MB0022 - Management Process and Organization Behavior

References:
Buchanan, D. & Huczynski, A. (1997) Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text,
3rd ed., Prentice Hall, London.
Barnard, C.I. (1938) Functions of the Executive, Harvard University ,Press, Cambridge,
MA.
Pugh, D. (1971) Organization Theory: Selected Readings, Penguin, Harmondsworth.
Ivancevich, J. & Matteson, M. (1998) Organizational Behaviour and Management, 3rd
edn, Irwin, Chicago and London.
Wood, J. (1997) in Dickson, T. & Bickerstaffe, G. (eds.) Mastering Management: The
Definitive Guide to the Foundations and Frontiers of Finance, FT/Pitman Publishing,
London.
Management Process Unit 1
Unit 1 Management Process
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Management Functions
Self Assessment Questions1
1.3 Management roles and skills
Self Assessment Questions 2
1.4 Effective vs. Successful Managerial Activities
1.5 Summary
Terminal Questions
Answer to SAQ’s and TQ’s
1.1 Introduction
Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups,
and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that knowledge to make
organizations work more effectively (Robbins, 2003). In recent times, we notice the following
changes in the organizational set up:
1. Demise of traditional hierarchical structure
2. Emergence of workforce with different expectations form organizations
3. Advancement of information technology
4. Increasing importance on empowerment and teamwork
5. Concern for worklife balance
Sikkim Manipal University 1
An affective and efficient manager therefore, should focus on two key results. The first is task
performance—the quality and quantity of the work produced or the services provided by the work unit
as a whole. The second is job satisfaction—how people feel about their work and the work setting.
OB directs a manager’s attention to such matters as job satisfaction, job involvement, and
organizational commitment, as well as measures of actual task performance. OB also recognizes the
need for changing behavior, attitude and managerial styles in the context of the above. Hence,
management processes and functions are vital to organizational effectiveness. An understanding of
the basis management functions helps in comprehending the key roles managers need to play to run
organizations effectively.
Learning objectives
The learning objectives of this unit are as follows:
1. Management Functions
2. Management roles and skills
1.2 Management Functions
Follett (1933) defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". [2] One can
also think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and
of adjusting some initial plan.
Management functions are as follows (Fayol, 1949):
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Commanding
4. Coordinating
5. Controlling
However, in recent time, management functions have been regrouped into four categories, since the
managerial tasks have become highly challenging a fluid in nature making distinctions redundant to a
certain extend. The four functions are as follows:
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Leading
4. Controlling
1. Planning –
It involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving these goals, and
developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Every organization needs to plan for change
in order to reach its set goal. Effective planning enables an organization adapt to change by
identifying opportunities and avoiding problems. It provides the direction for the other functions of
management and for effective teamwork. Planning also enhances the decisionmaking process. All
levels of management engage in planning in their own way for achieving their preset goals.
Planning in order to be useful must be linked to the strategic intent of an organization. Therefore,
planning is often referred to as strategic in nature and also termed as strategic planning.
Strategic Planning: Top level managers engage chiefly in strategic planning or long range planning
Strategic planning is the process of developing and analyzing the organization's mission, overall
goals, general strategies, and allocating resources.
The tasks of the strategic planning process include the following steps:
Define the mission:
A mission is the purpose of the organization. Thus, planning begins with clearly defining the mission
of the organization. The mission statement is broad, deconcise, summarizing what the organization
does. A mission statement should be short – and should be easily understood and every employee
should ideally be able to narrate it from memory. An explicit mission guides employees to work
independently and yet collectively toward the realization of the organization's potential. The mission
statement may be accompanied by an overarching statement of philosophy or strategic purpose
designed to convey a vision for the future as envisaged by top management.
Conduct a situational or SWOT analysis
A situation or SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis is vital for the
creation of any strategic plan. The SWOT analysis begins with a scan of the external environment.
Organizations need to examine their business situation in order to map out the opportunities and
threats present in their environments. Sources of information may include stakeholders like,
customers (internal and external), suppliers, governments (local, state, federal, international),
professional or trade associations (conventions and exhibitions), journals and reports (scientific,
professional, and trade).
SWOT analysis provides the assumptions and facts on which a plan will be based. Analyzing
strengths and weaknesses comprises the internal assessment of the organization.
For assessing the strengths of the organization the following questions are important:
1. What makes the organization distinctive?
2. How efficient is our manufacturing?
3. How skilled is our workforce?
4. What is our market share?
5. What financing is available?
6. Do we have a superior reputation?
For assessing the weaknesses of the organization the following questions are important:
1. What are the vulnerable areas of the organization that could be exploited?
2. Are the facilities outdated?
3. Is research and development adequate?
4. Are the technologies obsolete?
For identifying opportunities the following elements need to be looked at:
1. In which areas is the competition not meeting customer needs?
2. What are the possible new markets?
3. What is the strength of the economy?
4. Are our rivals weak?
5. What are the emerging technologies?
6. Is there a possibility of growth of existing market?)
Identifying threats involves the following:
1. In which areas does the competition meet customer needs more effectively?
2. Are there new competitors?
3. Is there a shortage of resources?
4. Are market tastes changing?
5. What are the new regulations?
6. What substitute products exist?
In general terms, the best strategy is one that fits the organization's strengths to opportunities in the
environment.
The SWOT analysis is used as a baseline for future improvement, as well as gap analysis.
Comparing the organization to external benchmarks (the best practices) is used to assess current
capabilities. Benchmarking systematically compares performance measures such as efficiency,
effectiveness, or outcomes of an organization against similar measures from other internal or
external organizations.
Set goals and objectives
Strategic goals and objectives are developed to fill the gap between current capability and the
mission. They are aligned with the mission and form the basis for the action plans of an organization.
Objectives are also called performance goals. Generally, organizations have longterm objectives for
factors such as, return on investment, earnings per share, etc. It also helps in setting minimum
acceptable standards or commonsense minimums.
Develop related strategies (tactical and operational)
Tactical plans are based on the organization's strategic plan. In turn, operational plans are based on
the organization's tactical plans. These are specific plans that are needed for each task or supportive
activity comprising the whole. Strategic, tactical, and operational planning must be accompanied by
controls to ensure proper implantation of the plans, necessary to maintain competitive advantage in
the said market.
Monitor the plan
A systematic method of monitoring the environment must be adopted to continuously improve the
strategic planning process. To develop an environmental monitoring procedure, shortterm standards
for key variables that will tend to validate and support the longrange estimates must be established.
Feedback is encouraged and incorporated to determine if goals and objectives are feasible. This
review is used for the next planning cycle and review.
2. Organizing
It involves designing, structuring, and coordinating the work components to achieve organizational
goal. It is the process of determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do, how the tasks are to
be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made. A key issue in
accomplishing the goals identified in the planning process is structuring the work of the organization.
Organizations are groups of people, with ideas and resources, working toward common goals. The
purpose of the organizing function is to make the best use of the organization's resources to achieve
organizational goals. Organizational structure is the formal decisionmaking framework by which job
tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated. Formalization is an important aspect of structure. It is
the extent to which the units of the organization are explicitly defined and its policies, procedures,
and goals are clearly stated. It is the official organizational structure conceived and built by top
management. The formal organization can be seen and represented in chart form. An organization
chart displays the organizational structure and shows job titles, lines of authority, and relationships
between departments.
The steps in the organizing process include:
1. Review plans
2. List all tasks to be accomplished
3. Divide tasks into groups one person can accomplish a job
4. Group related jobs together in a logical and efficient manner
5. Assign work to individuals
6. Delegate authority to establish relationships between jobs and groups of jobs.
3. Leading
An organization has the greatest chance of being successful when all of the employees work toward
achieving its goals. Since leadership involves the exercise of influence by one person over others,
the quality of leadership exhibited by supervisors is a critical determinant of organizational success.
Supervisors can learn about leadership through research. Leadership studies can be classified as
trait, behavioral, contingency, and transformational. Earliest theories assumed that the primary
source of leadership effectiveness lay in the personal traits of the leaders themselves. Yet, traits
alone cannot explain leadership effectiveness. Thus, later research focused on what the leader
actually did when dealing with employees. These behavioral theories of leadership sought to explain
the relationship between what the leader did and how the employees reacted, both emotionally and
behaviorally. Yet, behavior can't always account for leadership in different situations. Thus,
contingency theories of leadership studied leadership style in different environments. Transactional
leaders, such as those identified in contingency theories, clarify role and task requirements for
employees. Yet, contingency can't account for the inspiration and innovation that leaders need to
compete in today's global marketplace. Newer transformational leadership studies have shown that
leaders, who are charismatic and visionary, can inspire followers to transcend their own selfinterest
for the good of the organization.
Leading involves the following functions:
1.Teambuilding
Rigid department boundaries and fixed teams are giving way to ad hoc squads whose membership
changes with every project. Flexible networks of teambased structures are occurring within and
between companies, as well as across national borders. Competitive arenas require quick decisions
by knowledgeable employees who work close to the source of problems. Teams enable knowledge
based and innovative decision making. This collaboration is a revolution in the workplace.
2. Consensus Building
Top performance demands the joint effort of many people, working together toward a common goal.
When an individual works together with others, effectiveness grows, creating greater productivity for
all involved. Together, employees can do more than the collective efforts of each individual working
alone.
3. Selecting
Selecting competent, highperforming employees capable of sustaining their performance over the
long run is a competitive advantage. The selection process consists of forecasting employment
needs, recruiting candidates, interviewing applicants, and hiring employees.
4. Training
After employees are selected, they enter an orientation program to be formally introduced to their
jobs. Orientation sets a tone for new employees' work by describing jobrelated expectations and
reporting relationships. Employees are informed about benefits, policies, and procedures. Specific
duties and responsibilities and performance evaluation are clarified. During orientation, the
supervisor has the opportunity to resolve any unrealistic expectations held by the employee. Training
refers to improving an employee's knowledge, skills, and attitudes so that he or she can do the job.
All new employees (or current employees in new jobs) should be trained. Cross training prepares an
employee for a job normally handled by someone else. Also, training is advisable when new
processes, equipment or procedures are introduced into the workplace.
Training starts with an organization analysis. By focusing on strategy and examining sales
forecasts and expected changes in production, distribution and support systems, employers can
determine which skills will be needed and to what degree. A comparison with current skill levels is
used to estimate staff and training needs. Task analysis identifies the elements of current or future
tasks to be done. Personal needs analysis involves asking employees and managers, either in an
interview or in a selfadministered questionnaire, to analyze their training needs. In general,
agreement between managers and employees tends to be low, so it is important that both parties
agree to decisions about the training of employees.
4. Controlling –
It involves monitoring the employees’ behavior and organizational processes and take necessary
actions to improve them, if needed. Control is the process through which standards for performance
of people and processes are set, communicated, and applied. Effective control systems use
mechanisms to monitor activities and take corrective action, if necessary.
There are four steps in the control process. They are as follows:
Step 1. Establish Performance Standards. Standards are created when objectives are set during the
planning process. A standard is any guideline established as the basis for measurement. It is a
precise, explicit statement of expected results from a product, service, machine, individual, or
organizational unit. It is usually expressed numerically and is set for quality, quantity, and time.
Tolerance is permissible deviation from the standard.
Step 2. Measure Actual Performance. Supervisors collect data to measure actual performance to
determine variation from standard. Written data might include time cards, production tallies,
inspection reports, and sales tickets. Personal observation, statistical reports, oral reports and written
reports can be used to measure performance. Management by walking around, or observation of
employees working, provides unfiltered information, extensive coverage, and the ability to read
between the lines. While providing insight, this method might be misinterpreted by employees as
mistrust. Oral reports allow for fast and extensive feedback. Computers give supervisors direct
access to real time, unaltered data, and information. On line systems enable supervisors to identify
problems as they occur. Database programs allow supervisors to query, spend less time gathering
facts, and be less dependent on other people.
Step 3. Compare Measured Performance Against Established Standards. Comparing results with
standards determines variation. Some variation can be expected in all activities and the range of
variation the acceptable variance has to be established. Management by exception lets operations
continue as long as they fall within the prescribed control limits. Deviations or differences that exceed
this range would alert the supervisor to a problem.
Step 4. Take Corrective Action. The supervisor must find the cause of deviation from standard. Then,
he or she takes action to remove or minimize the cause. If the source of variation in work
performance is from a deficit in activity, then a supervisor can take immediate corrective action and
get performance back on track.
Types of Control
Controls are most effective when they are applied at key places. Supervisors can implement controls
before the process begins (feed forward), during the process (concurrent), or after it ceases
(feedback).
Feed forward controls focus on operations before they begin. Their goal is to prevent anticipated
problems. An example of feed forward control is scheduled maintenance on automobiles and
machinery.
Concurrent controls apply to processes as they are happening. Concurrent controls enacted while
work is being performed include any type of steering or guiding mechanism such as direct
supervision, automated systems (such as computers programmed to inform the user when they have
issued the wrong command), and organizational quality programs.
Feedback controls focus on the results of operations. They guide future planning, inputs, and
process designs. Examples of feedback controls include timely (weekly, monthly, quarterly, annual)
reports so that almost instantaneous adjustments can be made.
The following diagram represents an integrated model connecting all the abovementioned functions
of management.
The management process (adopted from Terry, 1972)
Planning Organizing Directing Controlling

Resources
HR,
Goal
Financial,
achievement
Informational s
etc.
1. In recent time, management functions have been regrouped into ____________ categories.
2. Training starts with an ___________________ analysis.
1.3 Management roles and skills
Managerial Roles
According to Mintzberg (1973), managerial roles are as follows:
1. Informational roles
2. Decisional roles
3. Interpersonal roles
1. Informational roles: This involves the role of assimilating and disseminating information as and
when required. Following are the main subroles, which managers often perform:
a. Monitor—collecting information from organizations, both from inside and outside of the
organization
b. Disseminator—communicating information to organizational members
c. Spokesperson—representing the organization to outsiders
2. Decisional roles: It involves decision making. Again, this role can be subdivided
in to the following:
a. Entrepreneur—initiating new ideas to improve organizational performance
b. Disturbance handlers—taking corrective action to cope with adverse situation
c. Resource allocators—allocating human, physical, and monetary resources
d. Negotiator – negotiating with trade unions, or any other stakeholders
3. Interpersonal roles : This role involves activities with people working in the organization. This
is supportive role for informational and decisional roles. Interpersonal roles can be categorized
under three subheadings:
a. Figurehead—Ceremonial and symbolic role
b. Leadership—leading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating etc.
c. Liaison—liasoning with external bodies and public relations activities.
Management Skills
Katz (1974) has identified three essential management skills: technical, human, and conceptual.
Technical skills: The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some
specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job. Vocational and on
thejob training programs can be used to develop this type of skill.
Human Skill : This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people (both individually
and a group). This requires sensitivity towards others issues and concerns. People, who are
proficient in technical skill, but not with interpersonal skills, may face difficulty to manage their
subordinates. To acquire the Human Skill, it is pertinent to recognize the feelings and sentiments of
others, ability to motivate others even in adverse situation, and communicate own feelings to others
in a positive and inspiring way.
Conceptual Skill : This is an ability to critically analyze, diagnose a situation and forward a feasible
solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and choosing the best available option.
1. Ceremonial and symbolic role of a manager is called __________________.
2. Vocational and onthejob training programs can be used to develop _______________ skill.
1.4 Effective vs. Successful Managerial Activities
Luthans (1988), on the basis of his study, found that all managers engage in four managerial
activities.
1. Traditional management— This activity consists of planning, decision making, and
controlling. The average manager spent 32 percent of his or her time performing this
activity, whereas successful managers spend 13% and effective managers spend 13% of
their time in this activity.
2. Communication—This activity consists of exchanging routine information and processing
paperwork. The average manager spent 29 percent of his or her time performing this
activity while successful manager spends 28% and effective managers spend 44% of their
time in this activity.
3. Human resource management—This activity consists of motivating, disciplining,

managing conflict, staffing, and training. The average manager spent 20 percent of his or
her time performing this activity, while successful manager spends 11% and effective
managers spend 26% of their time in this activity.
4. Networking—This activity involves socializing, politicking, and interacting with outsiders.
The average manager spent 19 percent of his or her time performing this activity, while
successful manager spends 48% and successful manages spend 11% of their time in this
activity.
It was found that successful managers spent more time and effort in socializing, interacting and
networking. They did not spend much time to the traditional management activities or to the human
resource management activities (Luthans, 1988).
1. The average manager spent __________ percent of his or her time performing traditional
management.
2. Effective managers spend __________percent of their time in human resource
management.
1.4 Summary
organizations work more effectively (Robbins, 2003). An affective and efficient manager should focus
on two key results. The first is task performance—the quality and quantity of the work produced or
the services provided by the work unit as a whole. The second is job satisfaction—how people feel
about their work and the work setting. management functions have been grouped into four
categories: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. Planning involves the process of defining
goals, establishing strategies for achieving these goals, and developing plans to integrate and
coordinate activities. Every organization needs to plan for change in order to reach its set goal.
Effective planning enables an organization adapt to change by identifying opportunities and avoiding
problems. It provides the direction for the other functions of management and for effective teamwork.
Planning also enhances the decisionmaking process. All levels of management engage in planning
in their own way for achieving their preset goals. Organizing involves designing, structuring, and
coordinating the work components to achieve organizational goal. It is the process of determining
what tasks are to be done, who is to do, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and
where decisions are to be made. A key issue in accomplishing the goals identified in the planning
process is structuring the work of the organization. Organizations are groups of people, with ideas
and resources, working toward common goals. The purpose of the organizing function is to make the
best use of the organization's resources to achieve organizational goals. Organizational structure is
the formal decisionmaking framework by which job tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated.
Formalization is an important aspect of structure. It is the extent to which the units of the organization
are explicitly defined and its policies, procedures, and goals are clearly stated. It is the official
organizational structure conceived and built by top management. The formal organization can be
seen and represented in chart form. An organization chart displays the organizational structure and
shows job titles, lines of authority, and relationships between departments.
Leading involves team building, consensus building, selecting and training. An organization has the
greatest chance of being successful when all of the employees work toward achieving its goals.
Since leadership involves the exercise of influence by one person over others, the quality of
leadership exhibited by supervisors is a critical determinant of organizational success. Controlling
involves monitoring the employees’ behavior and organizational processes and take necessary
actions to improve them, if needed. Control is the process through which standards for performance
of people and processes are set, communicated, and applied. Effective control systems use
mechanisms to monitor activities and take corrective action, if necessary. According to Mintzberg (
1973), managerial roles are: Informational roles, Decisional roles and Interpersonal roles. Katz
(1974) has identified three essential management skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Luthans
(1988) found that all managers engage in four managerial activities: (i) Traditional management—
This activity consists of planning, decision making, and controlling, (ii) Communication—This activity
consists of exchanging routine information and processing paperwork, (iii) Human resource
management—this activity consists of motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing, and
training, and (iv) Networking—this activity involves socializing, politicking, and interacting with
outsiders.
Terminal questions
1. Discuss the four management functions in brief.
2. What do you mean by SWOT analysis? Why is it required by a manager?
3. Discuss three leadership functions of a manager.
4. Based on Katz’s proposition, briefly discus the essential managerial skills.
Answer to Self Assessment Questions
1. Four
2. Organization
1. Figurehead
2. Technical
1. 32
2. 26
Answer to Terminal Questions
1. Refer section 1.2
Organizational Behavior Unit 2
Unit 2 Organizational Behavior
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Definitions of OB
2.3 Historical evolution of OB as a discipline
2.4 Contributing Disciplines to the OB field
2.5 Summary
Terminal Questions
2.1 Introduction
In order to be effective organizations need to develop their interpersonal or people skills According to
Robbins( 2003), Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within an organization, then applies that
knowledge to make organizations work more effectively. Specifically, OB focuses on how to improve
productivity, reduce absenteeism and turnover, and increase employee citizenship and job
satisfaction. An organization is more than a formal arrangement of functions, more than an
organization chart, more than a vision statement, more than a set of accounts. An organization
consists of people and so it is also a social system. The field of organizational behavior (OB) draws
primarily from the behavioral science disciplines of psychology, social psychology, and cultural
anthropology. The areas on which OB focuses are individuals who will often be working within
groups, which themselves work within organizations, as well as all the interrelationships between
them. Some of the specific themes embraced by OB are personality theory, attitudes and values,
motivation and learning, interpersonal behavior, group dynamics, leadership and teamwork,
organizational structure and design, decisionmaking, power, conflict, and negotiation. Some OB
thinkers go further and suggest that the behavior within the organization has to be viewed partly in
the wider context of the outside world’s effect on the organization and its human resources, missions,
objectives, and strategies.
Learning objectives
1. Historical evolution of OB as a discipline
2. Contributing Disciplines to the OB field
2.2 Definitions Of OB
Buchanan and Huczynski (1997) have defined Organizations as “social arrangements, constructed
by people who can also change them. Organizations can be repressive and stifling, but they can also
be designed to provide opportunities for selffulfillment and individual expression. The point is that
human consequences depend on how organizations are designed and run.’ Barnard (1938) defined
Organizations “as system of cooperative activities – and their coordination requires something
intangible and personal that is largely a matter of personal relationships”. There are a number of
definitions that we can draw on to illuminate and deepen our understanding of the concept of
organizational behavior. One of the earliest, and certainly one of the most succinct definitions, comes
from Pugh, (1971) for whom, OB is concerned with ‘‘the study of the structure, functioning and
performance of organizations, and the behavior of groups and individuals within them”. Ivancevich
and Matteson, (1998) in their book Organizational Behavior and Management, offers a broader
definition. They opine that OB is about ‘‘the study of human behavior, attitudes and performance
within an organizational setting; drawing on theory, methods, and principles from such disciplines as
psychology, sociology, and cultural anthropology to learn about individual perception, values,
learning capabilities, and actions while working with groups and within the total organization;
analyzing the external environment’s effect on the organization and its human resources, missions,
objectives and strategies”.
What emerges from these two definitions is a view of OB as:
1. A way of thinking
2. An interdisciplinary field
3. Having a distinctly humanistic outlook
4. Performance oriented
5. Seeing the external environment as critical
6. Using scientific method
7. Having an applications orientation
Levels of analysis:
Wood (1997) provides a useful model for exploring behavioral events. He suggests that different
levels of analysis can be applied when examining the significance of an organizational issue. He
proposes eight, namely:
1. Individual
2. Team
3. Intergroup
4. Organizational
5. Interorganizational
6. Societal
7. International
8. Global.
The basic issue is that the level of explanation that one chooses, determines the view of the causes
of an event or problem. It also affects the actions that one takes, and the solutions that one seeks. In
an organization, inappropriate intervention at the wrong level can make a problem worse rather than
better.
Three points are important in this regard:
People tend to pick their favorite level of analysis to explain events, and then behave accordingly.
This is often particularly true of external consultants brought in to perform a ‘quick fix’.
People are most familiar with, and often prefer, explanations at the individual level of behavior. Trying
to change people by sending them on a training course is simpler than changing structures or
upgrading technology. However, such explanations are often too simplistic, inaccurate, or
incomplete. It may not solve organizational problems, nor provide the base for creating self
sufficiency and sustenance, particularly in a competitive and volatile market.
As a general principle, any organizational problem can be usefully analyzed at an increasingly higher
level of abstraction. By considering a problem progressively at the individual, group, intergroup, and
organizational levels, a deeper understanding of its causes can be gained.
As a result, the tools needed to tackle the problem can be chosen more precisely, and applied more
effectively. Looking at a problem systemically will always yield a better understanding than simply
leaping in with fixed preconceptions. Therefore a contingency approach is what is now preferred
rather than any absolute solutions in OB.
1. Buchanan and Huczynski (1997) have defined Organizations as “_________. arrangements”
2. Barnard (1938) defined Organizations “as system of ________________ activities”.
3. OB is ________________ field.
2.3 Historical Evolution Of OB As A Discipline
A large number of people have contributed to the growth of OB as a discipline. The most important
ones have been described below:
A. Early Theorists
Adam Smith’s discussions in the Wealth of nations published in 1776 stated that organizations and
society would reap from the division of labor. He concluded that division of labor increased
productivity by raising each worker’s skill and dexterity, by saving time other wise lost in changing
tasks. The development of assembly line production process in the early 20 th century was obviously
stimulated by the economic advantages of work specialization (arising out of division of labor) as
stated in the work of Smith.
The other significant work which influenced this philosophy was that of the work of Charles Babbage
in 1832 titled On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. He added the following to Smith’s list
of advantages that can be accrued from division of labor:
1. It reduces the time needed to learn a job
2. Reduced wastage of material during the learning process
3. Allowed attainment of increased skill levels
4. Careful match of people’s skills and physical abilities with specific tasks
Thus in the writings of these writers the benefits of division of labor were being highlighted where the
maximum emphasis was on raising productivity and minimizing wastage of resources and time. Very
little were no consideration was given towards the human elements in the workplace.
B. The Classical Era
We see this trend to continue in what is called as the classical era which covers the period between
1900 to mid 1930s. the first general theories of management began to evolve and the main
contributors during this era were Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Max Weber, Mary parker Follet and
Chester Barnard.
Frederick Taylor’s main emphasis was on finding one best way of doing each job. He stressed on
selecting the right people for the job , train them to do it precisely in one best way. He favored wage
plans to motivate the workers. His scientific principles of management stressed the following
principles:
1. Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager; managers
should do all the thinking relating to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the
task of implementation.
2. Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work; assign the worker’s
task accordingly, specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done.
3. Select the best person to perform the job thus designed.
4. Train the worker to do the work efficiently.
5. Monitor worker performances to ensure that appropriate work procedures are followed and that
appropriate results are achieved.
Taylor was one of the first to attempt to systematically analyze human behavior at work. He insisted
the use of timeandmotion study as a means of standardizing work activities. His scientific approach
called for detailed observation and measurement of even the most routine work, to find the optimum
mode of performance.
The results were dramatic, with productivity increasing significantly. With passing time, new
organizational functions like personnel and quality control were created. Of course, in breaking down
each task to its smallest unit to find what Taylor called ‘‘the one best way’’ to do each job, the effect
was to remove human variability. Hence he lay the ground for the mass production techniques that
dominated management thinking in the first half of the twentieth century.
Henri Fayol, a mining engineer and manager by profession, defined the nature and working patterns
of the twentiethcentury organization in his book, General and Industrial Management, published in
1916. In it, he laid down what he called 14 principles of management. This theory is also called the
Administrative Theory. The principles of the theory are:
1. Division of work: tasks should be divided up with employees specializing in a limited set of tasks
so that expertise is developed and productivity increased.
2. Authority and responsibility: authority is the right to give orders and entails enforcing them with
rewards and penalties; authority should be matched with corresponding responsibility.
3. Discipline: this is essential for the smooth running of business and is dependent on good
leadership, clear and fair arguments, and the judicious application of penalties.
4. Unity of command: for any action whatsoever, an employee should receive orders from one
superior only; otherwise authority, discipline, order, and stability are threatened.
5. Unity of direction: a group of activities concerned with a single objective should be cocoordinated
by a single plan under one head.
6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: individual or group goals must not be
allowed to override those of the business.
7. Remuneration of personnel: this may be achieved by various methods but it should be fair,
encourage effort, and not lead to overpayment.
8. Centralization: the extent to which orders should be issued only from the top of the organization is
a problem which should take into account its characteristics, such as size and the capabilities of the
personnel.
9. Scalar chain (line of authority): communications should normally flow up and down the line of
authority running from the top to the bottom of the organization, but sideways communication
between those of equivalent rank in different departments can be desirable so long as superiors are
kept informed.
10. Order: both materials and personnel must always be in their proper place; people must be suited
to their posts so there must be careful organization of work and selection of personnel.
11. Equity: personnel must be treated with kindness and justice.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel: rapid turnover of personnel should be avoided because of the
time required for the development of expertise.
13. Initiative: all employees should be encouraged to exercise initiative within limits imposed by the
requirements of authority and discipline.
14. Esprit de corps: efforts must be made to promote harmony within the organization and prevent
dissension and divisiveness.
The management function, Fayol stated, consisted of planning, organizing, commanding, co
coordinating and controlling. Many practicing managers, even today, list these functions as the core
of their activities. Fayol was also one of the first people to characterize a commercial organization’s
activities into its basic components. He suggested that organizations could be subdivided into six
main areas of activity:
1. Technical
2. Commercial
3. Financial
4. Security
5. Accounting
6. Management.
In defining the core principles governing how organizations worked and the contribution of
management to that process, Fayol laid down a blueprint that has shaped organization thinking for
almost a century.
Max Weber developed a theory based on authority relations and was he a pioneer in looking at
management and OB from a structural viewpoint. His theory is also known as bureaucratic theory in
management. he described an ideal types of organization and called it a bureaucracy. This was a
system marked by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations and
impersonal relationships. He wanted this ideal types construct to be taken as a basis for creating
organizations in real world. The detailed features of Weber’s ideal bureaucratic structure are a
follows:
1. Jurisdictional areas are clearly specified, activities are distributed as official duties (unlike
traditional form where duties delegated by leader and changed at any time).
2. Organization follows hierarchical principle subordinates follow orders or superiors, but have
right of appeal (in contrast to more diffuse structure in traditional authority).
2. Intention, abstract rules govern decisions and actions. Rules are stable, exhaustive, and can be
learned. Decisions are recorded in permanent files (in traditional forms few explicit rules or written
records).
3. Means of production or administration belong to office. Personal property separated from office
property.
4. Officials are selected on basis of technical qualifications, appointed not elected, and
compensated by salary.
5. Employment by the organization is a career. The official is a fulltime employee and looks forward
to a lifelong career. After a trial period they get tenure of position and are protected from arbitrary
dismissal.
C. The Human Relations Movement
Since the industrialists of the early decades of the twentieth century followed Taylor’s lead and put
the emphasis on efficiency, it was some years before any significant attention was paid to the needs
and motivations of that other major factor involved in the work process – the workers. One of the
early pioneers of a view that actually people were central to the world of business was Mary Parker
Follett. With this started the beginning of what may be termed as the Human relations Movement as
contributor to the field of OB
Follet believed that organizations should be based on a group ethic rather than on individualism. The
manager’s work was to harmonize and coordinate group efforts. Managers and workers need to look
at each other as partners. Therefore managers should rely more on workers’ expertise and
knowledge than on formal authority of their position to lead their subordinates. Thus in her writing
one can trace the importance of motivation and group togetherness , so much required in modern
day organizational situations.
Another major influence in the human relations movement came from the work of Chester Barnard.
Barnard viewed organizations as consisting of people who have interacting social relationships.
Barnard viewed organizational success in terms of fostering cooperation from various stakeholders
such as, employees and others like customers, investors, suppliers and other external
constituencies. Thus irrespective of excellent production systems, Barnard emphasized the need for
boundary spanning activities and development of skills and motivation of employees for
organizational effectiveness and success.
Elton Mayo is known as the founder of the Human Relations Movement, and is known for his
research including the Hawthorne Studies, and his book The Social Problems of an Industrialised
Civilization (1933). The research he conducted under the Hawthorne Studies of the 1930s showed
the significance of groups in affecting the behavior of individuals at work. However, it was not Mayo
who conducted the practical experiments but his employees Roethlisberger and Dickinson. This
helped him to make certain deductions about how managers should behave. He carried out a
number of investigations to look at ways of improving productivity, for example changing lighting
conditions in the workplace.
His findings were that work satisfaction depended to a large extent on the informal social pattern of
the workgroup. Where ever norms of cooperation and higher output were established it was due to a
feeling of importance. Physical conditions or financial incentives had little motivational value. People
will form workgroups and this can be used by management to benefit the organization. He concluded
that people's work performance is dependent on both social issues and job content. He suggested a
tension between workers' 'logic of sentiment' and managers' 'logic of cost and efficiency' which could
lead to conflict within organizations.
Summary of Mayo's Beliefs:
Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation, but must be seen as members of a group.
Monetary incentives and good working condition are less important to the individual than the need to
belong to a group. Informal or unofficial groups formed at work have a strong influence on the
behavior of those workers in a group Managers must be aware of these 'social needs' and cater for
them to ensure that employees collaborate with the official organization rather than work against it.
Another contributor whose work revolutionized thinking about workplaces was Dale Carnegie.
His book How to Win Friends and Influence people is a classic which is referred by management
experts even today. His main theme centered on the idea that the way to success was through
winning the cooperation of people. He advised:
1. To make others feel important through a sincere appreciation of their efforts
2. Seek to make a good impression
3. Win people to your way of thinking by letting others do the talking, being sympathetic and never
telling others that they are wrong
4. Change people by praising their good traits and giving chance to others to save their face
The next contributor who influenced the human aspects of management in workplace was Abraham
Maslow. Maslow proposed the need hierarchy theory (physiological, safety, social esteem and self
actualization needs) and stated that each step in the hierarchy must be satisfied before the next can
be activated and once a need was substantially satisfied, it no longer motivated an individual. Self
actualization was the ultimate goal of human existence. Managers who accepted this hierarchy
theory attempted to alter the organization and management practices to reduce barriers to
employees’ self actualization
Douglas McGregor was another contributor to the human relations movement. He formulated two
sets of assumptions – Theory X and Theory Y about human nature. Theory X posited a negative
view of people stating that this category have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility
and need to be closely directed at workplace. Theory Y category on the other hand proposed a
positive view of people stating that they can exercise self direction, assume responsibility and
considered work as a natural activity. McGregor personally believed that Theory Y described best the
nature of people at work and therefore form the basis of all management practices in organizations.
Managers should give freedom to their subordinates in order to unleash their full creative and
productive potential
D. Behavioral Science Theorists
These theorists engaged in objective research of human behavior in organizations. Some of the
major theorists who contributed to the growth of OB as a discipline are briefly given below.
B. F. Skinner His research on conditioning (classical and operant) and behavior modification
influenced the design of organization training programs and reward systems. Behavior is a function
of consequence according to Skinner and he stated that people engage in a desired behavior only if
they are rewarded for it and less likely to be repeated if an individual is not rewarded or punished for
it
David McClelland his work has helped organizations to match people with jobs and in redesigning
jobs for high achievers in order to maximize their motivation potential. For example, people who have
undergone achievement training in India, have been found to work longer hours, initiate more new
business ventures, made greater investments in productive assets than those who did not undergo
such training
Fred Fiedler work in the field of leadership has contributed immensely to the growth of OB as a
discipline. His work on the subject is important since it emphasized the situational aspects of
leadership and attempted to develop a comprehensive theory of leadership behavior
Fredrick Herzberg his primary interest was in finding out answer to the question: what do
individuals want from their jobs? He concluded from his study that people preferred jobs that
provided opportunities for recognition, achievement, responsibility and growth. Only providing the
hygiene factors were insufficient to motivate people in work places. This work is significant to OB as
it has helped in enriching jobs and the quality of work life in modern organizations.
E. OB is present times
What is realized today is that no one theory by itself can improve organizational functioning and
effectiveness. What, therefore, is suggested is a contingency approach. While the 1960s and 70s
witnessed the development of new theories the efforts since then has been on refining existing
theories, clarifying previous assumptions and identifying significant contingency variables. The
emphasis today is on understanding the situational factors and how they influence a behavior pattern
of individuals in organizational contexts.
Landmark publications on organizational behavior
» 1911: Frederick Taylor: Principles of Scientific Management
» 1916: Henri Fayol: General and Industrial Management
» 1924: MaxWeber: The Theory of Social and Economic Organization
» 1933: Elton Mayo: Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization
» 1938: Chester Barnard: The Functions of the Executive
» 1954: Abraham Maslow: Motivation and Personality
» 1956: William Whyte: The Organization Man
» 1959: Frederick Herzberg: The Motivation to Work
» 1960: Douglas McGregor: The Human Side of Enterprise
» 1964: Robert Blake and Jane Mouton: The Managerial Grid
» 1973: Henry Mintzberg: The Nature of Managerial Work
» 1978: Chris Argyris and Donald Schon: Organizational Learning
» 1979: Reg Revans: Action Learning
» 1981: Richard Pascale and Anthony Athos: The Art of Japanese Management
» 1982: Tom Peters and Bob Waterman: In Search of Excellence
» 1984: Meredith Belbin: Management Teams
» 1985: Edgar Schein: Organizational Culture and Leadership
» 1986: Gareth Morgan: Images of Organization
» 1989: Charles Handy: The Age of Unreason
» 1990: Peter Senge: The Fifth Discipline
» 1990: Richard Pascale: Managing on the Edge
» 1993: James Champy and Mike Hammer: Reengineering the Corporation
1995: Karl Weick: Sensemaking in Organizations
» 1997: Arie de Geus: The Living Company
» 1997: Thomas Stewart: Intellectual Capital
» 2000: Richard Pascale: Surfing the Edge of Chaos
»2001: Daniel Pink: Free Agent Nation
1. Adam Smith stated that organizations and society would reap from the __________ of labor
2. Taylor has proposed ____________ principles of management.
3. Fayol has proposed _______________ theory.
2.4 Contributing Disciplines To The OB Field
Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built upon contributions from a
number of behavioral disciplines. The main areas are psychology, sociology, social psychology,
anthropology, and political science.
Psychology :
Psychology is the science that attempts to measure, explain, and at times change the behavior of
humans and other animals. Early industrial/organizational psychologists were concerned with
problems of fatigue, boredom, and other factors relevant to working conditions that could disrupt/
impede efficient work performance. More recently, their contributions have been expanded to include
learning, perception, personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs and motivational
forces, job satisfaction, decision making processes, performance appraisals, attitude measurement,
employee selection techniques, work design, and job stress.
Sociology
Sociologists study the social system in which individuals fill their roles; that is, sociology studies
people in relation to their fellow human beings. Their significant contribution to OB is through their
study of group behavior in organizations, particularly formal and complex organizations.
Social Psychology
Social psychology blends the concepts of psychology and sociology. It focuses on the influence of
people on one another. The major challenge deals with the issue of how to implement it and how to
reduce barriers to its acceptance.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
Anthropologists work on cultures and environments; for example, they have aided in understanding
differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and
within different organizations.
Political Science
Political science studies the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment. It
focuses on areas, such as, conflict, intraorganizational politics and power.
1. _______________ is the science that attempts to measure, explain, and at times change the
behavior of humans and other animals.
2. _______________ blends the concepts of psychology and sociology.
3. Political science studies the behavior of individuals and groups within a ________________
environment.
2.5 Summary
organizations work more effectively. Specifically, OB focuses on how to improve productivity, reduce
absenteeism and turnover, and increase employee citizenship and job satisfaction. An organization
is more than a formal arrangement of functions, more than an organization chart, more than a vision
statement, more than a set of accounts. An organization consists of people and so it is also a social
system. The field of organizational behavior (OB) draws primarily from the behavioral science
disciplines of psychology, social psychology, and cultural anthropology. The areas on which OB
focuses are individuals who will often be working within groups, which themselves work within
organizations, as well as all the interrelationships between them. Some of the specific themes
embraced by OB are personality theory, attitudes and values, motivation and learning, interpersonal
behavior, group dynamics, leadership and teamwork, organizational structure and design, decision
making, power, conflict, and negotiation. OB is an interdisciplinary field, it has distinctly humanistic
outlook, it is performance oriented, it considers external environment as critical, it uses scientific
method and it has an applications orientation. Wood (1997) provides a useful model for exploring
behavioral events. He suggests that different levels of analysis can be applied when examining the
significance of an organizational issue. He proposes eight, namely: Individual, Team, Intergroup,
Organizational, Interorganizational, Societal, International, and Global. A large number of people
have contributed to the growth of OB as a discipline. Some of the most important works have been
done by Adam Smith, Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol, Max Weber, Mary parker Follet, Abraham
Maslow, B. F. Skinner, to name a few. Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that
is built upon contributions from a number of behavioral disciplines. The main areas are psychology,
sociology, social psychology, anthropology, and political science.
Terminal Questions
1. Discuss Taylors’ scientific principles of management.
2. Explain Fayol’s administrative theory.
3. What is Weber’s ideal bureaucratic structure?
4. Summarize Mayo’ belief.
Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1. Social
2. Cooperative
3. Interdisciplinary
1. Division
2. Scientific
3. Administrative
1. Psychology
2. Social psychology
3. Political
Answers to Terminal Questions
Foundation Of Organization Behavior Unit 3
Unit 3 Foundation Of Organizational Behavior
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Biographic characteristics
3.3 Ability
3.4 Summary
Terminal Questions
3.1 Introduction
Organizational Behavior emphasizes on intellectual capital as represented by the sum total of
knowledge, expertise, and dedication of an organization’s workforce. It recognizes that even in the
age of high technology, people are the indispensable human resources whose knowledge and
performance advance the organization’s purpose, mission, and strategies. Only through human
efforts can the great advantages be realized from other material resources of organizations, such as,
technology, information, raw materials, and money. A Fortune survey (1998) of America’s most
admired firms reported that “the single best predictor of overall success was a company’s ability to
attract, motivate, and retain talented people.”
Learning objectives
1. Biographic Characteristics
2. Ability
3.2 Biographic characteristics
Finding and analyzing the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence,
turnover, and satisfaction is often complicated. Many of the concepts—motivation, or power, politics
or organizational culture—are hard to assess. Other factors are more easily definable and readily
available—data that can be obtained from an employee’s personnel file and would include
characteristics, such as:
1. Gender
2. Age
3. Marital status
4. Tenure.
1. Gender
Men and women exhibit no consistent differences in their problemsolving abilities, analytical skills,
competitive drive, motivation, learning ability, or sociability. However, women are reported to be more
conforming and to have lower expectations of success than men do. And, women’s absenteeism
rates tend to be higher than those of men.
2. Age
The research findings concerning age are important given the aging of the workforce. People 50
years old and older account for 85 percent of the projected labor force growth between 1990 and
2005 (American Association of Retired Persons, 1995). Older workers are susceptible to being
stereotyped as inflexible and undesirable in other ways. In some cases, workers as young as age
forty are considered to be “old” and complain that their experience and skills are no longer valued.
On the other hand, small businesses in particular, tend to value older workers for their experience,
stability and low turnover. Research is consistent with these preferences and also shows lower
avoidable absences (Mayrand, 1992).
3. Marital Status
There are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of marital status on job
productivity. Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo
less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried coworkers (Garrison &
Muchinsky, 1977). Further research needs to be conducted on the other statuses, besides, single or
married, such as, divorce, domestic partnering, etc
4. Tenure
The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject of misconceptions and
speculations. Extensive reviews of the seniorityproductivity relationship have been conducted
(Gordon & Fitzgibbons, 1982):
1. There is a positive relationship between tenure and job productivity.
2. There is a negative relationship between tenure to absence.
3. Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover.
4. Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively related to turnover and has been suggested
as one of the single best predictors of turnover.
5. The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related
1. Women’s absenteeism rates tend to be _________ than those of men.
2. There is a _______ relationship between tenure to absence.
3.3 Ability
Ability reflects a person’s existing capacity to perform the various tasks needed for a given job and
includes both relevant knowledge and skills (Cummings & Schwab, 1973). Aptitude represents a
person’s capability of learning something. In other words, aptitudes are potential abilities, whereas
abilities are the knowledge and skills that an individual currently possesses. Managers need to
consider both ability and aptitude while selecting candidates for a job. Various tests used to measure
mental aptitudes and abilities. Some of these provide an overall intelligent quotient (IQ) score (e.g.,
the StanfordBinet IQ Test). Others provide measures of more specific competencies that are
required of people entering various educational programs or career fields. Such tests are designed to
facilitate the screening and selection of applicants for educational programs or jobs. In addition to
mental aptitudes and abilities, some jobs, such as, firefighters and police, require tests for physical
abilities. Muscular strength and cardiovascular endurance are two among the many physical ability

