A METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE ENERGY

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VALUES OF FOODS AND EXCRETA.
By FRANCIS G. BENEDICT AND EDWARD L. FOX.
(From the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Boston.)
(Received for publication, October 9, 1925.)
The determination of the energy values, specifically the heat of
combustion, of various foods and excreta forms an important part
of many investigations in nutrition. The calorimetric bomb is
commonly used for these determinations, but its complexity of
manipulation and its almost prohibitive cost greatly narrow the
opportunities for making such studies. Moreover the calculation
of results is time-consuming and usually involves more mathe-
matics than are warranted by the highest limit of accuracy possible
in the preparation of the sample from unhomogeneous material.
As an outcome of research on the respiration of man and the
development of simplified apparatus for measuring the actual
oxygen consumption during the processes of oxidation in the body,
a principle for the determination of the energy values of foods and
feces in the case of both men and animals has been experimentally
tested and embodied in an apparatus which is less complicated, less
expensive, and which enables simpler calculation of results than
does the bomb calorimeter.
The fundamental principle of this apparatus is the direct de-
termination of the volume of oxygen required to burn a known
weight of a substance and the computation therefrom of the po-
tential'energy of the substance, based upon a series of factors for
the calorific value of a liter of oxygen previously established by
combustion of similar material in a bomb calorimeter. In a pure
substance, such as sucrose, the amount of oxygen involved in the
combustion of 1 gm. can readily be computed. Since the heat of
combustion is accurately known, the calorific value of each liter
of oxygen can be calculated. These relationships for a number of
783
784 Energy Values of Foods and Excreta

commonly metabolized compounds have been computed (1) and

are given in Table I.
, Thus with these pure substances, if the amount of oxygen re-
quired to oxidize 1 gm. of substance is known, the heat of combus-
tion can be accurately computed by the use of the factors in the
last column of Table I. Since food materials and feces consist

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for the most part of the substances listed in Table I, particularly
of protein, fats, and carbohydrates, it would be possible to com-
pute the energy values of various foods by estimating the pro-
portion of protein, fat, and carbohydrate in the food (based upon
TABLE I.
Gaseous and Energy Relationship in the Combustion of Some Commonly
Metabolized Compounds.

Produced in the
Oxygen oxidation of 1 gm. Calories per
Substance. required to liter
oxidize 1 gm Carbon of oxygen.
dioxide.

cc. cc calls.

Starch........................ 829.3 829.3 4.20 5.06

Cane sugar .................... 785.5 785.5 3.96 5.04
Dextrose...................... 746.2 746.2 3.74 5.01
Lactic acid .................... 745.9 746.0 3.62 4.85
Animal fat .................... 2013.2 1431.1 9.50 4.72
Human " .................... 1990.8 1420.4 9.54 4.79
Protein....................... 956.9 773.8 4.40 4.60
Acetone....................... 1542.9 1157.2 7.43 4.82
6-Oxybutyric acid............ 968.2 860.7 4.69 4.85
Ethyl alcohol 1459 .5 972.9 7.08 4.85
- .- .... ...... I ____ .- I _

already existing food analyses) and applying the established

calorific value per gm. of each of these substances. The range in
these calorific values is very wide, however,-from 4 to as high as 9
calories-whereas the range in the calorific value of a liter of
oxygen is only from 4.6 in the case of protein to 5.0 in the case of
carbohydrates. Actually determined calorific values of oxygen
in the case of various foods and feedingstuffs and excreta of man
and beasts would therefore enable more exact approximations to
the true energy values of the substances in question. By compar-
ing the oxygen involved in the combustion of 1 gm. of substance
directly with the heat of combustion as determined in the calori-
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 785
metric bomb, one can establish such ratios. When the calorific
values of oxygen have thus been established, it is only necessary
TABLE II.
Calorific Values of Oxygen for Various Foods, Feedingstuffs, and Excreta.
Substances. Calories per
liter of oxygen.

