2) Flight dry air tests of the ice pro-
tection system as a whole, or of its in-
dividual components.
(3) Flight tests of the airplane or its
components in measured simulated
icing conditions.
(c) Caution information, such as an
amber caution light or equivalent,
must be provided to alert the
flightcrew when the anti-ice or de-ice
system is not functioning normally.
(d) For turbine engine powered air-
planes, the ice protection provisions of
this section are considered to be appli-
cable primarily to the airframe. For
the powerplant installation, certain ad-
ditional provisions of subpart E of this
part may be found applicable.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1421 Megaphones.
If a megaphone is installed, a re-
straining means must be provided that
is capable of restraining the mega-
phone when it is subjected to the ulti-
mate inertia forces specified in
§ 25.561(b)(3).
[Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36970, July 18, 1977]
§ 25.1423 Public address system.
A public address system required by
this chapter must—
(a) Be powerable when the aircraft is
in flight or stopped on the ground,
after the shutdown or failure of all en-
gines and auxiliary power units, or the
disconnection or failure of all power
457
§ 25.1431
sources dependent on their continued
operation, for—
(1) A time duration of at least 10 min-
utes, including an aggregate time dura-
tion of at least 5 minutes of announce-
ments made by flight and cabin crew-
members, considering all other loads
which may remain powered by the
same source when all other power
sources are inoperative; and
(2) An additional time duration in its
standby state appropriate or required
for any other loads that are powered by
the same source and that are essential
to safety of flight or required during
emergency conditions.
(b) Be capable of operation within 10
seconds by a flight attendant at those
stations in the passenger compartment
from which the system is accessible.
(c) Be intelligible at all passenger
seats, lavatories, and flight attendant
seats and work stations.
(d) Be designed so that no unused,
unstowed microphone will render the
system inoperative.
(e) Be capable of functioning inde-
pendently of any required crewmember
interphone system.
(f) Be accessible for immediate use
from each of two flight crewmember
stations in the pilot compartment.
(g) For each required floor-level pas-
senger emergency exit which has an ad-
jacent flight attendant seat, have a
microphone which is readily accessible
to the seated flight attendant, except
that one microphone may serve more
than one exit, provided the proximity
of the exits allows unassisted verbal
communication between seated flight
attendants.
[Doc. No. 26003, 58 FR 45229, Aug. 26, 1993]
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT
§ 25.1431 Electronic equipment.
(a) In showing compliance with
§ 25.1309 (a) and (b) with respect to
radio and electronic equipment and
their installations, critical environ-
mental conditions must be considered.
(b) Radio and electronic equipment
must be supplied with power under the
requirements of § 25.1355(c).
(c) Radio and electronic equipment,
controls, and wiring must be installed
so that operation of any one unit or
§ 25.1433
system of units will not adversely af-
fect the simultaneous operation of any
other radio or electronic unit, or sys-
tem of units, required by this chapter.
§ 25.1433 Vacuum systems.
There must be means, in addition to
the normal pressure relief, to auto-
matically relieve the pressure in the
discharge lines from the vacuum air
pump when the delivery temperature of
the air becomes unsafe.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29785, July 20,
1990]
§ 25.1435 Hydraulic systems.
(a) Design. (1) Each element of the
hydraulic system must be designed to
withstand, without deformation that
would prevent it from performing its
intended function, the design operating
pressure loads in combination with
limit structural loads which may be
imposed.
(2) Each element of the hydraulic
system must be able to withstand,
without rupture, the design operating
pressure loads multiplied by a factor of
1.5 in combination with ultimate struc-
tural loads that can reasonably occur
simultaneously. Design operating pres-
sure is maximum normal operating
pressure, excluding transient pressure.
(b) Tests and analysis. (1) A complete
hydraulic system must be static tested
to show that it can withstand 1.5 times
the design operating pressure without
a deformation of any part of the sys-
tem that would prevent it from per-
forming its intended function. Clear-
ance between structural members and
hydraulic system elements must be
adequate and there must be no perma-
nent detrimental deformation. For the
purpose of this test, the pressure relief
valve may be made inoperable to per-
mit application of the required pres-
sure.
(2) Compliance with § 25.1309 for hy-
draulic systems must be shown by
functional tests, endurance tests, and
analyses. The entire system, or appro-
priate subsystems, must be tested in an
airplane or in a mock-up installation
to determine proper performance and
proper relation to other aircraft sys-
tems. The functional tests must in-
clude simulation of hydraulic system
458
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
failure conditions. Endurance tests
must simulate the repeated complete
flights that could be expected to occur
in service. Elements which fail during
the tests must be modified in order to
have the design deficiency corrected
and, where necessary, must be suffi-
ciently retested. Simulation of operat-
ing and environmental conditions must
be completed on elements and appro-
priate portions of the hydraulic system
to the extent necessary to evaluate the
environmental effects. Compliance
with § 25.1309 must take into account
the following:
(i) Static and dynamic loads includ-
ing flight, ground, pilot, hydrostatic,
inertial and thermally induced loads,
and combinations thereof.
(ii) Motion, vibration, pressure tran-
sients, and fatigue.
(iii) Abrasion, corrosion, and erosion.
(iv) Fluid and material compatibil-
ity.
(v) Leakage and wear.
(c) Fire protection. Each hydraulic
system using flammable hydraulic
fluid must meet the applicable require-
ments of §§ 25.863, 25.1183, 25.1185, and
25.1189.
[Amdt. 25–13, 32 FR 9154, June 28, 1967, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36971, July 18,
1977; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1438 Pressurization and pneu-
matic systems.
(a) Pressurization system elements
must be burst pressure tested to 2.0
times, and proof pressure tested to 1.5
times, the maximum normal operating
pressure.
(b) Pneumatic system elements must
be burst pressure tested to 3.0 times,
and proof pressure tested to 1.5 times,
the maximum normal operating pres-
sure.
(c) An analysis, or a combination of
analysis and test, may be substituted
for any test required by paragraph (a)
or (b) of this section if the Adminis-
trator finds it equivalent to the re-
quired test.
[Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36971, July 18, 1977]
§ 25.1439 Protective breathing equip-
ment.
(a) If there is a class A, B, or E cargo
compartment, protective breathing
equipment must be installed for the
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
use of appropriate crewmembers. In ad-
dition, protective breathing equipment
must be installed in each isolated sepa-
rate compartment in the airplane, in-
cluding upper and lower lobe galleys, in
which crewmember occupancy is per-
mitted during flight for the maximum
number of crewmembers expected to be
in the area during any operation.
(b) For protective breathing equip-
ment required by paragraph (a) of this
section or by any operating rule of this
chapter, the following apply:
(1) The equipment must be designed
to protect the flight crew from smoke,
carbon dioxide, and other harmful
gases while on flight deck duty and
while combating fires in cargo com-
partments.
(2) The equipment must include—
(i) Masks covering the eyes, nose, and
mouth; or
(ii) Masks covering the nose and
mouth, plus accessory equipment to
cover the eyes.
(3) The equipment, while in use, must
allow the flight crew to use the radio
equipment and to communicate with
each other, while at their assigned
duty stations.
(4) The part of the equipment pro-
tecting the eyes may not cause any ap-
preciable adverse effect on vision and
must allow corrective glasses to be
worn.
(5) The equipment must supply pro-
tective oxygen of 15 minutes duration
per crewmember at a pressure altitude
of 8,000 feet with a respiratory minute
volume of 30 liters per minute BTPD. If
a demand oxygen system is used, a sup-
ply of 300 liters of free oxygen at 70° F.
and 760 mm. Hg. pressure is considered
to be of 15-minute duration at the pre-
scribed altitude and minute volume. If
a continuous flow protective breathing
system is used (including a mask with
a standard rebreather bag) a flow rate
of 60 liters per minute at 8,000 feet (45
liters per minute at sea level) and a
supply of 600 liters of free oxygen at 70°
F. and 760 mm. Hg. pressure is consid-
ered to be of 15–minute duration at the
prescribed altitude and minute volume.
BTPD refers to body temperature con-
ditions (that is, 37° C., at ambient pres-
sure, dry).
459
§ 25.1443
(6) The equipment must meet the re-
quirements of paragraphs (b) and (c) of
§ 25.1441.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.1441 Oxygen equipment and sup-
ply.
(a) If certification with supplemental
oxygen equipment is requested, the
equipment must meet the requirements
of this section and §§ 25.1443 through
25.1453.
(b) The oxygen system must be free
from hazards in itself, in its method of
operation, and in its effect upon other
components.
(c) There must be a means to allow
the crew to readily determine, during
flight, the quantity of oxygen available
in each source of supply.
(d) The oxygen flow rate and the oxy-
gen equipment for airplanes for which
certification for operation above 40,000
feet is requested must be approved.
§ 25.1443 Minimum mass flow of sup-
plemental oxygen.
(a) If continuous flow equipment is
installed for use by flight crew-
members, the minimum mass flow of
supplemental oxygen required for each
crewmember may not be less than the
flow required to maintain, during in-
spiration, a mean tracheal oxygen par-
tial pressure of 149 mm. Hg. when
breathing 15 liters per minute, BTPS,
and with a maximum tidal volume of
700 cc. with a constant time interval
between respirations.
(b) If demand equipment is installed
for use by flight crewmembers, the
minimum mass flow of supplemental
oxygen required for each crewmember
may not be less than the flow required
to maintain, during inspiration, a
mean tracheal oxygen partial pressure
of 122 mm. Hg., up to and including a
cabin pressure altitude of 35,000 feet,
and 95 percent oxygen between cabin
pressure altitudes of 35,000 and 40,000
feet, when breathing 20 liters per
minute BTPS. In addition, there must
be means to allow the crew to use undi-
luted oxygen at their discretion.
(c) For passengers and cabin attend-
ants, the minimum mass flow of sup-
plemental oxygen required for each
§ 25.1445
person at various cabin pressure alti-
tudes may not be less than the flow re-
quired to maintain, during inspiration
and while using the oxygen equipment
(including masks) provided, the follow-
ing mean tracheal oxygen partial pres-
sures:
(1) At cabin pressure altitudes above
10,000 feet up to and including 18,500
feet, a mean tracheal oxygen partial
pressure of 100 mm. Hg. when breathing
15 liters per minute, BTPS, and with a
tidal volume of 700 cc. with a constant
time interval between respirations.
(2) At cabin pressure altitudes above
18,500 feet up to and including 40,000
feet, a mean tracheal oxygen partial
pressure of 83.8 mm. Hg. when breath-
ing 30 liters per minute, BTPS, and
with a tidal volume of 1,100 cc. with a
constant time interval between res-
pirations.
(d) If first-aid oxygen equipment is
installed, the minimum mass flow of
oxygen to each user may not be less
than four liters per minute, STPD.
However, there may be a means to de-
crease this flow to not less than two li-
ters per minute, STPD, at any cabin al-
titude. The quantity of oxygen re-
quired is based upon an average flow
rate of three liters per minute per per-
son for whom first-aid oxygen is re-
quired.
(e) If portable oxygen equipment is
installed for use by crewmembers, the
minimum mass flow of supplemental
oxygen is the same as specified in para-
graph (a) or (b) of this section, which-
ever is applicable.
§ 25.1445 Equipment standards for the
oxygen distributing system.
(a) When oxygen is supplied to both
crew and passengers, the distribution
system must be designed for either—
(1) A source of supply for the flight
crew on duty and a separate source for
the passengers and other crewmembers;
or
(2) A common source of supply with
means to separately reserve the mini-
mum supply required by the flight crew
on duty.
(b) Portable walk-around oxygen
units of the continuous flow, diluter-
demand, and straight demand kinds
may be used to meet the crew or pas-
senger breathing requirements.
460
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
§ 25.1447 Equipment standards for ox-
ygen dispensing units.
If oxygen dispensing units are in-
stalled, the following apply:
(a) There must be an individual dis-
pensing unit for each occupant for
whom supplemental oxygen is to be
supplied. Units must be designed to
cover the nose and mouth and must be
equipped with a suitable means to re-
tain the unit in position on the face.
Flight crew masks for supplemental
oxygen must have provisions for the
use of communication equipment.
(b) If certification for operation up to
and including 25,000 feet is requested,
an oxygen supply terminal and unit of
oxygen dispensing equipment for the
immediate use of oxygen by each crew-
member must be within easy reach of
that crewmember. For any other occu-
pants, the supply terminals and dis-
pensing equipment must be located to
allow the use of oxygen as required by
the operating rules in this chapter.
(c) If certification for operation
above 25,000 feet is requested, there
must be oxygen dispensing equipment
meeting the following requirements:
(1) There must be an oxygen dispens-
ing unit connected to oxygen supply
terminals immediately available to
each occupant, wherever seated, and at
least two oxygen dispensing units con-
nected to oxygen terminals in each lav-
atory. The total number of dispensing
units and outlets in the cabin must ex-
ceed the number of seats by at least 10
percent. The extra units must be as
uniformly distributed throughout the
cabin as practicable. If certification for
operation above 30,000 feet is requested,
the dispensing units providing the re-
quired oxygen flow must be automati-
cally presented to the occupants before
the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
15,000 feet. The crew must be provided
with a manual means of making the
dispensing units immediately available
in the event of failure of the automatic
system.
(2) Each flight crewmember on flight
deck duty must be provided with a
quick-donning type oxygen dispensing
unit connected to an oxygen supply
terminal. This dispensing unit must be
immediately available to the flight
crewmember when seated at his sta-
tion, and installed so that it:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(i) Can be placed on the face from its
ready position, properly secured,
sealed, and supplying oxygen upon de-
mand, with one hand, within five sec-
onds and without disturbing eyeglasses
or causing delay in proceeding with
emergency duties; and
(ii) Allows, while in place, the per-
formance of normal communication
functions.
(3) The oxygen dispensing equipment
for the flight crewmembers must be:
(i) The diluter demand or pressure de-
mand (pressure demand mask with a
diluter demand pressure breathing reg-
ulator) type, or other approved oxygen
equipment shown to provide the same
degree of protection, for airplanes to be
operated above 25,000 feet.
(ii) The pressure demand (pressure
demand mask with a diluter demand
pressure breathing regulator) type with
mask-mounted regulator, or other ap-
proved oxygen equipment shown to
provide the same degree of protection,
for airplanes operated at altitudes
where decompressions that are not ex-
tremely improbable may expose the
flightcrew to cabin pressure altitudes
in excess of 34,000 feet.
(4) Portable oxygen equipment must
be immediately available for each
cabin attendant.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36971, July 18,
1977; Amdt. 25–87, 61 FR 28696, June 5, 1996]
§ 25.1449 Means for determining use of
oxygen.
There must be a means to allow the
crew to determine whether oxygen is
being delivered to the dispensing equip-
ment.
§ 25.1450 Chemical oxygen generators.
(a) For the purpose of this section, a
chemical oxygen generator is defined
as a device which produces oxygen by
chemical reaction.
(b) Each chemical oxygen generator
must be designed and installed in ac-
cordance with the following require-
ments:
(1) Surface temperature developed by
the generator during operation may
not create a hazard to the airplane or
to its occupants.
461
§ 25.1457
(2) Means must be provided to relieve
any internal pressure that may be haz-
ardous.
(c) In addition to meeting the re-
quirements in paragraph (b) of this sec-
tion, each portable chemical oxygen
generator that is capable of sustained
operation by successive replacement of
a generator element must be placarded
to show—
(1) The rate of oxygen flow, in liters
per minute;
(2) The duration of oxygen flow, in
minutes, for the replaceable generator
element; and
(3) A warning that the replaceable
generator element may be hot, unless
the element construction is such that
the surface temperature cannot exceed
100 degrees F.
[Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36971, July 18, 1977]
§ 25.1453 Protection of oxygen equip-
ment from rupture.
Oxygen pressure tanks, and lines be-
tween tanks and the shutoff means,
must be—
(a) Protected from unsafe tempera-
tures; and
(b) Located where the probability and
hazards of rupture in a crash landing
are minimized.
§ 25.1455 Draining of fluids subject to
freezing.
If fluids subject to freezing may be
drained overboard in flight or during
ground operation, the drains must be
designed and located to prevent the
formation of hazardous quantities of
ice on the airplane as a result of the
drainage.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5680, Apr. 8, 1970]
§ 25.1457 Cockpit voice recorders.
(a) Each cockpit voice recorder re-
quired by the operating rules of this
chapter must be approved and must be
installed so that it will record the fol-
lowing:
(1) Voice communications transmit-
ted from or received in the airplane by
radio.
(2) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers on the flight deck.
(3) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers on the flight deck, using
the airplane’s interphone system.
§ 25.1457
(4) Voice or audio signals identifying
navigation or approach aids introduced
into a headset or speaker.
(5) Voice communications of flight
crewmembers using the passenger loud-
speaker system, if there is such a sys-
tem and if the fourth channel is avail-
able in accordance with the require-
ments of paragraph (c)(4)(ii) of this sec-
tion.
(b) The recording requirements of
paragraph (a)(2) of this section must be
met by installing a cockpit-mounted
area microphone, located in the best
position for recording voice commu-
nications originating at the first and
second pilot stations and voice commu-
nications of other crewmembers on the
flight deck when directed to those sta-
tions. The microphone must be so lo-
cated and, if necessary, the pre-
amplifiers and filters of the recorder
must be so adjusted or supplemented,
that the intelligibility of the recorded
communications is as high as prac-
ticable when recorded under flight
cockpit noise conditions and played
back. Repeated aural or visual play-
back of the record may be used in eval-
uating intelligibility.
(c) Each cockpit voice recorder must
be installed so that the part of the
communication or audio signals speci-
fied in paragraph (a) of this section ob-
tained from each of the following
sources is recorded on a separate chan-
nel:
(1) For the first channel, from each
boom, mask, or hand-held microphone,
headset, or speaker used at the first
pilot station.
(2) For the second channel from each
boom, mask, or hand-held microphone,
headset, or speaker used at the second
pilot station.
(3) For the third channel—from the
cockpit-mounted area microphone.
(4) For the fourth channel, from—
(i) Each boom, mask, or hand-held
microphone, headset, or speaker used
at the station for the third and fourth
crew members; or
(ii) If the stations specified in para-
graph (c)(4)(i) of this section are not re-
quired or if the signal at such a station
is picked up by another channel, each
microphone on the flight deck that is
used with the passenger loudspeaker
462
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
system, if its signals are not picked up
by another channel.
(5) As far as is practicable all sounds
received by the microphone listed in
paragraphs (c)(1), (2), and (4) of this
section must be recorded without
interruption irrespective of the posi-
tion of the interphone-transmitter key
switch. The design shall ensure that
sidetone for the flight crew is produced
only when the interphone, public ad-
dress system, or radio transmitters are
in use.
(d) Each cockpit voice recorder must
be installed so that—
(1) It receives its electric power from
the bus that provides the maximum re-
liability for operation of the cockpit
voice recorder without jeopardizing
service to essential or emergency
loads;
(2) There is an automatic means to
simultaneously stop the recorder and
prevent each erasure feature from func-
tioning, within 10 minutes after crash
impact; and
(3) There is an aural or visual means
for preflight checking of the recorder
for proper operation.
(e) The record container must be lo-
cated and mounted to minimize the
probability of rupture of the container
as a result of crash impact and con-
sequent heat damage to the record
from fire. In meeting this requirement,
the record container must be as far aft
as practicable, but may not be where
aft mounted engines may crush the
container during impact. However, it
need not be outside of the pressurized
compartment.
(f) If the cockpit voice recorder has a
bulk erasure device, the installation
must be designed to minimize the prob-
ability of inadvertent operation and ac-
tuation of the device during crash im-
pact.
(g) Each recorder container must—
(1) Be either bright orange or bright
yellow;
(2) Have reflective tape affixed to its
external surface to facilitate its loca-
tion under water; and
(3) Have an underwater locating de-
vice, when required by the operating
rules of this chapter, on or adjacent to
the container which is secured in such
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
manner that they are not likely to be
separated during crash impact.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–2, 30 FR 3932, Mar. 26,
1965; Amdt. 25–16, 32 FR 13914, Oct. 6, 1967;
Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36971, July 18, 1977; Amdt.
25–65, 53 FR 26143, July 11, 1988]
§ 25.1459 Flight recorders.
(a) Each flight recorder required by
the operating rules of this chapter
must be installed so that—
(1) It is supplied with airspeed, alti-
tude, and directional data obtained
from sources that meet the accuracy
requirements of §§ 25.1323, 25.1325, and
25.1327, as appropriate;
(2) The vertical acceleration sensor is
rigidly attached, and located longitu-
dinally either within the approved cen-
ter of gravity limits of the airplane, or
at a distance forward or aft of these
limits that does not exceed 25 percent
of the airplane’s mean aerodynamic
chord;
(3) It receives its electrical power
from the bus that provides the maxi-
mum reliability for operation of the
flight recorder without jeopardizing
service to essential or emergency
loads;
(4) There is an aural or visual means
for preflight checking of the recorder
for proper recording of data in the stor-
age medium.
(5) Except for recorders powered sole-
ly by the engine-driven electrical gen-
erator system, there is an automatic
means to simultaneously stop a re-
corder that has a data erasure feature
and prevent each erasure feature from
functioning, within 10 minutes after
crash impact; and
(6) There is a means to record data
from which the time of each radio
transmission either to or from ATC can
be determined.
(b) Each nonejectable record con-
tainer must be located and mounted so
as to minimize the probability of con-
tainer rupture resulting from crash im-
pact and subsequent damage to the
record from fire. In meeting this re-
quirement the record container must
be located as far aft as practicable, but
need not be aft of the pressurized com-
partment, and may not be where aft-
mounted engines may crush the con-
tainer upon impact.
463
§ 25.1461
(c) A correlation must be established
between the flight recorder readings of
airspeed, altitude, and heading and the
corresponding readings (taking into ac-
count correction factors) of the first pi-
lot’s instruments. The correlation
must cover the airspeed range over
which the airplane is to be operated,
the range of altitude to which the air-
plane is limited, and 360 degrees of
heading. Correlation may be estab-
lished on the ground as appropriate.
(d) Each recorder container must—
(1) Be either bright orange or bright
yellow;
(2) Have reflective tape affixed to its
external surface to facilitate its loca-
tion under water; and
(3) Have an underwater locating de-
vice, when required by the operating
rules of this chapter, on or adjacent to
the container which is secured in such
a manner that they are not likely to be
separated during crash impact.
(e) Any novel or unique design or
operational characteristics of the air-