dimensions (Hogan, 1991). There must be a fit between specific aptitudes and abilities and job
requirements. If you want to be a surgeon, for instance, and cannot demonstrate good hand–eye
coordination, there will not be a good ability–job fit. Such a fit is so important that it forms a core
concept in managing human resources.
Individuals overall abilities are made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical.
Intellectual Abilities
Intellectual abilities are those required to perform mental activities.
IQ tests are designed to ascertain one’s general intellectual abilities. Examples of such tests are
popular college admission tests such as, the SAT, GMAT, and LSAT. The seven most commonly
cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are: number aptitude, verbal comprehension,
perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory
(Dunnette, 1976). The abilities are categorized in the following table:
Description Job Example
Dimension
Number aptitude Ability to do speedy and Accountant
accurate arithmetic
Verbal Communication Read write speaking ability Senior managers
Perceptual Speed Identify similarities and Investigators
differences quickly and
accurately
Inductive reasoning Logical sequence drawing Market Researcher
Deductive reasoning Ability to use logic and Supervisors
assess the implications of
the argument
Spatial Visualization Ability to imagine Interior decorator
Memory Ability to retain and recall Sales person
past experience Remembering customer’s
name
Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their intellectual abilities. A review of the
evidence demonstrates that tests that assess verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are
valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels of jobs.
In this regard, the theory of multiple intelligences was developed by Gardner (1983, 1993). This
theory suggests eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in
children and adults. It has been claimed that our intelligence or ability to understand the world around
us is complex. Some people are better at understanding some things than others. For some, it is
relatively easy to understand how an automobile works, but it is immensely difficult for some to
understand and use a musical instrument. For others music might be easy but playing football is
difficult. The several different intelligences are listed below:
1. Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"):
2. Logicalmathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
3. Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
4. BodilyKinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
5. Musical intelligence ("music smart")
6. Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
7. Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
8. Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")
Physical Abilities
Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less skilled and more standardized jobs. Research
has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks. Individuals differ in
the extent to which they have each of these abilities. High employee performance is likely to be
achieved when management matches the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and
the employees’ abilities.
Nine Basic Physical Abilities proposed by Fleishman (1979):
Strength Factors
Dynamic strength Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly
or continuously over time
Trunk strength Ability to exert muscular strength using the
trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles
Static strength Ability to exert force against
external objects
Explosive strength Ability to expend a maximum of
energy in one or a series of
explosive acts
Flexibility Factors
Extent flexibility Ability to move the trunk and back
muscles as far as possible
Dynamic flexibility Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing
Movements
Other Factors
Body coordination Ability to coordinate the simultaneous
actions of different parts of the body
Balance Ability Ability to maintain equilibrium despite
forces pulling off balance
Stamina Ability Ability to continue maximum effort
requiring prolonged effort over time
The AbilityJob Fit
Employee performance is enhanced when there is a high abilityjob fit. The specific intellectual or
physical abilities required depend on the ability requirements of the job. For example, pilots need
strong spatialvisualization abilities. Directing attention at only the employee’s abilities, or only the
ability requirements of the job, ignores the fact that employee performance depends on the
interaction of the two. When the fit is poor employees are likely to fail. When the abilityjob fit is out
of synchronization because the employee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of the job,
performance is likely to be adequate, but there will be organizational inefficiencies and possible
declines in employee satisfaction. Abilities significantly above those required can also reduce the
employee’s job satisfaction when the employee’s desire to use his or her abilities is particularly
strong and is frustrated by the limitations of the job
1. Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic is called _________ aptitude.
2. Interpersonal intelligence means ____________ smart.
3. Ability to exert force against external objects is called as _________ strength.
3.4 Summary
Organizational Behavior emphasizes on intellectual capital as represented by the sum total of
knowledge, expertise, and dedication of an organization’s workforce. It recognizes that even in the
age of high technology, people are the indispensable human resources whose knowledge and
performance advance the organization’s purpose, mission, and strategies. Only through human
efforts can the great advantages be realized from other material resources of organizations, such as,
technology, information, raw materials, and money. Finding and analyzing the variables that have an
impact on employee productivity, absence, turnover, and satisfaction is often complicated. Many of
the concepts—motivation, or power, politics or organizational culture—are hard to assess. Other
factors are more easily definable and readily available—data that can be obtained from an
employee’s personnel file and would include characteristics, such as, gender, age, marital status,
and tenure.
Ability reflects a person’s existing capacity to perform the various tasks needed for a given job and
includes both relevant knowledge and skills (Cummings & Schwab, 1973). Aptitude represents a
person’s capability of learning something. In other words, aptitudes are potential abilities, whereas
abilities are the knowledge and skills that an individual currently possesses. Managers need to
consider both ability and aptitude while selecting candidates for a job. Individuals overall abilities are
made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical. Intellectual abilities are those required to
perform mental activities. The seven most commonly cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities
are: number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory. Specific physical abilities gain importance in doing less
skilled and more standardized jobs. Research has identified nine basic abilities involved in the
performance of physical tasks. Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of these
abilities. High employee performance is likely to be achieved when management matches the extent
to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and the employees’ abilities. Employee performance
is enhanced when there is a high abilityjob fit. The specific intellectual or physical abilities required
depend on the ability requirements of the job.
Terminal Questions
1. Briefly describe the relationship of biographic characteristics with organizational behavior.
2. What is “ability”? explain the multiple intelligence theory.
3. Explain the significance of abilityjob fit.
1. Higher
2. Negative
1.Number
2. People
3. Static
1. Refer to section 3.2
Learning Unit 9
Unit 4 Learning
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Theories of learning
4.3 Shaping behavior
4.4 Behavior modification
4.5 Specific organizational application
4.6 Summary
Terminal Questions
4.1 Introduction
Learning refers to a process that enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude (KSA) of individuals, to
increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at the
workplace. Such learning should be sustainable and comparatively stable for people and for the
institutions that serves people. Learning definitely includes academic studies and occupational
training through high school and beyond. But it also encompasses the physical, cognitive, emotional
and social development of children in the earliest years of their lives.
Learning can be defined as “any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of
experience” (Robbins, 2003).
Following are the characteristics of learning:
1. First, learning involves change.
2. Second, the change must be relatively permanent.
3. Third, learning is concerned with behavior.
Learning Unit 9
4. Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning
Learning objectives
1. Theories of learning
2. Behavior modification
4.2 Theories of Learning
There are three theories of learning namely classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social
learning
1. Classical conditioning:
Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by Pavlov (1927). This
process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The
neutral stimulus does not lead to an overt behavioral response from the organism. This is called as
Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulus evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. This is
called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR), respectively. If the CS and
the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins
to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned Response (CR).Classical conditioning
was first experimented by Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, to teach dogs to salivate in response to
the ringing of a bell. During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov used a bell
before giving food to his dog. Rather than simply salivating in the presence of meat (a response to
food unconditioned response), after a few repetitions, the dog started to salivate in response to
the bell. Thus, a neutral stimulus (bell) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of
consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US – meat). Pavlov referred to this learned
relationship as a Conditioned Response.
2. Operant Conditioning:
The operant conditioning theory is proposed by B.F. Skinner (1953, 1954). This is based on the idea
that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an
individual's response to stimuli. When a particular StimulusResponse (SR) pattern is reinforced
Learning Unit 9
(rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S
R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response.
Principles of operant conditioning are as follows:
1. Behavior is learned.
2. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur.
3. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
4. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing
secondary conditioning.
5. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.
For example, if a subordinate is praised by his boss for looking good in a certain attire, the
subordinate is likely to wear that attire and present himself in front of boss, especially when he needs
to please the boss.
3. Social Learning
The social learning theory was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura (1977),
most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms
an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves
as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous
reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
Social learning has four processes:
1. Attentional processes People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention
to its critical features.
2. Retention processes A model’s influence will depend on how well the individual remembers
the model’s action after the it is no longer readily available.
3. Motor reproduction processes After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the
model, the watching must be converted to doing.
4. Reinforcement processes Individuals will be motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if
positive incentives or rewards are provided.
Learning Unit 9
Principles of social learning are as follows:
1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words,
labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior, if the model is similar to the observer
and has admired status and the behavior has functional value
1. Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by _________.
2. The operant conditioning theory is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in
___________ behavior
3. Social learning has __________ processes
4.3: Shaping behavior
When a systematic attempt is made to change individuals’ behaviour by directing their learning in
graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior.
There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are as follows:
Positive reinforcement This is the process of getting something pleasant as a consequence of a
desired behavior, to strengthen the same behavior. For example, one get a commission, if he/she
achieves sales target
Negative reinforcement This is the process of having a reward taken away as a consequence of a
undesired behavior. For example, scholarship is withdrawn from the student who has not done well
on the examination
Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior.
This is the process of getting a punishment as a consequence of a behavior. Example: having your
pay docked for lateness
Extinction—eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior. So, if a person puts in
extra effort, but gets no recognition for it, he will stop doing it
Learning Unit 9
Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning. They strengthen a response and increase
the probability of repetition. Both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease
its subsequent frequency
Schedules of reinforcement
The two major types of reinforcement schedules are: 1) continuous and 2) intermittent.
1. A Continuous reinforcement schedule reinforces the desired behavior each and every time it is
demonstrated. It is the traditional reinforcement schedule and is called a continuous reinforcement
schedule. Each time the correct behavior is performed it gets reinforced.
2. An Intermittent reinforcement schedule are fixed and variable categories. In an intermittent
schedule, not every instance of the desirable behavior is reinforced, but reinforcement is given often
enough to make the behavior worth repeating. The intermittent, or varied, form of reinforcement
tends to promote more resistance to extinction than does the continuous form.
Intermittent techniques be placed into following categories:
Fixedinterval reinforcement schedule—rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals; the critical
variable is time, and it is held constant.
Variableinterval reinforcements—rewards are distributed in time so that reinforcements are
unpredictable.
In a fixedratio schedule, after a fixed or constant number of responses are given, a reward is
initiated.
When the reward varies relative to the behavior of the individual, he or she is said to be reinforced on
a variableratio schedule
For example, honesty pay is fixed interval reinforcement, and piece rate is fixed ratio reinforcement
scheme.
Learning Unit 9
In general, variable schedules tend to lead to higher performance than fixed schedules. Continuous
reinforcement schedules may lead to early satisfaction and behavior may weaken when reinforcers
are withdrawn. Continuous reinforcers, thus, are appropriate for newly desired, unstable, or low
frequency responses. Intermittent reinforcers do not follow every response and thus, they also may
lead to early satisfaction. They are appropriate for stable or highfrequency responses. Variable
interval schedules generate high rates of response and more stable and consistent behavior because
of a high correlation between performance and reward.
1. __________________is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable
behavior
2. _________________ is eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior
3. In general, variable schedules tend to lead to __________ performance than fixed schedules.
4.4 Behavior modification
The typical OB Modification program follows a fivestep problemsolving model:
1. Identifying critical behaviors
2. Developing baseline data
3. Identifying behavior consequences
4. Developing and implementing an intervention strategy
5. Evaluating performance improvement
1. Critical behaviors make a significant impact on the employee’s job performance;
2. Developing baseline data determines the number of times the identified behavior is occurring
under present conditions.
3. Identifying behavioral consequences tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the
behavior and the consequences that are currently maintaining it.
4. Developing and implementing an intervention strategy will entail changing some elements of the
performancereward linkagestructure, processes, technology, groups, or the task—with the goal
of making highlevel performance more rewarding.
Learning Unit 9
5. Evaluating performance improvement is important to demonstrate that a change took place as a
result of the intervention strategy.
6. OB Modification has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee productivity
and to reduce errors, absenteeism, tardiness, accident rates, and improve friendliness toward
customers.
1. The typical OB Modification program follows a _________ step problemsolving model
2. OB Modification has been used by a number of organizations to improve employee
____________.
4.5 Specific organizational application
1. Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism
For example, Continental Airlines has created a lottery that rewards its 40,000 employees for
attendance. Twice a year, Continental holds a raffle and gives away eight new sport utility vehicles.
Only employees who have not missed a day of work during the previous six months are eligible. This
lottery system thus, follows a variableratio schedule where management credits the lottery with
significantly reducing the company’s absence rate (Robbins, 2003).
2. Well pay vs. sick pay
Organizations with paid sick leave programs experience almost twice the absenteeism of
organizations without such programs. One of the Midwest organizations in USA implemented a well
pay program. It paid a bonus to employees who had no absence for any given fourweek period and
then paid for sick leave only after the first eight hours of absence. The wellpay program produced
increased savings to the organization, reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, and improved
employee satisfaction. Forbes magazine used the same approach to cut its health care costs. It
rewarded employees who stayed healthy and did not file medical claims by paying them the
difference between $500 and their medical claims, then doubling the amount. By doing this, Forbes
cut its major medical and dental claims by over 30 percent (Robbins, 2003).
Learning Unit 9
3. Employee discipline
a. Every manager will, at some time, have to deal with problem behaviors in his/her organization.
a. Managers will respond with disciplinary actions such as oral reprimands, written warnings, and
temporary suspensions. However, the use of discipline carries costs. It may provide only a short
term solution and result in serious side effects.
b. Disciplining employees for undesirable behaviors gives them a message to what not to do.
However, it does not tell them what alternative behaviors are preferred.
c. Discipline does have a place in organizations.
d. In practice, it tends to be widely used because of its ability to produce fast results in the short run.
e. Developing training programs
f. Most organizations have some kind of systematic training program.
g. In one recent year, U.S. corporations with 100 or more employees spent in excess of $58 billion
on formal training for 47.3 million workers (Robbins, 2003).
4. Sociallearning theory suggests that training should
a. Offer a model to grab the trainee’s attention.
b. Provide motivational properties
c. Help the trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use and provide opportunities to
practice new behaviors.
d. Offer positive rewards for accomplishments.
e. If the training has taken place off the job, allow the trainee some opportunity to transfer what
he/she learned to the job.
5. Selfmanagement
1. Organizational applications of learning concepts can also be used to allow individuals to manage
their own behavior.
2. Selfmanagement requires an individual to deliberately manipulate stimuli, internal processes,
and responses to achieve personal behavioral outcomes.
Learning Unit 9
The basic processes involve observing one’s own behavior, comparing the behavior with a standard,
and rewarding oneself if the behavior meets the standard.
1. Continental Airlines’ lottery system follows a _______ schedule.
2. Forbes magazine used the __________ to cut its health care costs.
4.6 Summary
Learning refers to a process that enhances the knowledge, skill and attitude (KSA) of individuals, to
increase his/her willingness to adopt those newly acquired KSA and to implement them at the
workplace. Characteristics of learning are: learning involves change; change must be relatively
permanent; learning is concerned with behavior; and some form of experience is necessary for
learning. There are three theories of learning namely classical conditioning, operant conditioning,
and social learning. Classical Conditioning is a form of associative learning process proposed by
Pavlov. This process involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some
significance. The neutral stimulus does not lead to an overt behavioral response from the organism.
This is called as Conditioned Stimulus (CS). Significant stimulus evokes an innate, often reflexive,
response. This is called Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR),
respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become
associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral response to it. It is the Conditioned
Response (CR). The operant conditioning theory is proposed by B.F. Skinner. This is based on the
idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an
individual's response to stimuli. When a particular StimulusResponse (SR) pattern is reinforced
(rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S
R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. The social learning theory
was proposed by Bandura. It recognizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors,
attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. According to Bandura (1977), most human behavior is
learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. When a systematic attempt is made to change
Learning Unit 9
individuals’ behavior by directing their learning in graduated steps, it is called shaping behavior.
There are four methods of Shaping Behavior. They are: positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in
learning. They strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. Both punishment and
extinction weaken behavior and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency. The typical OB Mod
program follows a fivestep problemsolving model: Identifying critical behaviors, Developing baseline
data, Identifying behavior consequences, Developing and implementing an intervention strategy, and
Evaluating performance improvement.
Terminal Questions
1. Explain the classical conditioning theory and social learning theory.
2. Describe the four methods of shaping behavior.
3. Briefly explain the different types of reinforcement schedules.
4. Explain the fivestep problemsolving model of typical OB modification.
Answers to Self Assessing Questions
Self Assessing Questions 1
1. Pavlov
2. Overt
3. Four
1. Punishment
2. Extinction
3. Higher
1. Five
2. Productivity
Learning Unit 9
1. Variableratio
2. well pay
Value, Ethics And Job Satisfaction Unit 5
Unit 5 Value, Ethics And Job Satisfaction
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Types of Values
5.3 Contemporary Work Cohort
5.4 National culture and values
5.5 Attitudes
5.6 Summary
Terminal Questions
5.1 Introduction
Values represent basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or endstate of existence is
personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or endstate of
existence” (Rokeach, 1973). When the values are ranked in terms of their intensity, i.e., when the
value are prioritized in terms of their intensity, it is called value system. Types of values include,
ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (political, religious) values, social values, and aesthetic
values.
Values have both content and intensity attributes.
1. The content attribute signifies that a mode of conduct or endstate of existence is important.
2. The intensity attribute specifies how important it is.
3. Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals that person’s value system.
Values build the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation of an individual, since,
value has a great impact on perceptions. Values shape relationships, behaviors, and choices. The
more positive our values, more positive are people’s actions. A significant portion of the values an
individual holds is established in the early years—from parents, teachers, friends, and others.
Learning objectives:
1. Types of Values
2. National culture and values
3. Attitudes
5.2 Types Of Values
Rokeach, in his Value Survey (Rokeach Value Survey RVS), proposed two sets of values. They are
:Terminal values and Instrumental values. Each set contains 18 individual value items. Terminal
values refer to desirable endstates of existence, the goals that a person would like to achieve during
his/her lifetime. Instrumental values refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the
terminal values. This survey proposed that people in the same occupations or categories tend to hold
similar values. The terminal values and instrumental values proposed by RVS are listed below:
Terminal values
1. Equality (brotherhood and equal opportunity for all)
2. A comfortable life (a prosperous life)
3. An Exciting Life (a stimulating, active life)
4. Family Security (taking care of loved ones)
5. Freedom (independence and free choice)
6. Health (physical and mental wellbeing)
7. Inner Harmony (freedom from inner conflict)
8. Mature Love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)
9. National Security (protection from attack)
10. Pleasure (an enjoyable, leisurely life)
11. Salvation (saved; eternal life)
12. SelfRespect (selfesteem)
13. A Sense of Accomplishment (a lasting contribution)
14. Social Recognition (respect and admiration)
15. True Friendship (close companionship)
16. Wisdom (a mature understanding of life)
17. A World at Peace (a world free of war and conflict)
18. A World of Beauty (beauty of nature and the arts)
Instrumental values
1. Ambitious (hardworking and aspiring)
2. Broadminded (openminded)
3. Capable (competent; effective)
4. Clean (neat and tidy)
5. Courageous (standing up for your beliefs)
6. Forgiving (willing to pardon others)
7. Helpful (working for the welfare of others)
8. Honest (sincere and truthful)
9. Imaginative (daring and creative)
10. Independent (selfreliant; selfsufficient)
11. Intellectual (intelligent and reflective)
12. Logical (consistent; rational)
13. Loving (affectionate and tender)
14. Loyal (faithful to friends or the group)
15. Obedient (dutiful; respectful)
16. Polite (courteous and wellmannered)
17. Responsible (dependable and reliable)
18. Selfcontrolled (restrained; selfdisciplined)
1. ___________ values refer to desirable endstates of existence, the goals that a person would like
to achieve during his/her lifetime.
2. Social Recognition is ____________ value
3. ___________ values refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal
values
5.3 Contemporary Work Cohort
Robbins (2003) has proposed Contemporary Work Cohort, in which the unique value of different
cohorts is that the U.S. workforce has been segmented by the era they entered the workforce.
Individuals’ values differ, but tend to reflect the societal values of the period in which they grew up.
The cohorts and the respective values have been listed below:
1. Veterans—Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s.
They exhibited the following value orientations:
They were influenced by the Great Depression and World War II
1. Believed in hard work
2. Tended to be loyal to their employer
3. Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security
2. Boomers—Employees who entered the workforce during the 1960s through the mid1980s
belonged to this category. Their value orientations were:
1. Influenced heavily by John F. Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist movements, the Beatles, the
Vietnam War, and babyboom competition
2. Distrusted authority, but gave a high emphasis on achievement and material success
3. Organizations who employed them were vehicles for their careers
4. Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition
3. Xers—began to enter the workforce from the mid1980s. They cherished the following values:
1. Shaped by globalization, twocareer parents, MTV, AIDS, and computers
2. Value flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction
3. Family and relationships were important and enjoyed teamoriented work
4. Money was important, but would trade off for increased leisure time
5. Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous generations
· Terminal values: true friendship, happiness, and pleasure
4. Nexters—most recent entrants into the workforce.
1. Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and confident in their
ability to succeed
2. Neverending search for ideal job; see nothing wrong with jobhopping
3. Seek financial success
4. Enjoy team work, but are highly selfreliant
5. Terminal values: freedom and comfortable life
1. Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s, are called
________________.
2. _______________ began to enter the workforce from the mid1980s.
5.4 National Culture And Values
Following are the most important research with regard to establishing relationship between national
culture and values.
Hofstede’s research
Hofstede (1980,1991), in order to find the common dimensions of culture across the countries,
gathered data from surveys with 116,000 respondents working from IBM from more than 70 countries
around the world. The underlying concept of the four dimensions is described below (Hofsede 1991):
1. Power distance: This dimension measures the 'social equality' i.e.; to what extent a society
accepts unequal distribution of power in families, institutions and organizations. Inequality of
power in organizations is generally manifested in hierarchical superiorsubordinate relationships.
2. Uncertainty avoidance: This is a representation of a society's tolerance for uncertain situations.
It measures to what extent a society manages those situations by providing specific and
conventional rules, regulations and norms; by rejecting aberrant ideas or behavior; by accepting
the possibility of absolute truths and the accomplishments of expertise. Countries, which score
high in uncertainty avoidance, discourage risktaking behavior and innovation.
3. Individualism vs. collectivism: Individualism gauges to what extent individuals in a country
consider themselves as distinct entities rather than as members of cohesive groups. Collectivism,
on the other hand, emphasizes on 'social ties or bonds' between individuals. Individualistic
society considers selfinterest as more important than the group goal.
4. Masculinity vs. femininity: This dimension refers to what extent dominant values in a society
emphasizes masculine social values like a work ethic expressed in terms of money, achievement
and recognition as opposed to feminine social role which show more concern for people and
quality of life.
Hofstede and Bond (1988) have identified a fifth dimension (based on Confucian dynamism), called
‘longterm orientation’, which measures employees’ devotion to the work ethic and their respect for
tradition. It was found that Asian countries like Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan are
extremely strong in work ethic and commitment to traditional Confucian values.
Hofstede (1991) further proposed that each person carries around several layers of cultural
programming. It starts when a child learns basic values: what is right and wrong, good and bad,
logical and illogical, beautiful and ugly. Culture is about your fundamental assumptions of what it is to
be a person and how you should interact with other persons in your group and with outsiders. The
first level of culture is the deepest, the most difficult to change and will vary according to the culture
in which we grow up. Other layers of culture are learned or programmed in the course of education,
through professional or craft training and in organization life. Some of the aspects of culture learned
later have to do with conventions and ethics in your profession. These layers are more of ways of
doing things, or practices as opposed to fundamental assumptions about how things are.
GLOBE research
GLOBE project integrates the above –mentioned cultural attributes and variables with managerial
behavior in organizations. Following are some of the questions asked in this project to prove that
leadership and organizational processes were directly influenced by cultural variables:
1. Are leader behaviors, attributes and organizational practices universally accepted and effective
across cultures?
2. Are they influenced by societal and organizational cultures?
3. What is the effect of violating cultural norms that are relevant to leadership and organizational
practices?
4. Can the universal and culturespecific aspects of leadership behaviour and organizational
practice be explained with the help of a theory accounting for systematic differences across
cultures?
From the above, GLOBE project identified nine cultural dimensions (House, Javidan, Hanges and
Dorfman, 2002: 310)
1. Uncertainty avoidance: GLOBE project defined this dimension as the extent to which a society
or an organization tries to avoid uncertainty by depending heavily on prevalent norms, rituals and
bureaucratic practices.
2. Power distance: it is the degree to which power is unequally shared in a society or an
organization.
3. CollectivismI i.e. societal collectivism: it is the degree to which society and organization
encourages, and recognizes collective performance.
4. CollectivismII Ingroup collectivism: it is the degree to which individuals take pride, loyalty and
cohesiveness in their organizations and families.
5. Gender egalitarianism: GLOBE has defined this as an extent to which a society or an
organization minimizes gender differences and discrimination.
6. Assertiveness: it is the degree to which individuals, both in organizational and social context
are, assertive and confrontational.
7. Future orientation: it is the degree to which individuals are encouraged in long term future –
orientated behaviors such as planning, investing, etc.
8. Performance orientation: this dimension encourages and rewards group members for
performance improvement.
9. Humane orientation: it is the degree to which organizations or society encourage or reward for
being fair, altruistic, friendly, generous and caring.
Work behavior across cultures
In every culture, there are different sets of attitudes and values which affect behavior. Similarly, every
individual has a set of attitudes and beliefs – filters through which he/she views management
situations within organizational context. Managerial beliefs, attitudes and values can affect
organizations positively or negatively. Managers portray trust and respect in their employees in
different ways in different cultures. This is a function of their own cultural backgrounds. For example,
managers from specific cultures tend to focus only on the behavior that takes place at work, in
contrast to managers from diffused cultures who focus on wider range of behavior including
employees’ private and professional lives. Trompenaars and HampdenTurner (1998:86) have
conducted a survey to find out whether the employees believe their companies should provide
housing to the employees. It was found out that most managers from diffused cultures believed that
company should provide such facility (former Yugoslavia 89%, Hungary 83%, China 82%, Russia
78%), whereas less than 20% managers from specific cultures such as UK, Australia, Denmark,
France, etc., agreed on the same.
Laurent (1983: 7596), as a result of his survey with managers from nine Western European
countries, U.S., three Asian countries found distinctly different patterns for managers in common
work situations.
Task and relationship: in response to the statement which states that the main reason for a
hierarchical structure was to communicate the authority relationship, most U.S. managers disagreed
whereas, most Asian , Latin American managers strongly agreed. It was quite evident that U.S
managers, having an extremely task oriented culture, believed more in flatter organizational
structure to become more effective. On the other hand, the second set of managers were from more
relationship oriented cultures where the concept of authority is more important. Similarly, in
response to the statement which says that in order to have efficient work relationship it is often
necessary to bypass the hierarchical line, differences were found across cultures. Managers from
Sweden (task oriented culture) projected least problem with bypassing since getting the job done is
more important than expressing allegiance to their bosses. In contrast, Italian managers, coming
from a relationshiporiented culture, considered bypassing the authority/boss as an act of in
subordination. The above mentioned example is inevitably a caution signal to the universal
management approach, irrespective of culture.
Managers as experts or problemsolvers: in the same study, Laurent asked managers from
various cultures whether it was important for them to have at hand, precise answers to most
questions their subordinates might raise about their work. French managers believed that they
should give precise answers to the questions in order to maintain their credibility and retain the
subordinates’ sense of security. On the contrary, U.S. managers believed that a managers’ role
should be to act as a mentor who would facilitate the employees to solve the problem. They also
believe that providing direct answers to a problem actually discourages subordinates’ initiative and
creativity and ultimately hampers performance.
1. Power distance measures the _________________.
2. ______________ gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider themselves as distinct
entities rather than as members of cohesive groups.
3. Hofstede and Bond (1988) have identified a fifth dimension called __________________
5.5 Attitudes
Attitudes are evaluative statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects,
people, or events. Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated. There are three
components of an attitude:
1. Cognition
2. Affect
3. Behavior
Cognition – It is the mental process involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including
thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem solving.
Affect is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
Behavior The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something.
Types of Attitudes
Most of the research in OB has been concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job
involvement, and organizational commitment.
1. Job satisfaction
1. It is defined as an individual’s general attitude toward his/her job. A high level of job
satisfaction equals positive attitudes toward the job and viceaversa.
2. Job involvement
1. It is the measure of the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his/her job and
considers his/her perceived performance level important to selfworth.
3. Organizational commitment
1.It is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its
goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Research evidence has shown
a negative relationship between organizational commitment and both absenteeism as well as
turnover. An individual’s level of organizational commitment is a better indicator of turnover than
the far more frequently used job satisfaction predictor, because, it is a more global and
enduring response to the organization as a whole than is job satisfaction.
Attitudes and Consistency
When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an equilibrium state
where attitudes and behavior are again consistent, by altering either the attitudes or the behavior, or
by developing a rationalization for the discrepancy.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Festinger (1957), while linking attitudes with behavior, argued that, any form of inconsistency is
uncomfortable and individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance. The desire to reduce
dissonance would be determined by the importance of the elements creating the dissonance, the
degree of influence the individual believes he/she has over the elements and the rewards that may
be involved in dissonance
Importance: If the elements creating the dissonance are relatively unimportant, the pressure to
correct this imbalance will be low.
Influence: If the dissonance is perceived as an uncontrollable result, they are less likely to be
receptive to attitude change. Though dissonance exists, it is possible to rationalize and justify it.
Rewards: The inherent tension in high dissonance tends to be reduced with high rewards.
However, it is not possible for any individual to completely avoid dissonance. Due to moderating
factors, individuals will not necessarily move to reduce dissonance—or consistency.
Contemporary research has shown that attitudes can significantly predict future behavior and has
confirmed Festinger’s original view that relationship can be enhanced by taking moderating variables
into account( Robbins, 2003). The most powerful moderators are:
1. Importance
2. Specificity
3. Accessibility
4. Social pressures
5. Direct experience
1. Importance: refers to fundamental values, selfinterest, or identification with individuals or groups
that a person values.
2. Specificity: The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the
link between the two.
3. Accessibility: Attitudes that are easily remembered are more likely to predict behavior than
attitudes that are not accessible in memory.
4. Social pressures: Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely to occur where
social pressures to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power.
Direct experience: The attitudebehavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude
refers to an individual’s direct personal experience.
Selfperception theory
Selfperception theory (Bem, 1967) proposes that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action
that has already occurred rather than devices that precede and guide action. In contrast to the
cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual verbal statements and they tend to create
plausible answers for what has already occurred.
While the traditional attitudebehavior relationship is generally positive, the behaviorattitude
relationship is stronger especially when attitudes are unclear and ambiguous or little thought has
been given to it earlier.
Attitude Surveys
1. The most popular method for getting information about employee attitudes is through attitude
surveys. It provides with valuable feedback about the way employees perceive their working
conditions. Managers present the employee with set statements or questions to obtain specific
information. What may be viewed by management as fair policies and practices, and as objective,
may be seen as inequitable by employees in general, or by certain groups of employees, and
may result in negative attitudes about the job and the organization. The use of regular attitude
surveys can alert management to potential problems and employees’ intentions well in time, so
that action can be taken to prevent repercussions (Robbins, 2003).
Measuring Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction is the sense of fulfillment and pride felt by people who enjoy their work and do it well.
For an organization, satisfied work force ensures commitment to high quality performance and
increased productivity Job satisfaction helps organizations to reduce complaints and grievances,
absenteeism, turnover, and termination. Job satisfaction is also linked to a more healthy work force
and has been found to be a good indicator of longevity. And although only little correlation has been
found between job satisfaction and productivity, it has also been found that satisfying or delighting
employees is a prerequisite to satisfying or delighting customers, thus protecting the "bottom line
(Brown, 1996).
Creating Job Satisfaction
Probably the most important point to bear in mind when considering job satisfaction is that there are
many factors that affect job satisfaction and that what makes workers happy with their jobs varies
from one worker to another and from day to day. Organizations aspiring to create a work
environment that enhances job satisfaction need to incorporate the following:
1. Flexible work arrangements
2. Task variety and significance
3. Job security
4. A supportive work environment
5. Competitive salary
6. Career opportunities
Job enrichment
It is a deliberate upgrading of responsibility, scope, and challenge in the work itself. Job enrichment
usually includes increased responsibility, recognition, and opportunities for growth, learning, and
achievement. Large companies that have used jobenrichment programs to increase employee
motivation and job satisfaction include, AT&T, IBM, and General Motors (Daft, 1997).
Workers’ role in job satisfaction
A worker should also take some responsibility for his or her job satisfaction. Everett (1995) proposed
the following questions which employees ask themselves in regard to job satisfaction at the
workplace:
1. When have I come closest to expressing my full potential in a work situation?
2. What did it look like?
3. What aspects of the workplace were most supportive?
4. What aspects of the work itself were most satisfying?
5. What did I learn from that experience that could be applied to the present situation?
The following suggestions can help a worker find personal job satisfaction:
1. Seek opportunities to demonstrate skills and talents.
2. Develop communication skills.
3. Acquire job related skills and try to implement them.
4. Demonstrate creativity and initiative.
5. Improve team building and leadership skill.
6. Learn to destress.
The ways of expressing job dissatisfaction
There are a number of ways in which employees can express dissatisfaction (Robbins, 2003). They
are:
1. Exit
2. Voice
3. Loyalty
4. Neglect
1. Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the organization, actions like looking for a new position as
well as resigning.
2. Voice: Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting
improvements, discussing problems with superiors, and some forms of union activity.
3. Loyalty: Passively, but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including standing up for
the organization in the face of external criticism/ crisis, and reposing trust in the organization and
its management to take the right decisions and set things in order.
4. Neglect: Passively allowing conditions to worsen, including chronic absenteeism or lateness,
reduced effort, and increased error rate
1. There are ____________ components of an attitude
2. Festinger has proposed _________________________ theory.
3. ________________ theory proposes that attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that
has already occurred rather than devices that precede and guide action.
5.6 Summary
Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or endstate of existence is
personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or endstate of
existence. Types of values include, ethical/moral values, doctrinal/ideological (political, religious)
values, social values, and aesthetic values. Values build the foundation for the understanding of
attitudes and motivation of an individual, since, value has a great impact on perceptions. Values
shape relationships, behaviors, and choices. The more positive our values, more positive are
people’s actions. A significant portion of the values an individual holds is established in the early
years from parents, teachers, friends, and others. Rokeach, in his Value Survey (Rokeach Value
Survey RVS), proposed two sets of values. They are :Terminal values and Instrumental values.
Each set contains 18 individual value items. Terminal values refer to desirable endstates of
existence, the goals that a person would like to achieve during his/her lifetime. Instrumental values
refer to preferable modes of behavior, or means of achieving the terminal values. Hofstede proposed
four dimensions of national culture: Power distance (this dimension measures the 'social equality'),
Uncertainty avoidance (this is a representation of a society's tolerance for uncertain situations),
Individualism vs. collectivism (individualism gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider
themselves as distinct entities rather than as members of cohesive groups and collectivism
emphasizes on 'social ties or bonds' between individuals) and Masculinity vs. femininity (this
dimension refers to what extent dominant values in a society emphasizes masculine social values
like a work ethic expressed in terms of money, achievement and recognition as opposed to feminine
social role which show more concern for people and quality of life). Attitudes are evaluative
statements that are either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people, or events. Attitudes
are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated. There are three components of an attitude:
Cognition (the mental process involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension), Affect (the
emotional or feeling segment of an attitude) and Behavior (an intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something). Festinger (1957), while linking attitudes with behavior, argued that,
any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance.
The desire to reduce dissonance would be determined by the importance of the elements creating
the dissonance, the degree of influence the individual believes he/she has over the elements and the
rewards that may be involved in dissonance. Selfperception theory (Bem, 1967) proposes that
attitudes are used to make sense out of an action that has already occurred rather than devices that
precede and guide action. In contrast to the cognitive dissonance theory, attitudes are just casual
verbal statements and they tend to create plausible answers for what has already occurred.
Terminal Questions
1. What is Rokeach Value Survey RVS? Explain the values described in this survey.
2. Explain Hofstede’s research.
3. Describe Laurent’s findings .
4. Explain Cognitive Dissonance Theory and self perception theory.
1. Terminal
2. Terminal
3. Instrumental
1. Veterans
2. Xers
1. Social equality
2. Individualism
3. Longterm orientation
1. Three
2. Cognitive Dissonance
3. Selfperception
Personality Unit 6
Unit 6 Personality
Structure
6.1 Introduction
Objectives
6.2 Personality Determinants
6.3 Personality Theories
6.4 Achieving personality fit
6.5 Summary
Terminal Questions
6.1 Introduction
The term 'personality' has been derived from the Latin term 'persona' which means to 'speak
through'. The Latin word denotes the masks worn by actors in ancient Greece and Rome. Therefore,
a very common meaning of the term personality is the role which the person (actor) displays in the
public domain at large. Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a
person’s whole psychological systemit looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum
of the parts. Allport (1937) defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of
those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”.
1. Personality Determinants
2. Personality Theories
Personality Unit 6
6.2 Personality Determinants
The factors affecting personality development are illustrated below:
1. Heredity The relationship of heredity with personality is a wellaccepted fact. Traits like
physique, eye color, hair color, height, temperament, energy level, intelligence, reflexes, etc. are
generally referred to describe the influence of heredity in developing personality. The heredity
approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the molecular
structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Robbins (2003) has argued that the three
different streams of research lend some credibility to the argument that heredity plays an
important part in determining an individual's personality. The first looks at the genetic
underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. The second
addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth and the third examines the consistency
in job satisfaction over time and across situations.
2. Environment Environment comprises of culture, family, social and situational factors. The
environmental factors influence personality of an individual since they provide the basis of certain
experiences which determine the individual’s view about life, both positive and negative.
3. Culture Culture establishes norms, attitudes and values that are passed on from generation to
generation and create consistencies over time. Every culture expects and trains its members to
behave in the ways that are acceptable to the group. People from different cultural groups have
different attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation, artistic talent,
etc. However, on the basis of culture, an individual’s personality cannot be always assessed,
since individuals within the same culture (but from different family and subcultural background)
have been seen to differ in their behavior.
4. Family One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is the immediate
family. Families influence the behavior of a person especially in the early stages of life. The
nature of such influence will depend upon the socioeconomic level of the family, family size,
race, religion, parent's educational level and geographic location.
5. Situation Situational factors also play a crucial role in determining the personality of a
person. Every individual goes through different type of experiences and events in his/her life. Some
of the events and experiences, which an individual goes through in his/her life, can serve as
Personality Unit 6
important determinants of his/her personality. A trauma suffered by a person in the childhood can
sometime change the structure of his/her own personality.
1. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the
molecular structure of the ______________
2. One of the most important determinants of the personality of a person is the________ family
6.3 Personality Theories
Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive style and they describe the
frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors. Possession of a trait is,
therefore, a matter of degree.
Some of the most important research works on personality traits are mentioned below:
Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Model
Early research on personality traits resulted in isolating large numbers of traits, which made it
impossible to predict behavior. Cattell’s (1973) is one of the most important personality trait theory,
where the number of traits have been reduced. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as primary factors.
Primary Factors and Descriptors in Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Model (Adapted From Conn &
Rieke, 1994).
Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor Descriptors of High Range
Reserve, impersonal, distant, cool, Warm, outgoing, attentive to others,
reserved, impersonal, detached, formal, Warmth kindly, easy going, participating, likes
aloof (Sizothymia) people (Affectothymia)
Concrete thinking, lower general mental Abstractthinking, more intelligent,
Reasoning
capacity, less intelligent, unable to bright, higher general mental capacity,
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handle abstract problems (Lower fast learner (Higher Scholastic Mental
Scholastic Mental Capacity) Capacity)
Reactive emotionally, changeable,
affected by feelings, emotionally less Emotional Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature,
stable, easily upset (Lower Ego Stability faces reality calm (Higher Ego Strength)
Strength)
Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict,
Dominant, forceful, assertive,
submissive, humble, obedient, easily
Dominance aggressive, competitive, stubborn,
led, docile, accommodating
bossy (Dominance)
(Submissiveness)
Lively, animated, spontaneous,
Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn,
Liveliness enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful,
introspective, silent (Desurgency)
expressive, impulsive (Surgency)
Expedient, nonconforming, disregards Ruleconscious, dutiful, conscientious,
Rule
rules, self indulgent (Low Super Ego conforming, moralistic, staid, rule bound
Consciousness
Strength) (High Super Ego Strength)
Shy, threatsensitive, timid, hesitant, Socially bold, venturesome, thick
Social Boldness
intimidated (Threctia) skinned, uninhibited (Parmia)
Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental,
Sensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender
tough minded, selfreliant, nononsense, Sensitivity
minded, intuitive, refined (Premsia)
rough (Harria)
Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical,
Vigilance
unconditional, easy (Alaxia) distrustful, oppositional (Protension)
Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution
Abstract, imaginative, absent minded,
orientated, steady, conventional Abstractedness
impractical, absorbed in ideas (Autia)
(Praxernia)
Forthright, genuine, artless, open, Privateness Private, discreet, nondisclosing,
Personality Unit 6
guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved shrewd, polished, worldly, astute,
(Artlessness) diplomatic (Shrewdness)
SelfAssured, unworried, complacent, Apprehensive, self doubting, worried,
secure, free of guilt, confident, self Apprehension guilt prone, insecure, worrying, self
satisfied (Untroubled) blaming (Guilt Proneness)
Traditional, attached to familiar, Open to change, experimental, liberal,
Openness to
conservative, respecting traditional analytical, critical, free thinking,
Change
ideas (Conservatism) flexibility (Radicalism)
Selfreliant, solitary, resourceful,
Grouporiented, affiliative, a joiner and
SelfReliance individualistic, self sufficient (Self
follower dependent (Group Adherence)
Sufficiency)
Tolerated disorder, unexacting, flexible, Perfectionistic, organized, compulsive,
undisciplined, lax, selfconflict, selfdisciplined, socially precise,
Perfectionism
impulsive, careless of social rues, exacting will power, control, self –
uncontrolled (Low Integration) sentimental (High SelfConcept Control)
Tense, high energy, impatient, driven,
Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid, patient,
Tension frustrated, over wrought, time driven.
composed low drive (Low Ergic Tension)
(High Ergic Tension)
The MyersBriggs Type Indicator
The MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite pairs (dichotomies), base on their psychological
opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16 possible combinations. In MBTI, Individuals are
classified as (McCrae and Costa, 1989) :
a. Extroverted or introverted (E or I).
b. Sensing or intuitive (S or N).
c. Thinking or feeling (T or F).
d. Perceiving or judging (P or J).
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· These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types. For example:
a. INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and
purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often
stubborn.
b. ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive, and have a natural head for
business or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities.
c. The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and
attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging
problems but may neglect routine assignments.
The big five model
1. Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underlie all other personality dimensions
(e.g; McCrae and Costa, 1990; Digman, 1997). The five basic dimensions are:
1. Extraversion. Comfort level with relationships. Extraverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and
sociable. Introverts tend to be reserved, timid, and quiet.
2. Agreeableness. Individual’s propensity to defer to others. High agreeableness people—
cooperative, warm, and trusting. Low agreeableness people—cold, disagreeable, and
antagonistic.
3. Conscientiousness. A measure of reliability. A high conscientious person is responsible,
organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily
distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
4. Emotional stability. A person’s ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional
stability tend to be calm, selfconfident, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be
nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure.
Personality Unit 6
5. Openness to experience. The range of interests and fascination with novelty. Extremely open
people are creative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the other end of the openness
category are conventional and find comfort in the familiar.
Research suggested important relationships between these personality dimensions and job
performance (Barrick, & Mount , 1991). For example, conscientiousness predicted job performance
for all occupational groups. Individuals who are dependable, reliable, careful, thorough, able to plan,
organized, hardworking, persistent, and achievementoriented tend to have higher job performance.
Employees higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge. For the other
personality dimensions, predictability depended upon both the performance criterion and the
occupational group. Extraversion predicted performance in managerial and sales positions.
Openness to experience is important in predicting training proficiency.
Locus of control
A person’s perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. Locus of control was
formulated within the framework of Rotter's (1954) social learning theory of personality. Rotter (1975)
pointed out that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or
typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. Externals attribute
outcomes of events to external circumstances. For example, college students with a strong internal
locus of control may believe that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and efforts,
whereas, those with a strong external locus of control may believe that their grades are the result of
good or bad luck, or to a professor who designs bad tests or grades capriciously; hence, they are
less likely to expect that their own efforts will result in success and are therefore less likely to work
hard for high grades.
Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism
rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than are internals.
Internals, facing the same situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions. Internals
believe that health is substantially under their own control through proper habits; their incidences of
sickness and, hence, of absenteeism, are lower.
Personality Unit 6
Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one needs to consider differences in jobs.
Internals search more actively for information before making a decision, are more motivated to
achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their environment, and hence, internals do well on
sophisticated tasks. Internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of
action and want autonomy and independence in their jobs. Externals are more compliant and willing
to follow directions and be led, and do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and in which
success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others.
Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a
person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain. The concept is named after
Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote Il Principe (The Prince). Christie and
Geis (1970) developed a test for measuring a person's level of Machiavellianism. This eventually
became the MACHIV test, a twentystatement personality survey that is now the standard self
assessment tool of Machiavellianism. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains
emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. High Machs manipulate more, win
more, are persuaded less, and persuade others more. High Mach outcomes are moderated by
situational factors and flourish when they interact face to face with others, rather than indirectly, and
when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus, allowing room for
improvisation. High Machs make good employees in jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer
substantial rewards for winning.
Selfesteem ( SE)
Selfesteem is defined as the degree to which people like or dislike themselves (Robbins, 2003).
Individuals with high selfesteem tend to take more risks in job selection and are more likely to
choose unconventional jobs in contrast to people with low selfesteem. Low SEs are more
susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of
positive evaluations from others. In managerial positions, therefore, low SEs will tend to be
concerned with pleasing others.
Personality Unit 6
Selfmonitoring
It refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.
Individuals high in selfmonitoring show considerable adaptability. They are highly sensitive to
external cues, and are capable of behaving differently in different situations, and presenting striking
contradictions between their public persona and their private self. Low selfmonitors cannot disguise
themselves in that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in almost every
situation resulting in a high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do. High
selfmonitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others. High selfmonitoring managers
tend to be more mobile in their careers and receive more promotions. High selfmonitor is capable of
putting on different “faces” for different audiences.
Type A and Type B personality
Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being impatient, excessively time
conscious, insecure about one's status, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of
relaxation (Friedman & Rosenman 1974). They are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly, are
impatient with the rate at which most events take place, are doing do two or more things at once and
cannot cope with leisure time. They are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of
how many or how much of everything they acquire. Type ‘A’s operate under moderate to high levels
of stress. They expose themselves to continuous time pressure, are fast workers, give preference to
quantity over quality, work long hours, and are also rarely creative.
Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain an increasing number of things or
participate in events demanding an everdecreasing amount of time (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974).
Type Bs never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience and feel no
need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless otherwise
demanded by the situation. They can relax without guilt.
1. Cattell referred to these 16 factors as _____________ factors.
2. The MBTI classifies human beings into _____________ opposite pairs
Personality Unit 6
3. Locus of control was formulated within the framework of Rotter's ___________ theory of
personality
6.4 Achieving PersonalityJob Fit
According to Holland (1997), workers are not passive victims of their environments, but actively seek
potentially compatible work environments. If an individual’s personality and the work environment
“fit”—that is, if the personality is congruent with the work environment—the individual will most likely
enjoy the work and develop and grow in the career. Matching people to the organizational culture at
the time of hiring should result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover. Holland has
proposed Six themes of people and work environments, within which all jobs can be classified:
1. Realistic
2. Investigative
3. Artistic
4. Social
5. Enterprising
6. Conventional
Personality Unit 6
The abovementioned classification is shown in more details in the following chart:
Type Personality Congruent Occupation