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High carbohydrate substances.
Dried skimmed milk ................................... 4.89
Oyster crackers ......................................... 4.90
Corn-meal .............................................. 4.88
Nut bread ............................................. 4.88
Cheese sandwich ....................... .......... 4.95
Chicken " 4.95
Salmon salad sandwich ................................ 4.98
Club sandwich ........................................ 4.93
Doughnut............................................. 4.90
Highly nitrogenous substances.
Glidine (vegetable protein) ............................. 4.67
Ossein................................................ 4.69
Collagen.......................... .............. 4.70
Plasmon ......... .............. ............. 4.65
Fats.
Olive oil .............................................. 4.74
Corn ................................................ 4.71
Cottonseed oil ......................................... 4.70
Cod liver oil .......................................... 4.70
Goose fat ............................................. 4.75
Butter ................................................ 4.62
Mixed foods.
Beef stew ............................................. 4.84
Mince pie ................................. .......... 4.97
Animal foods.
Hay, Specimen I...................................... 4.80
" " II ..................................... 4.86
Cottonseed meal ...................................... 4.66
Linseed meal .......................................... 4.76
Gluten " . 4.85
Excreta.
Human feces .......................................... 4.97
Steer " .......... ..................... 4.84

to measure directly the oxygen involved in the combustion of a

food and, taking into consideration the general character of the
substance being burned, to apply the heat factor previously de-
786 Energy Values of Foods and Excreta

termined from the actual combustion of similar materials. A

rather extensive series of such factors is presented in this paper
(see Table II), together with a description of the method for
the direct determination of the oxygen absorbed in the combustion.
This procedure obviously requires a combustion chamber, a
method of ignition, and the control of the combustion, in order to

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insure complete conversion of all the carbon and hydrogen in the
sample to carbon dioxide and water and the liberation of nitrogen
in the free form in the case of nitrogenous materials. A known
weight of substance is burned in a confined volume of nearly pure
oxygen, with provision for the rapid absorption by soda-lime of
the carbon dioxide produced and the return of the purified oxygen
to the combustion chamber. The contraction in volume due to
the absorption of oxygen in the process of combustion may be
measured by a small expansion chamber, the top of which is
brought back to its original level by introducing a measured
volume of air or oxygen after the combustion ceases, or it may be
measured by noting quantitatively on a calibrated spirometer
bell the decrease in the apparent volume of air in the entire
apparatus.
The application of this principle in the estimation of the heating
value of fuels has already been described elsewhere (2). The ap-
paratus perfected for this purpose has been styled the "oxy-
calorimeter," since it measures the heat indirectly by reference
to the oxygen consumption. This most precise form recognizes
the necessity for great accuracy in the estimation of the energy
value of fuels, because of their high economic value and financial
importance. Hence in the measurement of the contraction in
volume of oxygen in this special form of apparatus every effort
is made to secure standard, reproducible conditions of tempera-
ture, pressure, and particularly humidity.
When the energy values of foods and excretory products are
to be studied, however, a simpler device with a sufficiently high
degree of accuracy to meet all conditions in problems in nutrition
may be employed. Thus, any one of the numerous simple forms
of closed circuit respiration apparatus may readily be adapted to
the direct determination of the oxygen consumption involved in
the combustion of a known weight of previously dried food mate-
rial, and this type of apparatus is especially recommended for use in
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 787
hospitals, dietetic laboratories, and particularly those institutions
already possessing some simple form of respiration apparatus.
The fundamental principle of the apparatus remains the same.
Since, however, the error in the sampling of foods and excreta
may be as high as 5 per cent or more, special provisions for the
control of temperature, pressure, and particularly humidity are

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entirely unnecessary and, indeed, not justified.
The combustion chamber and method of ignition are common to
all forms of the oxy-calorimeter, but several methods for the
measurement of the oxygen absorption are available.

FIG. 1. The student respiration apparatus employed as an oxy-calorim-

eter for determining the energy values of foods, feedingstuffs, and excreta.

Use of the Student Respiration Apparatus as an Oxy-Calorimeter.

Of the various forms of apparatus for the measurement of the
oxygen consumption of humans the simplest, accurate form with
which we are familiar is that described by the Nutrition Labora-
tory as a "student form of respiration apparatus" (3). This ap-
paratus, when combined with a combustion chamber and a motor-
blower device for controlling the ventilation of the system, serves
equally well for measuring the oxygen absorption during the com-
bustion of a sample of food or excreta. The details of the ap-
788 Energy Values of Foods and Excreta
paratus, as thus set up, are shown in Fig. 1. A main feature of the
student respiration apparatus is a copper can, B, two-thirds filled
with soda-lime and covered with a pure gum, rubber bathing
cap, D. When this apparatus is used as an oxy-calorimeter, the
usual inspiratory and expiratory valves are removed and the ap-
paratus is connected -witha combustion chamber, A, and a motor-