craft shall be evaluated to determine if
any dedicated parameters must be re-
corded on flight recorders in addition
to or in place of existing requirements.
[Amdt. 25–8, 31 FR 127, Jan. 6, 1966, as amend-
ed by Amdt. 25–25, 35 FR 13192, Aug. 19, 1970;
Amdt. 25–37, 40 FR 2577, Jan. 14, 1975; Amdt.
25–41, 42 FR 36971, July 18, 1977; Amdt. 25–65,
53 FR 26144, July 11, 1988]
§ 25.1461 Equipment containing high
energy rotors.
(a) Equipment containing high en-
ergy rotors must meet paragraph (b),
(c), or (d) of this section.
(b) High energy rotors contained in
equipment must be able to withstand
damage caused by malfunctions, vibra-
tion, abnormal speeds, and abnormal
temperatures. In addition—
(1) Auxiliary rotor cases must be able
to contain damage caused by the fail-
ure of high energy rotor blades; and
(2) Equipment control devices, sys-
tems, and instrumentation must rea-
sonably ensure that no operating limi-
tations affecting the integrity of high
energy rotors will be exceeded in serv-
ice.
(c) It must be shown by test that
equipment containing high energy ro-
tors can contain any failure of a high
energy rotor that occurs at the highest
§ 25.1501
speed obtainable with the normal speed
control devices inoperative.
(d) Equipment containing high en-
ergy rotors must be located where
rotor failure will neither endanger the
occupants nor adversely affect contin-
ued safe flight.
[Amdt. 25–41, 42 FR 36971, July 18, 1977]
Subpart G—Operating Limitations
and Information
§ 25.1501 General.
(a) Each operating limitation speci-
fied in §§ 25.1503 through 25.1533 and
other limitations and information nec-
essary for safe operation must be es-
tablished.
(b) The operating limitations and
other information necessary for safe
operation must be made available to
the crewmembers as prescribed in
§§ 25.1541 through 25.1587.
[Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978]
OPERATING LIMITATIONS
§ 25.1503 Airspeed limitations: general.
When airspeed limitations are a func-
tion of weight, weight distribution, al-
titude, or Mach number, limitations
corresponding to each critical com-
bination of these factors must be estab-
lished.
§ 25.1505 Maximum operating limit
speed.
The maximum operating limit speed
(VMO/MMO airspeed or Mach Number,
whichever is critical at a particular al-
titude) is a speed that may not be de-
liberately exceeded in any regime of
flight (climb, cruise, or descent), unless
a higher speed is authorized for flight
test or pilot training operations. VMO/
MMO must be established so that it is
not greater than the design cruising
speed VC and so that it is sufficiently
below VD/MD or VDF/MDF, to make it
highly improbable that the latter
speeds will be inadvertently exceeded
in operations. The speed margin be-
tween VMO/MMO and VD/MD or VDFM/DF
may not be less than that determined
under § 25.335(b) or found necessary dur-
ing the flight tests conducted under
§ 25.253.
[Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5680, Apr. 8, 1970]
464
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
§ 25.1507 Maneuvering speed.
The maneuvering speed must be es-
tablished so that it does not exceed the
design maneuvering speed VA deter-
mined under § 25.335(c).
§ 25.1511 Flap extended speed.
The established flap extended speed
VFE must be established so that it does
not exceed the design flap speed VF
chosen under §§ 25.335(e) and 25.345, for
the corresponding flap positions and
engine powers.
§ 25.1513 Minimum control speed.
The minimum control speed VMC de-
termined under § 25.149 must be estab-
lished as an operating limitation.
§ 25.1515 Landing gear speeds.
(a) The established landing gear oper-
ating speed or speeds, VLO, may not ex-
ceed the speed at which it is safe both
to extend and to retract the landing
gear, as determined under § 25.729 or by
flight characteristics. If the extension
speed is not the same as the retraction
speed, the two speeds must be des-
ignated as VLO(EXT) and VLO(RET), re-
spectively.
(b) The established landing gear ex-
tended speed VLE may not exceed the
speed at which it is safe to fly with the
landing gear secured in the fully ex-
tended position, and that determined
under § 25.729.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20,
1976]
§ 25.1517 Rough air speed, VRA.
A rough air speed, VRA, for use as the
recommended turbulence penetration
airspeed in § 25.1585(a)(8), must be es-
tablished, which—
(1) Is not greater than the design air-
speed for maximum gust intensity, se-
lected for VB; and
(2) Is not less than the minimum
value of VB specified in § 25.335(d); and
(3) Is sufficiently less than VMO to en-
sure that likely speed variation during
rough air encounters will not cause the
overspeed warning to operate too fre-
quently. In the absence of a rational
investigation substantiating the use of
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
other values, VRA must be less than
VMO—35 knots (TAS).
[Doc. No. 27902, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996]
§ 25.1519 Weight, center of gravity, and
weight distribution.
The airplane weight, center of grav-
ity, and weight distribution limita-
tions determined under §§ 25.23 through
25.27 must be established as operating
limitations.
§ 25.1521 Powerplant limitations.
(a) General. The powerplant limita-
tions prescribed in this section must be
established so that they do not exceed
the corresponding limits for which the
engines or propellers are type certifi-
cated and do not exceed the values on
which compliance with any other re-
quirement of this part is based.
(b) Reciprocating engine installations.
Operating limitations relating to the
following must be established for recip-
rocating engine installations:
(1) Horsepower or torque, r.p.m.,
manifold pressure, and time at critical
pressure altitude and sea level pressure
altitude for—
(i) Maximum continuous power (re-
lating to unsupercharged operation or
to operation in each supercharger mode
as applicable); and
(ii) Takeoff power (relating to unsu-
percharged operation or to operation in
each supercharger mode as applicable).
(2) Fuel grade or specification.
(3) Cylinder head and oil tempera-
tures.
(4) Any other parameter for which a
limitation has been established as part
of the engine type certificate except
that a limitation need not be estab-
lished for a parameter that cannot be
exceeded during normal operation due
to the design of the installation or to
another established limitation.
(c) Turbine engine installations. Oper-
ating limitations relating to the fol-
lowing must be established for turbine
engine installations:
(1) Horsepower, torque or thrust,
r.p.m., gas temperature, and time for—
(i) Maximum continuous power or
thrust (relating to augmented or un-
augmented operation as applicable).
(ii) Takeoff power or thrust (relating
to augmented or unaugmented oper-
ation as applicable).
465
§ 25.1527
(2) Fuel designation or specification.
(3) Any other parameter for which a
limitation has been established as part
of the engine type certificate except
that a limitation need not be estab-
lished for a parameter that cannot be
exceeded during normal operation due
to the design of the installation or to
another established limitation.
(d) Ambient temperature. An ambient
temperature limitation (including lim-
itations for winterization installations,
if applicable) must be established as
the maximum ambient atmospheric
temperature established in accordance
with § 25.1043(b).
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1522 Auxiliary power unit limita-
tions.
If an auxiliary power unit is installed
in the airplane, limitations established
for the auxiliary power unit, including
categories of operation, must be speci-
fied as operating limitations for the
airplane.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1523 Minimum flight crew.
The minimum flight crew must be es-
tablished so that it is sufficient for safe
operation, considering—
(a) The workload on individual crew-
members;
(b) The accessibility and ease of oper-
ation of necessary controls by the ap-
propriate crewmember; and
(c) The kind of operation authorized
under § 25.1525.
The criteria used in making the deter-
minations required by this section are
set forth in appendix D.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–3, 30 FR 6067, Apr. 29,
1965]
§ 25.1525 Kinds of operation.
The kinds of operation to which the
airplane is limited are established by
the category in which it is eligible for
certification and by the installed
equipment.
§ 25.1527 Maximum operating altitude.
The maximum altitude up to which
operation is allowed, as limited by
§ 25.1529
flight, structural, powerplant, func-
tional, or equipment characteristics,
must be established.
§ 25.1529 Instructions for Continued
Airworthiness.
The applicant must prepare Instruc-
tions for Continued Airworthiness in
accordance with appendix H to this
part that are acceptable to the Admin-
istrator. The instructions may be in-
complete at type certification if a pro-
gram exists to ensure their completion
prior to delivery of the first airplane or
issuance of a standard certificate of
airworthiness, whichever occurs later.
[Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept. 11, 1980]
§ 25.1531 Maneuvering flight load fac-
tors.
Load factor limitations, not exceed-
ing the positive limit load factors de-
termined from the maneuvering dia-
gram in § 25.333(b), must be established.
§ 25.1533 Additional operating limita-
tions.
(a) Additional operating limitations
must be established as follows:
(1) The maximum takeoff weights
must be established as the weights at
which compliance is shown with the
applicable provisions of this part (in-
cluding the takeoff climb provisions of
§ 25.121(a) through (c), for altitudes and
ambient temperatures).
(2) The maximum landing weights
must be established as the weights at
which compliance is shown with the
applicable provisions of this part (in-
cluding the landing and approach climb
provisions of §§ 25.119 and 25.121(d) for
altitudes and ambient temperatures).
(3) The minimum takeoff distances
must be established as the distances at
which compliance is shown with the
applicable provisions of this part (in-
cluding the provisions of §§ 25.109 and
25.113, for weights, altitudes, tempera-
tures, wind components, runway sur-
face conditions (dry and wet), and run-
way gradients) for smooth, hard-sur-
faced runways. Additionally, at the op-
tion of the applicant, wet runway take-
off distances may be established for
runway surfaces that have been
grooved or treated with a porous fric-
tion course, and may be approved for
use on runways where such surfaces
466
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
have been designed constructed, and
maintained in a manner acceptable to
the Administrator.
(b) The extremes for variable factors
(such as altitude, temperature, wind,
and runway gradients) are those at
which compliance with the applicable
provisions of this part is shown.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20, 1990;
Amdt. 25–92, 63 FR 8321, Feb. 18, 1998]
MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
§ 25.1541 General.
(a) The airplane must contain—
(1) The specified markings and plac-
ards; and
(2) Any additional information, in-
strument markings, and placards re-
quired for the safe operation if there
are unusual design, operating, or han-
dling characteristics.
(b) Each marking and placard pre-
scribed in paragraph (a) of this sec-
tion—
(1) Must be displayed in a conspicu-
ous place; and
(2) May not be easily erased, dis-
figured, or obscured.
§ 25.1543 Instrument markings: gen-
eral.
For each instrument—
(a) When markings are on the cover
glass of the instrument, there must be
means to maintain the correct align-
ment of the glass cover with the face of
the dial; and
(b) Each instrument marking must
be clearly visible to the appropriate
crewmember.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20,
1990]
§ 25.1545 Airspeed limitation informa-
tion.
The airspeed limitations required by
§ 25.1583 (a) must be easily read and un-
derstood by the flight crew.
§ 25.1547 Magnetic direction indicator.
(a) A placard meeting the require-
ments of this section must be installed
on, or near, the magnetic direction in-
dicator.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(b) The placard must show the cali-
bration of the instrument in level
flight with the engines operating.
(c) The placard must state whether
the calibration was made with radio re-
ceivers on or off.
(d) Each calibration reading must be
in terms of magnetic heading in not
more than 45 degree increments.
§ 25.1549 Powerplant and auxiliary
power unit instruments.
For each required powerplant and
auxiliary power unit instrument, as ap-
propriate to the type of instrument—
(a) Each maximum and, if applicable,
minimum safe operating limit must be
marked with a red radial or a red line;
(b) Each normal operating range
must be marked with a green arc or
green line, not extending beyond the
maximum and minimum safe limits;
(c) Each takeoff and precautionary
range must be marked with a yellow
arc or a yellow line; and
(d) Each engine, auxiliary power
unit, or propeller speed range that is
restricted because of excessive vibra-
tion stresses must be marked with red
arcs or red lines.
[Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17, 1977]
§ 25.1551 Oil quantity indication.
Each oil quantity indicating means
must be marked to indicate the quan-
tity of oil readily and accurately.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1553 Fuel quantity indicator.
If the unusable fuel supply for any
tank exceeds one gallon, or five per-
cent of the tank capacity, whichever is
greater, a red arc must be marked on
its indicator extending from the cali-
brated zero reading to the lowest read-
ing obtainable in level flight.
§ 25.1555 Control markings.
(a) Each cockpit control, other than
primary flight controls and controls
whose function is obvious, must be
plainly marked as to its function and
method of operation.
(b) Each aerodynamic control must
be marked under the requirements of
§§ 25.677 and 25.699.
(c) For powerplant fuel controls—
467
§ 25.1557
(1) Each fuel tank selector control
must be marked to indicate the posi-
tion corresponding to each tank and to
each existing cross feed position;
(2) If safe operation requires the use
of any tanks in a specific sequence,
that sequence must be marked on, or
adjacent to, the selector for those
tanks; and
(3) Each valve control for each engine
must be marked to indicate the posi-
tion corresponding to each engine con-
trolled.
(d) For accessory, auxiliary, and
emergency controls—
(1) Each emergency control (includ-
ing each fuel jettisoning and fluid shut-
off must be colored red; and
(2) Each visual indicator required by
§ 25.729(e) must be marked so that the
pilot can determine at any time when
the wheels are locked in either extreme
position, if retractable landing gear is
used.
§ 25.1557 Miscellaneous markings and
placards.
(a) Baggage and cargo compartments
and ballast location. Each baggage and
cargo compartment, and each ballast
location must have a placard stating
any limitations on contents, including
weight, that are necessary under the
loading requirements. However,
underseat compartments designed for
the storage of carry-on articles weigh-
ing not more than 20 pounds need not
have a loading limitation placard.
(b) Powerplant fluid filler openings.
The following qpply:
(1) Fuel filler openings must be
marked at or near the filler cover
with—
(i) The word ‘‘fuel’’;
(ii) For reciprocating engine powered
airplanes, the minimum fuel grade;
(iii) For turbine engine powered air-
planes, the permissible fuel designa-
tions; and
(iv) For pressure fueling systems, the
maximum permissible fueling supply
pressure and the maximum permissible
defueling pressure.
(2) Oil filler openings must be
marked at or near the filler cover with
the word ‘‘oil’’.
(3) Augmentation fluid filler open-
ings must be marked at or near the
§ 25.1561
filler cover to identify the required
fluid.
(c) Emergency exit placards. Each
emergency exit placard must meet the
requirements of § 25.811.
(d) Doors. Each door that must be
used in order to reach any required
emergency exit must have a suitable
placard stating that the door is to be
latched in the open position during
takeoff and landing.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3972, Feb. 24,
1972; Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec. 20, 1976;
Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20, 1990]
§ 25.1561 Safety equipment.
(a) Each safety equipment control to
be operated by the crew in emergency,
such as controls for automatic liferaft
releases, must be plainly marked as to
its method of operation.
(b) Each location, such as a locker or
compartment, that carries any fire ex-
tinguishing, signaling, or other life
saving equipment must be marked ac-
cordingly.
(c) Stowage provisions for required
emergency equipment must be con-
spicuously marked to identify the con-
tents and facilitate the easy removal of
the equipment.
(d) Each liferaft must have obviously
marked operating instructions.
(e) Approved survival equipment
must be marked for identification and
method of operation.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30,
1978]
§ 25.1563 Airspeed placard.
A placard showing the maximum air-
speeds for flap extension for the take-
off, approach, and landing positions
must be installed in clear view of each
pilot.
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
§ 25.1581 General.
(a) Furnishing information. An Air-
plane Flight Manual must be furnished
with each airplane, and it must contain
the following:
(1) Information required by §§ 25.1583
through 25.1587.
(2) Other information that is nec-
essary for safe operation because of de-
468
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
sign, operating, or handling character-
istics.
(3) Any limitation, procedure, or
other information established as a con-
dition of compliance with the applica-
ble noise standards of part 36 of this
chapter.
(b) Approved information. Each part of
the manual listed in §§ 25.1583 through
25.1587, that is appropriate to the air-
plane, must be furnished, verified, and
approved, and must be segregated,
identified, and clearly distinguished
from each unapproved part of that
manual.
(c) [Reserved]
(d) Each Airplane Flight Manual
must include a table of contents if the
complexity of the manual indicates a
need for it.
[Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29786, July 20,
1990]
§ 25.1583 Operating limitations.
(a) Airspeed limitations. The following
airspeed limitations and any other air-
speed limitations necessary for safe op-
eration must be furnished:
(1) The maximum operating limit
speed VMO/MMO and a statement that
this speed limit may not be delib-
erately exceeded in any regime of
flight (climb, cruise, or descent) unless
a higher speed is authorized for flight
test or pilot training.
(2) If an airspeed limitation is based
upon compressibility effects, a state-
ment to this effect and information as
to any symptoms, the probable behav-
ior of the airplane, and the rec-
ommended recovery procedures.
(3) The maneuvering speed VA and a
statement that full application of rud-
der and aileron controls, as well as ma-
neuvers that involve angles of attack
near the stall, should be confined to
speeds below this value.
(4) The flap extended speed VFE and
the pertinent flap positions and engine
powers.
(5) The landing gear operating speed
or speeds, and a statement explaining
the speeds as defined in § 25.1515(a).
(6) The landing gear extended speed
VLE, if greater than VLO, and a state-
ment that this is the maximum speed
at which the airplane can be safely
flown with the landing gear extended.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(b) Powerplant limitations. The follow-
ing information must be furnished:
(1) Limitations required by § 25.1521
and § 25.1522.
(2) Explanation of the limitations,
when appropriate.
(3) Information necessary for mark-
ing the instruments required by
§§ 25.1549 through 25.1553.
(c) Weight and loading distribution.
The weight and center of gravity limits
required by §§ 25.25 and 25.27 must be
furnished in the Airplane Flight Man-
ual. All of the following information
must be presented either in the Air-
plane Flight Manual or in a separate
weight and balance control and loading
document which is incorporated by ref-
erence in the Airplane Flight Manual:
(1) The condition of the airplane and
the items included in the empty weight
as defined in accordance with § 25.29.
(2) Loading instructions necessary to
ensure loading of the airplane within
the weight and center of gravity limits,
and to maintain the loading within
these limits in flight.
(3) If certification for more than one
center of gravity range is requested,
the appropriate limitations, with re-
gard to weight and loading procedures,
for each separate center of gravity
range.
(d) Flight crew. The number and func-
tions of the minimum flight crew de-
termined under § 25.1523 must be fur-
nished.
(e) Kinds of operation. The kinds of
operation approved under § 25.1525 must
be furnished.
(f) Altitudes. The altitude established
under § 25.1527.
(g) [Reserved]
(h) Additional operating limitations.
The operating limitations established
under §25.1533 must be furnished.
(i) Maneuvering flight load factors. The
positive maneuvering limit load fac-
tors for which the structure is proven,
described in terms of accelerations,
must be furnished.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 1891, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–38, 41 FR 55468, Dec, 20,
1976; Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978;
Amdt. 25–46, 43 FR 50598, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt.
25–72, 55 FR 29787, July 20, 1990]
469
§ 25.1585
§ 25.1585 Operating procedures.
(a) Information and instructions re-
garding the peculiarities of normal op-
erations (including starting and warm-
ing the engines, taxiing, operation of
wing flaps, landing gear, and the auto-
matic pilot) must be furnished, to-
gether with recommended procedures
for—
(1) Engine failure (including mini-
mum speeds, trim, operation of the re-
maining engines, and operation of
flaps);
(2) Stopping the rotation of propel-
lers in flight;
(3) Restarting turbine engines in
flight (including the effects of alti-
tude);
(4) Fire, decompression, and similar
emergencies;
(5) Ditching (including the proce-
dures based on the requirements of
§§ 25.801, 25.807(d), 25.1411, and 25.1415 (a)
through (e));
(6) Use of ice protection equipment;
(7) Use of fuel jettisoning equipment,
including any operating precautions
relevant to the use of the system;
(8) Operation in turbulence for tur-
bine powered airplanes (including rec-
ommended turbulence penetration air-
speeds, flight peculiarities, and special
control instructions);
(9) Restoring a deployed thrust re-
verser intended for ground operation
only to the forward thrust position in
fight or continuing fight and landing
with the thrust reverser in any posi-
tion except forward thrust; and
(10) Disconnecting the battery from
its charging source, if compliance is
shown with § 25.1353 (c)(6)(ii) or
(c)(6)(iii).
(b) Information identifying each op-
erating condition in which the fuel sys-
tem independence prescribed in § 25.953
is necessary for safety must be fur-
nished, together with instructions for
placing the fuel system in a configura-
tion used to show compliance with that
section.
(c) The buffet onset envelopes deter-
mined under § 25.251 must be furnished.
The buffet onset envelopes presented
may reflect the center of gravity at
which the airplane is normally loaded
during cruise if corrections for the ef-
fect of different center of gravity loca-
tions are furnished.
§ 25.1587
(d) Information must be furnished
which indicates that when the fuel
quantity indicator reads ‘‘zero’’ in
level flight, any fuel remaining in the
fuel tank cannot be used safely in
flight.
(e) Information on the total quantity
of usable fuel for each fuel tank must
be furnished.
[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as
amended by Amdt. 25–11, 32 FR 6913, May 5,
1967; Amdt. 25–23, 35 FR 5680, Apr. 8, 1970;
Amdt. 25–40, 42 FR 15044, Mar. 17, 1977; Amdt.
25–42, 43 FR 2323, Jan 16, 1978; Amdt. 25–46, 43
FR 50598, Oct. 30, 1978]
§ 25.1587 Performance information.
(a) Each Airplane Flight Manual
must contain information to permit
conversion of the indicated tempera-
ture to free air temperature if other
than a free air temperature indicator is
used to comply with the requirements
of § 25.1303(a)(1).
(b) Each Airplane Flight Manual
must contain the performance informa-
tion computed under the applicable
provisions of this part for the weights,
altitudes, temperatures, wind compo-
nents, and runway gradients, as appli-
cable, within the operational limits of
470
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
the airplane, and must contain the fol-
lowing:
(1) The conditions under which the
performance information was obtained,
including the speeds associated with
the performance information.
(2) VS determined in accordance with
§ 25.103.
(3) The following performance infor-
mation (determined by extrapolation
and computed for the range of weights
between the maximum landing and
maximum takeoff weights):
(i) Climb in the landing configura-
tion.
(ii) Climb in the approach configura-
tion.
(iii) Landing distance.
(4) Procedures established under
§ 25.101 (f), (g), and (h) that are related
to the limitations and information re-
quired by § 25.1533 and by this para-
graph. These procedures must be in the
form of guidance material, including
any relevant limitations or informa-
tion.
(5) An explanation of significant or
unusual flight or ground handling char-
acteristics of the airplane.
[Amdt. 25–42, 43 FR 2324, Jan. 16, 1978, as
amended by Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29787, July 20,
1990]
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. A