Characteristics
Realistic: Prefers physical Shy, genuine, persistent, Mechanic, drill press
activities that require skill, stable, operator,
strength, and coordination conforming, practical assemblyline worker,
farmer
Investigative: Prefers Biologist, economist,
activities mathematician, news
Analytical, original, curious,
that involve thinking, reporter
independent
organizing, and
understanding
Social: Prefers activities Sociable, friendly, Social workers, teacher,
that cooperative, counselor, clinical
involve helping and understanding psychologist
developing others
Conventional: Prefers rule Conforming, efficient, Accountant, corporate
regulated, orderly, and practical, manager, bank teller, file
unambiguous activities unimaginative, inflexible clerk
Enterprising: Prefers verbal Selfconfident, ambitious, Lawyer, real estate agent,
activities in which there are energetic, domineering public relations specialist,
opportunities to influence small
others and attain power business manager
Artistic: Prefers ambiguous Imaginative, disorderly, Painter, musician, writer,
and idealistic, interior decorator
unsystematic activities that emotional, impractical
allow creative expression
Personality Unit 6
1. Holland has proposed _________ themes of people and work environments, within which all
jobs can be classified
2. _____________ person prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence
others and attain power.
6.5 Summary
The term 'personality' has been derived from the Latin term 'persona' which means to 'speak
through'. The factors affecting personality development are Heredity, Environment, Culture, Family,
and Situation. Personality Traits are underlying tendencies to behave in a consistent and distinctive
style and they describe the frequency or intensity of a person's feelings, thoughts, or behaviors.
Possession of a trait is, therefore, a matter of degree. Early research on personality traits resulted in
isolating large numbers of traits, which made it impossible to predict behavior. Cattell’s (1973) is one
of the most important personality trait theory, where the number of traits have been reduced. Cattell
referred to these 16 factors as primary factors. The MBTI classifies human beings into four opposite
pairs (dichotomies), base on their psychological opposites. These four opposite pairs result into 16
possible combinations. Many researchers argue that five basic dimensions underlie all other
personality dimensions (e.g; McCrae and Costa, 1990; Digman, 1997). The five basic dimensions are
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional stability, and openness to experience. A
person’s perception of the source of his/her fate is termed locus of control. Locus of control was
formulated within the framework of Rotter's (1954) social learning theory of personality. Rotter (1975)
pointed out that internality and externality represent two ends of a continuum, not an either/or
typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control. Machiavellianism is the
term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive
and manipulate others for personal gain. Selfesteem is defined as the degree to which people like or
dislike themselves (Robbins, 2003). Individuals with high selfesteem tend to take more risks in job
selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs in contrast to people with low self
esteem. Low SEs are more susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are
dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. Selfmonitoring refers to an individual’s
ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in selfmonitoring
show considerable adaptability. Type A personality is a set of characteristics that includes, being
Personality Unit 6
impatient, excessively timeconscious, insecure about one's status, highly competitive, hostile and
aggressive, and incapable of relaxation. Type B personality is rarely hurried by the desire to obtain
an increasing number of things or participate in events demanding an everdecreasing amount of
time. According to Holland (1997), workers are not passive victims of their environments, but actively
seek potentially compatible work environments. If an individual’s personality and the work
environment “fit”—that is, if the personality is congruent with the work environment—the individual
will most likely enjoy the work and develop and grow in the career. Matching people to the
organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced
turnover.
Terminal questions
Describe the determinants of personality.
1. Explain The MyersBriggs Type Indicator.
2. Explain the personality dimensions mentioned in big five model.
3. Explain Type A and Type B personality.
4. Based on Holland’s approach, explain personalityjobfit.
1. Genes
2. Immediate
1. Primary
2. Four
3. Social learning
1.Six
2. Enterprising
Personality Unit 6
Emotions Unit 7
Unit 7 Emotions
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Theories of emotion
7.3 Certain issues
7.4: Emotional intelligence
7.5 Summary
Terminal Questions
7.1 Introduction
In general, the term ’emotion’ is used to designate "a state of consciousness having to do with the
arousal of feelings (Webster’s New World Dictionary)." It is "distinguished from other mental states,
from cognition, volition, and awareness of physical sensation." Feeling refers to "any of the subjective
reactions, pleasant or unpleasant" that one may experience in a situation.
· Theories of emotion
· Emotional intelligence
Emotions Unit 7
7.2 Theories Of Emotion:
There are many theories of emotion:
I. JamesLange Theory (1890) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Subjective emotional responses are the result
of physiological changes within human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends
messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This action ultimately produces motor,
autonomic and endocrine responses. These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is
perceived by the brain. Therefore, it is a cyclical process. This theory argues that physiological
behaviors precede the emotion.
II. CannonBard theory (1927) [cited in Taylor, 1999]: Emotionprovoking events induce the
subjective emotional experiences and physiological arousal simultaneously. Through experiences,
individuals begin to acquire certain expectations for every given situation. These expectations
provide a filter and every situation is processed through this filter. During this process, brain
produces the emotion and corresponding physiological behaviors at the same time.
III. SchachterSinger theory (1962): Both feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive
appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions. How one interprets the peripheral
response will determine the emotion he / she feels. Individuals label the emotional response
depending on what we think is causing the response. For example, when someone interprets a
stimulus as dangerous, it leads to physiological arousal. Then, this physiological arousal is
interpreted to a particular emotion. It can be fear, surprise, excitement, and astonishment depending
on how the arousal is labeled.
IV. Lazarus' appraisal theory (1980): An individual makes an initial and sometimes unconscious
cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary;
and the individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling.
V. Weiner's attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once