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blower unit, C.
Combustion Chamber.-The combustion chamber consists of a
water-sealed, glass vessel, a lamp chimney of standard size,
preferably of a glass such as Pyrex with a low coefficient of ex-
pansion. The lower end of the chimney is sealed in water in a
brass cup, through which is passed a inch standard brass pipe
and two rods of nickel or nickel alloy, fitted with electric binding
posts at the bottom, one of which is insulated from the brass base
by hard rubber washers. Into the upper part of the brass pipe
wide slots have been sawed so as to make three prongs into which
a nickel crucible is easily placed, thus providing sufficient space
to allow the free passage of oxygen between the bottom of the
crucible and the opening in the pipe. The upright inch pipe
in the base is screwed into a standard inch elbow. In the top of
the lamp chimney is placed a one-hole rubber stopper carrying a
standard inch brass pipe, 15 mm. in internal diameter. This
is fitted to a tee at the top provided with a rubber stopper, e,
and a side connection of inch standard pipe, which is connected
by a rubber hose to the blower, C. At no point in the circuit is
there an increased or decreased pressure sufficient to cause the
water to leave the water seal. This seal does away with all
possibilities of leaks at this point.
Rotary Blower.-The circulation of the air in the apparatus
should be not far from 30 liters per minute, and a rotary blower of
good construction is essential. In this combustion system a
simple rotary air impeller is sufficient. A very satisfactory simple
blower' connects directly with a 110 volt motor, and the length
of bearing through the housing of the blower and the lubrication
are such as to insure absence of leaks. The rate of speed may be
controlled by a simple resistance in the line. The actual dis-

1 This blower, and indeed the entire apparatus, can be obtained from
W. E. Collins, 584 Huntington Avenue, Boston, Mass.
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 789
charge of oxygen to the combustion chamber may further be
regulated by placing a large screw pinch-cock on the rubber tube
connecting the blower and the lamp chimney.
Ignition.-The electrical method of ignition, commonly em-
ployed in the calorimetric bomb, is likewise here used. From
the diagram in Fig. 2 it is seen that by closing the electric circuit

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with a key or push-button a 110 volt current is caused to pass
through a heating resistance of about 20 ohms, through an in-
sulated nickel alloy post in the base of the combustion chamber,
and across a fine iron wire (75 mm. long and No. 33 B and S gauge,
i.e., 0.18 mm. in diameter) which is attached between the two

FIG. 2. Details of electric circuit used in ignition of substance in the

combustion chamber of the oxy-calorimeter.

nickel alloy posts. On closing the circuit by the key, the wire is
burned by the 5 amperes of current and the circuit is automati-
cally broken. On releasing the key or push-button there is no
arcing. The iron wire used for ignition is simply held in place by
inserting the two ends in holes drilled in the ends of the two nickel
alloy rods, and then putting bits of alloy rod, slightly smaller in
diameter and tapered, in the tops of these holes to crowd down and
hold the wire in place. The holes are 4 mm. in diameter and 10 or
15 mm. deep. Any resistance of 20 ohms, capable of withstanding
5 amperes, may be used. A common, inexpensive heating re-
sistance employed in small, portable, electric stoves or electric
790 Energy Values of Foods and Exereta
heaters has been found very satisfactory. This resistance screws
into an ordinary lamp base. The oxygen required to burn the
iron wire, computed to be about 5 cc., should be taken into ac-
count in the final calculation of results.
Soda-Lime.-With the student form of respiration apparatus
the quality of the soda-lime is entirely immaterial, so long as it