471
Pt. 25, App. A 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

472
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. A

473
Pt. 25, App. A 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

474
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. A

475
Pt. 25, App. B 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

476
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. B

477
Pt. 25, App. C
APPENDIX C TO PART 25
(a) Continuous maximum icing. The maxi-
mum continuous intensity of atmospheric
icing conditions (continuous maximum
icing) is defined by the variables of the cloud
liquid water content, the mean effective di-
ameter of the cloud droplets, the ambient air
temperature, and the interrelationship of
these three variables as shown in figure 1 of
this appendix. The limiting icing envelope in
terms of altitude and temperature is given in
figure 2 of this appendix. The inter-relation-
ship of cloud liquid water content with drop
diameter and altitude is determined from
figures 1 and 2. The cloud liquid water con-
tent for continuous maximum icing condi-
tions of a horizontal extent, other than 17.4
nautical miles, is determined by the value of
liquid water content of figure 1, multiplied
by the appropriate factor from figure 3 of
this appendix.
478
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(b) Intermittent maximum icing. The inter-
mittent maximum intensity of atmospheric
icing conditions (intermittent maximum
icing) is defined by the variables of the cloud
liquid water content, the mean effective di-
ameter of the cloud droplets, the ambient air
temperature, and the interrelationship of
these three variables as shown in figure 4 of
this appendix. The limiting icing envelope in
terms of altitude and temperature is given in
figure 5 of this appendix. The inter-relation-
ship of cloud liquid water content with drop
diameter and altitude is determined from
figures 4 and 5. The cloud liquid water con-
tent for intermittent maximum icing condi-
tions of a horizontal extent, other than 2.6
nautical miles, is determined by the value of
cloud liquid water content of figure 4 multi-
plied by the appropriate factor in figure 6 of
this appendix.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. C

479
Pt. 25, App. C 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

480
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. C

481
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482
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. C

483
Pt. 25, App. D 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

APPENDIX D TO PART 25 (a) Basic workload functions. The following

basic workload functions are considered:
Criteria for determining minimum flight crew. (1) Flight path control.
The following are considered by the Agency (2) Collision avoidance.
in determining the minimum flight crew (3) Navigation.
under § 25.1523: (4) Communications.