the initial evaluation has been made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These
attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and
Emotions Unit 7
external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. What are

the basic emotions? Ortony and Turner (1990) collated a wide range of research as to what basic
emotions are and the basis of including them as basic emotions and proposed a comprehensive
description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion :
A comprehensive description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion
Emotions Unit 7
Source: Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What's basic about basic emotions? Psychological
Review, 97, 3, July, 315331
Basic Emotions Basis for Inclusion
Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire, Relation to action
Arnold
despair, fear, hate, hope, love, sadness tendencies
Ekman, Friesen, and Universal facial
Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise
Ellsworth expressions
Desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder,
Frijda Forms of action readiness
sorrow
Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired
Anger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, guilt,
Izard Hardwired
interest, joy, shame, surprise
James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement
Anger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection, tender
McDougall Relation to instincts
emotion, wonder
Unlearned emotional
Mowrer Pain, pleasure
states
Oatley and Johnson Do not require
Anger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadness
Laird propositional content
Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired
Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust, joy, Relation to adaptive
Plutchik
fear, sadness, surprise biological processes
Anger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress, fear,
Tomkins Density of neural firing
joy, shame, surprise
Watson Fear, love, rage Hardwired
Weiner and Graham Happiness, sadness Attribution independent

Emotions Unit 7
Parrot (2001) has categorized emotions as another classification (Figure no. 1.4):
Figure no. 1.4:
Parrot’s classification of emotions
Primary Secondary
Tertiary emotions
emotion emotion
Adoration, affection, love, fondness, liking, attraction,
Affection
caring, tenderness, compassion, sentimentality
Love
Lust Arousal, desire, lust, passion, infatuation
Longing Longing
Amusement, bliss, cheerfulness, gaiety, glee,
jolliness, joviality, joy, delight, enjoyment, gladness,
Cheerfulness
happiness, jubilation, elation, satisfaction, ecstasy,
euphoria
Zest Enthusiasm, zeal, zest, excitement, thrill, exhilaration
Joy
Contentment Contentment, pleasure
Pride Pride, triumph
Optimism Eagerness, hope, optimism
Enthrallment Enthrallment, rapture
Relief Relief
Surprise Surprise Amazement, surprise, astonishment
Aggravation, irritation, agitation, annoyance,
Irritation
grouchiness, grumpiness
Exasperation Exasperation, frustration
Anger, rage, outrage, fury, wrath, hostility, ferocity,
Anger Rage bitterness, hate, loathing, scorn, spite, vengefulness,
dislike, resentment
Disgust Disgust, revulsion, contempt
Envy Envy, jealousy
Torment Torment
Sadness Suffering Agony, suffering, hurt, anguish
Emotions Unit 7
Depression, despair, hopelessness, gloom, glumness,
Sadness sadness, unhappiness, grief, sorrow, woe, misery,
melancholy
Disappointment Dismay, disappointment, displeasure
Shame Guilt, shame, regret, remorse
Alienation, isolation, neglect, loneliness, rejection,
Neglect homesickness, defeat, dejection, insecurity,
embarrassment, humiliation, insult
Sympathy Pity, sympathy
Alarm, shock, fear, fright, horror, terror, panic,
Horror
hysteria, mortification
Fear
Anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, uneasiness,
Nervousness
apprehension, worry, distress, dread
Source: Parrott, W. (2001), Emotions in Social Psychology, Psychology Press, Philadelphia
Felt vs. Displayed Emotions (Hochschild, 1979, 1983)
Felt emotions are an individual’s actual emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are
organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are learned. Felt and
displayed emotions may be different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands
and situations often require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings.
1. Subjective emotional responses are the result of __________ changes within human bodies.
2. Both feedback from peripheral responses and a ___________ appraisal of what caused those
responses produce emotions.
3. _____________ emotions are an individual’s actual emotions.
Emotions Unit 7
7.3 Certain Issues
Culture and emotion
There are two Views of Culture and Emotion:
Universality Emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures universally the same set of
basic emotions. Based on his crosscultural research, Ekman (1999) has found six emotions which
are universally recognized and applicable. They are:
1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Sadness
4. Happiness
5. Disgust
6. Surprise.
Cultural specificity – Human beings are like a tabula rasa (clean tablet) on which society writes its
script. In other words, culture and traditions, normative patterns and valueorientations are
responsible for not only our personality development, but also appropriate social and emotional
development. This makes us functional entities in society. Each culture has a unique set of
emotions and emotional responses; the emotions shown in a particular culture reflects the norms,
values, practices, and language of that culture .
Alexithymia – emotional disorder
Some people have difficulty in expressing their emotions and understanding the emotions of others.
Psychologists call this alexithymia. People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often seen
by others as bland and cold. Their own feelings make them uncomfortable, and they are not able to
discriminate among their different emotions. People, suffering from alexithymia, may be effective
performers in jobs where little or no emotional labor. Alexithymic symptoms may be seen in people
who experience:
1. Posttraumatic stress disorder
2. Certain brain injuries
Emotions Unit 7
3. Eating disorders (i.e., bulimia, anorexia, or bingeeating disorder)
4. Substance use dependence
5. Depression
6. Other mental health conditions
Relationship of gender with emotion
A number of research findings supports the view that women are more emotional than men (e.g.,
Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Widiger & Settle, 1987). Women are
assumed to experience more frequent and intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be
emotionally inexpressive and to have less intense emotional experiences. However, researchers
have argued that the stereotype of men as unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for
child targets because males learn to control their emotions as they get older (Fabes and Martin,
1991). Likewise, women and men may experience happiness in a similar way, but women have been
taught that they can strongly express the emotion of happiness, whereas men have been taught to
control it. The impact of socialization practices accumulate over time, and, thus, these stereotypes
are likely to apply more strongly to adult populations (Geer and Shields, 1996).
1. Ekman (1999) has found _________ emotions which are universally recognized and applicable.
2. People who suffer from _________ rarely cry and are often seen by others as bland and cold
7.4 Emotional Intelligence
The importance of both emotion and intelligence in making decisions and achieving success in life
was wellaccepted in ancient India. A concept of “Sthithaprajna” (emotional stability), similar to the
concept of emotional intelligence, can be traced in the second chapter of ‘Srimad BhagavadGita' .
Bhagavad Gita is a specific conversation between Lord Krishna and Arjuna (third Pandava prince) in
a specific situation of Kurukshetra battlefield. Pandavas were fighting against the Kauravas, the
cousin brothers to restore their kingdom from Kauravas in Kurukshetra. Before the battle started,
Arjuna, with deep sorrow and pity, found his close relatives, friends and respected 'gurus' in enemy's
side. To win the battle he was supposed to kill those beloved ones. He got confused about his rightful
duty. Due to this hridaydurbalata (heartnonstrength), he refused to join the battle. In this context,
Emotions Unit 7
Lord Krishna who played the role as the driver of Arjuna's chariot, enlightened him about the eternal
truth of life. According to Lord Krishna, as mentioned in Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna suffered from
indecisiveness resulting from confusion and a false sense of insecurity. Lord Krishna advised Arjuna
to become 'Sthithaprajna' (the steady minded person). He also told that an individual achieved
his/her goal only when the mind became steady, poised and balanced. Evidently, the concept of
“Sthithaprajna” (the steadyminded person) talked about a unique interdependence between
emotion and intelligence for effective decisionmaking which was most essential in excelling in every
sphere of life. Gita, as a whole, advises all to balance between intelligence and emotion.
Similar views on the role of emotional intelligence as a learning process for achieving a balanced
personality in different stages of life on an intergenerational basis has been depicted in the Vedas.
In particular, Dr. Radhakrishnan, in his book , ‘The Hindu View of Life’ (1927) opined that the attitude
of the Vedas is one of trust tempered by criticism. ‘Trust, because, whatever the older generation
hold, may be true, and criticism because, however, plausible the testimonies of the old views may be,
it cannot deny the present of its right to enquire and sift the evidence’. This view aptly points out the
need for emotional intelligence in everyday life to become more emotionally balanced and functional
individuals in society.
‘Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals’ cognition of own and others' emotions, feeling,
interpretation and action as per environmental demand to manipulate the consequence which in turn
result in superior performance and better human relationship’ (Bhattacharya, 2003). Emotional
intelligence is a measure of the degree to which a person makes use of his/ her reasoning in the
process of emotional responses (both positive and negative) in a given situation. So having high
emotional intelligence doesn't mean that the person never panics or loses his/ her temper. It does
mean that he / she brings own feelings under control and channels them into productive behaviors.
The ability to bring outofcontrol emotions back into line results in what earlier generations called
emotional maturity.
The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by
Goleman (1995). He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social competences.
Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social competence
determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships.
Personal competence: It comprises of three dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as, self
awareness, selfregulation and motivation. Selfawareness is the ability of an individual to observe
Emotions Unit 7
him/herself and to recognize 'a feeling as it happens' (Goleman, 1995). The hallmarks of this ability
are selfconfidence, self assessment and openness to positive criticism. Selfregulation is the ability
to control emotions and to redirect those emotions that can have negative impact. Trustworthiness,
integrity, tolerance of ambiguity and attitude to accept change are some characteristics of this ability.
Motivation is the ability to channelize emotion to achieve a goal through selfcontrol and by
moderating impulses as per the requirement of the situation. The people who have this ability are
optimistic and committed towards organizational as well as individual goals.
Social competence: It comprises of two dimensions namely, empathy and social skills. Empathy is
the ability to feel and get concerned for others, take their perspective and to treat people according to
their emotional reactions. People with this ability are experts in generating and motivating others.
Social skills are the ability to build rapport and to manage relationships with people. People having
this skill are very effective in persuasiveness and team management. ‘Social skill’ is the culmination
of all other components of emotional intelligence assuming that people can effectively manage social
and work relationships only when they can understand and control their own emotion and can
emphasize with the feelings of others.
Goleman’s emotional intelligence model (1995)
Emotional intelligence
Personal competence social competence
Selfawareness Empathy
Selfregulation Social skills
Motivation
Emotions Unit 7
1. The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one proposed by
____________.
2. Personal competence comprises of ______________ dimensions of emotional intelligence.
3. Social competence comprises of _____________ dimensions
7.5 Summary
‘Emotion’ is used to designate "a state of consciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings
(Webster’s New World Dictionary)." It is "distinguished from other mental states, from cognition,
volition, and awareness of physical sensation." Feeling refers to "any of the subjective reactions,
pleasant or unpleasant" that one may experience in a situation.
There are many theories of emotion. JamesLange Theory proposes that subjective emotional
responses are the result of physiological changes within human bodies. CannonBard theory
proposes that emotionprovoking events induce the subjective emotional experiences and
physiological arousal simultaneously. SchachterSinger theory proposes that both feedback from
peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses produce emotions.
How one interprets the peripheral response will determine the emotion he / she feels. According to
Lazarus' appraisal theory, an individual makes an initial and sometimes unconscious cognitive
appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat; coping action is taken if necessary; and the
individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he or she is feeling. Weiner, in his theory,
proposes that certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once the initial evaluation has been
made, the individual looks at what caused the event. These attributions of causality can modify the
emotion felt. It is the interaction of the perceived internal and external causes, controllability and
outcome that will determine the emotional responses. Felt emotions are an individual’s actual
emotions. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered
appropriate in a given job. They are learned. Felt and displayed emotions may be different. This is
particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often require people to exhibit
emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings. There are two Views of Culture and Emotion. In
“Universality” view, it is believed that emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures
universally the same set of basic emotions. Based on his crosscultural research, Ekman (1999) has
found six emotions which are universally recognized and applicable. They are: Anger, Fear,
Emotions Unit 7
Sadness, Happiness, Disgust, and Surprise. Women are assumed to experience more frequent and
intense emotions, whereas men are assumed to be emotionally inexpressive and to have less
intense emotional experiences. However, researchers have argued that the stereotype of men as
unemotional is more accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learn to control
their emotions as they get older. Emotional intelligence is an aggregate of individuals’ cognition of
own and others' emotions, feeling, interpretation and action as per environmental demand to
manipulate the consequence, which in turn, result in superior performance and better human
relationship. The most popular and accepted mixed model of emotional intelligence is the one
proposed by Goleman. He viewed emotional intelligence as a total of personal and social
competences. Personal competence determines how we manage ourselves, whereas social
competence determines how we handle our interpersonal relationships.
Terminal Questions
1. Briefly explain Lazarus' appraisal theory and Weiner's attribution theory.
2. What are universally recognized emotions?
3. What is Alexithymia? What are the symptoms of this disease?
4. What is the relationship of gender with emotion?
5. Explain Goleman’s emotional intelligence model.
1. Physiological
2. Cognitive
3. Felt
1. Six
2. Alexithymia
Emotions Unit 7
1. Goleman
2. Three
3. Two
Perception Unit 8
Unit 8 Perception
Structure
8.1 Introduction
Objectives
8.2 Factors influencing perception
8.3 Attribution Theory
8.4 Shortcuts in Judging Others
8.5 Specific Applications in Organizations
8.6 Link between Perception and Individual Decision Making
8.7 The DecisionMaking Process
8.8 Summary
Terminal Questions
8.1 Introduction
Individuals behave in a given manner based not on the way their external environment actually, is
but, rather, on what they see or believe it to be. A supervisor may try to help his subordinates to
achieve their target by advising and suggesting solutions. An employee may believe the supervisor is
controlling and interfering. As a result of that, the employee may continuously try to avoid the boss.
The same boss may be perceived as a ‘father figure’ to another employee for his helping attitude. As
a result of that, the specific employee may acknowledge the supervisor and seeks his guidance.
These two employee’s perception about the supervisor that becomes the basis for their different
behavior. Perception can be defined as s a process by which individuals organize and interpret their
Perception Unit 8
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Since people’s behavior is based
on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.
Individuals differ in their perceptions with regard to people and inanimate objects. An individual
makes inferences about the actions of people not the same way as they do for inanimate objects.
Nonliving objects are subject to the laws of nature. People have beliefs, motives, or intentions.
Therefore, an individual’s perception and judgment of another person’s actions are influenced by
these assumptions.
1. Factors influencing perception
2. Attribution Theory
3. Specific Applications in Organizations
8.2 Factors Influencing Perception
Three factors shape perception of an individual:
1. Perceiver
2. Target
3. Situation
Perceiver – Refers to the most prevalent personal characteristics affecting perception of the
perceiver, which are attitudes, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.
Target . Characteristics of the target can also affect what is being perceived. This includes,
attractiveness, gregariousness, and an individual’s tendency to group similar things together.
Situation The context in which objects or events are seen by individuals also influence their
attention. This includes time, heat, light, or other situational factors.
Perception Unit 8
Selfassessment questions 1
1. _____________ factors shape perception of an individual.
2. The ______________ in which objects or events are seen by individuals also influence their
attention.
8.3 Attribution Theory
An important element in perception is attribution process. Attribution theory (Kelley, 1972) suggests
that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or
externally caused. Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal
control of the individual. Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes; that is,
the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation.
There are three determining factors in this regard:
· Distinctiveness
· Consensus
· Consistency
Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations.
What we attempt to know is whether the observed behavior is unusual. If it is, the observer is likely to
give the behavior an external attribution. If this action is not unusual, it will probably be judged as
internal.
Consensus occurs, if, everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. If
consensus is high, one would be expected to give an external attribution to the employee’s tardiness,
whereas, in case of other employees taking the same route and making it work on time, the
causation for the same will be attributed to internal causation.
Consistency refers to the pattern that is reflected regularly in a person’s actions. Does the person
respond the same way over time? The more consistent the behavior, the more the observer is
inclined to attribute it to internal causes.
Perception Unit 8
Fundamental Attribution Error (Ross, 1977)
Research evidence shows that individuals have a tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors. There is also a
tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors, such as, ability or effort
while putting the blame for failure on external factors, such as, luck. This is called the “selfserving
bias” and suggests that feedback provided to employees will be distorted by recipients. The question
is whether or not these errors or biases that distort attribution are universal across different cultures?
While exact answers may not exist, there is some preliminary evidence that indicates cultural
differences (Robbins, 2003):
· Korean managers found that, contrary to the selfserving bias, they tended to accept
responsibility for group failure.
· Attribution theory was developed largely based on experiments with Americans and Western
Europeans.
· The Korean study suggests caution in making attribution theory predictions in nonWestern
societies, especially in countries with strong collectivist traditions. More studies are required to
provide conclusive evidences in this regard.
1. Attribution theory was proposed by __________ Kelley
2. ___________ occurs, if, everyone who is faced with a similar situation responds in the same way.
3. The tendency of individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors is
called__________________.
Perception Unit 8
8.4: Shortcuts In Judging Others
Individuals have a tendency to use a number of shortcuts when they judge others. An understanding
of these shortcuts can be helpful toward recognizing when they can result in significant distortions.
Selective Perception
Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it
will be perceived. It is impossible for an individual to internalize and assimilate everything that is seen
.Only certain stimuli can be taken in selectively. Selectivity works as a shortcut in judging other
people by allowing us to “speedread” others, but, not without the risk of drawing an inaccurate
picture. The tendency to see what we want to see can make us draw unwarranted conclusions from
an ambiguous situation.
Halo Effect
The halo effect (Murphy & Anhalt, 1992) occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of
a single characteristic. For example, while appraising the lecturer, students may give prominence to
a single trait, such as, enthusiasm and allow their entire evaluation to be tainted by how they judge
the instructor on that one trait which stood out prominently in their estimation of that person.
Research suggests that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous
in behavioral terms, when the traits have moral overtones, and when the perceiver is judging traits
with which he or she has had limited experience.
Contrast Effects
Individuals do not evaluate a person in isolation. Their reaction to one person is influenced by other
persons they have encountered recently. For example, an interview situation in which one sees a
pool of job applicants can distort perception. Distortions in any given candidate’s evaluation can
occur as a result of his or her place in the interview schedule.
Perception Unit 8
Projection
This tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people—which is called projection—can
distort perceptions made about others. When managers engage in projection, they compromise their
ability to respond to individual differences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they
really are.
Stereotyping
Stereotyping—judging someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or she
belongs. Generalization is not without advantages (Hilton & Hippel, 1996). It is a means of simplifying
a complex world, and it permits us to maintain consistency. The problem, of course, is when we
inaccurately stereotype. In organizations, we frequently hear comments that represent stereotypes
based on gender, age, race, ethnicity, and even weight. From a perceptual standpoint, if people
expect to see these stereotypes, that is what they will perceive, whether or not they are accurate.
1. The ______________ occurs when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single
characteristic.
2. The process through which one’s reaction is influenced by other persons he has encountered
recently is called ___________
3. This tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people is called __________
8.5 Specific Applications In Organizations
Employment Interview
Evidence indicates that interviewers make perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate and they
rarely agree while perceiving the candidates. Different interviewers see different things in the same
candidate and, thus, reach different conclusions about the applicant. Furthermore, interviewers
generally draw early impressions and most interviewers rarely change their decisions after the first
Perception Unit 8
four or five minutes of the interview. Therefore, judgments of the same candidate can vary widely in
an interview situatiion.
Performance Expectations
It is seen that individuals seek to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those perceptions
are not appropriate. Selffulfilling prophecy is a very good example of this. It is the tendency for
someone’s expectations about another to cause that person to behave in a manner consistent with
those expectations (Wilkins, 1976). Self fulfilling prophecy can be of two types:
Pygmalion Effect: A positive instance of the selffulfilling prophecy, in which people holding high
expectations of another tend to improve that individual’s performance.
Golem Effect: A negative instance of the selffulfilling prophecy, in which people holding low
expectations of another tend to lower that individual’s performance.
A study was conducted on 105 soldiers in the Israeli Defense Forces who were taking a fifteenweek
combat command course. Soldiers were randomly divided and identified as having high potential,
normal potential, and potential not known. Instructors were seemed to get better results from the high
potential group because they expected it, confirming the effect of a selffulfilling prophecy.
Performance Evaluation
An employee’s performance appraisal is very much dependent on the perceptual process. Although
the appraisal can be objective, many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective measures
are, by definition, judgmental. To the degree that managers use subjective measures in appraising
employees, what the evaluator perceives to be good or bad employee characteristics or behaviors
will significantly influence the outcome of the appraisal.
Employee Effort
An individual’s future in an organization is usually not dependent on performance alone. An
assessment of an individual’s effort is a subjective judgment susceptible to perceptual distortions and
bias.
Perception Unit 8
1. ___________ is the tendency for someone’s expectations about another to cause that person to
behave in a manner consistent with those expectations.
2. A negative instance of the selffulfilling prophecy is called _________________.
8.6 Link Between Perception And Individual Decision Making
Decisionmaking occurs as a reaction to a problem. Problem is defined as a discrepancy between
some current state of affairs and some desired state, needing attention for alternative courses of
action. The awareness that a problem exists and that a decision needs to be made is a perceptual
issue. Every decision requires interpretation and evaluation of information. The perceptions of the
decision maker will address these two issues.
· Data are typically received from multiple sources.
· Which data are relevant to the decision and which are not
Alternatives will be developed, and the strengths and weaknesses of each will need to be evaluated.
For example, senior managers determine their organization’s goals, what products or services to
offer, how best to finance operations, or where to locate a new manufacturing plant. Middle and
lowerlevel managers determine production schedules, select new employees, and decide how pay
raises are to be allocated. Nonmanagerial employees also make decisions, including, whether or not
to come to work on any given day, how much effort to put forward once at work, and whether or not
to comply with a request made by the boss.
1. Decisionmaking occurs as a reaction to a ______________.
2. While making a decision, data are typically received from ____________ sources
Perception Unit 8
8.7 The DecisionMaking Process
The optimizing decision maker is rational. He or she makes consistent, valuemaximizing choices
within specified constraints. This also includes the resource crunch and other limitations as well.
The rational decision making model
This model proposes six steps, which are as follows:
Step 1: Defining the problem
· A problem is a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs.
· Many poor decisions can be traced to the decisionmaker overlooking a problem or defining the
wrong problem.
Step 2: Identify the decision criteria important to solving the problem.
· The decision maker determines what is relevant in making the decision. Any factors not identified
in this step are considered irrelevant to the decision maker.
· This brings in the decision maker’s interests, values, and similar personal preferences.
Step 3: Weight the previously identified criteria in order to give them the correct priority in the
decision.
Step 4: Generate possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the problem.
Step 5: Rating each alternative on each criterion.
· Critically analyze and evaluate each alternative.
· The strengths and weaknesses of each alternative become evident as they are compared with
the criteria and weights established in the second and third steps.
Step 6: The final step is to compute the optimal decision:
Perception Unit 8
· Evaluating each alternative against the weighted criteria and selecting the alternative with the
highest total score.
The abovementioned model works with following assumptions (March, 1994):
· Problem clarity. The decision maker is assumed to have complete information regarding the
decision situation.
· Known options. It is assumed the decision maker is aware of all the possible consequences of
each alternative.
· Clear preferences. Criteria and alternatives can be ranked and weighted to reflect their
importance.
· Constant preferences. Specific decision criteria are constant and the weights assigned to them
are stable over time.
· No time or cost constraints. The rational decision maker can obtain full information about criteria
and alternatives because it is assumed that there are no time or cost constraints.
· Maximum payoff. The rational decision maker will choose the alternative that yields the highest
perceived value.
Creativity in Decision Making
Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful ideas. These are ideas that are not only different
from what has been done before, but, that are also appropriate to the problem or opportunity
presented. People differ in their inherent creativity. A study of lifetime creativity of 461 men and
women found that fewer than one percent were exceptionally creative. Ten percent were highly
creative, and about sixty percent were somewhat creative.
Model of creativity
This model proposes that individual creativity essentially requires expertise, creativethinking skills,
and intrinsic task motivation.
· Expertise is the foundation for all creative work. The potential for creativity is enhanced when
individuals have abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise in their field of endeavor.
Perception Unit 8
· Creative thinking skills. This encompasses personality characteristics associated with creativity,