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absorbs carbon dioxide. We have commonly used either some
of the patent soda-limes on the market or a modified form of
Haldane soda-lime.
Preparation of Samples.-As in any bomb calorimeter, the
material must be sufficiently dry to burn readily, and preliminary
desiccation is therefore generally necessary. Approximately 1
or 2 gm. of the air-dry material, accurately weighed in a nickel
crucible, are ample for the combustion. Usually sufficient ma-
terial is employed to insure that the apparent volume of oxygen
absorbed is between 2 and 3 liters.
Crucible.-The sample is laid loosely in a pure nickel crucible,
spun or stamped out of sheet nickel, 0.5 mm. thick. These cru-
cibles are 22 mm. deep, with a diameter at the top of 32 mm., and
have a total capacity of 9 cc.
Oxygen-Measuring Device.-In the arrangement as shown in
Fig. 1 the soda-lime for the absorption of the carbon dioxide is
inside of the can, and the contraction in volume, or the oxygen
absorbed, is measured by noting the amount of air which must be
admitted to the respiration apparatus to bring the index button
on top of the flexible rubber bathing cap, D, back to its initial
point at the beginning of the test; i.e., in contact with the index
needle. This measurement is made in a most simple manner by
means of the pump, E, which is an automobile grease pump
slightly modified (4). At the beginning of the experiment the
system is filled by admitting pure oxygen through the pet-cock, n.
At the start the bathing cap, D, is well depressed into the can,
B, and the stopper, e, at the top of the combustion chamber is
removed. On replacing the stopper, the bathing cap is distended
gradually by the further introduction of oxygen, until the index
button just touches the needle. The motor-blower is then started
and the substance is ignited. At the bottom of the combustion
chamber is an elbow with a rather long pipe, b, leading to the
pipe in the base of the can, B. It is essential that the pipe, b,
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 791
should telescope well over the pipe in the bottom of the can, in
order to have a "metal to metal" joint, the final closure being
made by a short piece of rubber tubing. With this type of closure
the heat from the combustion will never be sufficient to damage
the rubber, much less ignite it. Ordinarily no cooling is neces-
sary, although one can, if necessary, easily lay a wet cloth on the

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pipe, b.

Standardizationby the Combustion of Sucrose.

A description of the use of the student respiration apparatus
in the combustion of pure sucrose, which serves as an excellent
substance for standardization tests, will illustrate the general
method of employment in burning any foods or excreta. From
2 to 2.5 gm. of pure sucrose are put in the nickel crucible, which
is then placed inside the combustion chamber. The ignition
wire is attached to the two upright nickel alloy rods, and a small
pinch of powdered pumice stone is sprinkled about the wire where
it rests on the sucrose. After the lamp chimney has been replaced
in the water seal, the whole system is filled with oxygen, the rubber
stopper is inserted in the top of the lamp chimney, and the bathing
cap is brought to the position of contact with the index needle.
The motor is then started and the substance is ignited. The
brilliancy of combustion is such that colored glasses should be
worn by the operator.
The small amount of powdered pumice stone on the surface
of the sugar makes the ignition certain. The inch pipe conduct-
ing oxygen into the combustion chamber restricts the discharge
so that the oxygen impinges directly upon the surface of the burn-
ing sugar. This tends to control the combustion, prevents the
substance from frothing unduly, and prevents particles of charred
sugar from being blown out of the crucible. Usually the combus-
tion is complete, leaving no residue except the ash from the pumice
stone, at the end of 1 or 2 minutes.
After the combustion has ceased and the combustion chamber
has returned to its original temperature and the ventilation is
stopped, the bathing ap is considerably depressed, corresponding
to the decrease in volume of the gas inside of the system, which
represents the apparent volume of oxygen consumed. To deter-
mine the oxygen consumed the pump, E, is used. This pump is

THE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. LXVI, NO. 2

792 Energy Values of Foods and Excreta
connected directly with the 3-way valve, f, which communicates
through a pipe with the calcium chloride tube, d, at the top, and
likewise communicates with the can, B. With the valve in the
position shown in the diagram, the piston of the pump is drawn
out and the pump becomes filled with dry air,dried by the calcium
chloride in d, and at the end of the stroke this air is at the prevail-

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ing atmospheric pressure. The temperature is obtained from a
thermometer placed with its bulb resting on the barrel of the
pump or placed in a small tee in the rubber hose connecting the
pump and the 3-way valve. The operator's hands must never
touch the barrel of the pump. By turning the valve, f, 90 ° ,
this pumpful of dry air may be discharged into the can, B, thus
refilling and finally distending the rubber cap, D. With the type
of pump commonly furnished with this apparatus each complete
stroke corresponds to not far from 350 cc., or exactly 1.872 cc.
per mm. length of stroke. By repeating this operation successive
pumpfuls of dry air are discharged into the can until, at the end,
a fraction of a pump stroke will be necessary to bring the index
button on top of the bag just in contact with the vertical needle.
From the number of full pump strokes, plus the actual length of
the fractional pump stroke at the end, the total amount of dry
air (at room temperature and the prevailing atmospheric pressure)
required to replace the oxygen absorbed by the weight of sub-
stance burned is easily calculated.
This particular form of oxy-calorimeter was controlled by
numerous combustions of pure sucrose, lactose, benzoic and
salicylic acids, and typical nitrogen-containing substances such
as uric and hippuric acids, and gave results in excellent agreement
with the theoretical amount of oxygen required in the combustion
of 1 gm. of the substance.

