CYLINDERS, TANKS AND PIPES

I. Introduction:
Cylindrical and spherical tanks are used to store liquids, vapors and gases under pressure. Pipes
are used to transmit fluid under pressure. The material of the tank or pipes is subjected to tensile
stresses which are at right angles to each other. The thickness of the pressure vessel (i.e, tank or
cylinder) must be such that the stresses induced are within limits. Extreme care in the design of
pressure vessel is necessary as the failure of such a vessel in service involves heavy loss of life
and property.

2. Design of thin cylinders:

A thin walled cylinder is one in which the stresses may be assumed uniformly distributed over
the wall thickness. Boilers, pressure vessels, steam pipes, water pipes, etc. are usually treated
as thin cylinders. For practical purposes, if the cylinder has a ratio of (t / D) of 1/10 or less, it is
said to be a thin cylinder.

Area of failure under Hoop

Pressure = 2.l.t

Pressurized Area under

Pressure = D.l

Failure along longitudinal

section FIG..I(a)

There are two ways in which the failure of thin cylinder may occur as shown in Fig.1.
Thin cylinder may burst along a longitudinal seam as shown in fig.1 (a) or it may fail across a
transverse section as shown in fig. 1(b).

P fS P

Failure across transverse section FIG. ...I(b)

In order to determine the failure of a thin cylinder along a longitudinal seam, we consider the
equilibrium of half the cylinder. For equilibrium, the internal pressure force is balanced by
tangential or circumferential or hoop stresses, which act over an area of 2.l.t.
If ft be the intensity of induced tangential stress, then resistance to bursting = 2.l.t.ft.
The pressure p acts over the horizontal projected area D.l.
Hence, for equilibrium, p.D.l = 2.ft.l.t
 p.D
Tangential Stress, ft = --------- ................................... (i)
2t
p.D
Thickness of the plate, t = -------- ............................... (ii)

2. ft

For equilibrium on a transverse section, fig.l (b), the pressure p acting on the area of the end plates,
0.784 x D2 is balanced by the longitudinal stress, ft acting on a transverse area, equal to

. D.t.
Tearing Area of Shell = . D.t.
Pressurized Area = 0.784. D2 p.D
For equilibrium, 0.784. D2. p = . D.t.ft or ft = ------ ……..(iii)
4t
Thus we see that both these stresses are independent of the length of the Cylinder. The
Circumferential stress is twice the longitudinal Stress, the pipe will rupture along a line running
longitudinally along the pipe.
In design of thin cylinders, in order to determine the thickness of the cylinder, we use the formula
p.D
t = -------- …………………………………………… (iv)
2ft.

In constructing large pressure vessels or storage tanks such as boilers, coal bunkers, air
receivers, etc. several plates may be used which necessitates the use of welded joints or riveted
joints in joining together the ends of the plate. So while designing the thickness of the pressure
vessels, we must consider the efficiency of the joints. If  be the efficiency of the longitudinal joint,
then
p.D
t = ------- ……………………………………………(v)
2 ft. 
In designing steam boilers, the thickness calculated from equation (v) should be compared with
the plate thickness set forth by Indian Boiler Regulations. Should the calculated thickness be
less than that required by I.B.R., the thickness determined from I. B. R. should be adopted. It
should be remembered that the design of boilers should confirm with I. B. R.
For cylindrical shells, barrels, steam and water drums and domes. of boilers, the maximum
working pressure per sq in. to be allowed shall be calculated from the following formula:
(t- 2) x S x J
W.P. = ---------------- ……………………………………(vi)
CxD

where, W.P. = Working Pressure, in lbs/sq.in.

t = Thickness of Shell Plate, in 32 nd. of an inch.
S = Minimum Tensile Breaking Strength of the shell Plate in Tons / sq.in.
J = Percentage Strength of the longitudinal Joints.
C = 2.75 for Double Butt Strap Longitudinal Joints.
D = Inner Diameter of Boiler Shell in inch.
Example # 01: A cylindrical shell of 2.2 metre diameter is constructed of mild steel plate. The
shell is subjected to an internal pressure of 8 kg/sq cm. Determine the thickness of the shell
plate by adopting a factor of safety 6. The ultimate tensile strength of the steel is 4,700 kg/sq
cm. The efficiency of the longitudinal joint may be taken as 78%.

Solution # 01: Ultimate tensile strength 4700

The working stress of the material, ft = -------------------------------------- = ------- = 783 Kg/sq.cm.
Factor of safety 6

The thickness of the plate is given by;--

p.D 8 x 2.2 x 100
t = ------------ = -------------------- = 1.44 cm; adopted, t = 1.5 cm.
2 . fT .  2 x 783 x 0.78

Example # 02: Determine the thickness for the cylindrical portion of a water tube vertical
boiler of Spencer Hopwood type of 60" diameter and a working pressure of 150 psig. The
longitudinal joint is double-riveted butt joint with two butt straps, the efficiency of which may
be assumed to lie between 70 to 83%. Ultimate tensile strength of the steel plate is 28 tons/sq
in. Assume a factor of safety to be 4.