the ability to use analogies, as well as the talent to see the familiar in a different light.
· Intrinsic task motivation. The desire to work on something because it is interesting, involving,
exciting, satisfying, or personally challenging. This turns creativity potential into actual creative
ideas. It determines the extent to which individuals fully engage their expertise and creative skills
Most decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model. Decisionmakers generally make
limited use of their creativity. Choices tend to be confined to the neighborhood of the problem
symptom and to the neighborhood of the current alternative.
Two of the most important ways of decisionmaking in organizations are :
· Bounded Rationality
· Intuitive decision making
Bounded rationality
When faced with a complex problem, most people respond by reducing the problem to a level at
which it can be readily understood, due to limited informationprocessing capability. As a result,
people seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient. This is called bounded rationality (Simon,
1947). Individuals operate within the confines of bounded rationality. They construct simplified
models that extract the essential features.
How does bounded rationality work? Once a problem is identified, the search for criteria and
alternatives begins. The decision maker will identify a limited list made up of the more conspicuous
choices, which are easy to find, tend to be highly visible, and they will represent familiar criteria and
previously triedandtrue solutions. Once this limited set of alternatives is identified, the decision
maker will begin reviewing it. The decisionmaker will begin with alternatives that differ only in a
relatively small degree from the choice currently in effect. The first alternative that meets the “good
enough” criterion ends the search. The order in which alternatives are considered is critical in
determining which alternative is selected. Assuming that a problem has more than one potential
Perception Unit 8
solution, the satisficing choice will be the first acceptable one the decisionmaker encounters.
Alternatives that depart the least from the status quo are the most likely to be selected.
Intuitive decision making
It is an unconscious process created out of distilled experience. It operates in complement with
rational analysis. On one hand, some researchers consider it a form of extrasensory power or sixth
sense, and on the other hand, some believe it is a personality trait that a limited number of people
are born with.
Eight conditions when people are most likely to use intuitive decision making are:
· when a high level of uncertainty exists
· when there is little precedent to draw on
· when variables are less scientifically predictable
· when “facts” are limited
· when facts do not clearly point the way to go
· when analytical data are of little use
· when there are several plausible alternative solutions to choose from, with good arguments for
each
· when time is limited, and there is pressure to come up with the right decision
Decision making process
A. Problem Identification
Problems that are visible tend to have a higher probability of being selected than ones that are
important. Visible problems are more likely to catch a decisionmaker’s attention. If a decisionmaker
faces a conflict between selecting a problem that is important to the organization and one that is
important to the decisionmaker, selfinterest tends to win out. The decisionmaker’s self interest also
plays a part. While selecting a decision to solve a problem, decision maker puts more importance to
his/her selfinterest over the organizational interest.
Perception Unit 8
B. Alternative Development
Since decisionmakers seek a satisficing solution, there is a minimal use of creativity in the search for
alternatives. Efforts tend to be confined to the neighborhood of the current alternative. Evidence
indicates that decisionmaking is incremental rather than comprehensive. Decisionmakers make
successive limited comparisons. The picture that emerges is one of a decisionmaker who takes
small steps toward his or her objective.
C. Making Choices
In order to avoid information overload, decisionakers rely on heuristics or judgmental shortcuts in
decision making. There are two common categories of heuristics—availability and
representativeness. Each creates biases in judgment.
The availability heuristic – It is “the tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is
readily available to them.” Events that evoke emotions, that are particularly vivid, or that have
occurred more recently tend to be more available in our memory. Fore example, many more people
suffer from fear of flying than fear of driving in a car.
Representative heuristic To assess the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to match it with a
preexisting category, managers frequently predict the performance of a new product by relating it to a
previous product’s success.
D. Escalation of commitment
It is an increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information. It has been well
documented that individuals escalate commitment to a failing course of action when they view
themselves as responsible for the failure.
E. Individual Differences: DecisionMaking Styles
People differ along two dimensions. The first is their way of thinking. Some people are logical and
rational. They process information serially. Some people are intuitive and creative. They perceive
things as a whole. The other dimension is a person’s tolerance for ambiguity. Some people have a
Perception Unit 8
high need to minimize ambiguity. Others are able to process many thoughts at the same time. These
four decision making styles can be represented in the following way:
Directive:
· Low tolerance for ambiguity and seek rationality
· Efficient and logical
· Decisions are made with minimal information and with few alternatives assessed.
· Make decisions fast and focus on the shortrun.
Analytic:
· Greater tolerance for ambiguity
· Desire for more information and consideration of more alternatives
· Best characterized as careful decision makers with the ability to adapt to or cope with new
situations
Conceptual:
· Tend to be very broad in their outlook and consider many alternatives
· Their focus is long range, and they are very good at finding creative solutions to problems.
Behavioral:
· Characterizes decision makers who work well with others
· Concerned with the achievement of peers and subordinates and are receptive to suggestions
from others, relying heavily on meetings for communicating
· Tries to avoid conflict and seeks acceptance
F. Organizational Constraints
Following are the organizational constraints that affect decisionmakers.
Performance evaluation Managers are strongly influenced in their decision making by the criteria
by which they are evaluated. Their performance in decision making will reflect expectation.
Perception Unit 8
Reward systems The organization’s reward system influences decision makers by suggesting to
them what choices are preferable in terms of personal payoff.
Programmed routines – All, but the smallest of organizations create rules, policies, procedures, and
other formalized regulations in order to standardize the behavior of their members.
Time constraints Decisions must be made quickly in order to stay ahead of the competition and
keep customers satisfied. Almost all important decisions come with explicit deadlines.
Historical Precedents Decisions have a context. Individual decisions are more accurately
characterized as points in a stream of decisions. Decisions made in the past are ghosts which
continually haunt current choices. It is common knowledge that the largest determining factor of the
size of any given year’s budget is last year’s budget.
Cultural Differences The cultural background of the decision maker can have significant influence
on:
Ethics in Decision Making
Ethical considerations should be an important criterion in organizational decision making. There are
three Ethical Decision Criteria:
1. Utilitarian criterion—decisions are made solely on the basis of their outcomes or consequences.
The goal of utilitarianism is to provide the greatest good for the greatest number. This view tends
to dominate business decision making.
2. Focus on rights—calls on individuals to make decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and
privileges as set forth in documents such as the Bill of Rights.
· An emphasis on rights means respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals, such as
the right to privacy, to free speech, and to due process.
Perception Unit 8
3. Focus on justice—requires individuals to impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially. There is
an equitable distribution of benefits and costs.
1. The rational decision making model proposes _______________ steps.
2. People respond to a problem with a limited informationprocessing capability. As a result, people
seek solutions that are satisfactory and sufficient. This is called __________________
8.8 Summary
Individuals behave in a given manner based not on the way their external environment actually, is
but, rather, on what they see or believe it to be. Perception can be defined as s a process by which
individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment. Since people’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality
itself. Three factors that shape perception of an individual are perceiver, target and situation. An
important element in perception is attribution process. Attribution theory (Kelley, 1972) suggests that
when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or
externally caused. Internally caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal
control of the individual. Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside causes; that is,
the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation.
Research evidence shows that individuals have a tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors. There is also a
tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors, such as, ability or effort
while putting the blame for failure on external factors, such as, luck. This is called the “selfserving
bias” and suggests that feedback provided to employees will be distorted by recipients. Individuals
have a tendency to use a number of shortcuts when they judge others. An understanding of these
shortcuts can be helpful toward recognizing when they can result in significant distortions. Any
characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out will increase the probability that it will
be perceived. It is impossible for an individual to internalize and assimilate everything that is seen
.Only certain stimuli can be taken in selectively. The halo effect (Murphy & Anhalt, 1992) occurs
when we draw a general impression on the basis of a single characteristic. Individuals do not
evaluate a person in isolation. Their reaction to one person is influenced by other persons they have
Perception Unit 8
encountered recently. This tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people—which is
called projection—can distort perceptions made about others. When managers engage in projection,
they compromise their ability to respond to individual differences. They tend to see people as more
homogeneous than they really are. Stereotyping is the process of judging someone on the basis of
our perception of the group to which he or she belongs. Generalization is not without advantages
(Hilton & Hippel, 1996). Decisionmaking occurs as a reaction to a problem. Problem is defined as a
discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state, needing attention for
alternative courses of action. The awareness that a problem exists and that a decision needs to be
made is a perceptual issue. Every decision requires interpretation and evaluation of information. The
optimizing decision maker is rational. He or she makes consistent, valuemaximizing choices within
specified constraints. This also includes the resource crunch and other limitations as well. Most
decisions in the real world do not follow the rational model. Decisionmakers generally make limited
use of their creativity. Choices tend to be confined to the neighborhood of the problem symptom and
to the neighborhood of the current alternative. When faced with a complex problem, most people
respond by reducing the problem to a level at which it can be readily understood, due to limited
informationprocessing capability. As a result, people seek solutions that are satisfactory and
sufficient. This is called bounded rationality (Simon, 1947). Individuals operate within the confines of
bounded rationality. They construct simplified models that extract the essential features.
Terminal questions
1. Explain Kelley’s attribution theory.
2. Explain Halo effect and contrast effect with examples.
3. Describe the rational decision making process.
4. What is bounded rationality?
Answers To Self Assessment Questionss
1. Three
2. Context
Perception Unit 8
1. Kelley
2. Consensus
3. Selfserving bias.
1. Halo effect
2. Contrast effect
3. Projection
1. Selffulfilling prophecy
2. Golem Effect
1. Problem
2. Multiple
1. Six
2. Bounded rationality
Motivation Unit 9
Unit 9 Motivation
Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Early Theories of Motivation
9.3 Contemporary Theories of Motivation
9.4 Motivating employees in organizations
9.5 Motivational tools
9.6 Special Issues in Motivation
9.7 Summary
Terminal Questions
9.1 Introduction
Many people incorrectly view motivation as a personal trait—that is, some have it and others do not.
Motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation. Motivation is “the
processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal” (Robbins, 2003). Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is the
element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. Direction is the orientation that benefits
the organization. And Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his/her effort.
Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.
Motivation Unit 9
1. Theories of Motivation
2. Special Issues in Motivation
9.2: Early Theories Of Motivation
In the 1950s three specific theories were formulated and are the best known: Hierarchy of Needs
theory, Theories X and Y, and the TwoFactor theory.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
According to this theory, proposed by Maslow (1943), human beings have wants and desires which
influence their behaviour; only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot. The
needs are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the complex. The person advances to
the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least minimally satisfied. The further they
progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will
show. The five needs are:
Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm
Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship
Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors, such as, selfrespect, autonomy, and achievement; and
external esteem factors, such as, status, recognition, and attention
Selfactualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth,
achieving one’s potential, and selffulfillment
Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. Physiological and safety needs are
described as lowerorder. Social, esteem, and selfactualization are classified as higherorder needs.
Higherorder needs are satisfied internally, whereas, Lowerorder needs are predominantly satisfied,
externally.
Motivation Unit 9
Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor argued that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a
certain grouping of assumptions and he or she tends to mould his or her behavior toward employees
according to these assumptions.
Theory X –
In this theory management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work, if they can.
Workers need to be closely supervised and a comprehensive system of controls and a hierarchical
structure is needed to supervise the workers closely. It is also assumed that workers generally place
security above all other factors and will display little ambition.
Theory Y
In this theory management assumes employees may be ambitious, selfmotivated, anxious to accept
greater responsibility, and exercise selfcontrol, selfdirection, autonomy and empowerment. It is
believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. It is also believed that, if given
the chance employees have the desire to be creative and forward thinking in the workplace. There is
a chance for greater productivity by giving employees the freedom to perform to the best of their
abilities without being bogged down by rules.
From the above, it is clear that Theory X assumes that lowerorder needs dominate individuals.
Theory Y assumes that higherorder needs dominate individuals.
Herzberg’s Two Factor theory
Herzberg (1959) constructed a twodimensional paradigm of factors affecting people's attitudes about
work. These two factors are motivators and hygiene factors and this theory is also called motivation
hygiene theory.
Motivators are intrinsic factors, such as, advancement, recognition, responsibility, and achievement.
Presence of these factors ensure job satisfaction. Extrinsic factors, such as, company policy,
supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, and salary are hygiene factors. The
Motivation Unit 9
absence of hygiene factors can create job dissatisfaction, but their presence does not motivate or
create satisfaction.
In summary, motivators describe a person's relationship with what she or he does, many related to
the tasks being performed. Hygiene factors on the other hand, have to do with a person's relationship
to the context or environment in which she or he performs the job. The satisfiers relate to what a
person does while the dissatisfiers relate to the situation in which the person does what he or she
does.
Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Job
satisfaction factors are separate and distinct from job dissatisfaction factors. When hygiene factors
are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. To motivate people,
emphasize factors intrinsically rewarding that are associated with the work itself or to outcomes
directly derived from it.
1. In Maslow’s theory, _____________ needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily
needs
2. In theory __________, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work
3.According to Herzberg, motivators are ____________ factors.
9.3 Contemporary Theories Of Motivation
The following theories are considered contemporary , since they represent the current state of the art
in explaining employee motivation
ERG Theory
Alderfer (1972) classifies needs into three categories into hierarchical order. They are:
The existence category
Provides our basic material existence requirements.
They include Maslow’s physiological and safety needs.
Motivation Unit 9
Relatedness category
1 The desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships.
2 These social and status desires require interaction with others.
3 They align with Maslow’s social need and the external component.
Growth category
An intrinsic desire for personal development.
These include the intrinsic component from Maslow’s esteem category, and the characteristics
included under selfactualization.
This theory is very similar to Maslow’s theory. Existence need corresponds with Maslow’s
physiological and safety needs, Relatedness need corresponds with Maslow’s social needs and
Growth need corresponds with Maslow’s esteem and selfactualization needs.
Alderfer’s ERG theory differs from Maslow’s in the following arguments:
1 More than one need may be operative at the same time.
2 If, the gratification of a higherlevel need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lowerlevel need
increases.
3 ERG theory does not assume that there exists a rigid hierarchy. A person can be working on
growth even though existence or relatedness needs are unsatisfied, or all three need categories
could be operating at the same time.
ERG theory also contains a frustrationregression dimension. Maslow argued that an individual would
stay at a certain need level until that need was satisfied. ERG argues that multiple needs can be
operating as motivators at the same time. ERG theory notes that when a higherorder need level is
frustrated, the individual’s desire to increase a lowerlevel need takes place (Robbins, 2003).
Motivation Unit 9
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
McClelland’s (1961) theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. They are
defined as follow:
Need for achievement (nAch) – The need to excel and to achieve in relation to a set of standards,
to strive to succeed.
Need for power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have
behaved, otherwise.
Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
People with high need for achievement have a compelling drive to succeed. They have a desire to do
something better or more efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is the achievement
need. High achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better. They
seek situations in which they can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.
Individuals high in need for power enjoy being “in charge” of any situation. They strive for influence
over others and prefer to be placed into competitive and statusoriented situations. They are also
more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective performance.
Individuals with high need for affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations
rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual
understanding.
Based on this theory, the following assumptions can be made (Robbins, 2003):
Individuals with a high need to achieve prefer job situations with personal responsibility,
feedback, and an intermediate degree of risk. When these characteristics are prevalent, high
achievers will be strongly motivated.
A high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially in large
organizations. People with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do personally
and not in influencing others to do well.
The needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success. The best
managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation.
Motivation Unit 9
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
This theory proposes (Deci & Ryan, 1985) that when extrinsic rewards are used by organizations as
payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what
they like, are reduced. The popular explanation is that the individual experiences a loss of control
over his or her own behavior so that the previous intrinsic motivation diminishes. Furthermore, the
elimination of extrinsic rewards can produce a shift—from an external to an internal explanation—in
an individual’s perception of causation of why he or she works on a task (Robbins, 2003). Therefore,
pay or other extrinsic rewards should be made contingent on an individual’s performance.
This theory may have limited applicability to work organizations, because most lowlevel jobs are not
inherently satisfying enough to foster high intrinsic interest, and many managerial and professional
positions offer intrinsic rewards
GoalSetting Theory
Locke and Latham (1990) proposed that challenging goals produce a higher level of output than do
the generalized goals. More difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance will be. People will
do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals. A goal serves
as a motivator, because, it causes people to compare their present capacity to perform with that
required to succeed at the goal.
There are four contingencies in goalsetting theory:
1 Goal commitment: Goalsetting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal.
1 Adequate selfefficacy: Selfefficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task. The higher your selfefficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to
succeed in a task.
2 Task characteristics: Individual goal setting does not work equally well on all tasks. Goals seem
to have a more substantial effect on performance when tasks are simple, welllearned, and
independent.
3 National culture: Goalsetting theory is culture bound and it is well adapted to North American
cultures.
Motivation Unit 9
Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory (Komaki et. al., 1991) argues that reinforcement conditions human behavior.
According to this theory, behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior is environmentally
caused. It can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences. Reinforced behavior
tends to be repeated.
Equity Theory
According to this theory (Adams, 1965), employees make comparisons of their job inputs and
outcomes relative to those of others. If, an individual perceives the inputoutcome ratio to be equal to
that of the relevant others with whom he/she compares his/herself, a state of equity is said to exist.
He/she perceives the situation as fair. If the ratio appears to be unequal, the individual experience
inequity.
There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use:
Selfinside: An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current
organization
Selfoutside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current
organization
Otherinside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization
Otheroutside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization
There are certain issues which are crucial regarding Equity theory. They are as follows:
1 Employees with short tenure in their current organizations tend to have little information about
others.
2 Employees with long tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison.
3 Upperlevel employees will make more otheroutside comparisons.
When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices:
Change their inputs.
Change their outcomes.
Motivation Unit 9
Distort perceptions of self.
Distort perceptions of others.
Choose a different referent.
Leave the field.
Organizational justice
People’s perceptions of fairness in organizations, consisting of perceptions of how decisions are
made regarding the distribution of outcomes and the perceived fairness of those outcomes
themselves.
1 Distributive Justice: The perceived fairness of the way rewards are distributed among people.
2 Procedural Justice : Perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes.
3 Interactional Justice: The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment used to determine
organizational outcomes.
Motivational tips
Certain tips, which may be important in this regard, are as follows:
Avoid underpayment.
1 Avoid overpayment.
2 Give people a voice in decisions affecting them.
3 Explain outcomes thoroughly using a socially sensitive manner.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is one of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation. Victor Vroom’s
(1964) expectancy theory has its critics but most of the research is supportive. Motivation is based on
people’s beliefs, goals and linkage between effort and performance, performance and reward, and
reward and individual goal satisfaction. Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to
act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Determinants of motivation according to this theory are as follows:
Expectancy: The belief that one’s efforts will positively influence one’s performance.
Motivation Unit 9
Instrumentality: An individual’s beliefs regarding the likelihood of being rewarded in accord with his
or her own level of performance.
Valence: The value a person places on the rewards he or she expects to receive from an
organization.
Other Determinants: Skills and abilities, role perceptions, opportunities to perform, etc.
Three key relationships in Expectancy theory are:
Effortperformance relationship: the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given
amount of effort will lead to performance
Performancereward relationship: the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a
particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
Rewardspersonal goals relationship: the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an
individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the
individual.
Performance formula
A popular way of thinking about employee performance is as a function of the interaction of ability
and motivation; that is,
Performance = f (Ability x Motivation x Opportunity).
If either of motivation or ability is inadequate, performance will be negatively affected. Furthermore,
when an employee performs, he/she needs opportunity to be allowed to perform and prove his/her
worth.
1. Alderfer classifies needs into __________ categories into hierarchical order
2. The need to excel and to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed is called
need for ________________ .
3.: The perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment used to determine organizational outcomes
is called as ______________.
Motivation Unit 9
9.4 Motivating Employees In Organizations
A number of motivation theories have been discussed above. Based on these theories, the following
suggestions summarize the essence about motivating employees in organizations.
Recognize individual differences Employees have different needs. Therefore, managers need to
understand what is important to each employee. This will allow to individualize goals, level of
involvement, and rewards to align with individual needs.
Use goals and feedback Employees should have tangible and specific goals. Feedback should
also be provided regularly to inform the employees about their performance in pursuit of those goals.
Include employees in decisionmaking Employees should be included in making decisions that
affect them, for example, choosing their own benefits packages and solving productivity and quality
problems.
Link rewards to performance Rewards should be contingent on performance and employees
must perceive a clear linkage.
Maintain equity Rewards should be perceived by employees as equating with the inputs they bring
to the job, i.e; experience, skills, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs should explain differences
in performance and, hence, pay, job assignments, and other obvious rewards.
1. Employees should have ____________ and specific goals.
2. Rewards should be ___________ on performance.
9.5 Motivational Tools
Some of the most important motivational tools have been discussed below.
Management by Objective (MBO)
Management by objectives emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and
measurable. Four ingredients common to MBO programs are: goal specificity, participative decision
making, an explicit time period, and performance feedback (Robbins, 2003).
Motivation Unit 9
Goal specificity:
The objectives in MBO should be concise statements of expected accomplishments.
Participative decision making:
1 The manager and employee jointly choose the goals and agree on how they will be measured.
An explicit time period:
Each objective has a specific time period in which it is to be completed.
Performance feedback
Continuous feedback on progress toward goals is provided so that workers can monitor and
correct their own actions.
MBO and GoalSetting Theory is closely linked. Goalsetting theory proposes that tangible goals
result in a higher level of individual performance than do easy goals. Feedback on one’s performance
leads to higher performance. MBO also directly advocates specific goals and feedback, implies that
goals must be perceived as feasible and is most effective when the goals are difficult enough to
require stretching.
Employee Recognition Programs
Employee recognition programs consist of personal attention, expressing interest, approval, and
appreciation for a job well done. They can take numerous forms. Employee Recognition Programs
has close link with Reinforcement Theory. Both the concept advocate that rewarding a behavior with
recognition would lead to its repetition. Recognition can take many forms, such as, personally
congratulating an employee, sending a handwritten note or an email message or declaring the
employee as a valuable contributor to the organizational objective.
Employee Involvement
Employee involvement includes, participative management, workplace democracy, empowerment,
and employee ownership. Employees’ involvement in the decision making would positively affect
them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become
Motivation Unit 9
more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive, and more satisfied with their
jobs.
Some forms of employee involvement have been discussed here: participative management,
representative participation, quality circles, and employee stock ownership plans.
Participative management:
The logic behind participative management is:
a. Managers often do not know everything their employees do.
b. Better decisions
c. Increased commitment to decisions
d. Intrinsically rewarding employees makes their jobs more interesting and meaningful
The two most common forms of participative management are:
a. Works councils They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted

when management makes decisions. .
b. Board representatives they are employees who sit on a company’s board of directors and
represent the interests of the firm’s employees.
Quality circles (QC):
QC consists of a work group of eight to ten employees and supervisors who have a shared area of
responsibility. Key components of QC are (Robbins, 2003):
They meet regularly on company time to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes of the
problems, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions
They take over the responsibility for solving quality problems and they generate and evaluate their
own feedback.
Management typically retains control over the final implementation decision.
A review of the evidence indicates that they are likely to positively affect productivity, however, they
tend to show little or no effect on employee satisfaction.
Motivation Unit 9
The failure of many quality circle programs to produce measurable benefits has also led to a large
number of them being discontinued.
Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs):
In the typical ESOP, an employee stock ownership trust is created. Companies contribute either
stock or cash to buy stock for the trust and allocate the stock to employees. Employees usually
cannot take physical possession of their shares or sell them as long as they are still employed at the
company.
1. MBO and ____________Theory is closely linked
2. Employee Recognition Programs has close link with ____________ Theory
9.6 Special Issues In Motivation
Some of the special issues in motivation are discussed below.
Motivating Professionals
The professional employees likely to seek more intrinsic satisfaction from their work than bluecollar
employees. They generally have strong and longterm commitment to their field of expertise are
perhaps more loyal to their profession than to their employer. They need to regularly update their
knowledge, and their commitment to their profession.
Therefore, extrinsic factors such as money and promotions would be low on their priority list. Rather,
job challenge tends to be ranked high. They like to tackle problems and find solutions.
Managerial Implications:
Provide them with ongoing challenging projects.
Give them autonomy to follow their interests and allow them to structure their work.
Reward them with educational opportunities.
Also reward them with recognition.
Motivating temporary Workers
Temporary workers may be motivated if:
Motivation Unit 9
· They are provided with permanent job opportunity
· The opportunity for training is provided to them
Motivating LowSkilled Service Workers
One of the most challenging managerial tasks in to motivate lowskilled workers who are involved in
repetitive physical work, where higher education and skills are not required. For this category of
people, flexible work schedules and higher pay package may be proved effective motivational
factors.
1. The professional employees likely to seek more ____________satisfaction from their work than
bluecollar employees
2. Temporary workers may be motivated if they are provided with ___________ job opportunity.
9.7 Summary
Motivation is “the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of
effort toward attaining a goal”. According to Maslow’s theory, human beings have five needs, which
influence their behavior. Those five needs are Physiological, Safety, Social, Esteem, and Self
actualization needs. In theory X and Y, McGregor argued that a manager’s view of the nature of
human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and he or she tends to mould his or her
behavior toward employees according to these assumptions. Herzberg (1959) constructed a two
dimensional paradigm of factors affecting people's attitudes about work. These two factors are
motivators and hygiene factors and this theory is also called motivationhygiene theory. Alderfer
classified needs into three categories into hierarchical order. They are: the existence category, the
Relatedness category and the Growth category. This theory is very similar to Maslow’s theory.
Existence need corresponds with Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, Relatedness need
corresponds with Maslow’s social needs and Growth need corresponds with Maslow’s esteem and
selfactualization needs. McClelland’s theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and
affiliation. According to this theory, people with high need for achievement have a compelling drive to
succeed. Individuals high in need for power enjoy being “in charge” of any situation. Individuals with
Motivation Unit 9
high need for affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than
competitive ones, and desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding.
Cognitive Evaluation theory proposes that when extrinsic rewards are used by organizations as
payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what
they like, are reduced. GoalSetting Theory proposes that challenging goals produce a higher level of
output than do the generalized goals. More difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance will
be. Reinforcement theory argues that reinforcement conditions human behavior. According to this
theory, behavior is a function of its consequences. Behavior is environmentally caused. According to
Equity theory, employees make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of
others. If, an individual perceives the inputoutcome ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others
with whom he/she compares his/herself, a state of equity is said to exist. He/she perceives the
situation as fair. If the ratio appears to be unequal, the individual experience inequity. Expectancy
theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an
expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual.
Terminal questions
1. Compare Maslow’s hierarchy of needs with Alderfer’s ERG theory.
2. Explain goal setting theory.
3. What is organizational justice? Discuss various tyoes of organizational justice.
4. Explain the concept of MBO and QC.
Answer to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Physiological
2. X
3. Intrinsic
1. Three
2. Achievement
Motivation Unit 9
3. Interactional Justice
1. Tangible
2. Contingent
1. GoalSetting
2. Reinforcement
1. Intrinsic
2. Permanent
1. Refer section 9.2 and 9.3
Group Behavior Unit 10
Unit 10 Group Behavior
Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 Classification of groups
10.3 Models of Group Development
10.4 External Conditions Imposed on the Group
10.5 Group Member Resources
10.6 Group Structure
10.7 Norms
10.8 Conformity
10.9 Techniques of Decision Making in Groups
10.10 Understanding work teams
10.11 Summary
Terminal Questions
10.1 Introduction
A group may be defined as a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to
achieve common goals. In a group, members are mutually dependent on one another to achieve
common goals, and they interact with one another regularly to pursue those goals. Effective groups
help organizations accomplish important tasks. In particular, they offer the potential for synergy—the
creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. When synergy occurs, groups
accomplish more than the total of their members’ individual capabilities.
1. Classification of groups
2. Models of Group Development
3. Understanding work teams
10.2 Classification Of Groups
Groups can be of two types:
Formal
Informal
Formal groups
Formal groups come into existence for serving a specific organizational purpose. Individuals’
behaviors in this type of group are aimed at achieving organizational goals. The organization creates
such a group to perform a specific task, which typically involves the use of resources to create a
product such as a report, decision, service, or commodity (Likert, 1961). Though all members
contribute to achieve group goals a leader does exist in this type of group to oversee and direct
group members.
Formal groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. They may be full fledged departments
divisions or specific work teams created for particular projects of fairly long duration. .
Permanent work groups are officially created to perform a specific function on a regular basis. They
continue to exist until a decision is made to change or reconfigure the organization for some reason.
Temporary work groups are task groups are specifically created to solve a problem or perform a
defined task. They may be dismantled after the assigned task has been accomplished. Examples are
the temporary committees and task forces that exist in an organization. Indeed, in today’s
organizations the use of crossfunctional teams or task forces for special problemsolving efforts has
goner up significantly.
Informal group
An informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Group of employees
snacking together can be an example of such groups. Informal groups may be subcategorized as :
Command, task, interest, or friendship groups.
1. Command groups are dictated by the formal organization. The organization hierarchy determines
a command group. It comprises of direct reports to a given manager.
2. Task groups—represent those working together to complete a job task. A task group’s boundaries
are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationships where
the same member may be reporting to two or more authorities at the same time. All command
groups are also task groups, but the reverse may not be true.
3. An interest group consists of people who affiliate to attain a specific objective with which each is
concerned.
Self assessment questions 1
1. Formal groups come into existence for serving a specific _________________ purpose.
2. An ______________ group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.
3. All command groups are also __________ groups.
10.3 Models Of Group Development
The most important models of group development have been cited below.
a. The FiveStage Model
1. Forming:
In this stage the members are entering the group. The main concern is to facilitate the entry of the
group members. The individuals entering are concerned with issues such as what the group can offer
them, their needed contribution the similarity in terms of their personal needs, goals and group goals,
the acceptable normative and behavioral standards expected for group membership and recognition
for doing the work as a group member.
2. Storming:
This is a turbulent phase where individuals try to basically form coalitions and cliques to achieve a
desired status within the group. Members also go through the process of identifying to their expected
role requirements in relation to group requirements. In the process, membership expectations tend to
get clarified, and attention shifts toward hurdles coming in the way of attaining group goals.
Individuals begin to understand and appreciate each other’s interpersonal styles, and efforts are
made to find ways to accomplish group goals while also satisfying individual needs.
3. Norming:
From the norming stage of group development, the group really begins to come together as a
coordinated unit. At this point, close relationships develop and the group shows cohesiveness. Group
members will strive to maintain positive balance at this stage.
4. Performing:
The group now becomes capable of dealing with complex tasks and handling internal disagreements
in novel ways. The structure is stable, and members are motivated by group goals and are generally
satisfied. The structure is fully functional and accepted at this stage. Group energy makes a transition
from member’s focus on getting to know and understand each other to performing. For permanent
work groups, performing is the last stage in their development.
5. Adjourning:
A wellintegrated group is able to disband, if required, when its work is accomplished, though in itself
it may be a painful process for group members, emotionally. The adjourning stage of group
development is especially important for the many temporary groups that are rampant in today’s
workplaces. Members of these groups must be able to convene quickly, do their jobs on a tight
schedule, and then adjourn—often to reconvene later, whenever required.
Groups do not always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Sometimes several stages go on
simultaneously, as when groups are storming and performing. Groups may at times regress to earlier
stages. Another problem is that it ignores organizational context. For instance, a study of a cockpit
crew in an airliner found that, within ten minutes, three strangers assigned to fly together for the first
time had become a highperforming group. The rigid organizational context provides the rules, task
definitions, information, and resources required for the group to perform, effectively.
b. Punctuated equilibrium model
Temporary groups with deadlines do not seem to follow the model explained above. Their pattern is
called the punctuatedequilibrium model.
Phase I—The first meeting sets the group’s direction. This stage is the first inertia phase. A structure
of behavioral patterns and assumptions emerges.
Transition Then a transition takes place when the group has used up almost half its allotted time.
The group’s direction becomes fixed and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of the
group’s life. The group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action. The group
is incapable of acting on new insights in Phase 1. The midpoint seems to set an alarm clock going
increasing members’ awareness that their time is limited and that they need to move on fast. A
transition triggers off major changes. This ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst
of changes, replacement old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a
revised direction for Phase 2.
Phase 2 It is a new equilibrium and is also a period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes
plans created during the transition period. The group’s last meeting is characterized by a flurry of
activities. The punctuatedequilibrium model characterizes groups as demonstrating long periods of
inertia interspersed with brief and rapid changes triggered mainly by their members’ awareness of
time and targets .
1. In the ___________ stage the members are entering the group
2. The __________________ stage of group development is especially important for the many
temporary groups that are rampant in today’s workplaces.
10.4 External Conditions Imposed on the Group
All work groups are part of larger systems and organizations and therefore cannot exist or work in