Calculation of Results of a Combustion of Salmon Salad Sandwich,

Using the Student Form of Apparatus.
A typical calculation of the heat of combustion of a sample of
mixed food is that for a salmon salad sandwich. The apparent
volume of oxygen absorbed during the complete combustion of the
sample was measured when almost six full strokes of the air pump
were needed to bring the bag back to its original position. The
apparent volume of air introduced is computed from the internal
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 793

diameterof the pump and the length and numberof strokes. There
is no aqueous tension to be considered, for the air drawn into the
pump is first dried by passing it over calcium chloride. The
apparent volume may then be reduced to 0°C. and 760 mm. by
the formula

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273 p
273 + t 760

in which t is the temperature of the pump barrel, and p the ob-

served barometer.
By using the tables prepared by Carpenter (5) for reducing
volumes of dry air to 0°C. and 760 mm. the formula can be more
simply stated:
(IXKXm)-5

in which is the total length of strokes through which the pump

traveled, K is the constant apparent volume of a mm. stroke of
the pump, m is the reduction factor at t and p, 5 represents the
correction for the cc. of oxygen used in the ignition of the wire,
and W is the weight of the dried sample of salmon salad sandwich.
In this particular case represents five full strokes of the pump,
each of 185.5 mm., plus a fraction of a stroke which was 180 mm.
long. The total length of strokes was therefore (5 X 185.5 mm.)
+ 180 mm. or 1107.5 mm. K equals 1.872 cc. per mm. length of
stroke. The temperature, t, was 26.5 0 C., and the pressure, p,
was 756 mm., making the reduction factor, m, equal 0.907. The
correction for ignition of the wire is 5 cc. The sample burned
weighed 1.9932 gm. The formula therefore becomes
(1107.5 X 1.872 x 0.907)-5
V =1.993 = 941
1.9932
The nitrogen in the sample was found to be 3.1 per cent by
weight, or 25 cc. per gm. of substance. This volume of nitrogen
took the place of oxygen absorbed and should therefore be added
to the amount of oxygen measured per gm.; i.e., 941 + 25 = 966
cc. The last figure represents the volume of oxygen required to
burn completely 1 gm. of the salmon salad sandwich.
Although no proximate analysis of the material was made, one
794 Energy Values of Foods and Excreta
can readily assume that it was made up in large part of carbohy-
drate and hence the calorific value of oxygen would probably be
somewhat less than that for pure starch, i.e., 5.06.
In this case and in the case of all the substances burned in con-
nection with this paper direct estimations of the heat of combustion
by a standardized bomb calorimeter were made. According to

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the combustion in the bomb calorimeter, each gm. of the sample
of salmon salad sandwich had an energy value of 4826 calories.
The calorific equivalent of 1 liter of oxygen in the case of this
material therefore is 5.00 calories (4826 + 966).

Use of Standard Respiration Apparatus of the Closed Circuit Type

as Oxy-Calorimeters.
Numerous laboratories in the United States possess one of the
many types of respiration apparatus using some form of spirom-
eter for measuring the oxygen consumption of humans. In such
laboratories, obviously, it is extremely simple to attach the com-
bustion chamber, A, and the motor blower, C, to the respiration
apparatus and with equal facility obtain the data with regard to
the oxygen consumption per gm. of substance burned. Such
respiration apparatus is usually provided either with respiratory
valves or with a mechanical device for circulating the air. The
soda-lime for absorbing carbon dioxide is generally inside of the
spirometer. In some of the Nutrition Laboratory's earlier forms
of apparatus the soda-lime was placed in a bottle outside. By
far the greater number now have the soda-lime inside of the spirom-
eter. The attachment of the combustion chamber to this type
of apparatus is extremely simple. In the case of those apparatus
having the blower inside, it is necessary to remove the blower and
attach the combustion chamber and external rotary blower to the
two openings in the bottom of the spirometer in such a manner
that the air leaving the combustion chamber (being rich in carbon
dioxide) enters the base of the soda-lime can and is purified during
its passage through it. Some spirometers have two separate
elbows at the bottom; in others there is one casting or fitting com-
bining both exit and entrance.
The use of this latter type of spirometer is pictured in Fig. 3.
The combustion chamber, A, and motor-blower unit, C, are con-
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 795
nected with the fittings at the bottom of the spirometer. The
air is conducted from the combustion chamber through the pipe,
b, with its "metal to metal" connections, is forced upwards through
the soda-lime in the can, B, passes into the spirometer bell, D, and
then down around the soda-lime can and out through the fitting
connecting directly with the blower, C. The air delivered to the