484
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(5) Operation and monitoring of aircraft
engines and systems.
(6) Command decisions.
(b) Workload factors. The following work-
load factors are considered significant when
analyzing and demonstrating workload for
minimum flight crew determination:
(1) The accessibility, ease, and simplicity
of operation of all necessary flight, power,
and equipment controls, including emer-
gency fuel shutoff valves, electrical controls,
electronic controls, pressurization system
controls, and engine controls.
(2) The accessibility and conspicuity of all
necessary instruments and failure warning
devices such as fire warning, electrical sys-
tem malfunction, and other failure or cau-
tion indicators. The extent to which such in-
struments or devices direct the proper cor-
rective action is also considered.
(3) The number, urgency, and complexity
of operating procedures with particular con-
sideration given to the specific fuel manage-
ment schedule imposed by center of gravity,
structural or other considerations of an air-
worthiness nature, and to the ability of each
engine to operate at all times from a single
tank or source which is automatically re-
plenished if fuel is also stored in other tanks.
(4) The degree and duration of con-
centrated mental and physical effort in-
volved in normal operation and in diagnosing
and coping with malfunctions and emer-
gencies.
(5) The extent of required monitoring of
the fuel, hydraulic, pressurization, elec-
trical, electronic, deicing, and other systems
while en route.
(6) The actions requiring a crewmember to
be unavailable at his assigned duty station,
including: observation of systems, emer-
gency operation of any control, and emer-
gencies in any compartment.
(7) The degree of automation provided in
the aircraft systems to afford (after failures
or malfunctions) automatic crossover or iso-
lation of difficulties to minimize the need for
flight crew action to guard against loss of
hydraulic or electric power to flight controls
or to other essential systems.
(8) The communications and navigation
workload.
(9) The possibility of increased workload
associated with any emergency that may
lead to other emergencies.
(10) Incapacitation of a flight crewmember
whenever the applicable operating rule re-
quires a minimum flight crew of at least two
pilots.
(c) Kind of operation authorized. The deter-
mination of the kind of operation authorized
requires consideration of the operating rules
under which the airplane will be operated.
Unless an applicant desires approval for a
more limited kind of operation. It is assumed
485
Pt. 25, App. E
that each airplane certificated under this
Part will operate under IFR conditions.
[Amdt. 25–3, 30 FR 6067, Apr. 29, 1965]
APPENDIX E TO PART 25
I—Limited Weight Credit For Airplanes
Equipped With Standby Power
(a) Each applicant for an increase in the
maximum certificated takeoff and landing
weights of an airplane equipped with a type-
certificated standby power rocket engine
may obtain an increase as specified in para-
graph (b) if—
(1) The installation of the rocket engine
has been approved and it has been estab-
lished by flight test that the rocket engine
and its controls can be operated safely and
reliably at the increase in maximum weight;
and
(2) The Airplane Flight Manual, or the
placard, markings or manuals required in
place thereof, set forth in addition to any
other operating limitations the Adminis-
trator may require, the increased weight ap-
proved under this regulation and a prohibi-
tion against the operation of the airplane at
the approved increased weight when—
(i) The installed standby power rocket en-
gines have been stored or installed in excess
of the time limit established by the manu-
facturer of the rocket engine (usually sten-
ciled on the engine casing); or
(ii) The rocket engine fuel has been ex-
pended or discharged.
(b) The currently approved maximum
takeoff and landing weights at which an air-
plane is certificated without a standby power
rocket engine installation may be increased
by an amount that does not exceed any of
the following:
(1) An amount equal in pounds to 0.014 IN,
where I is the maximum usable impulse in
pounds-seconds available from each standby
power rocket engine and N is the number of
rocket engines installed.
(2) An amount equal to 5 percent of the
maximum certificated weight approved in
accordance with the applicable airworthiness
regulations without standby power rocket
engines installed.
(3) An amount equal to the weight of the
rocket engine installation.
(4) An amount that, together with the cur-
rently approved maximum weight, would
equal the maximum structural weight estab-
lished for the airplane without standby rock-
et engines installed.
II—Performance Credit for Transport Category
Airplanes Equipped With Standby Power
The Administrator may grant performance
credit for the use of standby power on trans-
port category airplanes. However, the per-
formance credit applies only to the maxi-
mum certificated takeoff and landing
Pt. 25, App. E
weights, the takeoff distance, and the take-
off paths, and may not exceed that found by
the Administrator to result in an overall
level of safety in the takeoff, approach, and
landing regimes of flight equivalent to that
prescribed in the regulations under which
the airplane was originally certificated with-
out standby power. For the purposes of this
appendix, ‘‘standby power’’ is power or
thrust, or both, obtained from rocket en-
gines for a relatively short period and actu-
ated only in cases of emergency. The follow-
ing provisions apply:
(1) Takeoff; general. The takeoff data pre-
scribed in paragraphs (2) and (3) of this ap-
pendix must be determined at all weights
and altitudes, and at ambient temperatures
if applicable, at which performance credit is
to be applied.
(2) Takeoff path.
(a) The one-engine-inoperative takeoff
path with standby power in use must be de-
termined in accordance with the perform-
ance requirements of the applicable air-
worthiness regulations.
(b) The one-engine-inoperative takeoff
path (excluding that part where the airplane
is on or just above the takeoff surface) deter-
mined in accordance with paragraph (a) of
this section must lie above the one-engine-
inoperative takeoff path without standby
power at the maximum takeoff weight at
which all of the applicable air-worthiness re-
quirements are met. For the purpose of this
comparison, the flight path is considered to
extend to at least a height of 400 feet above
the takeoff surface.
(c) The takeoff path with all engines oper-
ating, but without the use of standby power,
must reflect a conservatively greater overall
level of performance than the one-engine-in-
operative takeoff path established in accord-
ance with paragraph (a) of this section. The
margin must be established by the Adminis-
trator to insure safe day-to-day operations,
but in no case may it be less than 15 percent.
The all-engines-operating takeoff path must
be determined by a procedure consistent
with that established in complying with
paragraph (a) of this section.
(d) For reciprocating-engine-powered air-
planes, the takeoff path to be scheduled in
the Airplane Flight Manual must represent
the one-engine-operative takeoff path deter-
mined in accordance with paragraph (a) of
this section and modified to reflect the pro-
cedure (see paragraph (6)) established by the
applicant for flap retraction and attainment
of the en route speed. The scheduled takeoff
path must have a positive slope at all points
of the airborne portion and at no point must
it lie above the takeoff path specified in
paragraph (a) of this section.
(3) Takeoff distance. The takeoff distance
must be the horizontal distance along the
one-engine-inoperative take off path deter-
mined in accordance with paragraph (2)(a)
486
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
from the start of the takeoff to the point
where the airplane attains a height of 50 feet
above the takeoff surface for reciprocating-
engine-powered airplanes and a height of 35
feet above the takeoff surface for turbine-
powered airplanes.
(4) Maximum certificated takeoff weights. The
maximum certificated takeoff weights must
be determined at all altitudes, and at ambi-
ent temperatures, if applicable, at which per-
formance credit is to be applied and may not
exceed the weights established in compliance
with paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section.
(a) The conditions of paragraphs (2)(b)
through (d) must be met at the maximum
certificated takeoff weight.
(b) Without the use of standby power, the
airplane must meet all of the en route re-
quirements of the applicable airworthiness
regulations under which the airplane was
originally certificated. In addition, turbine-
powered airplanes without the use of standby
power must meet the final takeoff climb re-
quirements prescribed in the applicable air-
worthiness regulations.
(5) Maximum certificated landing weights.
(a) The maximum certificated landing
weights (one-engine-inoperative approach
and all-engine-operating landing climb) must
be determined at all altitudes, and at ambi-
ent temperatures if applicable, at which per-
formance credit is to be applied and must
not exceed that established in compliance
with paragraph (b) of this section.
(b) The flight path, with the engines oper-
ating at the power or thrust, or both, appro-
priate to the airplane configuration and with
standby power in use, must lie above the
flight path without standby power in use at
the maximum weight at which all of the ap-
plicable airworthiness requirements are met.
In addition, the flight paths must comply
with subparagraphs (i) and (ii) of this para-
graph.
(i) The flight paths must be established
without changing the appropriate airplane
configuration.
(ii) The flight paths must be carried out for
a minimum height of 400 feet above the point
where standby power is actuated.
(6) Airplane configuration, speed, and power
and thrust; general. Any change in the air-
plane’s configuration, speed, and power or
thrust, or both, must be made in accordance
with the procedures established by the appli-
cant for the operation of the airplane in
service and must comply with paragraphs (a)
through (c) of this section. In addition, pro-
cedures must be established for the execu-
tion of balked landings and missed ap-
proaches.
(a) The Administrator must find that the
procedure can be consistently executed in
service by crews of average skill.
(b) The procedure may not involve methods
or the use of devices which have not been
proven to be safe and reliable.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(c) Allowances must be made for such time
delays in the execution of the procedures as
may be reasonably expected to occur during
service.
(7) Installation and operation; standby power.
The standby power unit and its installation
must comply with paragraphs (a) and (b) of
this section.
(a) The standby power unit and its instal-
lation must not adversely affect the safety of
the airplane.
(b) The operation of the standby power
unit and its control must have proven to be
safe and reliable.
[Amdt. 25–6, 30 FR 8468, July 2, 1965]
APPENDIX F TO PART 25
Part I—Test Criteria and Procedures for
Showing Compliance with § 25.853, or § 25.855.
(a) Material test criteria—(1) Interior com-
partments occupied by crew or passengers. (i)
Interior ceiling panels, interior wall panels,
partitions, galley structure, large cabinet
walls, structural flooring, and materials used
in the construction of stowage compart-
ments (other than underseat stowage com-
partments and compartments for stowing
small items such as magazines and maps)
must be self-extinguishing when tested verti-
cally in accordance with the applicable por-
tions of part I of this appendix. The average
burn length may not exceed 6 inches and the
average flame time after removal of the
flame source may not exceed 15 seconds.
Drippings from the test specimen may not
continue to flame for more than an average
of 3 seconds after falling.
(ii) Floor covering, textiles (including
draperies and upholstery), seat cushions,
padding, decorative and nondecorative coat-
ed fabrics, leather, trays and galley furnish-
ings, electrical conduit, thermal and acous-
tical insulation and insulation covering, air
ducting, joint and edge covering, liners of
Class B and E cargo or baggage compart-
ments, floor panels of Class B, C, D, or E
cargo or baggage compartments, insulation
blankets, cargo covers and transparencies,
molded and thermoformed parts, air ducting
joints, and trim strips (decorative and chaf-
ing), that are constructed of materials not
covered in subparagraph (iv) below, must be
self-extinguishing when tested vertically in
accordance with the applicable portions of
part I of this appendix or other approved
equivalent means. The average burn length
may not exceed 8 inches, and the average
flame time after removal of the flame source
may not exceed 15 seconds. Drippings from
the test specimen may not continue to flame
for more than an average of 5 seconds after
falling.
(iii) Motion picture film must be safety
film meeting the Standard Specifications for
Safety Photographic Film PHI.25 (available
487
Pt. 25, App. F
from the American National Standards Insti-
tute, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018). If
the film travels through ducts, the ducts
must meet the requirements of subparagraph
(ii) of this paragraph.
(iv) Clear plastic windows and signs, parts
constructed in whole or in part of elas-
tomeric materials, edge lighted instrument
assemblies consisting of two or more instru-
ments in a common housing, seat belts,
shoulder harnesses, and cargo and baggage
tiedown equipment, including containers,
bins, pallets, etc., used in passenger or crew
compartments, may not have an average
burn rate greater than 2.5 inches per minute
when tested horizontally in accordance with
the applicable portions of this appendix.
(v) Except for small parts (such as knobs,
handles, rollers, fasteners, clips, grommets,
rub strips, pulleys, and small electrical
parts) that would not contribute signifi-
cantly to the propagation of a fire and for
electrical wire and cable insulation, mate-
rials in items not specified in paragraphs
(a)(1)(i), (ii), (iii), or (iv) of part I of this ap-
pendix may not have a burn rate greater
than 4.0 inches per minute when tested hori-
zontally in accordance with the applicable
portions of this appendix.
(2) Cargo and baggage compartments not oc-
cupied by crew or passengers.
(i) Thermal and acoustic insulation (in-
cluding coverings) used in each cargo and
baggage compartment must be constructed
of materials that meet the requirements set
forth in paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of part I of this
appendix.
(ii) A cargo or baggage compartment de-
fined in § 25.857 as Class B or E must have a
liner constructed of materials that meet the
requirements of paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of part I
of this appendix and separated from the air-
plane structure (except for attachments). In
addition, such liners must be subjected to
the 45 degree angle test. The flame may not
penetrate (pass through) the material during
application of the flame or subsequent to its
removal. The average flame time after re-
moval of the flame source may not exceed 15
seconds, and the average glow time may not
exceed 10 seconds.
(iii) A cargo or baggage compartment de-
fined in § 25.857 as Class B, C, D, or E must
have floor panels constructed of materials
which meet the requirements of paragraph
(a)(1)(ii) of part I of this appendix and which
are separated from the airplane structure
(except for attachments). Such panels must
be subjected to the 45 degree angle test. The
flame may not penetrate (pass through) the
material during application of the flame or
subsequent to its removal. The average
flame time after removal of the flame source
may not exceed 15 seconds, and the average
glow time may not exceed 10 seconds.
Pt. 25, App. F
(iv) Insulation blankets and covers used to
protect cargo must be constructed of mate-
rials that meet the requirements of para-
graph (a)(1)(ii) of part I of this appendix. Tie-
down equipment (including containers, bins,
and pallets) used in each cargo and baggage
compartment must be constructed of mate-
rials that meet the requirements of para-
graph (a)(1)(v) of part I of this appendix.
(3) Electrical system components. Insulation
on electrical wire or cable installed in any
area of the fuselage must be self-extinguish-
ing when subjected to the 60 degree test spec-
ified in part I of this appendix. The average
burn length may not exceed 3 inches, and the
average flame time after removal of the
flame source may not exceed 30 seconds.
Drippings from the test specimen may not
continue to flame for more than an average
of 3 seconds after falling.
(b) Test Procedures—(1) Conditioning. Speci-
mens must be conditioned to 70±5 F., and at
50 percent ±5 percent relative humidity until
moisture equilibrium is reached or for 24
hours. Each specimen must remain in the
conditioning environment until it is sub-
jected to the flame.
(2) Specimen configuration. Except for small
parts and electrical wire and cable insula-
tion, materials must be tested either as sec-
tion cut from a fabricated part as installed
in the airplane or as a specimen simulating
a cut section, such as a specimen cut from a
flat sheet of the material or a model of the
fabricated part. The specimen may be cut
from any location in a fabricated part; how-
ever, fabricated units, such as sandwich pan-
els, may not be separated for test. Except as
noted below, the specimen thickness must be
no thicker than the minimum thickness to
be qualified for use in the airplane. Test
specimens of thick foam parts, such as seat
cushions, must be 1⁄2-inch in thickness. Test
specimens of materials that must meet the
requirements of paragraph (a)(1)(v) of part I
of this appendix must be no more than 1⁄8-
inch in thickness. Electrical wire and cable
specimens must be the same size as used in