isolation. It is therefore influenced by mainly external factors which include organizational strategy,
authority structures, rules and regulations, access to resources, physical work conditions and
organizational culture and performance systems and reward structures. Robbins (2004) outlines the
role of these factors as follows:
· The strategy will influence the power of various work groups which will determine the resources
that the organization’s top management is willing to allocate to it for performing its tasks.
· Organizations have authority structures that define who reports to whom, who makes decisions,
and what decisions individuals or groups are empowered to make.
· Organizations create rules, procedures, policies, job descriptions, and other forms of formal
regulations to standardize employee behavior.
· The more formal regulations that the organization imposes on all its employees, the more the
behavior of work group members will be consistent and predictable.
· The presence or absence of resources such as money, time, raw materials, and equipment—
which are allocated to the group by the organization—have a large bearing on the group’s
behavior.
· The performance evaluation and reward system. Group members’ behavior will be influenced by
how the organization evaluates performance and what behaviors are rewarded.
· Every organization has an unwritten culture that defines standards of acceptable and
unacceptable behavior for employees. Members of work groups have to accept the standards
implied in the organization’s dominant culture if they are to remain in good standing.
· The physical work setting creates both barriers and opportunities for work group interaction.
1. Organizations have ____________ structures that define who reports to whom, who makes
decisions, and what decisions individuals or groups are empowered to make.
2. The more formal regulations that the organization imposes on all its employees, the more the
behavior of work group members will be _________ and _________.
10.5 Group Member Resources
A. Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
The knowledge, skills, and abilities of its individual members plays an important role in determining
the group’s success and their ability to achieve set targets effectively and in synergistic manner. A
review of the evidence has shown that interpersonal skills play an important role for high work group
performance. They comprise of conflict management and resolution skills, collaborative problem
solving abilities, and effective communication skills.
B. Personality Characteristics:
A substantial larger body of research evidence is available with regard to the relationship between
personality traits and group attitudes and behavior. The general conclusions are as follows ( Robbins
2004):
· Attributes that have a positive connotation in our culture tend to be positively related to group
productivity, morale, and cohesiveness. These include: sociability, initiative, openness, and
flexibility.
· Negatively evaluated characteristics such as authoritarianism, dominance, and unconventionality
tend to be negatively related to the dependent variables.
3. No single personality characteristic is a good predictor of group behavior.
1. Attributes that have a positive connotation in our culture tend to be ____________ related to
group productivity, morale, and cohesiveness
2. No ___________ personality characteristic is a good predictor of group behavior.
10.6 Group Structure
Work groups in order to function as a coordinated unit need to have a proper structure where there
must be certain elements like formal leadership, role clarity among group members. In the absence
of these factors groups not only become conflict ridden , but also suffer from confusion, and function
on a sub optimal level. Each element is explained briefly below:
1. Formal Leadership
Almost every work group must have a formal leader, which is typically identified by a title. The leader
can play an important part in the group’s success.
2. Roles
All group members are actors, where each is playing a role. While some of these roles may be
compatible others create conflicts. Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.
3. Role perception
For playing one’s role effectively in a group, one’s view of how one is supposed to act in a given
situation must be clear leading to clear role perception. By watching and imitating senior members of
a group the new comers learn how to take on their roles effectively and also learn how to play them
well.
4. Role expectations
Tuning oneself and behaving in a socially desirable manner is a part of fulfilling role expectations in a
given situation in the context of achieving group goals and organizational goals.
1. Role conflict
When a group member is faced with the challenge of playing multiple roles, role conflict may occur
due to inability of the individual to balance all the roles effectively, thereby reducing role
effectiveness, hampering the group and organizational goal attainment process.
1. By watching and imitating __________ members of a group the new comers learn how to take on
their roles effectively and also learn how to play them well.
2. Role _________ is tuning oneself and behaving in a socially desirable manner is a part of
fulfilling role expectations in a given situation in the context of achieving group goals and
organizational goals.
3. When a group member is faced with the challenge of playing multiple roles, role _______ may
occur
10.7 Norms
All groups have norms—“acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the group’s members.”
Norms serve as a guideline for members detailing what they ought and ought not to do under certain
circumstances. Though a work group’s norms are unique, yet there are still some common classes of
norms. They are:
Performance norms which comprise the following (Robbins 2003):
a. Explicit cues on how hard they should work, how to get the job done, their level of output,
appropriate levels of tardiness, etc.
b. These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual employee’s performance.
Appearance norms include things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or
organization, when to look busy, and when it is acceptable to goof off.
Social arrangement norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social
interactions within the group.
Allocation of resources norms can originate in the group or in the organization.
1. All groups have ________ “acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the group’s
members
2. __________ norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social interactions
within the group.
10.8 Conformity
Strong research evidence suggests that groups can place strong pressures on individual
members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to the group’s standard. All groups
do not have a equal sway over the members and those that have more influence are referred to
as reference groups.
The reference group is characterized as one where the person is aware of the others; the person
defines himself or herself as a member, or would like to be a member; and the person feels that
the group members are significant to him/her.
Status
1. Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
Inequality is the basis for any created social order where some are more powerful, enjoy greater
benefits and also command access to resources differentially. This is also related to the risk
taking ability of certain groups / individuals and by virtue of this calculated risk taking ability they
amass greater wealth and have superior position (status) in the hierarchy. The same is also true
of groups where there is a hierarchy and all members do not enjoy the same status.
Status and norms:
Research shows the following with regard to relationship between status and norms(Robbins):
· Highstatus members of groups often are given more freedom to deviate from norms than other
group members.
· Highstatus people also are better able to resist conformity pressures.
· The previous findings explain why many star athletes, famous actors, topperforming
salespeople, and outstanding academics seem oblivious to appearance or social norms.
Status equity:
· When inequity is perceived, it creates disequilibrium that results in corrective behavior.
· The trappings of formal positions are also important elements in maintaining equity. Employees
expect what an individual has and receives to be congruent with his/her status. For example:
pay, office space, etc.
· Groups generally agree within themselves on status criteria.
· Individuals can find themselves in a conflict situation when they move between groups whose
status criteria are different or when they join groups whose members have heterogeneous
backgrounds.
Status and culture:
· Cultural differences affect status. For example, the French are highly status conscious.
· Countries differ on the criteria that create status:
o Status for Latin Americans and Asians tends to be derived from family position and formal roles
held in organizations.
o In the United States and Australia, it tends to be bestowed more on accomplishments.
· It is necessary to understand who and what holds status when interacting with people from a
different culture other than our own.
1. The _________ group is characterized as one where the person is aware of the others
2. Status is a _________ defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
3. When status inequity is perceived, it creates ______________ that results in corrective
behavior.
10.9 Techniques Of Decision Making In Groups
Schein (1988) observes that groups may make decisions through any of the following six methods:
Decision in lack of response In this type of decision making, ideas are forwarded without any
discussion taking place. When the group finally accepts an idea, all others have been bypassed and
discarded by simple lack of response rather than by critical evaluation.
Decision by authority rule The leader makes a decision for the group, with or without discussion.
Decision by minority rule Two or three people are able to dominate the group into making a decision
to which they agree.
Decision by majority rule Here, viewpoint of the majority is considered as the group’s decision.
Decision by consensus One alternative is accepted by most members and the other members
agreeing to support it.
Decision by unanimity All group members agree totally on the course of action to be taken. This is a
“logically perfect” group decision method that is extremely difficult to attain in actual practice.
1. Schein observes that groups may make decisions through _________ methods.
2. In Decision by_________, two or three people are able to dominate the group into making a
decision to which they agree.
Group productivity: the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making
The potential advantages of group decision making include (Maier, 1967):
1. Information—more knowledge and expertise is applied to solve the problem.
2. Alternatives—a greater number of alternatives are examined, avoiding tunnel vision.
3. Understanding and acceptance—the final decision is better understood and accepted by all group
members.
4. Commitment—there is more commitment among all group members to make the final decision
work.
The potential disadvantages of group decision making include:
1 Social pressure to conform—individuals may feel compelled to go along with the apparent wishes
of the group.
2. Minority domination—the group’s decision may be forced by one individual or a small coalition.
3. Time demands—with more people involved in the dialogue and discussion, group decisions
usually take longer to make than individual decisions.
10.10 Understanding Work Teams
A team is a small group of people with complementary skills, who work actively together to achieve a
common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable (Katzenbach & Smith,
1993). Team building is a collaborative way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork
(Schermerhorn et al 2002). Team has following advantages (Robbins, 2003):
Ø Teams typically outperform individuals.
Ø Teams use employee talents better.
Ø Teams are more flexible and responsive to changes in the environment.
Ø Teams facilitate employee involvement.
Ø Teams are an effective way to democratize an organization and increase motivation.
Types of Teams
The various types of teams have been described below:
Problem solving teams – small groups from same department who meet regularly to discuss ways of
improving quality and efficiency.
Selfmanaged teams – small groups who take responsibilities of their own targets.
Crossfunctional team – Employees from different work areas but from same hierarchical level, come
together to accomplish a task.
Virtual team – team members, who are physically dispersed, use computer technology to connect
with each other,
1. Team building is a ____________ way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork.
2. In ___________________ team – Employees from different work areas but from same
hierarchical level, come together to accomplish a task.
10. 11 Summary
A group may be defined as a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to
achieve common goals. Groups can be of two types: Formal and Informal. Formal groups come into
existence for serving a specific organizational purpose. Individuals’ behaviors in this type of group is
aimed at achieving organizational goals. An informal group is neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined. The FiveStage Model of group development has five stages: Forming,
Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning. Punctuated equilibrium model of group
development proposes that temporary groups with deadlines do not seem to follow the model
explained above. Rather, they follow it Phase I, transition and Phase II. All work groups are part of
larger systems and organizations and therefore cannot exist or work in isolation. It is therefore
influenced by mainly external factors which include organizational strategy, authority structures, rules
and regulations, access to resources, physical work conditions and organizational culture and
performance systems and reward structures. All groups have norms—“acceptable standards of
behavior that are shared by the group’s members.” Norms serve as a guideline for members detailing
what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. Though a work group’s norms are
unique, yet there are still some common classes of norms. A team is a small group of people with
complementary skills, who work actively together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold
themselves collectively accountable (Katzenbach & Smith, 1993). Team building is a collaborative
way to gather and analyze data to improve teamwork (Schermerhorn et al 2002).
Terminal questions
1. Explain the fivestage model of group development.
2. Explain the external conditions imposed on groups.
3. Describe the techniques on group decision making.
1. Organizational
2. Informal
3. Task
1. Forming
2. Adjourning
1. Authority
2. Consistent, predictable
1. Positively
2. Single
1. Senior
2. Expectations
3. Conflict
1. Norms
2. Social arrangement
1. Reference
2. Socially
3. Disequilibrium
1. Six
2. Minority rule
1. Collaborative
2. Crossfunctional
Power And Politics Unit 11
Unit 11 Power And Politics
Structure
11.1 Introduction
Objectives
11.2 Bases of Power
11.3 Power Tactics
11.4 Empowerment
11.5 Power in Groups: Coalitions
11.6 Politics: Power in Action
11. 7 Summary
Terminal Questions
11.1 Introduction
Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the
subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962).
Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called
position power and personal power, respectively. Power also refers to a capacity that A has to
influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. The greater B’s
dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship. Therefore, power is a function of
dependency (Robbins, 2003).
Contrasting Leadership and Power
In an organizational context leadership and power are related to each others. Power is used by
leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other words, power is a means of facilitating their
achievement of goals and objectives that they have set for themselves in view of organizational
requirements. What are differences between leadership and power? The first is in the area of goal
compatibility which is as follows:
· Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence whereas leadership, requires
some congruence between the goals of the leader and the followers.
· The second factor is related to the direction of influence:
Whereas leadership focuses on the downward influence on one’s followers, power does not minimize
the importance of lateral and upward influence patterns. Evidence of the same is gained from
insights into research on power that has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on tactics
for gaining compliance.
1. Bases of Power
2. Power in Groups: Coalitions
3. Politics: Power in Action
11.2 Bases Of Power
Power can be categorized into two types: Formal and informal
A. Formal Power:
It is based on the position of an individual in an organization. Formal power is derived from either
one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the formal authority vested in the individual
due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational hierarchy. For example, a manager may
threaten to withhold a pay raise, or to transfer, demote, or even recommend the firing of a
subordinate who does not act as desired. Such coercive power is the extent to which a manager can
deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people. The availability of coercive
power also varies across organizations. The presence of unions and organizational policies on
employee treatment can weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may be categorized
into four types which are as follows:
1. Coercive Power:
The coercive power base is being dependent on fear. It is based on the application, or the threat of
application, of physical sanctions such as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through
restriction of movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs. In an
organization one can exercise power over another if they have the power to dismiss, suspend,
demote another assuming that the job is valuable to the person on whom power is being unleashed.
2. Reward Power:
The opposite of coercive power is reward power. Reward power is the extent to which a manager
can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people. Examples of such rewards include
money, promotions, compliments, or enriched jobs. Although all managers have some access to
rewards, success in accessing and utilizing rewards to achieve influence varies according to the
skills of the manager.
3. Legitimate Power:
The third base of “position” power is legitimate power, or formal authority .It stems from the extent to
which a manager can use subordinates’ internalized values or beliefs that the “boss” has a “right of
command” to control their behavior. For example, the boss may have the formal authority to approve
or deny such employee requests as job transfers, equipment purchases, personal time off, or
overtime work. Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because
subordinates believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial position to have the right
to command. The lack of this is legitimacy will result in authority not being accepted by subordinates.
Thus this type of power has the following elements:
· It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy.
· Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.
· Legitimate power, however, is not limited to the power to coerce and reward. It encompasses the
acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.
4. Information Power:
This type of power is derived from access to and control over information. When people have
needed information, others become dependant on them. (For example, managers have access to
data that subordinates do not have). Normally the higher the level, the more information would be
accessed by managers.
B. Personal Power
Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of that individual’s position. . Three
bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and reference.
Expert power is the ability to control another person’s behavior by virtue of possessing knowledge,
experience, or judgment that the other person lacks, but needs. A subordinate obeys a supervisor
possessing expert power because the boss ordinarily knows more about what is to be done or how it
is to be done than does the subordinate. Expert power is relative, not absolute. However the table
may turn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills than his/ her boss. In this age of
technology driven environments, the second proposition holds true in many occasions where the
boss is dependent heavily on the juniors for technologically oriented support.
Rational persuasion is the ability to control another’s behavior, since, through the individual’s efforts,
the person accepts the desirability of an offered goal and a viable way of achieving it. Rational
persuasion involves both explaining the desirability of expected outcomes and showing how specific
actions will achieve these outcomes.
Referent power is the ability to control another’s behavior because the person wants to identify with
the power source. In this case, a subordinate obeys the boss because he or she wants to behave,
perceive, or believe as the boss does. This obedience may occur, for example, because the
subordinate likes the boss personally and therefore tries to do things the way the boss wants them
done. In a sense, the subordinate attempts to avoid doing anything that would interfere with the
pleasing boss–subordinate relationship. Followership is not based on what the subordinate will get
for specific actions or specific levels of performance, but on what the individual represents—a path
toward lucrative future prospects.
Charismatic Power is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality and
interpersonal style. Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks,
demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.
Dependency: The Key to Power
The General Dependency Equation is as follows:
· The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. When an individual
possess anything that others require but that which alone the individual controls, he / she can make
others dependent and, therefore, gain power over them.
· Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.
This is one of the reasons why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one.
It also explains why individuals in general aspire to financial independence.
Three factors are responsible for dependency. They are as follows:
· Importance
To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being important.
Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty and hence, those individuals or groups who can
absorb an organization’s uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource.
· Scarcity
A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency. For example, lowranking
members in an organization who have important knowledge unavailable to highranking members
gain power over the highranking members. The scarcitydependency relationship is also important in
the power of occupational categories. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is
low relative to demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more
attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of candidates. Thus scarcity in
supply of certain types of skilled people can give them power to bargain over compensations and
other benefits.
· Nonsubstitutability
The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource
provides.
1. Formal power may be categorized into___________ types.
2. The opposite of coercive power is __________ power
3. Expert power is relative, not ______________.
11.3 Power Tactics
Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people is a
challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The
most common strategies involve the following (Kipinis et. Al, 1984):
· Reason—Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas
· Friendliness—Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly
· Coalition—Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request
· Bargaining—Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors
· Assertiveness—Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance
· Higher authority—Gaining the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests
· Sanctions—Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments
Employees rely on the seven tactics variably. Depending on the situational factors, individuals tend
to use the above strategies accordingly to the suitability and the likelihood of the success to be
achieved by employing the same. The manager’s relative power impacts the selection of tactics in
two ways.
· First, managers who control resources that are valued by others, or who are perceived to be in
positions of dominance, use a greater variety of tactics than do those with less power.
· Second, managers with power use assertiveness with greater frequency than do those with less
power.
· Resistance leads to managers using more directive strategies.
The manager’s objectives for wanting to influence causes them to vary their power tactics. The
objectives may be as follows:
· When seeking benefits from a superior, they use friendliness.
· When they are in need to make superiors accept new ideas, they usually rely on reason.
· Managers use reason to sell ideas to employees and friendliness to obtain favors.
Research evidence also supports the following with regard to use of tactics and the choice used by
managers with regard to power:
The manager’s expectation of the target person’s willingness to comply is an important factor. When
past experience indicates a high probability of success, managers use simple requests to gain
compliance. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use assertiveness and
sanctions to achieve their objectives. The organization’s culture also plays an important role in
deciding the use of power tactics. The organizational culture in which a manager works, will have a
significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate. The organization itself will
influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as acceptable for use by managers. People in
different countries tend to prefer different power tactics. For example in US people prefer use of
reason in contrast to China where coalition as a tactic is preferred. Differences are consistent with
values among countries—reason is consistent with American’s preference for direct confrontation
and coalition is consistent with the Chinese preference for using indirect approaches.
1. Where success is less predictable, managers are more likely to use __________ and sanctions
to achieve their objectives
2. US people prefer use of reason in contrast to China where _____________ as a tactic is
preferred
11.4 Empowerment
Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power required
to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover, today, managers in
progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the people with whom they
work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the traditional “pyramid” of
organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter and more collegial
structures.
The concept of empowerment is part of the decentralized structures which are found in today’s
corporations. Corporate staff is being cut back; layers of management are being eliminated; the
number of employees is being reduced as the volume of work increases. The trend clearly is towards
creating leaner and more responsive organizations which are flexible and capable of taking faster
decisions with minimum bottlenecks created out of power struggles, typical of bureaucratic tall
structures. The need clearly is towards having fewer managers who must share more power as they
go about their daily tasks. Hence, empowerment is a key foundation of the increasingly popular self
managing work teams and other creative worker involvement groups.
For the empowerment process to set in and become institutionalized, power in the organization will
be changed. The following are important in this context:
Changing Position Power: When an organization attempts to move power down the hierarchy, it must
also alter the existing pattern of position power. Changing this pattern raises some important issues
· Can “empowered” individuals give rewards and sanctions based on task accomplishment?
· Has their new right to act been legitimized with formal authority?
Expanding the Zone of Indifference: When embarking on an empowerment program, management
needs to recognize the current zone of indifference and systematically move to expand it. All too
often, management assumes that its directive for empowerment will be followed; management may
fail to show precisely how empowerment will benefit the individuals involved, however.
Thus in empowerment the basic issues which should be addressed are:
Training people in lower ranks how to function in the new empowered position. Using or unleashing
power correctly is also an issue and most importantly the authority, responsibility and the
accountability process should be clearly outlined so as not to upset organizational power equations.
Just apportioning power at lower levels without giving the knowledge of how to use it can actually
create havoc in the organizations.
1. _____________ is the process by which managers help others to acquire and use the power
required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work.
2. When an organization attempts to move power down the ________, it must also alter the existing
pattern of position power
11.5 Power In Groups: Coalitions
Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their power individually. If they fail to
do so, then the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group bound together by the active
pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to become a power holder but this may
be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible.
· In such an event, efforts are directed towards forming a coalition of two or more “outs” who, by
coming together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for themselves. Successful
coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly, achieve their
target issue, and quickly disappear disintegrate.
There are a couple of predictions about coalition formation. They are as follows:
· First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size. Decisionmaking in
organizations does not end just with selection from among a set of alternatives, but require to be
implemented. The implementation of an commitment to the decision is as important as the
decision. It is essential for coalitions within organizations to seek a broad constituency and there
may be expansion in coalition to help in consensus building
· Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization. More
coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource interdependence.
In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and less coalition formation
activity where subunits are largely selfcontained or resources are in plenty.
· Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers perform. In general,
the more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions will form.
1. Successful coalitions have been found to contain ___________ membership.
2. More coalitions are likely be created where there is a great deal of task and resource
__________________.
3. Coalition formation will be influenced by the __________ tasks that workers perform.
11.6 Politics: Power In Action
Politics is defined as those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the
organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization.
Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the
organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative
compromise among competing interests. The above definition clearly points out the following:
a. Political behavior fall outside the ambit of one’s specified job requirements.
b. It includes efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes employed for decisionmaking.
c. It includes a variety of political behaviors such as, withholding vital information from decision
makers, whistleblowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, etc.
In this context, it is necessary to make a distinction between legitimate and illegitimate power
dimensions within organizational contexts.
The “LegitimateIllegitimate” Dimension may be explained in terms of the following (Farrell &
Peterson, 1988):
· Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics—complaining to your supervisor,
bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc.
· Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as sabotage,
whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc.
· The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The extreme illegitimate
forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of organizational membership or extreme
sanction.
There are two quite different schools of thought found existing in the analysis of literature on
organizational politics.
The first tradition builds on Machiavelli’s philosophy and defines politics in terms of selfinterest and
the use of nonsanctioned means. In this tradition, organizational politics may be formally defined as
the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain
sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned influence means. Managers are often considered political
when they seek their own goals or use means that are not currently authorized by the organization or
that push legal limits. Where there is uncertainty or ambiguity, it is often extremely difficult to tell
whether a manager is being political in this selfserving sense (Pfeffer, 1981).
The second tradition treats politics as a necessary function resulting from differences in the self
interests of individuals. Here, organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative compromise
among competing interests. In a heterogeneous society, individuals will disagree as to whose self
interests are most valuable and whose concerns should, therefore, be bounded by collective
interests. Politics come into play as individuals need to develop compromises, avoid confrontation,
and coexist together. The same holds true in organizations, where individuals join, work, and stay
together because of their selfinterests being served. It is equally important to remember that the
goals of the organization and the acceptable means are established by organizationally powerful
individuals in negotiation with others. Thus, organizational politics is also the use of power to develop
socially acceptable ends and means that balance individual and collective interests.
Factors Contributing to Political Behavior
1. Individual factors:
Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are likely to be
related to political behavior. They are as follows:
a. Employees who are high selfmonitors, possess an internal locus of control, and have a high
need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior.
b. The high selfmonitor is more sensitive to social cues and in all probability be more likely to be
skilled in political behavior than the low selfmonitor.
c. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive stance and attempt
to manipulate situations in their favor.
d. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self
interest and does not see it as an unethical action..
A person’s investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations of success will
influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political action. The following alternatives are
possible in this context:
a. The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less likely he/she is
to use illegitimate means.
b. The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation, or influential
contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk illegitimate political actions.
c. A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means reduces the probability of its use.
1. Organizational factors:
Political activity has got to do more with the organization’s characteristics than of individual difference
variables. When an organization’s resources are declining, and the existing pattern of resources is
changing, as also when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to come into play
and surface. Certain important findings in this regard are:
· Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance evaluation systems,
zerosum reward allocation practices, democratic decisionmaking, high pressures for
performance, and selfserving senior managers will create fertile grounds for politicking.
· When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in political actions to
safeguard their existing statusquo.
· Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political in organizations.
· The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political behavior and the
more likely it will be illegitimate.
· Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not clear. The greater
the role ambiguity, the more one may engage in political activity since there is little chance of it
being visible..
· Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more democratically is not
necessarily embraced by all individual managers. Internally if the managers believe in autocracy
they would use the required committees, conferences, and group meetings in a superficial way as
arenas for maneuvering and manipulating.
· Top management may set the climate for politicking by engaging in certain behaviors, thereby
giving a signal to people below in the order that is alright to engage in such behavior. When
employees see top management successfully engaging in political behavior, a climate is created
that supports politicking.
To counter the effects of politicking and protect oneself in organizational contexts, individuals may
use three strategies :
(1) Avoid action and risk taking
(2) Redirect accountability and responsibility
(3) Defend their turf.
Avoidance: Avoidance is quite common in controversial areas where the employee must risk being
wrong or where actions may yield a sanction. The most common reaction is to “work to the rules.”
That is, employees are protected when they adhere strictly to all the rules, policies, and procedures
or do not allow deviations or exceptions.
Redirecting Responsibility: Politically sensitive individuals will always protect themselves from
accepting blame for the negative consequences of their actions. Again, a variety of wellworn
techniques may be used for redirecting responsibility. “Passing the buck” is a common method
employees and managers use. The trick here is to define the task in such a way that it becomes
someone else’s formal responsibility.
Defending Turf : Defending turf is a timehonored tradition in most large organizations. This results
form the coalitional nature of organizations. That is, the organization may be seen as a collection of
competing interests held by various departments and groups. As each group tries to increase its
influence, it starts to encroach on the activities of other groups.
There are certain other interesting findings regarding people’s responses to organizational politics
Research evidence indicates strong points out that perception of organizational politics are
negatively related to job satisfaction. The perception of politics results in anxiety or stress. And when
it gets too much to handle, employees leave the organizations. It may thus be a demotivating force
and performance may suffer as a result. The effect of politics is moderated by the knowledge the
individual has of the decision making system and his/her political skills. In this regard the following
observations have been made:
· High political skills individuals often have improved performance.
· Low political skills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors—reactive and protective
behaviors to avoid action, change, or blame.
Reaction to organizational politics is also influenced by culture. In countries that are more unstable
politically, workers will tolerate higher levels of politicking than more politically stable counties
1. Organizational politics is viewed as the art of creative _____________ among competing
interests
2. Employees who are ___________ selfmonitors, possess an internal locus of control
3. The ______________ personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further his/her self
interest and does not see it as an unethical action..
11.7 Summary
Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants, either by self or by the
subordinates. The essence of power is control over the behavior of others (French & Raven, 1962).
Managers derive power from both organizational and individual sources. These sources are called
position power and personal power, respectively. In an organizational context leadership and power
are related to each others. Power is used by leaders as a means to attain group goals. In other
words, power is a means of facilitating their achievement of goals and objectives that they have set
for themselves in view of organizational requirements. Power can be categorized into two types:
Formal and informal. Formal Power: is based on the position of an individual in an organization.
Formal power is derived from either one’s ability to coerce or reward others or is derived from the
formal authority vested in the individual due to his/ her strategic position in the organizational
hierarchy. Formal power may be categorized into four types: Coercive Power, Reward Power,
Legitimate Power, Information Power. Personal power resides in the individual and is independent of
that individual’s position. . Three bases of personal power are expertise, rational persuasion, and
reference. Using position and personal power well to achieve the desired influence over other people
is a challenge for most managers. There are many useful ways of exercising relational influence. The
most common strategies involve: Reason, Friendliness, Coalition, Bargaining, Assertiveness, Higher
authority, and Sanctions. Empowerment is the process by which managers help others to acquire
and use the power required to make decisions affecting both themselves and their work. Moreover,
today, managers in progressive organizations are expected to be competent at empowering the
people with whom they work. Rather than concentrating power only at higher levels as found in the
traditional “pyramid” of organizations, this concept views power to be shared by all working in flatter
and more collegial structures. Individuals who lose power or are out of power seek to increase their
power individually. If they fail to do so then the alternative is to form a coalition—an informal group
bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue. The natural way to gain influence is to
become a power holder but this may be difficult, risky, costly, or impossible. Politics is defined as
those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that
influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the
organization. Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by
the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through nonsanctioned means and the art of creative
compromise among competing interests.
Terminal questions
1. Contrast leadership and power.
2. Describe various types of formal and informal power.
3. What do you mean by organizational politics? Explain the “LegitimateIllegitimate” dimension in
organizational politics.
1. Four
2. Reward
3. Absolute
1.Assertiveness
2. Coalition
1. Empowerment
2. Hierarchy
1. Fluid
2. Interdependence
3. Actual
1. Compromise
2. High
3. Machiavellian
Conflict Management Unit 12
Unit 12 Conflict Management
Structure
12.1 Introduction
Objectives
12.2 Levels of conflict
12.3 The Conflict Process
12.4 Conflict management approaches
12.5 Negotiation
12.6 Summary
Terminal Questions
12.1 Introduction
Conflict occurs whenever disagreements exist in a social situation over issues (work related or
personal). Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has
negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about
(Thomas, 1992). Conflict can be either constructive or destructive. Constructive conflict prevents
stagnation, stimulates creativity, allows tensions to be released. However, excessive levels of conflict
can hinder the effectiveness of a group or an organization, lessens satisfaction of group members,
increases absence and turnover rates, and, lowers productivity.
1. Levels of conflict
2. The Conflict Process
3. Conflict management approaches
Negotiation
The most important views about conflict are as follows:
The Traditional View: This approach assumes that all conflict is dysfunctional and hinders
performance. Conflict is seen as a dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor communication, a lack
of openness and trust between people, and the failure of managers to be responsive to their
employees.
The Human Relations View: This view believes that conflict is a natural occurrence in all groups and
organizations. Since it was natural and inevitable it should be accepted. It cannot be eliminated and
may even contribute to group performance.
The Interactionist View: This approach encourages conflict on the grounds that a harmonious,
peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming static and nonresponsive to needs
for change and innovation. Group leaders should maintain enough conflict to keep the group viable,
selfcritical, and creative.
Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict
Functional, constructive forms of conflict support the goals of the group and improve its performance.
Conflicts that hinder group performance are dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict. Task
conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Lowtomoderate levels of task conflict are
functional and consistently demonstrate a positive effect on group performance because it stimulates
discussion, improving group performance. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal
relationships. These conflicts are almost always dysfunctional and the friction and interpersonal
hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual
understanding.
12.2 Levels Of Conflict
At workplace, people may encounter conflict at the intrapersonal level (conflict within the individual),
the interpersonal level (individual to individual conflict), the intergroup level, or the inter
organizational level.
Intrapersonal conflict Some conflicts that affect behavior in organizations involve the individual
alone. It can be of three types (Schermerhorn et al, 2002):
Approach–approach conflict occurs when a person must choose between two positive and equally
attractive alternatives. An example is having to choose between a valued promotion in the
organization or a desirable new job with another firm.
Avoidance–avoidance conflict occurs when a person must choose between two negative and equally
unattractive alternatives. An example is being asked either to accept a job transfer to another town in
an undesirable location or to have one’s employment with an organization terminated.
Approach–avoidance conflict occurs when a person must decide to do something that has both
positive and negative consequences. An example is being offered a higher paying job whose
responsibilities entail unwanted demands on one’s personal time.
Interpersonal conflict occurs between two or more individuals who are in opposition to one another.
It may be substantive or emotional or both.
Intergroup conflict occurs among members of different teams or groups.
Interorganizational conflict occurs as the competition and rivalry that characterizes firms operating
in the same markets.
1. Intrapersonal conflict may be of _________ types.
2. _____________________ conflict occurs when a person must choose between two negative and
equally unattractive alternatives.
3. __________ conflict occurs among members of different teams or groups
4. Conflict occurs whenever ____________ exist in a social situation over issues
5. The ___________ View of conflict encourages conflict on the grounds that a harmonious,
peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming static and nonresponsive to
needs for change and innovation
6. ___________ conflict relates to the content and goals of the work.
12.3 The Conflict Process
The process of conflict management has the following steps (Schermerhorn et al, 2002):
Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
This stage concludes the conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. The conditions are
as follows:
1. Communication Communication becomes a source of conflict due to semantic difficulties,
misunderstandings, and “noise” (distortion) in the communication channels. Differing word
connotations, jargon, insufficient exchange of information, and noise in the communication channel
are all barriers to communication and potential antecedents to conflict.
2. Structure The term structure includes variables such as size, degree of specialization,
jurisdictional clarity, membergoal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of
dependence. Size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger the group and
more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. The potential for conflict is
greatest where group members are younger and turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity in
responsibility for actions lies, the greater the potential for conflict.
3. Personal variables Personal variables include individual value systems and personality
characteristics. Certain personality types lead to potential conflict. Value differences are the best
explanation for differences of opinion on various matters.
B. Stage II: Cognition and Personalization
Antecedent conditions lead to conflict only when the parties are affected by and aware of it. Conflict
is personalized when it is felt and when individuals become emotionally involved. Emotions play a
major role in shaping perceptions. Negative emotions produce oversimplification of issues,
reductions in trust, and negative interpretations of the other party’s behavior. Positive feelings
increase the tendency to see potential relationships among the elements of a problem, to take a
broader view of the situation, and to develop more innovative solutions (Robbins, 2003).
C. Stage III: Intentions
The primary conflicthandling intentions are represented as follows:
· Cooperativeness—“the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns.”
· Assertiveness—“the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns.”
· Competing: When one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests, regardless of the impact
on the other parties to the conflict
· Collaborating: When the parties to conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties.
The intention is to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating.
· Avoiding: A person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or suppress
it.
· Accommodating: When one party seeks to appease an opponent, that party is willing to be self
sacrificing.
· Compromising: When each party to the conflict seeks to give up something, sharing occurs,
resulting in a compromised outcome. There is no clear winner or loser, and the solution provides
incomplete satisfaction of both parties’ concerns.
Stage IV: Behavior
The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties.
These conflict behaviors are usually overt attempts to implement each party’s intentions. It is a
dynamic process of interaction with a continuum. At the lower part of the continuum, conflicts are
characterized by subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of tension. Conflict intensities escalate
as they move upward along the continuum until they become highly destructive. Functional conflicts
are typically confined to the lower range of the continuum.
Stage V: Outcomes
Outcomes may be functional—improving group performance, or dysfunctional in hindering it. Conflict
is constructive when it (Robins, 2003):
a. Improves the quality of decisions.
b. Stimulates creativity and innovation.
c. Encourages interest and curiosity.
d. Provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released.
e. Fosters an environment of selfevaluation and change.
Outcomes may be dysfunctional as well. They are as follows:
Uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads
to the destruction of the group. Undesirable consequences include a retarding of communication,
reductions in group cohesiveness, subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting between
members. Conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and potentially threaten the group’s survival.
The demise of an organization as a result of too much conflict is not as unusual as it might first
appear.
1. Communication becomes a source of conflict due to __________ in the communication channels.
2. The potential for conflict is greatest where group members are __________ and turnover is
__________ .
3. Personal variables include individual value systems and _________________ characteristics.
12.4 Conflict Management Approaches
There are two types of conflict management approaches:
· Direct
· Indirect
Direct conflict management approaches
There are five approaches to direct conflict management. They are based on the relative emphasis
on cooperativeness and assertiveness in the relationship between the conflicting parties. They are as
follows:
Avoidance – it is an extreme form of inattention; everyone simply pretends that the conflict does not
really exist and hopes that it will go away.
Accommodation involves playing down differences among the conflicting parties and highlighting
similarities and areas of agreement. This peaceful coexistence ignores the real essence of a given
conflict and often creates frustration and resentment.
Compromise it occurs when each party gives up something of value to the other. As a result of no
one getting its full desires, the antecedent conditions for future conflicts are established.
Competition – here a victory is achieved through force, superior skill, or domination by one party. It
may also occur as a result of authoritative command, whereby a formal authority simply dictates a
solution and specifies what is gained and what is lost by whom. This is a case of win lose situation
and as a result, future conflicts over the same issues are likely to occur.
Collaboration – it involves a recognition by all conflicting parties that something is wrong and needs
attention. It stresses gathering and evaluating information in solving disputes and making choices.
Indirect conflict management approaches
Indirect conflict management approaches include reduced interdependence, appeals to common
goals, hierarchical referral, and alterations in the use of mythology and scripts (Schermerhorn et al
2002).
Reduced Interdependence When workflow conflicts exist, managers can adjust the level of
interdependency among units or individuals (Walton & Dutton, 1969). To reduce the conflict, contact
between conflicting parties may be reduced. The conflicting units can then be separated from one
another, and each can be provided separate access to resources. Buffering is another technique to
build an inventory, or buffer, between the two groups so that any output slowdown or excess is
absorbed by the inventory and does not directly pressure the target group.
Appeals to Common Goals An appeal to common goals can focus on the mutual interdependence of
the conflicting parties to achieve the common goal of an organization.
Hierarchical Referral – Here conflicts are reported to the senior levels to reconcile and solve.
SelfAssessment Questions 3
1. There are ___________ direct approaches to conflict management.
2. ____________ occurs when each party gives up something of value to the other.
3. ___________________ is a process where conflicts are reported to the senior levels to reconcile
and solve.
12.5 Negotiation
Negotiation is a “process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to
agree upon the exchange rate for them (Robbins, 2008). There are two general approaches to
negotiation: distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining.
Distributive bargaining
When engaged in distributive bargaining, one’s tactics focus on trying to get one’s opponent to agree
to one’s specific target point or to get as close to it as possible. “Hard” distributive negotiation takes
place when each party holds out to get its own way. The hard approach may lead to a win–lose
outcome in which one party dominates and gains. “Soft” distributive negotiation, takes place when
one party is willing to make concessions to the other to get things over with. A soft approach leads to
accommodation in which one party gives in to the other, or to compromise in which each party gives
up something of value in order to reach agreement.
Integrative bargaining
This strategy is adopted to create a winwin solution. Integrative bargaining builds longterm
relationships and facilitates collaborative work. Following conditions are necessary for this type of
negotiation to succeed (Robbins, 2003):
· Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns
· A sensitivity by both parties to the other’s needs
· The ability to trust one another
· A willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility
The Negotiation Process
A model of the negotiation process is as follows:
Preparation and planning:
· At this stage, homework needs to be done in regard to the nature, history, concerned parties of
the conflict. Based on the information, a strategy is developed. Both the parties Best Alternative
To a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)needs to be determined. BATNA determines the lowest
value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement for both the parties.
Definition of ground rules:
· At the stage, the venue, the negotiators, time will be decided.
Clarification and justification:
· When initial positions have been exchanged, the origal demands of both the parties sneed to be
explained and justified. Proper documentation is required at this stage to support each of the
parties position.
Bargaining and problem solving:
· The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to hash out an
agreement. Concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.
Closure and implementation:
· This is the final step, where the agreement is formalized and procedures to implement the
agreement will be developed.
Issues in Negotiation
Some of the most important issues have been discussed below.
1. The role of personality traits in negotiation Overall assessments of the personalitynegotiation
relationship finds that personality traits have no significant direct effect on either the bargaining
process or negotiation outcomes (Wall & Blum, 1991).
2. Gender differences in negotiations Men and women do not negotiate differently. A popular
stereotype is that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationshiporiented in negotiations
than are men. The evidence does not support this. The belief that women are “nicer” is probably due
to confusing gender and the lack of power typically held by women. (Stuhlmacher & Walters, 1999).
3. Cultural differences in negotiations Negotiating styles clearly vary across national cultures
(Adler, 2002). The cultural context of the negotiation significantly influences the amount and type of
preparation for bargaining, the emphasis on task versus interpersonal relationships, the tactics used,
etc.
1. There are __________ general approaches to negotiation
2. __________ bargaining strategy is adopted to create a winwin solution
3. personality traits have no significant ________ effect on the bargaining process or negotiation
outcomes
12.6 Summary
Conflict occurs whenever disagreements exist in a social situation over issues (work related or
personal). Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has
negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about
(Thomas, 1992). Conflict can be either constructive or destructive. Constructive conflict prevents
stagnation, stimulates creativity, allows tensions to be released. However, excessive levels of conflict
can hinder the effectiveness of a group or an organization, lessens satisfaction of group members,
increases absence and turnover rates, and, lowers productivity. Functional, constructive forms of
conflict support the goals of the group and improve its performance. Conflicts that hinder group
performance are dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict. Task conflict relates to the content and
goals of the work. Lowtomoderate levels of task conflict are functional and consistently demonstrate
a positive effect on group performance because it stimulates discussion, improving group
performance. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. These conflicts are almost
always dysfunctional and the friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts
increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding. People at work may encounter
conflict at the intrapersonal level (conflict within the individual), the interpersonal level (individual to
individual conflict), the intergroup level, or the interorganizational level. Negotiation is a “process in
which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate
for them (Robbins, 2008). There are two general approaches to negotiation: distributive bargaining
and integrative bargaining.
Terminal questions
1. Briefly explain the different views about conflict.
2. What are the levels of conflict that people may experience at the workplace?
3. Explain the process of conflict management.
4. Explain the difference between distributive and integrative bargaining.
1. Disagreements
2. Interactionist
3. Task
4. Three
5. Avoidance–avoidance
6. Intergroup
1. Noise
2. Younger, high
3. Personality
1. Five
2. Compromise
3. Hierarchical Referral
1. Two
2. Integrative
3. Direct
Stress Management Unit 13
Unit 13 Stress Management
Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives
13.2 Types of Stress
13.3 Potential Sources of Stress
13.4 Consequences of Stress
13.5 Managing Stress
13.6 A suggested framework for stress management
13.7 Crisis management
13.8 Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers to SAQ’s and TQ’s
13.1 Introduction
Stress has been defined as a physical, mental or emotional response to events which cause mental
or bodily tension. In the modern day life stress is a part and parcel of our lives. At the same time, it
should not exceed the capacity of an individual to handle it. If it exceeds in proportion to a person’s
abilities to cope with it, it would cause mental and physical imbalance in the person. Therefore, a
major challenge for every one today is to make stress work for you as a productive force rather than
as a deterrent which can cause imbalance in an individual.
While handling a stressful situation, the brain signals the release of stress hormones. These
chemical substances in turn trigger a set of responses that provides the body with extra energy:
bloodsugar levels rise, the heartbeat speeds up and blood pressure increases. The muscles tense
for action. The blood supply is diverted away from the gut to the extremities to help the body deal
with the situation at hand.
1. Types of Stress
2. Managing Stress
3. Crisis management
13.2 Types Of Stress
Stress can manifest itself in a number of ways depending upon the suddenness of an even to be
dealt with and types of stressors to be handled by an individual. It may manifest itself either
physically, emotionally and / mentally, as certain symptoms.
Physical – This happens when the body as a whole suffers due to stressful situation. There are
many symptoms like, headaches, tension in the neck, forehead, and shoulder muscles. Long periods
of stress can cause other serious symptoms like digestive problems, ulcers, insomnia
(sleeplessness), fatigue, high blood pressure, nervousness, excessive sweating, heart ailments,
strokes and hair loss as well.
Emotional – These responses are due to stress affecting the mind and include, anxiety, anger,
depression, irritability, frustration, overreaction to everyday problems, memory loss and a lack of
concentration for any task.
Anxiety is exhibited as a response to loss, failure, danger or a fear of the unknown. Anger is a
response to frustration or social stress and can become a danger to other individuals, if not kept in
check. Depression is frequently seen as an emotional response to upsetting situations, such as, the
death of a loved one, illness and failure.
Psychological – Longterm stress can cause psychological problems in some individuals.
Symptoms may include social isolation, phobias, compulsive behaviors, eating disorders and night
terrors.
Stress may be classified into two types: positive stress (Eustress) and negative stress (Distress).
Moderate and manageable levels of stress for a reasonable period of time can be handled by the
body through mobilization of resources and is accompanied by positive emotions, such as,
enjoyment, satisfaction, excitement and so on. This beneficial element in stress has been defined by
Selye (1974) as Eustress (EU meaning – good). However, an overload of stress resulting from a
situation of either over arousal or under arousal for long periods of time causes the following: first an
unpleasant feeling, followed by physical damage, fatigue and in extreme cases, even death of an
individual. This has been termed by Selye as distress (dys meaning – bad).
1. Insomnia is __________.
2. Positive stress is called ________.
3. Negative stress is called ___________.
13.3 Potential Sources Of Stress
While environmental factors are forces outside the organization, which may act as potential sources
of stress due to uncertainties and threats that they create for any organization and its members,
factors within organization can also act as potential source of stress. Together or singly they may
create a tense and volatile working environment which can cause stress for organizational members
because the inability of individuals to handle the pressures arising out of these sources.
The following may be seen to be the potential sources of stress:
1. Environmental factors:
· Environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among employees in an organization.
· Changes in the business cycle create economic uncertainties.
· Political uncertainties can be stress inducing.
· Technological uncertainty can cause stress because new innovations can make an employee’s
skills and experience obsolete in a very short period of time.
2. Organizational factors:
· Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time period, work overload, a demanding
and insensitive boss, and unpleasant coworkers are a few examples.
· Task demands are factors related to a person’s job. They include the design of the individual’s
job (autonomy, task variety, degree of automation), working conditions, and the physical work
layout.
· Role demands relate to pressures that are a function of the role an individual plays in an
organization.
a. Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or satisfy.
b. Role overload is experienced when the employee is expected to do more than time permits.
c. Role ambiguity is created when role expectations are not clearly understood.
· Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees.
· Organizational structure defines the level of differentiation in the organization, the degree of rules
and regulations, and where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack of participation in
decisions might be potential sources of stress.
Organizational leadership represents the managerial style of the organization’s senior executives.
CEOs, by virtue of their managerial styles create an organizational culture which reflects tension,
fear, and anxiety. They overemphasize tight control, hire and fire policies which keep organizational
members on hot seat and create stress among them.
3. Individual factors:
· These are factors in the employee’s personal life. Primarily, these factors are family issues,
personal economic problems, and inherent personality characteristics.
· Broken families, wrecked marriages and other family issues may create stress at workplace as