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combustion chamber, therefore, is always free from carbon dioxide.
The contraction of the spirometer bell, D, is noted by a pointer
attached to a counterweight traveling over a mm. scale. The

FIG. 3. Another type of simplified oxy-calorimeter for determining

the energy values of foods, feedingstuffs, and excreta.

humidity of the air inside the bell is determined by the moisture

content of the soda-lime. The contraction of air, which represents
the apparent volume of oxygen used, is in ordinary respiration
experiments calculated by rather empirical formulas, based on a
large number of actual control tests (6).
This apparatus, as pictured in Fig. 3, was likewise controlled
by several combustions of pure sucrose, and most satisfactory
results were obtained. Its use in the actual combustion of a food
796 Energy Values of Foods and Excreta
is exemplified by the following typical calculation, based upon the
combustion of a sample of doughnut.
Calculation of Results of a Combustion of Doughnut, Using the
Benedict-Collins (7) Portable Respiration Apparatus, with
Wilson Soda-Lime inside the Spirometer.

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For this calculation the same formula would be used as given
for the student form of apparatus of Benedict and Benedict,
namely
(V
(IX KX m)-5
W

In this particular combustion the apparatus used was the Benedict-

Collins apparatus (8) similar to the Roth modification (7); i.e.,
the blower was not inside the bell and the carbon dioxide entered
the soda-lime before entering the bell proper. The volume of air
in the spirometer is larger than that in the usual Roth modifica-
tion, however, and the correction for the rise in temperature of
the bell (which is applied directly to the spirometer reading) is
therefore 1.8 mm. for each degree (Centigrade) change in tempera-
ture. Therefore I would equal the corrected fall of the spirometer
bell; i.e., the apparent fall plus the temperature correction. K
is the bell factor, and m is the reduction factor for temperature and
pressure. In finding the value of m in the standard tables pub-
lished by Carpenter (5) it should be taken into consideration that
in this apparatus the air is partially saturated. The reduction
factor should therefore be calculated on the basis of dry air, but
Roth's correction (7) of minus 2 per cent for saturated air should
be applied to the final reduced volume. The subtraction of 5 cc.,
due to the ignition of the wire, should be made as usual.
In the particular combustion used for illustration, equals
108.0 mm. plus 7.7 mm. (correction for the rise of 4.3°C. in tem-
perature) or 115.7 mm. The constant, K, is 21.32 cc. for this
apparatus. The average temperature during the combustion was
22.9°C., and the barometer read 770 mm. The reduction factor,
m, for this temperature and pressure is 0.935. The weight, W,
of the sample was 2.0570 gm. The formula thus becomes
(115.7 X 21.32 X 0.935 X 0.98) - 5
V -= - 1,096
2.0570
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 797
The nitrogen content was found to be 1.1 per cent by weight or
9 cc. per gm. of substance. The total amount of oxygen required
to oxidize 1 gm. of the doughnut is therefore 1096 plus 9 or 1105
cc. In view of the well known fatty nature of the doughnut a
calorific value of oxygen lying somewhere between 5.06 (that for
starch) and 4.7 (that for fats) should be used. An average figure

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of 4.85 would be plausible. Actual determination of the factor
was made by combustion of the substance in a bomb calorimeter,
in which it was found that each gm. of the sample of doughnut
had an energy value of 5331 calories. The calorific equivalent of
I liter of oxygen in the case of the doughnut, therefore, is 4.82
calories (5331 - 1105).