the airplane. In the case of fabrics, both the
warp and fill direction of the weave must be
tested to determine the most critical flam-
mability condition. Specimens must be
mounted in a metal frame so that the two
long edges and the upper edge are held se-
curely during the vertical test prescribed in
subparagraph (4) of this paragraph and the
two long edges and the edge away from the
flame are held securely during the horizontal
test prescribed in subparagraph (5) of this
paragraph. The exposed area of the specimen
must be at least 2 inches wide and 12 inches
long, unless the actual size used in the air-
plane is smaller. The edge to which the burn-
er flame is applied must not consist of the
finished or protected edge of the specimen
but must be representative of the actual
cross-section of the material or part as in-
488
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
stalled in the airplane. The specimen must
be mounted in a metal frame so that all four
edges are held securely and the exposed area
of the specimen is at least 8 inches by 8
inches during the 45° test prescribed in sub-
paragraph (6) of this paragraph.
(3) Apparatus. Except as provided in sub-
paragraph (7) of this paragraph, tests must
be conducted in a draft-free cabinet in ac-
cordance with Federal Test Method Standard
191 Model 5903 (revised Method 5902) for the
vertical test, or Method 5906 for horizontal
test (available from the General Services Ad-
ministration, Business Service Center, Re-
gion 3, Seventh & D Streets SW., Washing-
ton, DC 20407). Specimens which are too
large for the cabinet must be tested in simi-
lar draft-free conditions.
(4) Vertical test. A minimum of three speci-
mens must be tested and results averaged.
For fabrics, the direction of weave cor-
responding to the most critical flammability
conditions must be parallel to the longest di-
mension. Each specimen must be supported
vertically. The specimen must be exposed to
a Bunsen or Tirrill burner with a nominal 3⁄8-
inch I.D. tube adjusted to give a flame of 11⁄2
inches in height. The minimum flame tem-
perature measured by a calibrated thermo-
couple pyrometer in the center of the flame
must be 1550 °F. The lower edge of the speci-
men must be 3⁄4-inch above the top edge of
the burner. The flame must be applied to the
center line of the lower edge of the specimen.
For materials covered by paragraph (a)(1)(i)
of part I of this appendix, the flame must be
applied for 60 seconds and then removed. For
materials covered by paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of
part I of this appendix, the flame must be ap-
plied for 12 seconds and then removed. Flame
time, burn length, and flaming time of drip-
pings, if any, may be recorded. The burn
length determined in accordance with sub-
paragraph (7) of this paragraph must be
measured to the nearest tenth of an inch.
(5) Horizontal test. A minimum of three
specimens must be tested and the results
averaged. Each specimen must be supported
horizontally. The exposed surface, when in-
stalled in the aircraft, must be face down for
the test. The specimen must be exposed to a
Bunsen or Tirrill burner with a nominal 3⁄8-
inch I.D. tube adjusted to give a flame of 11⁄2
inches in height. The minimum flame tem-
perature measured by a calibrated thermo-
couple pyrometer in the center of the flame
must be 1550 °F. The specimen must be posi-
tioned so that the edge being tested is cen-
tered 3⁄4-inch above the top of the burner.
The flame must be applied for 15 seconds and
then removed. A minimum of 10 inches of
specimen must be used for timing purposes,
approximately 11⁄2 inches must burn before
the burning front reaches the timing zone,
and the average burn rate must be recorded.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(6) Forty-five degree test. A minimum of
three specimens must be tested and the re-
sults averaged. The specimens must be sup-
ported at an angle of 45° to a horizontal sur-
face. The exposed surface when installed in
the aircraft must be face down for the test.
The specimens must be exposed to a Bunsen
or Tirrill burner with a nominal 3⁄8-inch I.D.
tube adjusted to give a flame of 11⁄2 inches in
height. The minimum flame temperature
measured by a calibrated thermocouple py-
rometer in the center of the flame must be
1550 °F. Suitable precautions must be taken
to avoid drafts. The flame must be applied
for 30 seconds with one-third contacting the
material at the center of the specimen and
then removed. Flame time, glow time, and
whether the flame penetrates (passes
through) the specimen must be recorded.
(7) Sixty degree test. A minimum of three
specimens of each wire specification (make
and size) must be tested. The specimen of
wire or cable (including insulation) must be
placed at an angle of 60° with the horizontal
in the cabinet specified in subparagraph (3)
of this paragraph with the cabinet door open
during the test, or must be placed within a
chamber approximately 2 feet high by 1 foot
by 1 foot, open at the top and at one vertical
side (front), and which allows sufficient flow
of air for complete combustion, but which is
free from drafts. The specimen must be par-
allel to and approximately 6 inches from the
front of the chamber. The lower end of the
specimen must be held rigidly clamped. The
upper end of the specimen must pass over a
pulley or rod and must have an appropriate
weight attached to it so that the specimen is
held tautly throughout the flammability
test. The test specimen span between lower
clamp and upper pulley or rod must be 24
inches and must be marked 8 inches from the
lower end to indicate the central point for
flame application. A flame from a Bunsen or
Tirrill burner must be applied for 30 seconds
at the test mark. The burner must be mount-
ed underneath the test mark on the speci-
men, perpendicular to the specimen and at
an angle of 30° to the vertical plane of the
specimen. The burner must have a nominal
bore of 3⁄8-inch and be adjusted to provide a
3-inch high flame with an inner cone ap-
proximately one-third of the flame height.
The minimum temperature of the hottest
portion of the flame, as measured with a
calibrated thermocouple pyrometer, may not
be less than 1750 °F. The burner must be posi-
tioned so that the hottest portion of the
flame is applied to the test mark on the
wire. Flame time, burn length, and flaming
time of drippings, if any, must be recorded.
The burn length determined in accordance
with paragraph (8) of this paragraph must be
measured to the nearest tenth of an inch.
Breaking of the wire specimens is not consid-
ered a failure.
489
Pt. 25, App. F
(8) Burn length. Burn length is the distance
from the original edge to the farthest evi-
dence of damage to the test specimen due to
flame impingement, including areas of par-
tial or complete consumption, charring, or
embrittlement, but not including areas soot-
ed, stained, warped, or discolored, nor areas
where material has shrunk or melted away
from the heat source.
Part II—Flammability of Seat Cushions
(a) Criteria for Acceptance. Each seat cush-
ion must meet the following criteria:
(1) At least three sets of seat bottom and
seat back cushion specimens must be tested.
(2) If the cushion is constructed with a fire
blocking material, the fire blocking material
must completely enclose the cushion foam
core material.
(3) Each specimen tested must be fab-
ricated using the principal components (i.e.,
foam core, flotation material, fire blocking
material, if used, and dress covering) and as-
sembly processes (representative seams and
closures) intended for use in the production
articles. If a different material combination
is used for the back cushion than for the bot-
tom cushion, both material combinations
must be tested as complete specimen sets,
each set consisting of a back cushion speci-
men and a bottom cushion specimen. If a
cushion, including outer dress covering, is
demonstrated to meet the requirements of
this appendix using the oil burner test, the
dress covering of that cushion may be re-
placed with a similar dress covering provided
the burn length of the replacement covering,
as determined by the test specified in
§ 25.853(c), does not exceed the corresponding
burn length of the dress covering used on the
cushion subjected to the oil burner test.
(4) For at least two-thirds of the total
number of specimen sets tested, the burn
length from the burner must not reach the
side of the cushion opposite the burner. The
burn length must not exceed 17 inches. Burn
length is the perpendicular distance from the
inside edge of the seat frame closest to the
burner to the farthest evidence of damage to
the test specimen due to flame impingement,
including areas of partial or complete con-
sumption, charring, or embrittlement, but
not including areas sooted, stained, warped,
or discolored, or areas where material has
shrunk or melted away from the heat source.
(5) The average percentage weight loss
must not exceed 10 percent. Also, at least
two-thirds of the total number of specimen
sets tested must not exceed 10 percent
weight loss. All droppings falling from the
cushions and mounting stand are to be dis-
carded before the after-test weight is deter-
mined. The percentage weight loss for a spec-
imen set is the weight of the specimen set
before testing less the weight of the speci-
men set after testing expressed as the per-
centage of the weight before testing.
Pt. 25, App. F
(b) Test Conditions. Vertical air velocity
should average 25 fpm±10 fpm at the top of
the back seat cushion. Horizontal air veloc-
ity should be below 10 fpm just above the
bottom seat cushion. Air velocities should be
measured with the ventilation hood operat-
ing and the burner motor off.
(c) Test Specimens. (1) For each test, one set
of cushion specimens representing a seat bot-
tom and seat back cushion must be used.
(2) The seat bottom cushion specimen must
be 18±1⁄8 inches (457±3 mm) wide by 20±1⁄8
inches (508±3 mm) deep by 4±1⁄8 inches (102±3
mm) thick, exclusive of fabric closures and
seam overlap.
(3) The seat back cushion specimen must
be 18±1⁄8 inches (432±3 mm) wide by 25±1⁄8
inches (635±3 mm) high by 2±1⁄8 inches (51±3
mm) thick, exclusive of fabric closures and
seam overlap.
(4) The specimens must be conditioned at
70±5 ° F (21±2 ° C) 55%±10% relative humidity
for at least 24 hours before testing.
(d) Test Apparatus. The arrangement of the
test apparatus is shown in Figures 1 through
5 and must include the components described
in this section. Minor details of the appara-
tus may vary, depending on the model burn-
er used.
(1) Specimen Mounting Stand. The mounting
stand for the test specimens consists of steel
angles, as shown in Figure 1. The length of
the mounting stand legs is 12±1⁄8 inches (305±3
mm). The mounting stand must be used for
mounting the test specimen seat bottom and
seat back, as shown in Figure 2. The mount-
ing stand should also include a suitable drip
pan lined with aluminum foil, dull side up.
(2) Test Burner. The burner to be used in
testing must—
(i) Be a modified gun type;
(ii) Have an 80-degree spray angle nozzle
nominally rated for 2.25 gallons/hour at 100
psi;
(iii) Have a 12-inch (305 mm) burner cone
installed at the end of the draft tube, with
an opening 6 inches (152 mm) high and 11
inches (280 mm) wide, as shown in Figure 3;
and
(iv) Have a burner fuel pressure regulator
that is adjusted to deliver a nominal 2.0 gal-
lon/hour of # 2 Grade kerosene or equivalent
required for the test.
Burner models which have been used success-
fully in testing are the Lennox Model OB–32,
Carlin Model 200 CRD, and Park Model DPL
3400. FAA published reports pertinent to this
type of burner are: (1) Powerplant
Enginering Report No. 3A, Standard Fire
Test Apparatus and Procedure for Flexible
Hose Assemblies, dated March 1978; and (2)
Report No. DOT/FAA/RD/76/213, Reevaluation
of Burner Characteristics for Fire Resistance
Tests, dated January 1977.
(3) Calorimeter.
(i) The calorimeter to be used in testing
must be a (0–15.0 BTU/ft2-sec. 0–17.0 W/cm2)
490
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
calorimeter, accurate ±3%, mounted in a 6-
inch by 12-inch (152 by 305 mm) by 3⁄4-inch (19
mm) thick calcium silicate insulating board
which is attached to a steel angle bracket for
placement in the test stand during burner
calibration, as shown in Figure 4.
(ii) Because crumbling of the insulating
board with service can result in misalign-
ment of the calorimeter, the calorimeter
must be monitored and the mounting
shimmed, as necessary, to ensure that the
calorimeter face is flush with the exposed
plane of the insulating board in a plane par-
allel to the exit of the test burner cone.
(4) Thermocouples. The seven thermocouples
to be used for testing must be 1⁄16- to 1⁄8-inch
metal sheathed, ceramic packed, type K,
grounded thermocouples with a nominal 22
to 30 American wire gage (AWG)-size conduc-
tor. The seven thermocouples must be at-
tached to a steel angle bracket to form a
thermocouple rake for placement in the test
stand during burner calibration, as shown in
Figure 5.
(5) Apparatus Arrangement. The test burner
must be mounted on a suitable stand to posi-
tion the exit of the burner cone a distance of
4±1⁄8 inches (102±3 mm) from one side of the
specimen mounting stand. The burner stand
should have the capability of allowing the
burner to be swung away from the specimen
mounting stand during warmup periods.
(6) Data Recording. A recording potentiom-
eter or other suitable calibrated instrument
with an appropriate range must be used to
measure and record the outputs of the calo-
rimeter and the thermocouples.
(7) Weight Scale. Weighing Device—A device
must be used that with proper procedures
may determine the before and after test
weights of each set of seat cushion specimens
within 0.02 pound (9 grams). A continuous
weighing system is preferred.
(8) Timing Device. A stopwatch or other de-
vice (calibrated to ±1 second) must be used to
measure the time of application of the burn-
er flame and self-extinguishing time or test
duration.
(e) Preparation of Apparatus. Before calibra-
tion, all equipment must be turned on and
the burner fuel must be adjusted as specified
in paragraph (d)(2).
(f) Calibration. To ensure the proper ther-
mal output of the burner, the following test
must be made:
(1) Place the calorimeter on the test stand
as shown in Figure 4 at a distance of 4±1⁄8
inches (102±3 mm) from the exit of the burner
cone.
(2) Turn on the burner, allow it to run for
2 minutes for warmup, and adjust the burner
air intake damper to produce a reading of
10.5±0.5 BTU/ft2-sec. (11.9±0.6 w/cm2) on the
calorimeter to ensure steady state condi-
tions have been achieved. Turn off the burn-
er.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(3) Replace the calorimeter with the ther-
mocouple rake (Figure 5).
(4) Turn on the burner and ensure that the
thermocouples are reading 1900±100 ° F
(1038±38 ° C) to ensure steady state condi-
tions have been achieved.
(5) If the calorimeter and thermocouples do
not read within range, repeat steps in para-
graphs 1 through 4 and adjust the burner air
intake damper until the proper readings are
obtained. The thermocouple rake and the
calorimeter should be used frequently to
maintain and record calibrated test param-
eters. Until the specific apparatus has dem-
onstrated consistency, each test should be
calibrated. After consistency has been con-
firmed, several tests may be conducted with
the pre-test calibration before and a calibra-
tion check after the series.
(g) Test Procedure. The flammability of
each set of specimens must be tested as fol-
lows:
(1) Record the weight of each set of seat
bottom and seat back cushion specimens to
be tested to the nearest 0.02 pound (9 grams).
(2) Mount the seat bottom and seat back
cushion test specimens on the test stand as
shown in Figure 2, securing the seat back
cushion specimen to the test stand at the
top.
(3) Swing the burner into position and en-
sure that the distance from the exit of the
burner cone to the side of the seat bottom
cushion specimen is 4±1⁄8 inches (102±3 mm).
491
Pt. 25, App. F
(4) Swing the burner away from the test
position. Turn on the burner and allow it to
run for 2 minutes to provide adequate
warmup of the burner cone and flame sta-
bilization.
(5) To begin the test, swing the burner into
the test position and simultaneously start
the timing device.
(6) Expose the seat bottom cushion speci-
men to the burner flame for 2 minutes and
then turn off the burner. Immediately swing
the burner away from the test position. Ter-
minate test 7 minutes after initiating cush-
ion exposure to the flame by use of a gaseous
extinguishing agent (i.e., Halon or CO2).
(7) Determine the weight of the remains of
the seat cushion specimen set left on the
mounting stand to the nearest 0.02 pound (9
grams) excluding all droppings.
(h) Test Report. With respect to all speci-
men sets tested for a particular seat cushion
for which testing of compliance is performed,
the following information must be recorded:
(1) An identification and description of the
specimens being tested.
(2) The number of specimen sets tested.
(3) The initial weight and residual weight
of each set, the calculated percentage weight
loss of each set, and the calculated average
percentage weight loss for the total number
of sets tested.
(4) The burn length for each set tested.
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Part III—Test Method to Determine Flame Pen-
etration Resistance of Cargo Compartment
Liners.
(a) Criteria for Acceptance. (1) At least three
specimens of cargo compartment sidewall or
ceiling liner panels must be tested.
(2) Each specimen tested must simulate
the cargo compartment sidewall or ceiling
liner panel, including any design features,
such as joints, lamp assemblies, etc., the
failure of which would affect the capability
of the liner to safely contain a fire.
(3) There must be no flame penetration of
any specimen within 5 minutes after applica-
tion of the flame source, and the peak tem-
perature measured at 4 inches above the
upper surface of the horizontal test sample
must not exceed 400 ° F.