well.
· Economic problems created by individuals overextending their financial resources. Spending
more than earnings stretches financial positions, create debt situation leading to stress among
individuals.
· A significant individual factor influencing stress is a person’s basic dispositional nature. Over
suspicious anger and hostility increases a person’s stress and risk for heart disease. These
individuals with high level of mistrust for others also cause stress for themselves.
4. Stressors are additivestress builds up.
Individual Differences
1. Five individual difference variables moderate the relationship between potential stressors and
experienced stress:
a. Perception
b. Job experience
c. Locus of control
d. Selfefficacy
e. Hostility
a. Perception: Moderates the relationship between a potential stress condition and an employee’s
reaction to it. Stress potential doesn’t lie in objective conditions; it lies in an employee’s interpretation
of those conditions.
b. Job experience: The evidence indicates that experience on the job tends to be negatively related
to work stress.
First is the idea of selective withdrawal. Voluntary turnover is more probable among people who
experience more stress.
Second, people eventually develop coping mechanisms to deal with stress.
Collegial relationships with coworkers or supervisors can buffer the impact of stress.
c. Locus of control: Those with an internal locus of control believe they control their own destiny.
Internals perceive their jobs to be less stressful than do externals.
Internals are likely to believe that they can have a significant effect on the results.
Those with an external locus believe their lives are controlled by outside forces.
Externals are more likely to be passive and feel helpless.
d. Selfefficacy: The confidence in one’s own abilities appears to decrease stress.
e. Hostility: People who are quick to anger, maintain a persistently hostile outlook, and project a
cynical mistrust of others are more likely to experience stress in situations.
1. ______________is created when role expectations are not clearly understood.
2. Those with an ____________ locus of control believe they control their own destiny.
3. ______________ The confidence in one’s own abilities appears to decrease stress.
13.4 Consequences Of Stress
Stress shows itself in three ways—physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms.
1. Physiological symptoms:
· Most of the early concern with stress was directed at physiological symptoms due to the fact that
specialists in the health and medical sciences researched the topic.
· Physiological symptoms have the least direct relevance to students of OB.
2. Psychological symptoms:
· Jobrelated stress can cause jobrelated dissatisfaction.
· Job dissatisfaction is “the simplest and most obvious psychological effect” of stress (Robbins,
2003).
· Multiple and conflicting demands—lack of clarity as to the incumbent’s duties, authority, and
responsibilities—increase stress and dissatisfaction.
· The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater the stress and
dissatisfaction.
3. Behavioral symptoms:
· Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in productivity, absence, and turnover,
as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, rapid
speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders.
1. Stress shows itself in _________ ways
2. ____________________ is “the simplest and most obvious psychological effect” of stress.
13.5 Managing Stress
High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time, can lead to reduced employee
performance and, thus, require action by management.
1. Individual approaches:
· Effective individual strategies include implementing time management techniques, increasing
physical exercise, relaxation training, and expanding the social support network.
· Practicing time management principles also leaves as an important element in managing stress,
such as:
a. making daily lists of activities to be accomplished.
b. prioritizing activities by importance and urgency.
c. scheduling activities according to the priorities set.
d. knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts of your job during the high
part of your cycle when you are most alert and productive.
· Noncompetitive physical exercise has long been recommended as a way to deal with excessive
stress levels.
· Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation techniques, such as,
meditation, hypnosis, and biofeedback.
· Having friends, family, or work colleagues to talk to provides an outlet for excessive stress.
2. Organizational approaches
· Strategies that management might want to consider include:
a. Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to right personjobfit thereby
reducing chances of nonperformance and stress level.
b. Use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs can help in aligning the individuals and job
effectively and reduce stress.
c. Training in stress management techniques can be helpful.
d. Increased employee involvement improves motivation, morale, commitment, and leads to
better role integration and reduction in stress.
e. Improved organizational communication helps in creating transparency in organizations and
reduces confusion, thereby decreasing stress level at work.
f. Establishment of corporate wellness programs is an important component in managing
stress among organizational members by rejuvenating and refreshing them from time to
time leading to increased productivity with renewed energy.
1. ______________physical exercise has long been recommended as a way to deal with excessive
stress levels
2. Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through _____________ techniques, such
as, meditation.
3. Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to right ______________ thereby
reducing chances of nonperformance and stress level.
13.6 A Suggested Framework For Stress Management
As there is a positive side to stress and provides, drive, excitement and motivation for individuals to
push themselves to achieve more in their lives in the fulfillment of their set goals, there is no
requirement to eliminate stress form one’s life. Managing stress should be given importance rather
than elimination. The goal should be to find the optimal level of stress that can be handled effectively
by an individual which will motivate the person and not overwhelm and distress an individual.
How can one find out what is optimal stress for an individual?
There is no single level of stress that is optimal for all people. We are all motivated or distressed by
different levels of stimulations in a given situation. Age, mental strength, upbringing and cultural
factors can be important elements that my influence our abilities to handle stress. How much
resilience a person can exhibit while handling stressful situations would vary across individuals as
they are likely to differ in their physiological responses to it. Researches have shown the following
regarding our capabilities to handle stress:
1. The person who enjoys arbitrating disputes and moves from job site to job site would be stressed
in a job which was stable and routine, whereas the person who thrives under stable conditions
would very likely be stressed on a job where duties were highly varied.
2. Our personal stress requirements and the amount which we can handle before we succumb to
stress changes with age.
3. It has also been found that many illnesses are related to unrelieved stress. If one is experiencing
stress symptoms, one has gone beyond the optimal stress level; then it is necessary to reduce
the stress in the individual’s life and/or improve the ability to manage it.
How Can One Manage Stress Better?
Identifying unrelieved stress and being aware of its effect on an individual’s life is insufficient for
reducing its harmful effects. Just as there are many sources of stress, there are many possibilities for
its management. There are two choices in this regard either change the source of stress and /
change your reaction to it.
What is the path for doing so?
1. Become aware of the stressors and the emotional and physical reactions.
Notice what causes distress. Ignoring them is not a solution. Listing out all the events that cause
distress is important. What does an individual tell himself/ herself about the meaning of these
events? Determining how the body responds to the stress. Does the individual become nervous or
physically upset? If so, in what specific ways?
2. Recognizing what can be changed.
Is it possible to change the stressors by avoiding or eliminating them completely? Can their intensity
be reduced? Is it possible to shorten an individual’s exposure to stress? Can one devote the time and
energy necessary to make a change (for example, goal setting, time management techniques may
be used)?
3. Reduce the intensity of the emotional reactions to stress.
The stress reaction is triggered by our perception of danger: physical danger and/or emotional
danger. Are we viewing your stressors in exaggerated terms and/or taking a difficult situation and
making it a disaster? Are we trying to please everyone? Are we overreacting and viewing things as
absolutely critical and urgent? Do we feel you must always prevail in every situation? Work at
adopting more moderate views; try to see the stress as something you can cope with rather than
something that overpowers us is a solution for reducing stress, internally.
4. Learning to moderate our physical reactions to stress.
Slow, deep breathing will bring your heart rate and respiration back to normal. Relaxation techniques
can reduce muscle tension. Electronic biofeedback can help you gain voluntary control over such
things as muscle tension; heart rate, and blood pressure. Medications, when needed and prescribed
by a doctor can help in moderating the physical reactions. However, these alone cannot do the job.
Learning to moderate these reactions on our own is a desirable solution in the long run.
5. Build our physical reserves.
Exercising for cardiovascular fitness three to four times a week (moderate, prolonged rhythmic
exercise is best, such as walking, swimming, cycling, or jogging). Eating wellbalanced and nutritious
meals are a must. Maintaining the ideal weight is essential. Avoiding nicotine, excessive caffeine,
and other stimulants can be a great help in reducing stress. Mixing leisure with work and taking
breaks from routine work can relax and reduce stress in a person. Getting adequate sleep is of
utmost importance. Being consistent with the sleep schedule helps in reducing stress to a large
extent.
4. Maintaining our emotional reserves.
Developing some mutually supportive friendships and stable relationships help in sharing bottledup
emotions and reduce stress. Pursuing realistic goals which are meaningful to, rather than goals
others have for set for us which we do not identify with can help in reducing stress. Expecting some
frustrations, failures, and sorrows as apart of life can make us gear up mentally in handling stressful
situations rather than succumb to them.
1. The stress reaction is triggered by our __________________ of danger
2. Electronic biofeedback can help you gain __________________ control over such things as
muscle tension
13.7 Crisis Management
It Is the systematic attempt to avoid organizational crises or to manage those crises events that do
occur (Pearson & Clair, 1998). A crisis is a major, unpredictable event that threatens to harm an
organization and its stakeholders.
Three elements are common to most definitions of crisis: (a) a threat to the organization, (b) the
element of surprise, and (c) a short decision time (Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer, 1998)
There are four types of organizational crises: Sudden Crises, such as fires, explosions, natural
disasters, workplace violence, etc; Smoldering Crises, problems or issues that start out small and
could be fixed or averted if someone was paying attention or recognized the potential for trouble;
Bizarre, like the finger in the Wendy's Restaurant Chili, a oneofakind crisis; and, Perceptual Crises,
such as the longrunning problem Proctor & Gamble used to have with their former corporate logo,
that included a halfmoon and stars, which critics would claim were symbols of devilworship, calling
for boycotts of P&G products. (Smith & Millar, 2002).
Irrespective of the size of an organization affected, the main benefits of crisis management would
encompass the following:
1. Ability to assess the situation from inside and outside the organization as all stakeholders might
perceive it.
2. Techniques to direct action(s) to contain the likely or perceived damage spread.
3. A more effective way to rapidly trigger that part or parts of business continuity management.
4. Better organizational resilience for all stakeholders.
5. Compliance with regulatory and ethical requirements, e.g. corporate social responsibility.
6. Much better management of serious incidents or any incident that could become serious.
7. Improved staff awareness of their roles and expectations within the organization.
8. Increased ability, confidence and morale within the organization.
9. Enhanced risk management insofar that obvious risks will be identified, mitigated (where possible)
and through crisis and business continuity management as prepared for.
10. Protected and often enhanced reputation a much reduced risk of post event litigation.
An example of crisis management:
Bhopal: The Bhopal disaster in which poor communication before, during, and after the crisis cost
thousands of lives, is an apt example of the role of crosscultural communication in crisis
management plans. According to American University’s Trade Environmental Database Case
Studies (1997), local residents were not sure how to react to warnings of potential threats from the
Union Carbide plant. Operating manuals printed only in English is an extreme example of
mismanagement but indicative of systemic barriers to information diffusion. According to Union
Carbide’s own depiction of the incident (2006), a day after the crisis Union Carbide’s upper
management arrived in India but was unable to assist in the relief efforts because they were placed
under house arrest by the Indian government. Symbolic intervention can be counter productive; a
crisis management strategy can help top management in taking more calculated decisions in how
they should respond to disaster scenarios. The Bhopal incident illustrates the difficulty in consistently
applying management standards to multinational operations and the blame shifting that often results
from the lack of a clear management plan.
1. _________ elements are common to most definitions of crisis.
2. There are __________ types of organizational crises
13.8 Summary
Stress has been defined as a physical, mental or emotional response to events which cause mental
or bodily tension. In the modern day life stress is a part and parcel of our lives. Stress can manifest
itself in a number of ways depending upon the suddenness of an even to be dealt with and types of
stressors to be handled by an individual. It may manifest itself either physically, emotionally and /
mentally, as certain symptoms. Stress may be classified into two types: positive stress (Eustress)
and negative stress (Distress). Moderate and manageable levels of stress for a reasonable period of
time can be handled by the body through mobilization of resources and is accompanied by positive
emotions, such as, enjoyment, satisfaction, excitement and so on. This beneficial element in stress
has been defined by Selye as Eustress (EU meaning – good). However, an overload of stress
resulting from a situation of either over arousal or under arousal for long periods of time causes the
following: first an unpleasant feeling, followed by physical damage, fatigue and in extreme cases,
even death of an individual. This has been termed by Selye as distress (dys meaning – bad). While
environmental factors are forces outside the organization, which may act as potential sources of
stress due to uncertainties and threats that they create for any organization and its members, factors
within organization can also act as potential source of stress. Together or singly they may create a
tense and volatile working environment which can cause stress for organizational members because
the inability of individuals to handle the pressures arising out of these sources. Stress shows itself in
three ways—physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms. As there is a positive side to
stress and provides, drive, excitement and motivation for individuals to push themselves to achieve
more in their lives in the fulfillment of their set goals, there is no requirement to eliminate stress form
one’s life. Managing stress should be given importance rather than elimination. The goal should be to
find the optimal level of stress that can be handled effectively by an individual which will motivate the
person and not overwhelm and distress an individual. It is the systematic attempt to avoid
organizational crises or to manage those crises events that do occur. A crisis is a major,
unpredictable event that threatens to harm an organization and its stakeholders.
Terminal questions
1. Define stress. Explain various types of stress.
2. Describe the potential sources of stress.
3. What are the consequences of stress?
4. Discus the individual and organizational approaches to managing stress.
5. Discuss the various types of organizational crises
1. Sleeplessness
2. Eustress
3. Distress
1. Role ambiguity
2. Internal
3. Selfefficacy
1. Three
2. Job dissatisfaction
1. Noncompetitive
2. Relaxation
3. Personjobfit
1. Perception
2. Voluntary
1. Three
2. Four
Organizational Change Unit 14
Unit 14 Organizational Change
Structure
14.1 Introduction
Objectives
14.2 Forces of changes
14.3 Resistance to change
14.4 Responses to change
14.5 Characteristics of organizational change
14.6 Theories of change
14.7 Strategies for change management
14.8 Toolkit for managing change
14.9 Summary
Terminal Questions
14.1 Introduction
Organizational change may be defined as the adoption of a new idea or a behavior by an
organization (Daft 1995). It is a way of altering an existing organization to increase organizational
effectiveness for achieving its objectives. Successful organizational change must continually focus on
making organizations responsive to major developments like changing customer preferences,
regulatory norms, economic shocks and technological innovations. Only those organizations that are
able to undertake suitable change programs, can sustain and survive in a changing and demanding
economic order in their bid to remain ahead of others in the race.
1. Forces of changes
2. Resistance to Change
3. Theories of change
14.2 Forces Of Changes
Forces for change are of two types:
· Internal forces
· External forces.
Internal forces
Change in the top management Change in the top management and consequent change in the
ideas to run the organization also leads to change in the system, structure and processes.
Change in size of the organization Change in the organization’s size leads to change in the internal
structure and complexity of the operations in the organization.
Performance gaps When a gap between set target and actual results (in terms of market share,
employee productivity and profit) is identified, organizations face the forces to change and reduce the
gap.
Employee needs and values With changing needs and values of the employees, organizations
change their policies. For example, attractive financial incentives, challenging assignments, vertical
growth opportunities and autonomy at work may be provided in an organization to attract and retain
its effective employees.
External forces
Technology Technological changes are responsible for changing the nature of the job performed at
all levels in an organization.
Business scenario Due to rapid changes in the business scenario with increasing competition and
global economy, the needs and demands are also changing among the customers, suppliers and
other stakeholders. Organizations are, therefore, forced to change their operational methods to meet
the demands of the stakeholders.
Environmental factors Environmental factors such as economic, political and demographic factors
play a vital role in devising organizational policies and strategy. For example, organizations may
have to change their employment policies in accordance with the government policy, demand of the
nongovernment organizations and changing economic conditions of a country.
1 Forces for change are of _____________ types.
2. Organizations are, therefore, forced to change their operational methods to meet the demands of
the _____________.
3. Environmental factors such as ___________, ______________, and _____________ factors play
a vital role in devising organizational policies and strategy
14.3 Resistance To Change
Resistance to change may be of two types:
· Individual resistance
· Organizational resistance.
Individual resistance
Change leads to insecurity among the employees because of its unknown consequences.
Employees do not know for certain whether the change will bring in better prospects. For example,
because of technological change people may feel threatened due to the fear of obsolescence of
skills, less wages and losing the job. Change sometimes leads to new dimensions of work
relationships. Due to organizational redesign, the employees may have to work with other set of
people than their existing coworkers with whom they have direct relationship, and it is generally not
welcome by most of the employees.
Organizational resistance
Change may bring some potential threat to the organizational power to some people. Therefore,
people try to resist change. The structural inertia in the bureaucratic organizations also hinders
change. Furthermore, resource constraints play a vital role in resistance to change.
1. Resistance to change may be of _________ types.
2. Change leads to _______________ among the employees because of its unknown
consequences.
3. Change may bring some potential _________to the organizational power to some people.
14.4 Responses To Change
The responses to change depend upon the employees’ perception about the change. Different
individuals differ in their attitudes and hence, the perceptions towards change. Therefore, one
important task of the management of an organization is to understand and create a positive attitude
among employees regarding change.
Reactions to Change
Three major reactions to change are:
Anger After employees have passed over the shock of the new situation, most people who view the
change as having a negative impact on their personal situation, many times, they will begin to blame
the management or talk ill about management. This agitation and anger, if not addressed, may lead
to some people actually trying to sabotage the change process by taking stances varying between
active noncooperation and passive resistance.
Denial Many people, depending on their basic values and beliefs, move from anger to acceptance.
However, there are a significant number of people who go through a denial phase. A person going
through this phase will make up excuses why he or she should not be held accountable for anything
that goes wrong with the organization as a result of the change. Such attempts to disassociate from
the new situation often cause the person to alienate oneself from the group.
Acceptance Once the person has accepted the change as real and that it is going to happen, he or
she begins to rationalize his or her role in the new situation. It is important to understand that not only
can an individual accept the situation and begin to work towards the new vision, but one can also
accept the situation as having a negative impact and choose to leave the organization. Either way,
the individual accepts the fact that the new environment exists.
Overcoming Resistance to Change
Some approaches can be taken to reduce the resistance to change. Some of them are listed
below (Schermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn 2000):
Education and communication Open communication and proper education help employees to
understand the significance of change and its requirement. For that, proper initiative should be taken
to provide the information regarding the type, timing, implication, purpose and reason for change.
Employee participation and involvement People generally get more committed towards the change,
if they are directly involved in the change process. This way, they have the opportunity to clarify their
doubts and understand the perspective and requirement of change for the organization. The
management also gets the chance to identify the potential problems that may occur in the workplace
and the chance to prevent it.
Facilitation and support Change agent can offer a range of supportive measures to reduce
resistance. Empathetic and considerate listening can reduce employees’ fear and anxiety towards
change. Counselling sessions to reduce stress, trauma, etc., can be an effective measure.
Negotiation and agreement Organizations which have a fair chance to face potential resistance from
the union representatives, can defuse the resistance by involving them directly in the change
process. They should be properly briefed about the need and value of change. However, this can be
a costly proposition when there is more than one dominant union in the organization, as all the
contending parties would fight for power and recognition.
1. Many people, depending on their basic values and beliefs, move from anger to ___________.
2. ___________ and considerate listening can reduce employees’ fear and anxiety towards change
3. This can be a costly proposition when there is more than one _____________ union in the
organization, as all the contending parties would fight for power and recognition.
14.5 Characteristics Of Organizational Change
Characteristics:
· It is deliberate, systematic and well thought of.
· Velocity of change depends on the degree or level of significance.
· Status quo is challenged.
· Reaction can be both positive and negative.
· Focuses on longterm change.
The forces for change:
Organizationenvironment relationship (merger, strategic alliances, etc.) where organizations attempt
to redefine their relationships with changing social and political environment.
Organizational life cycle (changes in culture and structure of organization’s evolution from birth
through growth towards maturity).
Political nature of organization (changes in internal control structures, etc.) to deal with shifting
political current.
1. Organizational change focuses on ________ change.
2. In Organizationenvironment relationship, organizations attempt to redefine their relationships with
changing _________ and ____________ environment.
14.6 Theories Of Change
Force field analysis theory
Lewin (1951) proposed a three step sequential model of change process:
Unfreezing
At this stage, the forces, which maintain the status quo in the organizational behavior, are reduced by
refuting the present attitude and behavior to create a perceived need for something new. It is
facilitated by environmental pressure such as increased competition, declining productivity and
performance, felt need to improve the style of work, etc.
Moving/changing
This stage involves a shift in behavior of organizations by modifying system, process, technology and
people. This phase can be explained in terms of compliance, identification and internalization (Rao
and Hari Krishna 2002). Compliance or force occurs when individuals are forced to change whether
by reward or by punishment. Internalization occurs when individuals are forced to encounter a
situation that calls for new behavior. Identification occurs when individuals recognize one among
various models provided in the environment that is most suitable to their personality.
Refreezing
At this stage, actions are taken to sustain the drive for change and to facilitate the institutionalization
process of the change even in a daytoday routine of the organizations. Here, the desired outcomes
are positively reinforced and extra support is provided to overcome the difficulties.
Action research model
Action research model is another model of planned change. According to this model, planned change
is a cyclical process in which initial research about organizations provides the data to guide the
subsequent action to bring the required changes. It emphasizes on the significance of data collection
and diagnosis prior to action planning and implementation and careful evaluation of the actions. This
model describes change in eight steps:
Problem identification It starts with the identification of one or a combination of problems in the
organization and consequent requirement of bringing change in organizational practices.
Consultation with the expert It is the phase where the organization consults with the experts in the
same field to generate the ideas for improvement of the situation. At this stage an open and
collaborative atmosphere is intended to be set up.
Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis This stage is usually completed by the expert often with the
organizational members’ help. The four basic modes of data gathering are interview, process
observation, questionnaires and organizational performance data.
Feedback to key client or group Because action research is a collaborative activity, the diagnostic
data is fed back to the client usually with a group or work team meeting. The consultant provides the
client with all the necessary data.
Joint diagnosis of the problem At this point, the clients and the expert jointly decide whether they
want to work on the identified problems.
Joint action planning The consultant and the client then jointly decide on the further action. This is the
beginning of the movement process (refer to Lewin’s model). At this stage, specific actions are taken
depending on the culture, technology and the environment of the organization.
Action This stage involves actual change from one organizational state to another. It may
include new methods and procedures, reorganizing structures and work designs, and new
behaviors.
Data gathering after action Since action research is a cyclical process, data must also be gathered
after the action has taken place.
Dimensions of Planned Change
Though the models of change describe how to implement change, steps of planned change may be
implemented in a variety of ways, depending on the clients’ needs and goals, the change agents’
skills and values, and the organizational context. Planned change can be contrasted across
situations on two key dimensions: the magnitude of organizational change and the degree to which
the client system is organized (Cummings and Worley 1997).
Magnitude of change
Planned change can range from incremental change, which involves minute alterations in the
operations, to quantum change i.e. fundamental change in organizational operations including
structure, culture, reward system, information processes, etc.
Degree of organization
In highly mechanistic and bureaucratic organizational dimensions, structure, job design, leadership
styles, policies are too rigid and inflexible. In this type of organizations, communication is
suppressed, conflicts are avoided and employees are apathetic. In contrast, flexible organizations
have loose task definition, communication is fragmented and job responsibilities are ambiguous. In
bureaucratic organizations, change through loosening the control on behaviour is attempted.
1. Lewin (1951) proposed a ___________ step sequential model of change process.
2. Action research model is another model of __________ change.
3. Planned change can range from ____________ change to _________ change.
14.7 Strategies For Change Management
According to Bennis, Benne and Chin (1969), four basic strategies can be adopted to manage
change:
EmpiricalRational
People are rational and will follow their selfinterest once a change is revealed to them. Change is
based on the communication of information and the proffering of incentives.
NormativeReeducative
People are social beings and adhere to cultural norms and values. Change is based on redefining
and reinterpreting existing norms and values, and developing people’s commitments to new ones.
PowerCoercive
People are basically compliant and will generally do what they are told or can be made to do.
Change is based on the exercise of authority and the imposition of sanctions. According to Nicklos
(2004), there can be a fourth strategy in adapting to changes, i.e. environmentaladaptive.
EnvironmentalAdaptive
People oppose loss and disruption, but they adapt readily to new circumstances. Change is based on
building a new organization and gradually transferring people from the old one to the new one.
1. According to Bennis, Benne and Chin, _______ basic strategies can be adopted to manage
change:
2.According to Nicklos (2004), there can be a ________ strategy in adapting to changes, i.e.
environmentaladaptive.
14.8 Toolkit For Managing Change
According to Nicklos (2004), some of the factors to select an effective change strategy and some tips
to manage change are described as follows.
Generally, there is no single change strategy. One can adopt a general or what is called a ‘grand
strategy’ but for any given initiative some mix of strategies serves best. Which of the preceding
strategies to use in your mix of strategies is a decision affected by a number of factors. Some of the
more important ones are:
Degree of resistance Strong resistance argues for a coupling of powercoercive and environmental
adaptive strategies. Weak resistance or concurrence argues for a combination of empiricalrational
and normativereeducative strategies.
Target population Large populations argue for a mix of all four strategies.
The stakes High stakes also argue for a mix of all four strategies because when the stakes are
high, nothing can be left to chance.
The time frame Short time frames argue for a powercoercive strategy. Longer time frames argue for
a mix of empiricalrational, normativereeducative and environmentaladaptive strategy.
Expertise Having adequate expertise at making change argues for some mix of the strategies
outlined above. Not having the expertise argues for reliance on the powercoercive strategy.
Dependency This is a classic doubleedged sword. If the organization is dependent on its people,
management’s ability to command or demand is limited. Conversely, if people are dependent upon
the organization, their ability to oppose or resist is limited. (Mutual dependency almost always signals
a requirement for some level of negotiation).
1. ______________resistance argues for a coupling of powercoercive and environmentaladaptive
strategies.
2. _________________ populations argue for a mix of all four strategies.
3. Short time frames argue for a _____________strategy.
14.9 Summary
Organizational change may be defined as the adoption of a new idea or a behavior by an
organization. It is a way of altering an existing organization to increase organizational effectiveness
for achieving its objectives. Forces for change are of two types: Internal forces and external forces.
Internal forces are: change in the top management, change in size of the organization, performance
gaps and employee needs and values. External forces are technology, business scenario, and
environmental factors. Resistance to change may be of two types: Individual resistance and
Organizational resistance. Change leads to insecurity among the employees because of its unknown
consequences. Employees do not know for certain whether the change will bring in better prospects.
This results into individual resistance. Change may bring some potential threat to the organizational
power to some people. This leads to organizational resistance. The responses to change depend
upon the employees’ perception about the change. Different individuals differ in their attitudes and
hence, the perceptions towards change. Three major reactions to change are: Anger, Denial and
Acceptance. Some approaches can be taken to reduce the resistance to change, such as, Education
and communication, Employee participation and involvement, Facilitation and support, and
Negotiation and agreement. Organizational change is deliberate, systematic and well thought of.
Velocity of change depends on the degree or level of significance and the status quo in the
organization is challenged with a longterm focus. Two major theories of change are (i) Force field
analysis theory and (ii) Action Research Model. Lewin proposed a three steps sequence of
“unfreezing, moving and refreezing” as the change process in Force Field Analysis Theory.
According to Action Research Model, planned change is a cyclical process in which initial research
about organizations provides the data to guide the subsequent action to bring the required changes
in eight steps.
Terminal questions
1. What are the forces of change? Explain.
2. Explain the different types of resistance to change.
3. Describe the force field analysis model and action research model.
4. Based on the toolkit forwarded by Nicklos stated in this chapter, explain how one can manage
change.
1 Two
2. Stakeholders
3. Economic, political and demographic
1. Two
2. Insecurity
3. Threat
1. Acceptance.
2.Empathetic
3. Dominant
1. Longterm
2. Social and political
1. Three
2. Planned
3. Incremental, quantum
1. Four
2. Fourth
1.Strong
2.Large
3. Powercoercive
Organization Development Unit 15
Unit 15 Organization Development
Structure
15.1 Introduction
Objectives
15.2 Characteristics of Organization development
15.3 History of organization development
15.4 Process of organization development
15.5 OD interventions
15.6 Summary
Terminal Questions
15.1 Introduction
Organization development (OD) is a planned approach to improve employee and organizational
effectiveness by conscious interventions in those processes and structures that have an immediate
bearing on the human aspect of the organization (Ramanarayan, Rao, and Singh 1998). OD is an
organizationwide planned effort, managed from the top, to increase organizational effectiveness and
health through planned interventions in the organizational processes, using behavioural science
knowledge. In the initial phase of the development of OD, primary focus was on human as well as the
process aspect of the organizations with a view to improve trust, communication, teamwork and
interpersonal relationship (Friedlander and Brown 1974).
1. Characteristics of Organization development
2. History of organization development
3. OD interventions
15.2 Characteristics Of Organization Development
A number of special characteristics together distinguish organizational development from other
approaches to managing and improving organizational function.
Behavioural science base
It is primarily concerned with improving the organization by focusing on aspects that have a bearing
on human and social improvement. Its principles have been drawn largely from the field of
organizational behavior and social sciences.
Normative approach to organizational change
OD is a normative process grounded in valueladen assumption of what constitutes ideal individual
and organizational growth. Development for the OD practitioners means the movement of individuals
and organizations in certain directions consistent with democratic and humanistic values and ideals
such as autonomy, selfactualization, etc.
Deliberate intervention in the organization
OD implies deliberate intervention in the ongoing processes of an organization. While all the social
systems, in the ordinary course of events, tend to grow in predictable patterns, they may fail to
optimize their capabilities due to an inability to recognize their potential or to anticipate and effectively
cope with internal and external crisis. Development implies planning and action to ensure that growth
takes place consistent with values.
Normative deductive strategy –
It is based on the assumptions that the social norms are one of the strong reinforcers of behaviour
(Chin and Benne 1976). The culture of the organization is affected by those norms and hence, to
change the existing organizational culture prevalent norms have to be reduced, modified and
replaced by more effective ones. This approach talks about the change in the organization, which
looks forward to a longterm improvement through internalization of new norms of behavior.
Systems approach to change
Leavitt (1972) has viewed an organization as a social system consisting of different subsystems
such as task, structure, technology and human resource, interlinked by various processes. Any
change in one part or process has implications for other parts or processes relevant to the system.
OD techniques are used to change or modify the processes to change the system consequently.
Using actionresearch model –
Actionresearch model is a “data based, problem solving model that replicated the steps involved in
the scientific method of inquiry” (French and Bell 1991). OD, using this model, involves a systematic
process of diagonising organizational problems through data collection and analysis, feeding the data
back to the organizational client group, discussing the findings, planning collaborative action and
implementing proposed solutions.
Use of external consultant
Here, the assumption in OD is that the presence of a qualified behavioural scientist as an external
consultant can help the process of OD in the following manner:
· The specialized knowledge of that consultant becomes available to the organization.
· The consultant, as a neutral outsider, is likely to face lesser resistance during the process of
change.
· He is less likely to have a personal stake in implementation of proposed change.
1. OD implies ____________________ intervention in the ongoing processes of an organization
2. It is based on the assumptions that the social norms are one of the strong ________________ of
behaviour
3. Leavitt (1972) has viewed an organization as a ___________system
15.3 History Of Organization Development
The concept of OD has emerged from four stems. They are described below:
Laboratory training background
This is popularly known as Tgroup or Sensitivity Training conducted in the National Training
Laboratory (NTL). Kurt Lewin was the pioneer of this research. In this training, a small unstructured
group of participants, unknown to each other, learnt about issues such as interpersonal relations,
personal growth, leadership and group dynamics from their own interactions. The experiment
concluded:
· Feedback about group interaction was a rich learning experience.
· The process of groupbuilding had potential for learning that could be transferred to backhome
situation.
Actionresearch/surveyfeedback background
It was observed that a collaborative effort between the organizational members and the scientists
was required to gather data about an organization’s functioning to analyze the causes of problems,
and to devise and implement solutions. Further work in this area was conducted by Likert (1967) and
Mann (1962). Data was required to assess the degree of effectiveness of those solutions. This
approach, today, is as one of the most important methods for OD interventions in organizations.
Participative management background
Following the beliefs proposed by the two stems discussed earlier, Likert (1967) proposed another
framework to enhance organizational effectiveness. This framework proposed organizations as
having one of the four types of management systems:
· Exploitive authoritative system (system 1) which exhibits an autocratic topdown approach to
leadership.
· Benevolent authoritative system (system 2) which is more paternalistic than system 1.
· Consultative system (system 3) which is characterized by increased employee interaction, open
communication and decisionmaking.
· Participative group (system 4) which nurtures high degree of employee involvement, participation
and open work culture.
Using system management, through a surveyfeedback process, Likert experimented with several
interventions. The open culture and employee involvement facilitated the implementation process of
the solutions provided for the problems.
Quality of work life (QWL) background
Based on the research of Eric Trist et al. at the Tavistcock Institute of Human Relations in London,
this approach looked both at technical and human sides of organizations and how they are
interrelated. QWL programs, in general, require joint participation by union and management in the
process of workdesigning, which consequently result into high level of task variety, appropriate
feedback and employee discretion. The most distinguishing feature of QWL program is the
development of selfmanaging work groups which consist of multiskilled workers.
1. Laboratory training is popularly known as __________ training.
2. Exploitive authoritative system exhibits an autocratic ______________ approach to leadership.
3. The most distinguishing feature of QWL program is the development of __________________
work groups which consist of multiskilled workers.
15.4 Process Of Organization Development
A typical OD process can be divided into the following phases:
Problem identification: The first step in OD process involves understanding and identification of the
existing and potential problems in the organization. The awareness of the problem includes
knowledge of the possible organizational problems of growth, human satisfaction, the usage of
human resource and organizational effectiveness.
Data collection: Having understood the exact problem in this phase, the relevant data is collected
through personal interviews, observations and questionnaires.
Diagnosis: OD efforts begin with diagnosis of the current situation. Usually, it is not limited to a single
problem. Rather a number of factors like attitudes, assumptions, available resources and
management practice are taken into account in this phase. According to Rao and Hari Krishna
(2002), four steps in organizational diagnosis can be identified:
Structural analysis: Determines how the different parts of the organization are functioning in terms of
laid down goals.
Processes analysis: Process implies the manner in which events take place in a sequence. It refers
to the pattern of decisionmaking, communication, group dynamics and conflict management patterns
within organizations to help in the process of attainment of organizational goals.
Function analysis: This includes strategic variables, performance variables, results, achievements
and final outcomes.
Domain analysis: Domain refers to the area of the organization for organizational diagnosis.
Planning and implementation: After diagnosing the problem, the next phase of OD, with the OD
interventions, involves the planning and implementation part of the change process.
Evaluation and feedback: Any OD activity is incomplete without proper feedback. Feedback is a
process of relaying evaluations to the client group by means of specific report or interaction.
1. The __________ step in OD process involves understanding and identification of the existing and
potential problems in the organization.
2. Any OD activity is incomplete without proper _____________.
15.5 OD Interventions
OD intervention refers to an activity that is carried on in an organization with the help of an internal or
external OD consultant for achieving a given goal or objective (Prasad 1970). Broadly, OD
interventions can be categorized as under:
· Human process interventions
· Technostructural interventions
· Human resource interventions
· Strategic interventions
Human Process Interventions
These interventions are aimed at the social processes occurring within organizations. Some of the
important human process interventions are discussed below.
Tgroups
Tgroups are designed to provide members with experiential learning about group dynamics,
leadership and interpersonal relationships. The basic Tgroup training or sensitivity training is to
change the standards, attitudes and behavior of individuals by using psychological techniques and
programs. Sensitivity training involves group confession where the individual’s problems become the
problems of the group, which in turn tries to find a solution. After critiquing others and being critiqued,
doubt is introduced into the mind of each individual as to whose standards are really proper. The
objectives of Tgroup training are:
· Increased understanding, insight and selfawareness about one’s own and others’ behavior and
its impact on self and others.
· Better understanding about the group and intergroup processes (facilitating and inhibiting group
function).
· Increased diagnostic skills.
· Increased ability to transfer learning into action.
Process consultation
It has been defined as a set of activities on the part of the consultant that helped the client to
perceive, understand and act upon the process of events that occur in the client’s environment in
order to improve the situation as defined by the client (Schein 1987: 11).
It deals primarily with five important group processes:
· Communication.
· The functional roles of group members.
· The ways in which the group solves problems and makes decisions.
· The development and growth of group norms.
· The use of leadership and authority.
Third party interventions
It focuses on interpersonal or intergroup conflicts. Conflicts can arise from two sources:
· Substantive issues like work methods, pay rates and conditions of employment.
· Interpersonal issues such as differences in personality, task orientations, perceptions among
group members, completion over scarce resources.
Team building
It is an effective approach to develop and nurture a team culture in an organization, which helps the
group members to enhance their interpersonal and problemsolving skills. It also helps group
members to develop a higher level of motivation to carry out the group decisions by overcoming
specific problems like apathy, general lack of interest among members, loss of productivity,
increasing complaints within the group, confusion about assignments, low participation in meetings,
lack of innovation and initiation, increasing complaints from those outside the group about the quality,
timeliness, effectiveness of services and products, etc. This intervention can be used for the following
types of teams:
· Groups reporting to the same supervisor, manager/executive.
· Groups involving people with common organizational goals.
· Temporary group formed to perform a specific, onetime task.
· Groups consisting of people whose work roles are interdependent.
· Groups whose members have no formal links in the organization, but whose collective purpose is
to achieve task they can achieve as individuals.
Depending on the types of teams, there are a number of factors that affect the outcome of
a specific teambuilding activity:
· The length of time allocated to the activity.
· The team’s willingness to look at the way in which it operates.
· The length of time the team has been working together.
· The permanence of the teams.
Technostructural Interventions
Due to increasing global competition and rapid technological and environmental changes, the
organizations are forced to move away traditional bureaucratic structures (functional, self contained
and matrix structure) to more flexible structures (processbased and networkbased structures). This
involves streamlining of workflows through structural adjustments by breaking down functional
barriers. In this context, the technostructural interventions help the organizations in structural
redesigning aiming at reorganizing organizational structure, the alternative methods of organizing
work activities and integrating people in a better way.
Human Resource Interventions
These are concerned with methods of managing people in a more effective and efficient way while
ushering in the change process in an organization. These interventions are traditionally associated
with the human resource management function and are increasingly becoming an integral part of the
change management activities, for example, dealing with setting performance goals for groups and
individuals, performance appraisal and reward management. Activities such as career planning,
managing workforce diversity, managing employee wellness also come under this category.
Strategic Interventions
These interventions focus on organizing the resources of the organization to gain a competitive edge
in the market. These generally adopt the topdown management of change approach and require a
thorough and indepth environmental scanning and awareness. The basic philosophy of this
approach lies in developing core competencies or getting access to larger market share and
technology, hitherto absent in the organization, through alliances with other organizations possessing
the same. On the other hand, interventions such as organizational culture change programme and
organizational learning helps organizations to gain the internal capacity to institute their change
management process successfully through continuous awareness, selfrenewal and learning. Thus,
the thrust in this process is mainly on identifying the external sources of change and developing
internal capabilities to address them.
Abad Ahmed (1972) has proposed six steps in an OD process:
1. Motivation for change
The motivation for change emerges from pressures, external or internal, felt by the top management
or the new strategic decisions of top management.
2. Data collection, problem identification and diagnosis
Throughout the OD programme, especially at the outset, these activities should be acted upon
through interviews, surveys and meetings. Both, top management, other organizational members
and OD specialist take active part in these activities.
3. Planning strategy for change
At this stage, the diagnosis of problem is transformed into a proper action plan. Specific goals are set
and the specific approaches for attaining these goals are also specified sequentially.
4. Intervening in the system
It aims to resolve difficulties, remove hurdles and give momentum to increase the effectiveness of the
organization (Dwivedi 2001). Here the OD specialists, and/or the top management take active part in
the process. Some examples of these interventions are: job enlargement, process consultation and
other laboratory methods, which have been discussed earlier in this chapter.
5. Reinforcement and followup
A possibility of regression to the earlier behavioural pattern does exist if adequate care is not taken to
adapt mechanisms for reinforcement and followup of the planned change. Establishing task force,
project teams and temporary systems in the organization can be created to perform the responsibility
to implement and monitor the plans defined in the OD programme.
6. Monitoring and evaluation
A need for careful monitoring to get feedback regarding the effectiveness of the OD programme is
always felt. In this respect, appraisal of the change efforts, comparative analysis of control groups,
pre and postintervention assessments are some of the methods to get the feedback in this regard.
Role of OD Consultant
According to Maheswari (1979), the role of an OD consultant is of a guru (teacher) who needs to
possess the knowledge, wisdom and sensitivity visàvis the problems of an organization. On the
basis of his wisdom, he may advise the client (organization) to implement certain changes. However,
it has to be remembered that effective implementation of the advices are sole responsibility of the
client. The consultant intends to advise the client to take appropriate actions, convinces the client for
the required changes and helps it to modify the mindset. OD consultants, in Indian organizations,
generally face the following difficulties (Dwivedi 2001):
The perception of the entrepreneurs about OD The owners of the organization, in India, feel
threatened that their power would be reduced if the OD interventions are applied, and it would be
difficult to discipline people. They also feel uncomfortable in discussing about their operational
methods with their managers or consultants. Moreover, they generally do not trust consultants fully.
Role of the OD consultants There is confusion about the role of the OD consultant. It is commonly
believed that the role of the OD consultant is to diagnose all organizational problems, suggest proper
solutions, put these all in a report and leave it to the anagement to take actions on it.
1. Tgroups are designed to provide members with _________ learning about group dynamics.
2. Abad Ahmed has proposed ___________ steps in an OD process.
15. 6 Summary
Organization development (OD) is a planned approach to improve employee and organizational
effectiveness by conscious interventions in those processes and structures that have an immediate
bearing on the human aspect of the organization (Ramanarayan, Rao, and Singh 1998). OD is an
organizationwide planned effort, managed from the top, to increase organizational effectiveness and
health through planned interventions in the organizational processes, using behavioral science
knowledge. A number of special characteristics together distinguish organizational development from
other approaches to managing and improving organizational function. Behavioral science base
approach is primarily concerned with improving the organization by focusing on aspects that have a
bearing on human and social improvement. Normative approach to organizational change is a
normative process grounded in valueladen assumption of what constitutes ideal individual and
organizational growth. Deliberate intervention in the organization implies deliberate intervention in
the ongoing processes of an organization. Normative deductive strategy is based on the assumptions
that the social norms are one of the strong reinforcers of behavior. Leavitt (1972) has viewed an
organization as a social system consisting of different subsystems such as task, structure,
technology and human resource, interlinked by various processes. Any change in one part or
process has implications for other parts or processes relevant to the system. Actionresearch model
is a “data based, problem solving model that replicated the steps involved in the scientific method of
inquiry” (French and Bell 1991). OD, using this model, involves a systematic process of diagonising
organizational problems through data collection and analysis, feeding the data back to the
organizational client group, discussing the findings, planning collaborative action and implementing
proposed solutions. The concept of OD has emerged from four stems: (i) Laboratory training
background, (ii) Actionresearch/surveyfeedback background, (iii) Participative management, and