Calorific Value of the Oxygen Involved in the Combustion of Various

Foods, Feedingstuffs, and Feces.
The calorific value of oxygen, as found with the oxy-calorimeter
and the bomb calorimeter, for pure cane sugar agrees perfectly
with the theoretical value. The calorific values of oxygen de-
termined with the oxy-calorimeter and the bomb calorimeter,
when burning the pure substances, lactose, benzoic, salicylic,
hippuric, and uric acids, have also been found to be in full accord
with the theoretical values. Of special moment in connection
with this article, however, are the actually determined calorific
values of oxygen in the case of various foods and feedingstuffs and
the excreta of man and beasts. A number of such substances
were burned and the details of the calorific values of oxygen are
given in Table II.
From Tables I and II it is seen that the range in the calorific
value of oxygen is extremely small, the lowest value being that for
protein (4.60) and the highest values those for carbohydrates.
But since much of the food of man and practically all of the food
of domestic animals is of a high carbohydrate nature, the calorific
value of most foods will be not far from that of carbohydrates,
that is, circa 5.0 calories per liter of oxygen consumed. While
there are occasionally some seeming irregularities in the values in
Table II, in general the factor is not far from 4.68 for the nitrogen-
rich substances such as protein, 4.70 for fats, and nearly 5.0 for
the substances of a high carbohydrate nature.
In the determination of the basal metabolism of humans it is
798 Energy Values of Foods and Excreta

common custom to assume that each liter of oxygen consumed

under basal conditions has a calorific value of 4.825. This implies
that 12 hours after the last ingestion of food there is a metabolism
of mixed carbohydrate and fat. In general the use of this factor,
4.825, would be thoroughly justified in all estimations of the
calorific value of foods. Slightly greater refinement may be made,

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however, by classifying the foods somewhat as in Table II. If a
food substance is obviously of a fatty nature, with visible fat, one
would be justified in using the factor 4.7. If a composite sample
of all the meals during a day were to be taken, it would be thor-
oughly justifiable to consider that the calorific value of each liter
of oxygen required to burn such a sample would be represented by
4.825, while in the case of substances containing a great pre-
ponderance of carbohydrate the high value of 5 would be more
representative. In any case it is clear that these factors would
lie far inside of the limit of accuracy which it is possible to obtain
in preparing a sample of mixed food for combustion.

SUMMARY.

A method has been developed and tested in the Nutrition

Laboratory for the indirect determination of the energy values of
foods, feedingstuffs, and excreta. The fundamental principle
involves the direct measurement of the oxygen consumed during
the combustion of a known weight of a substance and the computa-
tion therefrom of the potential energy of the substance by means
of a series of factors for the calorific value of a liter of oxygen pre-
viously established with a bomb calorimeter. The apparatus
embodying this principle has been styled the "oxy-calorimeter."
A brief description is given of the combustion chamber and the
device for ignition of the substance, and the adaptation of simple
respiration apparatus as oxy-calorimeters is discussed in detail.
Illustrations of the calculation of results are given, together with
tables listing the calorific values of oxygen for some commonly
metabolized compounds and for a number of various foods and
excreta. This simple form of oxy-calorimeter is recommended
especially for hospitals, dietetic laboratories, and those institutions
already possessing one of the numerous simple forms of closed
circuit respiration apparatus. Average calorific values of oxygen
for use in connection with determinations with the oxy-calorimeter
 F. G. Benedict and E. L. Fox 799
are suggested as follows: for nitrogen-rich substances 4.68 calories
per liter of oxygen; for fats 4.7 calories; for carbohydrate-rich
foods 5.0 calories; for a mixed diet of carbohydrates and fats
4.825 calories; and for feces 5.0 calories.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. Carpenter, T. M., Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. No. 03 A,
1924, Table 34, 124.
2. Benedict, F. G., and Fox, E. L., Ind. and Eng. Chem., 1925, xvii, 912.
3. Benedict, F. G., and Benedict, C. G., Boston Med. and Surg. J., 1923,
clxxxviii, 567; Skand. Arch. Physiol., 1923, xliv, 87. Benedict, F. G.,
in Abderhalden, E., Handbuch der biologischen Arbeitsmethoden,
Berlin, 1924, Abt. IV, Teil 10, 608.
4. Benedict, F. G., Boston Med. and Surg. J., 1925, cxciii, 813.
5. Carpenter, T. M., Carnegie Institution of Washington, Pub. No. 303 A,
1924, Tables 9 and 10, pp. 71-102.
6. Carpenter, T. M., and Fox, E. L., Boston Med. and Surg. J., 1923,
clxxxix, 551.
7. Roth, P., Boston Med. and Surg. J., 1922, clxxxvi, 457, 501.
8. Benedict, F. G., and Collins, W. E., Boston AMed. and Surg. J., 1920,
clxxxiii, 449.
A METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
THE ENERGY VALUES OF FOODS AND
EXCRETA
Francis G. Benedict and Edward L. Fox
J. Biol. Chem. 1925, 66:783-799.

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