496
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(b) Summary of Method. This method pro-
vides a laboratory test procedure for measur-
ing the capability of cargo compartment lin-
ing materials to resist flame penetration
with a 2 gallon per hour (GPH) #2 Grade ker-
osene or equivalent burner fire source. Ceil-
ing and sidewall liner panels may be tested
individually provided a baffle is used to sim-
ulate the missing panel. Any specimen that
passes the test as a ceiling liner panel may
be used as a sidewall liner panel.
(c) Test Specimens. (1) The specimen to be
tested must measure 16±1⁄8 inches (406±3 mm)
by 24+1⁄8 inches (610±3 mm).
(2) The specimens must be conditioned at
70 ° F.±5 ° F. (21° C.±2° C.) and 55%±5% humid-
ity for at least 24 hours before testing.
(d) Test Apparatus. The arrangement of the
test apparatus, which is shown in Figure 3 of
Part II and Figures 1 through 3 of this part
of appendix F, must include the components
described in this section. Minor details of the
apparatus may vary, depending on the model
of the burner used.
(1) Specimen Mounting Stand. The mounting
stand for the test specimens consists of steel
angles as shown in Figure 1.
(2) Test Burner. The burner to be used in
tesing must—
(i) Be a modified gun type.
(ii) Use a suitable nozzle and maintain fuel
pressure to yield a 2 GPH fuel flow. For ex-
ample: an 80 degree nozzle nominally rated
at 2.25 GPH and operated at 85 pounds per
square inch (PSI) gage to deliver 2.03 GPH.
(iii) Have a 12 inch (305 mm) burner exten-
sion installed at the end of the draft tube
with an opening 6 inches (152 mm) high and
11 inches (280 mm) wide as shown in Figure
3 of Part II of this appendix.
(iv) Have a burner fuel pressure regulator
that is adjusted to deliver a nominal 2.0 GPH
of #2 Grade kerosene or equivalent.
Burner models which have been used success-
fully in testing are the Lenox Model OB–32,
Carlin Model 200 CRD and Park Model DPL.
The basic burner is described in FAA Power-
plant Engineering Report No. 3A, Standard
Fire Test Apparatus and Procedure for Flexi-
ble Hose Assemblies, dated March 1978; how-
ever, the test settings specified in this ap-
pendix differ in some instances from those
specified in the report.
(3) Calorimeter. (i) The calorimeter to be
used in testing must be a total heat flux Foil
Type Gardon Gage of an appropriate range
(approximately 0 to 15.0 British thermal unit
(BTU) per ft.2 sec., 0–17.0 watts/cm2). The cal-
orimeter must be mounted in a 6 inch by 12
inch (152 by 305 mm) by 3⁄4 inch (19 mm) thick
insulating block which is attached to a steel
angle bracket for placement in the test stand
during burner calibration as shown in Figure
2 of this part of this appendix.
(ii) The insulating block must be mon-
itored for deterioration and the mounting
shimmed as necessary to ensure that the cal-
497
Pt. 25, App. F
orimeter face is parallel to the exit plane of
the test burner cone.
(4) Thermocouples. The seven thermocouples
to be used for testing must be 1⁄16 inch ce-
ramic sheathed, type K, grounded
thermocouples with a nominal 30 American
wire gage (AWG) size conductor. The seven
thermocouples must be attached to a steel
angle bracket to form a thermocouple rake
for placement in the test stand during burn-
er calibration as shown in Figure 3 of this
part of this appendix.
(5) Apparatus Arrangement. The test burner
must be mounted on a suitable stand to posi-
tion the exit of the burner cone a distance of
8 inches from the ceiling liner panel and 2
inches from the sidewall liner panel. The
burner stand should have the capability of
allowing the burner to be swung away from
the test specimen during warm-up periods.
(6) Instrumentation. A recording potentiom-
eter or other suitable instrument with an ap-
propriate range must be used to measure and
record the outputs of the calorimeter and
the thermocouples.
(7) Timing Device. A stopwatch or other de-
vice must be used to measure the time of
flame application and the time of flame pen-
etration, if it occurs.
(e) Preparation of Apparatus. Before calibra-
tion, all equipment must be turned on and
allowed to stabilize, and the burner fuel flow
must be adjusted as specified in paragraph
(d)(2).
(f) Calibration. To ensure the proper ther-
mal output of the burner the following test
must be made:
(1) Remove the burner extension from the
end of the draft tube. Turn on the blower
portion of the burner without turning the
fuel or igniters on. Measure the air velocity
using a hot wire anemometer in the center of
the draft tube across the face of the opening.
Adjust the damper such that the air velocity
is in the range of 1550 to 1800 ft./min. If tabs
are being used at the exit of the draft tube,
they must be removed prior to this measure-
ment. Reinstall the draft tube extension
cone.
(2) Place the calorimeter on the test stand
as shown in Figure 2 at a distance of 8 inches
(203 mm) from the exit of the burner cone to
simulate the position of the horizontal test
specimen.
(3) Turn on the burner, allow it to run for
2 minutes for warm-up, and adjust the damp-
er to produce a calorimeter reading of 8.0±0.5
BTU per ft.2 sec. (9.1±0.6 Watts/cm2).
(4) Replace the calorimeter with the ther-
mocouple rake (see Figure 3).
(5) Turn on the burner and ensure that
each of the seven thermocouples reads 1700 °
F. ±100 ° F. (927 ° C. ±38 ° C.) to ensure steady
state conditions have been achieved. If the
temperature is out of this range, repeat steps
2 through 5 until proper readings are ob-
tained.
Pt. 25, App. F
(6) Turn off the burner and remove the
thermocouple rake.
(7) Repeat (1) to ensure that the burner is
in the correct range.
(g) Test Procedure. (1) Mount a thermo-
couple of the same type as that used for cali-
bration at a distance of 4 inches (102 mm)
above the horizontal (ceiling) test specimen.
The thermocouple should be centered over
the burner cone.
(2) Mount the test specimen on the test
stand shown in Figure 1 in either the hori-
zontal or vertical position. Mount the insu-
lating material in the other position.
(3) Position the burner so that flames will
not impinge on the specimen, turn the burn-
er on, and allow it to run for 2 minutes. Ro-
tate the burner to apply the flame to the
specimen and simultaneously start the tim-
ing device.
(4) Expose the test specimen to the flame
for 5 minutes and then turn off the burner.
498
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
The test may be terminated earlier if flame
penetration is observed.
(5) When testing ceiling liner panels,
record the peak temperature measured 4
inches above the sample.
(6) Record the time at which flame pene-
tration occurs if applicable.
(h) Test Report. The test report must in-
clude the following:
(1) A complete description of the materials
tested including type, manufacturer, thick-
ness, and other appropriate data.
(2) Observations of the behavior of the test
specimens during flame exposure such as
delamination, resin ignition, smoke, ect., in-
cluding the time of such occurrence.
(3) The time at which flame penetration
occurs, if applicable, for each of the three
specimens tested.
(4) Panel orientation (ceiling or sidewall).
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Part IV—Test Method to Determine the Heat
Release Rate From Cabin Materials Exposed
to Radiant Heat.
(a) Summary of Method. Three or more
specimens representing the completed air-
craft component are tested. Each test speci-
men is injected into an environmental cham-
ber through which a constant flow of air
passes. The specimen’s exposure is deter-
mined by a radiant heat source adjusted to
produce, on the specimen, the desired total
heat flux of 3.5 W/cm2. The specimen is tested
with the exposed surface vertical. Combus-
tion is initiated by piloted ignition. The
combustion products leaving the chamber
are monitored in order to calculate the re-
lease rate of heat.
(b) Apparatus. The Ohio State University
(OSU) rate of heat release apparatus, as de-
scribed below, is used. This is a modified ver-
sion of the rate of heat release apparatus
standardized by the American Society of
Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASTM E–906.
(1) This apparatus is shown in Figures 1A
and 1B of this part IV. All exterior surfaces
of the apparatus, except the holding cham-
ber, must be insulated with 1 inch (25 mm)
thick, low density, high temperature, fiber-
glass board insulation. A gasketed door,
through which the sample injection rod
slides, must be used to form an airtight clo-
sure on the specimen hold chamber.
(2) Thermopile. The temperature difference
between the air entering the environmental
chamber and that leaving must be monitored
by a thermopile having five hot, and five
cold, 24-guage Chromel-Alumel junctions.
The hot junctions must be spaced across the
top of the exhaust stack, .38 inches (10 mm)
below the top of the chimney. The
thermocouples must have a .050 ± .010 inch
(1.3 ± .3mm) diameter, ball-type, welded tip.
One thermocouple must be located in the
geometric center, with the other four located
1.18 inch (30 mm) from the center along the
diagonal toward each of the corners (Figure
5 of this part IV). The cold junctions must be
located in the pan below the lower air dis-
tribution plate (see paragraph (b)(4) of this
part IV). Thermopile hot junctions must be
cleared of soot deposits as needed to main-
tain the calibrated sensitivity.
(3) Radiation Source. A radiant heat source
incorporating four Type LL silicon carbide
elements, 20 inches (508 mm) long by .63 inch
(16 mm) O.D., must be used, as shown in Fig-
ures 2A and 2B of this part IV. The heat
source must have a nominal resistance of 1.4
ohms and be capable of generating a flux up
to 100 kW/m2. The silicone carbide elements
must be mounted in the stainless steel panel
box by inserting them through .63 inch (16
mm) holes in .03 inch (1 mm) thick ceramic
fiber or calcium-silicate millboard. Loca-
tions of the holes in the pads and stainless
steel cover plates are shown in Figure 2B of
502
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
this part IV. The truncated diamond-shaped
mask of .042 ± .002 inch (1.07 ± .05mm) stainless
steel must be added to provide uniform heat
flux density over the area occupied by the
vertical sample.
(4) Air Distribution System. The air entering
the environmental chamber must be distrib-
uted by a .25 inch (6.3 mm) thick aluminum
plate having eight No. 4 drill-holes, located 2
inches (51 mm) from sides on 4 inch (102 mm)
centers, mounted at the base of the environ-
mental chamber. A second plate of 18 guage
stainless steel having 120, evenly spaced, No.
28 drill holes must be mounted 6 inches (152
mm) above the aluminum plate. A well-regu-
lated air supply is required. The air-supply
manifold at the base of the pyramidal sec-
tion must have 48, evenly spaced, No. 26 drill
holes located .38 inch (10 mm) from the inner
edge of the manifold, resulting in an airflow
split of approximately three to one within
the apparatus.
(5) Exhaust Stack. An exhaust stack,
5.25 × 2.75 inches (133 × 70 mm) in cross section,
and 10 inches (254 mm) long, fabricated from
28 guage stainless steel must be mounted on
the outlet of the pyramidal section. A.
1.0 × 3.0 inch (25 × 76 mm) baffle plate of
.018 ± .002 inch (.50 ± .05 mm) stainless steel
must be centered inside the stack, per-
pendicular to the air flow, 3 inches (76 mm)
above the base of the stack.
(6) Specimen Holders. (i) The specimen must
be tested in a vertical orientation. The speci-
men holder (Figure 3 of this part IV) must
incorporate a frame that touches the speci-
men (which is wrapped with aluminum foil
as required by paragraph (d)(3) of this Part)
along only the .25 inch (6 mm) perimeter. A
‘‘V’’ shaped spring is used to hold the assem-
bly together. A detachable .50 × .50 × 5.91 inch
(12 × 12 × 150 mm) drip pan and two .020 inch (.5
mm) stainless steel wires (as shown in Fig-
ure 3 of this part IV) must be used for testing
materials prone to melting and dripping. The
positioning of the spring and frame may be
changed to accommodate different specimen
thicknesses by inserting the retaining rod in
different holes on the specimen holder.
(ii) Since the radiation shield described in
ASTM E–906 is not used, a guide pin must be
added to the injection mechanism. This fits
into a slotted metal plate on the injection
mechanism outside of the holding chamber.
It can be used to provide accurate position-
ing of the specimen face after injection. The
front surface of the specimen must be 3.9
inches (100 mm) from the closed radiation
doors after injection.
(iii) The specimen holder clips onto the
mounted bracket (Figure 3 of this part IV).
The mounting bracket must be attached to
the injection rod by three screws that pass
through a wide-area washer welded onto a 1⁄2-
inch (13 mm) nut. The end of the injection
rod must be threaded to screw into the nut,
and a .020 inch (5.1 mm) thick wide area
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
washer must be held between two 1⁄2-inch (13
mm) nuts that are adjusted to tightly cover
the hole in the radiation doors through
which the injection rod or calibration calo-
rimeter pass.
(7) Calorimeter. A total-flux type calorime-
ter must be mounted in the center of a 1⁄2-
inch Kaowool ‘‘M’’ board inserted in the
sample holder to measure the total heat flux.
The calorimeter must have a view angle of
180 degrees and be calibrated for incident
flux. The calorimeter calibration must be ac-
ceptable to the Administrator.
(8) Pilot-Flame Positions. Pilot ignition of
the specimen must be accomplished by si-
multaneously exposing the specimen to a
lower pilot burner and an upper pilot burner,
as described in paragraph (b)(8)(i) and
(b)(8)(ii) or (b)(8)(iii) of this part IV, respec-
tively. Since intermittent pilot flame extin-
guishment for more than 3 seconds would in-
validate the test results, a spark ignitor may
be installed to ensure that the lower pilot
burner remains lighted.
(i) Lower Pilot Burner. The pilot-flame tub-
ing must be .25 inch (6.3 mm) O.D., .03 inch
(0.8mm) wall, stainless steel tubing. A mix-
ture of 120 cm3/min. of methane and 850 cm3/
min. of air must be fed to the lower pilot
flame burner. The normal position of the end
of the pilot burner tubing is .40 inch (10 mm)
from and perpendicular to the exposed verti-
cal surface of the specimen. The centerline
at the outlet of the burner tubing must
intersect the vertical centerline of the sam-
ple at a point .20 inch (5 mm) above the lower
exposed edge of the specimen.
(ii) Standard Three-Hole Upper Pilot Burner.
The pilot burner must be a straight length of
.25 inch (6.3 mm) O.D., .03 inch (0.8 mm) wall,
stainless steel tubing that is 14 inches (360
mm) long. One end of the tubing must be
closed, and three No. 40 drill holes must be
drilled into the tubing, 2.38 inch (60 mm)
apart, for gas ports, all radiating in the same
direction. The first hole must be .19 inch (5
mm) from the closed end of the tubing. The
tube must be positioned .75 inch (19 mm)
above and .75 inch (19 mm) behind the ex-
posed upper edge of the specimen. The mid-
dle hole must be in the vertical plane per-
pendicular to the exposed surface of the spec-
imen which passes through its vertical cen-
terline and must be pointed toward the radi-
ation source. The gas supplied to the burner
must be methane and must be adjusted to
produce flame lengths of 1 inch (25 mm).
(iii) Optional Fourteen-Hole Upper Pilot
Burner. This burner may be used in lieu of
the standard three-hole burner described in
paragraph (b)(8)(ii) of this part IV. The pilot
burner must be a straight length of .25 inch
(6.3 mm) O.D., .03 inch (0.8 mm) wall, stain-
less steel tubing that is 15.75 inches (400 mm)
long. One end of the tubing must be closed,
and 14 No. 59 drill holes must be drilled into
the tubing, .50 inch (13 mm) apart, for gas
503
Pt. 25, App. F
ports, all radiating in the same direction.
The first hole must be .50 inch (13 mm) from
the closed end of the tubing. The tube must
be positioned above the specimen holder so
that the holes are placed above the specimen
as shown in Figure 1B of this part IV. The
fuel supplied to the burner must be methane
mixed with air in a ratio of approximately
50/50 by volume. The total gas flow must be
adjusted to produce flame lengths of 1 inch
(25 mm). When the gas/air ratio and the flow
rate are properly adjusted, approximately .25
inch (6 mm) of the flame length appears yel-
low in color.
(c) Calibration of Equipment. (1) Heat Release
Rate. A calibration burner, as shown in Fig-
ure 4, must be placed over the end of the
lower pilot flame tubing using a gas tight
connection. The flow of gas to the pilot
flame must be at least 99 percent methane
and must be accurately metered. Prior to
usage, the wet test meter must be properly
leveled and filled with distilled water to the
tip of the internal pointer while no gas is
flowing. Ambient temperature and pressure
of the water are based on the internal wet
test meter temperature. A baseline flow rate
of approximately 1 liter/min. must be set and
increased to higher preset flows of 4, 6, 8, 6
and 4 liters/min. Immediately prior to re-
cording methane flow rates, a flow rate of 8
liters/min. must be used for 2 minutes to pre-
condition the chamber. This is not recorded
as part of calibration. The rate must be de-
termined by using a stopwatch to time a
complete revolution of the wet test meter for
both the baseline and higher flow, with the
flow returned to baseline before changing to
the next higher flow. The thermopile base-
line voltage must be measured. The gas flow
to the burner must be increased to the high-
er preset flow and allowed to burn for 2.0
minutes, and the thermopile voltage must be
measured. The sequence must be repeated
until all five values have been determined.
The average of the five values must be used
as the calibration factor. The procedure
must be repeated if the percent relative
standard deviation is greater than 5 percent.
Calculations are shown in paragraph (f) of
this part IV.
(2) Flux Uniformity. Uniformity of flux over
the specimen must be checked periodically
and after each heating element change to de-
termine if it is within acceptable limits of
plus or minus 5 percent.
(3) As noted in paragraph (b)(2) of this part
IV, thermopile hot junctions must be cleared
of soot deposits as needed to maintain the
calibrated sensitivity.
(d) Preparation of Test Specimens. (1) The
test specimens must be representative of the
aircraft component in regard to materials
and construction methods. The standard size
for the test specimens is 5.91 ± .03 × 5.91 ±.03
inches (149 ±1 × 149 ±1 mm). The thickness of
the specimen must be the same as that of the
Pt. 25, App. F
aircraft component it represents up to a
maximum thickness of 1.75 inches (45 mm).
Test specimens representing thicker compo-
nents must be 1.75 inches (45 mm).
(2) Conditioning. Specimens must be condi-
tioned as described in Part 1 of this appen-
dix.
(3) Mounting. Each test specimen must be
wrapped tightly on all sides of the specimen,
except for the one surface that is exposed
with a single layer of .001 inch (.025 mm) alu-
minum foil.
(e) Procedure. (1) The power supply to the
radiant panel must be set to produce a radi-
ant flux of 3.5 ±.05 W/cm2, as measured at the
point the center of the specimen surface will
occupy when positioned for the test. The ra-
diant flux must be measured after the air
flow through the equipment is adjusted to
the desired rate.
(2) After the pilot flames are lighted, their
position must be checked as described in
paragraph (b)(8) of this part IV.
(3) Air flow through the apparatus must be
controlled by a circular plate orifice located
in a 1.5 inch (38.1 mm) I.D. pipe with two
pressure measuring points, located 1.5 inches
(38 mm) upstream and .75 inches (19 mm)
downstream of the orifice plate. The pipe
must be connected to a manometer set at a
pressure differential of 7.87 inches (200 mm)
of Hg. (See Figure 1B of this part IV.) The
total air flow to the equipment is approxi-
mately .04 m3/seconds. The stop on the verti-
cal specimen holder rod must be adjusted so
that the exposed surface of the specimen is
positioned 3.9 inches (100 mm) from the en-
trance when injected into the environmental
chamber.
Kh =
(F1 − FO ) × (210.8 − 22)k cal × 273 × P − Pv × mole CH 4STP × WATT min × kw
(V1 − VO ) mole Ta 760
F0=flow of methane at baseline (1pm)
F1=higher preset flow of methane (1pm)
V0=thermopile voltage at baseline (mv)
V1=thermopile voltage at higher flow (mv)
Ta=Ambient temperature (K)
P=Ambient pressure (mm Hg)
Pv=Water vapor pressure (mm Hg)
(2) Heat release rates may be calculated
from the reading of the thermopile output
voltage at any instant of time as:
HRR =
(Vm − Vb )K n
2 meter, and the average peak heat release
.02323m
HRR=heat release rate (kw/m2)
Vb=baseline voltage (mv)
Vm=measured thermopile voltage (mv)
504
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(4) The specimen must be placed in the
hold chamber with the radiation doors
closed. The airtight outer door must be se-
cured, and the recording devices must be
started. The specimen must be retained in
the hold chamber for 60 seconds, plus or
minus 10 seconds, before injection. The ther-
mopile ‘‘zero’’ value must be determined dur-
ing the last 20 seconds of the hold period.
The sample must not be injected before com-
pletion of the ‘‘zero’’ value determination.
(5) When the specimen is to be injected, the
radiation doors must be opened. After the
specimen is injected into the environmental
chamber, the radiation doors must be closed
behind the specimen.
(6) [Reserved]
(7) Injection of the specimen and closure of
the inner door marks time zero. A record of
the thermopile output with at least one data
point per second must be made during the
time the specimen is in the environmental
chamber.
(8) The test duration is five minutes. The
lower pilot burner and the upper pilot burner
must remain lighted for the entire duration
of the test, except that there may be inter-
mittent flame extinguishment for periods
that do not exceed 3 seconds. Furthermore, if
the optional three-hole upper burner is used,
at least two flamelets must remain lighted
for the entire duration of the test, except
that there may be intermittent flame extin-
guishment of all three flamelets for periods
that do not exceed 3 seconds.
(9) A minimum of three specimens must be
tested.
(f) Calculations. (1) The calibration factor is
calculated as follows:
22.41 .01433kcal 1000w
Kh=calibration factor (kw/mv)
(3) The integral of the heat release rate is
the total heat release as a function of time
and is calculated by multiplying the rate by
the data sampling frequency in minutes and
summing the time from zero to two minutes.
(g) Criteria. The total positive heat release
over the first two minutes of exposure for
each of the three or more samples tested
must be averaged, and the peak heat release
rate for each of the samples must be aver-
aged. The average total heat release must
not exceed 65 kilowatt-minutes per square
rate must not exceed 65 kilowatts per square
meter.
(h) Report. The test report must include
the following for each specimen tested:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(1) Description of the specimen.
(2) Radiant heat flux to the specimen, ex-
pressed in W/cm2.
(3) Data giving release rates of heat (in kW/
m2 ) as a function of time, either graphically
or tabulated at intervals no greater than 10
seconds. The calibration factor (kn) must be
recorded.
(4) If melting, sagging, delaminating, or
other behavior that affects the exposed sur-
505
Pt. 25, App. F
face area or the mode of burning occurs,
these behaviors must be reported, together
with the time at which such behaviors were
observed.
(5) The peak heat release and the 2-minute
integrated heat release rate must be re-
ported.
FIGURES TO PART IV OF APPENDIX F
Pt. 25, App. F 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