(iv) Quality of work life (QWL) approach. A typical OD process can be divided into phases, such as,
Problem identification, Data collection, Diagnosis, Structural analysis, Processes analysis, Function
analysis, Domain analysis, Planning and implementation, and Evaluation and feedback. Broadly, OD
interventions can be categorized as Human process interventions, Technostructural interventions,
Human resource interventions, and Strategic interventions. Effective implementations of the advices
are sole responsibility of the client. The consultant intends to advise the client to take appropriate
actions, convinces the client for the required changes and helps it to modify the mindset. OD
consultants, in Indian organizations, generally face the following difficulties (Dwivedi 2001).
Terminal Questions
1. What is OD? Discuss the characteristics of OD.
2. What do you mean by Tgroup training? Briefly explain Likert’s framework.
3. Describe a typical OD process.
1. Deliberate
2. Reinforcers
3. Social
1. Tgroup
2. Topdown
3. Selfmanaging
1. First
2. Feedback
1. Experiential
2. Six

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Planning Organizing Directing Controlling

3. Human resource management—This activity consists of motivating, disciplining,

abilities. Muscular strength and cardiovascular endurance are two among the many physical ability

Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor Descriptors of High Range

Forthright, genuine, artless, open, Privateness Private, discreet, nondisclosing,

Type Personality Congruent Occupation

V. Weiner's attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once

external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. What are

Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired

James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement

Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired

Watson Fear, love, rage Hardwired

Weiner and Graham Happiness, sadness Attribution independent

· Creative thinking skills. This encompasses personality characteristics associated with creativity,

a. Works councils They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted

Unit 10 Group Behavior

All work groups are part of larger systems and organizations and therefore cannot exist or work in

· Broken families, wrecked marriages and other family issues may create stress at workplace as

background, (ii) Actionresearch/surveyfeedback background, (iii) Participative management, and

Potrebbero piacerti anche

MB0022 - Management Process and Organization Behavior

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MB0022 - Management Process and Organization Behavior

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Formati disponibili

References:

Planning Organizing Directing Controlling

3. Human resource management—This activity consists of motivating, disciplining,

abilities. Muscular strength and cardiovascular endurance are two among the many physical ability

Descriptors of Low Range Primary Factor Descriptors of High Range

Forthright, genuine, artless, open, Privateness Private, discreet, nondisclosing,

Type Personality Congruent Occupation

V. Weiner's attribution theory (1986, 1992): Certain attributions produce specific emotions. Once

external causes, controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional responses. What are

Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy Hardwired

James Fear, grief, love, rage Bodily involvement

Panksepp Expectancy, fear, rage, panic Hardwired

Watson Fear, love, rage Hardwired

Weiner and Graham Happiness, sadness Attribution independent

· Creative thinking skills. This encompasses personality characteristics associated with creativity,

a. Works councils ­ They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted

Unit 10 Group Behavior

All work groups are part of larger systems and organizations and therefore cannot exist or work in

· Broken families, wrecked marriages and other family issues may create stress at workplace as

background, (ii) Action­research/survey­feedback background, (iii) Participative management, and

Potrebbero piacerti anche

a. Works councils They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted

background, (ii) Actionresearch/surveyfeedback background, (iii) Participative management, and