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Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. F

509
Pt. 25, App. F 14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)

510
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. F

511
Pt. 25, App. G
Part V. Test Method to Determine the Smoke
Emission Characteristics of Cabin Materials
(a) Summary of Method. The specimens
must be constructed, conditioned, and tested
in the flaming mode in accordance with
American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM) Standard Test Method ASTM F814–
83.
(b) Acceptance Criteria. The specific optical
smoke density (Ds), which is obtained by
averaging the reading obtained after 4 min-
utes with each of the three specimens, shall
not exceed 200.
[Amdt. 25–32, 37 FR 3972, Feb. 24, 1972]
EDITORIAL NOTE: For FEDERAL REGISTER ci-
tations affecting Appendix F to Part 25, see
the List of CFR Sections Affected appearing
in the Finding Aids section of this volume.
512
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
APPENDIX G TO PART 25—CONTINUOUS
GUST DESIGN CRITERIA
The continuous gust design criteria in this
appendix must be used in establishing the
dynamic response of the airplane to vertical
and lateral continuous turbulence unless a
more rational criteria is used. The following
gust load requirements apply to mission
analysis and design envelope analysis:
(a) The limit gust loads utilizing the con-
tinuous turbulence concept must be deter-
mined in accordance with the provisions of
either paragraph (b) or paragraphs (c) and (d)
of this appendix.
(b) Design envelope analysis. The limit loads
must be determined in accordance with the
following:
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(1) All critical altitudes, weights, and
weight distributions, as specified in
§ 25.321(b), and all critical speeds within the
ranges indicated in paragraph (b)(3) of this
appendix must be considered.
(2) Values of Ā (ratio of root-mean-square
incremental load root-mean-square gust ve-
locity) must be determined by dynamic anal-
ysis. The power spectral density of the at-
mospheric turbulence must be as given by
the equation—
8
1+ (1.339 LΩ )2
φ (Ω) = σ L / π
2 3
[1 + (1.339 LΩ) ]
2 11
6 is included in the analysis, the effect of sys-
where:
φ=power-spectral density (ft./sec.) 2/rad./ft.
σ=root-mean-square gust velocity, ft./sec.
Ω=reduced frequency, radians per foot.
L=2,500 ft.
(3) The limit loads must be obtained by
multiplying the Ā values determined by the
dynamic analysis by the following values of
the gust velocity Uσ:
(i) At speed Vc: Uσ=85 fps true gust velocity
in the interval 0 to 30,000 ft. altitude and is
linearly decreased to 30 fps true gust veloc-
ity at 80,000 ft. altitude. Where the Adminis-
trator finds that a design is comparable to a
similar design with extensive satisfactory
service experience, it will be acceptable to
select Uσ at Vc less than 85 fps, but not less
than 75 fps, with linear decrease from that
value at 20,000 feet to 30 fps at 80,000 feet.
The following factors will be taken into ac-
count when assessing comparability to a
similar design:
(1) The transfer function of the new design
should exhibit no unusual characteristics as
compared to the similar design which will
significantly affect response to turbulence;
e.g., coalescence of modal response in the
frequency regime which can result in a sig-
nificant increase of loads.
  y − y one − g 
N ( γ ) = ∑ t N o  P1 exp  −
 
 
where—
t=selected time interval.
y=net value of the load or stress.
Yone=g=value of the load or stress in one-g
level flight.
N(y)=average number of exceedances of the
indicated value of the load or stress in
unit time.
Pt. 25, App. G
(2) The typical mission of the new airplane
is substantially equivalent to that of the
similar design.
(3) The similar design should demonstrate
the adequacy of the Uσ selected.
(ii) At speed VB: Uσ is equal to 1.32 times
the values obtained under paragraph (b)(3)(i)
of this appendix.
(iii) At speed VD: Uσ is equal to 1⁄2 the val-
ues obtained under paragraph (b)(3)(i) of this
appendix.
(iv) At speeds between VB and Vc and be-
tween Vc and VD: Uσ is equal to a value ob-
tained by linear interpolation.
(4) When a stability augmentation system
tem nonlinearities on loads at the limit load
level must be realistically or conservatively
accounted for.
(c) Mission analysis. Limit loads must be
determined in accordance with the following:
(1) The expected utilization of the airplane
must be represented by one or more flight
profiles in which the load distribution and
the variation with time of speed, altitude,
gross weight, and center of gravity position
are defined. These profiles must be divided
into mission segments or blocks, for analy-
sis, and average or effective values of the
pertinent parameters defined for each seg-
ment.
(2) For each of the mission segments de-
fined under paragraph (c)(1) of this appendix,
values of Ā and No must be determined by
analysis. Ā is defined as the ratio of root-
mean-square incremental load to root-mean-
square gust velocity and No is the radius of
gyration of the load power spectral density
function about zero frequency. The power
spectral density of the atmospheric turbu-
lence must be given by the equation set forth
in paragraph (b)(2) of this appendix.
(3) For each of the load and stress quan-
tities selected, the frequency of exceedance
must be determined as a function of load
level by means of the equation—
 y − y one − g 
 + P2 exp  − 
b1 A   b2 A 
 
Σ=symbol denoting summation over all mis-
sion segments.
No, Ā=parameters determined by dynamic
analysis as defined in paragraph (c)(2) of
this appendix.
P1, P2, b1, b2=parameters defining the prob-
ability distributions of root-mean-square
gust velocity, to be read from Figures 1
and 2 of this appendix.G6734
513
Pt. 25, App. G
The limit gust loads must be read from the
frequency of exceedance curves at a fre-
quency of exceedance of 2×10¥5 exceedances
per hour. Both positive and negative load di-
rections must be considered in determining
the limit loads.
(4) If a stability augmentation system is
utilized to reduce the gust loads, consider-
ation must be given to the fraction of flight
time that the system may be inoperative.
The flight profiles of paragraph (c)(1) of this
appendix must include flight with the sys-
tem inoperative for this fraction of the flight
time. When a stability augmentation system
is included in the analysis, the effect of sys-
tem nonlinearities on loads at the limit load
level must be conservatively accounted for.
514
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
(d) Supplementary design envelope analysis.
In addition to the limit loads defined by
paragraph (c) of this appendix, limit loads
must also be determined in accordance with
paragraph (b) of this appendix, except that—
(1) In paragraph (b)(3)(i) of this appendix,
the value of Uσ=85 fps true gust velocity is
replaced by Uσ=60 fps true gust velocity on
the interval 0 to 30,000 ft. altitude, and is lin-
early decreased to 25 fps true gust velocity
at 80,000 ft. altitude; and
(2) In paragraph (b) of this appendix, the
reference to paragraphs (b)(3)(i) through
(b)(3)(iii) of this appendix is to be understood
as referring to the paragraph as modified by
paragraph (d)(1).
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT Pt. 25, App. G

515
Pt. 25, App. H
[Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60173, Sept. 11, 1980]
APPENDIX H TO PART 25—INSTRUCTIONS
FOR CONTINUED AIRWORTHINESS
H25.1 General.
(a) This appendix specifies requirements
for the preparation of Instructions for Con-
tinued Airworthiness as required by § 25.1529.
(b) The Instructions for Continued Air-
worthiness for each airplane must include
the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
for each engine and propeller (hereinafter
516
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
designated ‘‘products’’ ), for each appliance
required by this chapter, and any required
information relating to the interface of
those appliances and products with the air-
plane. If Instructions for Continued Air-
worthiness are not supplied by the manufac-
turer of an appliance or product installed in
the airplane, the Instructions for Continued
Airworthiness for the airplane must include
the information essential to the continued
airworthiness of the airplane.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(c) The applicant must submit to the FAA
a program to show how changes to the In-
structions for Continued Airworthiness made
by the applicant or by the manufacturers or
products and appliances installed in the air-
plane will be distributed.
H25.2 Format.
(a) The Instructions for Continued Air-
worthiness must be in the form of a manual
or manuals as appropriate for the quantity
of data to be provided.
(b) The format of the manual or manuals
must provide for a practical arrangement.
H25.3 Content.
The contents of the manual or manuals
must be prepared in the English language.
The Instructions for Continued Airworthi-
ness must contain the following manuals or
sections, as appropriate, and information:
(a) Airplane maintenance manual or section.
(1) Introduction information that includes an
explanation of the airplane’s features and
data to the extent necessary for mainte-
nance or preventive maintenance.
(2) A description of the airplane and its
systems and installations including its en-
gines, propellers, and appliances.
(3) Basic control and operation information
describing how the airplane components and
systems are controlled and how they oper-
ate, including any special procedures and
limitations that apply.
(4) Servicing information that covers de-
tails regarding servicing points, capacities of
tanks, reservoirs, types of fluids to be used,
pressures applicable to the various systems,
location of access panels for inspection and
servicing, locations of lubrication points, lu-
bricants to be used, equipment required for
servicing, tow instructions and limitations,
mooring, jacking, and leveling information.
(b) Maintenance instructions. (1) Scheduling
information for each part of the airplane and
its engines, auxiliary power units, propellers,
accessories, instruments, and equipment
that provides the recommended periods at
which they should be cleaned, inspected, ad-
justed, tested, and lubricated, and the degree
of inspection, the applicable wear tolerances,
and work recommended at these periods.
However, the applicant may refer to an ac-
cessory, instrument, or equipment manufac-
turer as the source of this information if the
applicant shows that the item has an excep-
tionally high degree of complexity requiring
specialized maintenance techniques, test
equipment, or expertise. The recommended
overhaul periods and necessary cross ref-
erences to the Airworthiness Limitations
section of the manual must also be included.
In addition, the applicant must include an
inspection program that includes the fre-
quency and extent of the inspections nec-
essary to provide for the continued air-
worthiness of the airplane.
517
Pt. 25, App. I
(2) Troubleshooting information describing
probable malfunctions, how to recognize
those malfunctions, and the remedial action
for those malfunctions.
(3) Information describing the order and
method of removing and replacing products
and parts with any necessary precautions to
be taken.
(4) Other general procedural instructions
including procedures for system testing dur-
ing ground running, symmetry checks,
weighing and determining the center of grav-
ity, lifting and shoring, and storage limita-
tions.
(c) Diagrams of structural access plates
and information needed to gain access for in-
spections when access plates are not pro-
vided.
(d) Details for the application of special in-
spection techniques including radiographic
and ultrasonic testing where such processes
are specified.
(e) Information needed to apply protective
treatments to the structure after inspection.
(f) All data relative to structural fasteners
such as identification, discard recommenda-
tions, and torque values.
(g) A list of special tools needed.
H25.4 Airworthiness Limitations section.
The Instructions for Continued Airworthi-
ness must contain a section titled Airworthi-
ness Limitations that is segregated and
clearly distinguishable from the rest of the
document. This section must set forth each
mandatory replacement time, structural in-
spection interval, and related structural in-
spection procedure approved under § 25.571. If
the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness
consist of multiple documents, the section
required by this paragraph must be included
in the principal manual. This section must
contain a legible statement in a prominent
location that reads: ‘‘The Airworthiness
Limitations section is FAA approved and
specifies maintenance required under §§ 43.16
and 91.403 of the Federal Aviation Regula-
tions unless an alternative program has been
FAA approved.’’
[Amdt. 25–54, 45 FR 60177, Sept. 11, 1980, as
amended by Amdt. 25–68, 54 FR 34329, Aug. 18,
1989]
APPENDIX I TO PART 25—INSTALLATION
OF AN AUTOMATIC TAKEOFF THRUST
CONTROL SYSTEM (ATTCS)
I25.1 General.
(a) This appendix specifies additional re-
quirements for installation of an engine
power control system that automatically
resets thrust or power on operating engine(s)
in the event of any one engine failure during
takeoff.
(b) With the ATTCS and associated sys-
tems functioning normally as designed, all
Pt. 25, App. I
applicable requirements of Part 25, except as
provided in this appendix, must be met with-
out requiring any action by the crew to in-
crease thrust or power.
I25.2 Definitions.
(a) Automatic Takeoff Thrust Control System
(ATTCS). An ATTCS is defined as the entire
automatic system used on takeoff, including
all devices, both mechanical and electrical,
that sense engine failure, transmit signals,
actuate fuel controls or power levers or in-
crease engine power by other means on oper-
I25.3 Performance and System Reliability
Requirements.
The applicant must comply with the per-
formance and ATTCS reliability require-
ments as follows:
518
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
ating engines to achieve scheduled thrust or
power increases, and furnish cockpit infor-
mation on system operation.
(b) Critical Time Interval. When conducting
an ATTCS takeoff, the critical time interval
is between V1 minus 1 second and a point on
the minimum performance, all-engine flight
path where, assuming a simultaneous occur-
rence of an engine and ATTCS failure, the
resulting minimum flight path thereafter
intersects the Part 25 required actual flight
path at no less than 400 feet above the take-
off surface. This time interval is shown in
the following illustration:
(a) An ATTCS failure or a combination of
failures in the ATTCS during the critical
time interval:
(1) Shall not prevent the insertion of the
maximum approved takeoff thrust or power, or
must be shown to be an improbable event.
Federal Aviation Administration, DOT
(2) Shall not result in a significant loss or
reduction in thrust or power, or must be
shown to be an extremely improbable event.
(b) The concurrent existence of an ATTCS
failure and an engine failure during the criti-
cal time interval must be shown to be ex-
tremely improbable.
(c) All applicable performance require-
ments of Part 25 must be met with an engine
failure occurring at the most critical point
during takeoff with the ATTCS system func-
tioning.
I25.4 Thrust Setting.
The initial takeoff thrust or power setting
on each engine at the beginning of the take-
off roll may not be less than any of the fol-
lowing:
(a) Ninety (90) percent of the thrust or
power set by the ATTCS (the maximum
takeoff thrust or power approved for the air-
plane under existing ambient conditions);
(b) That required to permit normal oper-
ation of all safety-related systems and equip-
ment dependent upon engine thrust or power
lever position; or
(c) That shown to be free of hazardous en-
gine response characteristics when thrust or
power is advanced from the initial takeoff
thrust or power to the maximum approved
takeoff thrust or power.
I25.5 Powerplant Controls.
(a) In addition to the requirements of
§ 25.1141, no single failure or malfunction, or
probable combination thereof, of the ATTCS,
including associated systems, may cause the
failure of any powerplant function necessary
for safety.
(b) The ATTCS must be designed to:
(1) Apply thrust or power on the operating
engine(s), following any one engine failure
during takeoff, to achieve the maximum ap-
proved takeoff thrust or power without ex-
ceeding engine operating limits;
(2) Permit manual decrease or increase in
thrust or power up to the maximum takeoff
thrust or power approved for the airplane
under existing conditions through the use of
the power lever. For airplanes equipped with
limiters that automatically prevent engine
operating limits from being exceeded under
existing ambient conditions, other means
may be used to increase the thrust or power
in the event of an ATTCS failure provided
the means is located on or forward of the
power levers; is easily identified and oper-
ated under all operating conditions by a sin-
gle action of either pilot with the hand that
is normally used to actuate the power levers;
and meets the requirements of § 25.777 (a),
(b), and (c);
(3) Provide a means to verify to the
flightcrew before takeoff that the ATTCS is
in a condition to operate; and
519
Pt. 25, App. J
(4) Provide a means for the flightcrew to
deactivate the automatic function. This
means must be designed to prevent inadvert-
ent deactivation.
I25.6 Powerplant Instruments.
In addition to the requirements of § 25.1305:
(a) A means must be provided to indicate
when the ATTCS is in the armed or ready
condition; and
(b) If the inherent flight characteristics of
the airplane do not provide adequate warn-
ing that an engine has failed, a warning sys-
tem that is independent of the ATTCS must
be provided to give the pilot a clear warning
of any engine failure during takeoff.
[Amdt. 25–62, 52 FR 43156, Nov. 9, 1987]
APPENDIX J TO PART 25—EMERGENCY
EVACUATION
The following test criteria and procedures
must be used for showing compliance with
§ 25.803:
(a) The emergency evacuation must be con-
ducted either during the dark of the night or
during daylight with the dark of night simu-
lated. If the demonstration is conducted in-
doors during daylight hours, it must be con-
ducted with each window covered and each
door closed to minimize the daylight effect.
Illumination on the floor or ground may be
used, but it must be kept low and shielded
against shining into the airplane’s windows
or doors.
(b) The airplane must be in a normal atti-
tude with landing gear extended.
(c) Unless the airplane is equipped with an
off-wing descent means, stands or ramps may
be used for descent from the wing to the
ground. Safety equipment such as mats or
inverted life rafts may be placed on the floor
or ground to protect participants. No other
equipment that is not part of the emergency
evacuation equipment of the airplane may be
used to aid the participants in reaching the
ground.
(d) Except as provided in paragraph (a) of
this appendix, only the airplane’s emergency
lighting system may provide illumination.
(e) All emergency equipment required for
the planned operation of the airplane must
be installed.
(f) Each external door and exit, and each
internal door or curtain, must be in the
takeoff configuration.
(g) Each crewmember must be seated in
the normally assigned seat for takeoff and
must remain in the seat until receiving the
signal for commencement of the demonstra-
tion. Each crewmember must be a person
having knowledge of the operation of exits
and emergency equipment and, if compliance
with § 121.291 is also being demonstrated,
each flight attendant must be a member of a
regularly scheduled line crew.
Pt. 27
(h) A representative passenger load of per-
sons in normal health must be used as fol-
lows:
(1) At least 40 percent of the passenger load
must be female.
(2) At least 35 percent of the passenger load
must be over 50 years of age.
(3) At least 15 percent of the passenger load
must be female and over 50 years of age.
(4) Three life-size dolls, not included as
part of the total passenger load, must be car-
ried by passengers to simulate live infants 2
years old or younger.
(5) Crewmembers, mechanics, and training
personnel, who maintain or operate the air-
plane in the normal course of their duties,
may not be used as passengers.
(i) No passenger may be assigned a specific
seat except as the Administrator may re-
quire. Except as required by subparagraph
(g) of this paragraph, no employee of the ap-
plicant may be seated next to an emergency
exit.
(j) Seat belts and shoulder harnesses (as re-
quired) must be fastened.
(k) Before the start of the demonstration,
approximately one-half of the total average
amount of carry-on baggage, blankets, pil-
lows, and other similar articles must be dis-
tributed at several locations in aisles and
emergency exit access ways to create minor
obstructions.
(l) No prior indication may be given to any
crewmember or passenger of the particular
exits to be used in the demonstration.
(m) The applicant may not practice, re-
hearse, or describe the demonstration for the
participants nor may any participant have
taken part in this type of demonstration
within the preceding 6 months.
(n) The pretakeoff passenger briefing re-
quired by § 121.571 may be given. The pas-
sengers may also be advised to follow direc-
tions of crewmembers but not be instructed
on the procedures to be followed in the dem-
onstration.
(o) If safety equipment as allowed by para-
graph (c) of this appendix is provided, either
all passenger and cockpit windows must be
blacked out or all of the emergency exits
must have safety equipment in order to pre-
vent disclosure of the available emergency
exits.
(p) Not more than 50 percent of the emer-
gency exits in the sides of the fuselage of an
airplane that meets all of the requirements
applicable to the required emergency exits
for that airplane may be used for the dem-
onstration. Exits that are not to be used in
the demonstration must have the exit handle
deactivated or must be indicated by red
lights, red tape, or other acceptable means
placed outside the exits to indicate fire or
other reason why they are unusable. The
exits to be used must be representative of all
of the emergency exits on the airplane and
must be designated by the applicant, subject
520
14 CFR Ch. I (1–1–99 Edition)
to approval by the Administrator. At least
one floor level exit must be used.
(q) Except as provided in paragraph (c) of
this section, all evacuees must leave the air-
plane by a means provided as part of the air-
plane’s equipment.
(r) The applicant’s approved procedures
must be fully utilized, except the flightcrew
must take no active role in assisting others
inside the cabin during the demonstration.
(s) The evacuation time period is com-
pleted when the last occupant has evacuated
the airplane and is on the ground. Provided
that the acceptance rate of the stand or
ramp is no greater than the acceptance rate
of the means available on the airplane for de-
scent from the wing during an actual crash
situation, evacuees using stands or ramps al-
lowed by paragraph (c) of this appendix are
considered to be on the ground when they are
on the stand or ramp.
[Amdt. 25–72, 55 FR 29788, July 20, 1990, as
amended by Amdt. 25–79, Aug. 26, 1993]
PART 27—AIRWORTHINESS STAND-
ARDS: NORMAL CATEGORY
ROTORCRAFT
SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS
SFAR NO. 29–4 [Note]
Subpart A—General
Sec.
27.1 Applicability.
27.2 Special retroactive requirements.
Subpart B—Flight
GENERAL
27.21 Proof of compliance.
27.25 Weight limits.
27.27 Center of gravity limits.
27.29 Empty weight and corresponding cen-
ter of gravity.
27.31 Removable ballast.
27.33 Main rotor speed and pitch limits.
PERFORMANCE
27.45 General.
27.51 Takeoff.
27.65 Climb: all engines operating.
27.67 Climb: one engine inoperative.
27.71 Glide performance.
27.73 Performance at minimum operating
speed.
27.75 Landing.
27.79 Limiting height—speed envelope.
FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
27.141 General.
27.143 Controllability and maneuverability.
27.151 Flight controls.
27.161 Trim control.
27.171 Stability: general.