Solution # 02: The thickness of the plate is given by;--

p.D 150 x 60 working Stress = UTS / FoS
t = ----------- = ------------------------- = 0.41”; adopted , t = 7/16” = 28 / 4 = 7
2 . fT .  2 x 7 x 2240 x 0.7
Here the lowest value of efficiency has been considered i.e. 70%
According to IBR, the working pressure for a given thickness is governed by the formula (vi) above
(t- 2) x S x J [ 14 – 2] x 28 x 70 t =[ 7/16 = 14/32”] = 14
W.P. = ------------------- = ------------------------ J = Minimum Efficiency = 70%
CxD 2.75 x 60 C = 2.75 for double Butt Strap Longitudinal joint
= 143 psig
Since, the working pressure of Steam is less than the required one, the thickness of the Boiler shell is
increased to ½”. Verification done again;--
(16 --2) x 28 x 70
W.P. = ------------------------ = 166.3 psig, which > 150 psig, hence O.K.
2.75 x 60
 Sums to practice:
Problem # 01: Find the thickness of a cast iron pipe 45 cm diameter if it is required to sustain 6 kg/sq
cm inside pressure. Maximum stress in the pipe material is limited to 140 kg/sq cm. Ans. 10 mm.
Problem # 02: A compressed air cylinder for a laboratory use ordinarily carries approximately 70
kg/sq cm pressure at the time of delivery. The inside diameter of such a cylinder is 25 cm. If the steel
has a yield point of 2,300 kg/sq cm and a factor of safety 2.5 is adequate, calculate the required wall
thickness. Ans 10 mm
Problem # 03: For use in rural districts- fuel gas for home use is frequently stored in cylinders closed
by either hemispherical or dished ends. Considering such a tank of 100 cm in diameter to be a thin
cylinder made of steel having a permissible tensile stress intensity to be 700 kg/sq cm, determine the
thickness if the working pressure is not to exceed 18 kg/sq cm. Ans. 14 mm.
Problem # 04: A thin walled cylinder is closed at both ends and contains oil under a pressure of 10
kg/ sq cm. The inside diameter of the shell is 60 cm. If the yield point of the material is 2,500 kg/sq
cm and a factor of safety 3 is selected, determine the required wall thickness. Ans. 5 mm.
Problem # 05: Find the thickness of the metal necessary to make a copper steam pipe 30 cm
diameter with a longitudinal brazed seam. The inside Pressure is 11 kg/sq cm. The permissible
tensile stress intensity in copper is not to exceed 350 kg/sq cm. The efficiency of brazed joint is
: 78%. Ans.8 mm.
.
Problem # 06: Find the required shell thickness for a boiler 240 cm in diameter working on 15 kg/sq
cm gauge pressure and joint efficiency of 84%. The boiler shell Plate is made of mild steel having an
ultimate strength in tension of /3 kg/sq mm. A factor of safety 4.5 is adequate. . Ans. 23 mm.

Problem # 07: A vertical cylindrical gasoline storage tank is 25 metre in diameter. The maximum
level of gasoline is not to exceed 18 metre. The specific gravity oj gasoline is 0'72. If the yield point
of the shell plating is 2,400 kg/sq cm and a factor of safety, of 2.5 is adequate, calculate the
thickness of the wall of the storage tank. Neglect any localised bending effects.. Ans. 18 mm.

Problem # 08: A boiler shell, 7 feet mean diameter, is constructed of steel plate having an ultimate
tensile strength of 28 tons/sq in. It is subjected to an internal pressure of 250 psig. Calculate the
thickness of the shell Plates, assuming a factor of safety 5. The efficiency of the longitudinal joint is
80%. Check the thickness calculated with the formula given by Indian Boiler Regulations.
Ans.1and1/8”.
Problem # 09: A steel pipe, 50 cm diameter and 15 mm thick, is closed at the ends by bolted
flanges and used as a storage vessel for a fluid at a pressure of 14 kg/sq cm by gauge.
Connections to the pipe necessitate, in places, the use of longitudinal joints, the efficiency of which
may be taken as 80%. Each end flange is secured with 14 bolts which have core area of 5.6 sq
cm. To ensure joint tightness the bolts are screwed up to give a stress 5°% greater than that due to
pressure. If the pipe and bolt material has an ultimate strength of 43 kg/sq mm, compare the actors
of safety for the wall and the bolts. Ans. 2,245:1.
3. Design of a thin Spherical Shell:
When the material of construction is decided upon, the diameter and thickness of the spherical shell
are the items to be considered in design. The Diameter of the spherical shell is obtained from the
storage capacity of the shell.
If D is the Internal Diameter of the Spherical shell and V is the storage Capacity of the Shell,
4 . D3 . D3
V = Q = --- . ------- = ------- … … … … (i)
3 8 6

Spherical Shell Dished End

Fig. 02 Fig. 03
Let, p be the internal gauge pressure to which the shell is subjected and the thickness of shell is t.
(Fig. 02)
The Force tending to rupture the shell along the diametral plane ( projected area = 0.784 D 2) is
= (/4). D2. p. … … … … … … (ii)
The area of the Shell that resist the rupture of the Shell = .D.t
Let, fT is the permissible Tensile Stress intensity in the material of the shell.
Resistance of the Shell to rupture, [Area under Hoop Stress or Tensile Stress]
= . D. t. fT … … … … … … (iii)
Equating (ii) with (iii),;-
(/4). D2. p = . D. t. fT
D.p
So, t = ------ … … … … … … … (iv)
4fT
If the shell contains a circumferential joint of efficiency, , the permissible pressure will be reduced
and the necessary shell thickness will be
D.p
t = ---------- … … … … … … … (v)
4fT. 
In Boiler construction, Dished Ends are frequently used (fig. 03). The thickness of Dished End may be
computed, by equating the forces, as under;--
 . 2c . t . fT = [½ . ( .R2 +  . c 2)] . p
(R2 + c 2)
t = p . ------------- … … … … … (vi)
4. fT .c
p.D
If R = c i.e. Dished End is hemispherical, then t = ------ … (vii)
4fT
Example # 03: The air receiver consists of a cylinder, of 1 metre inside diameter, which is
closed by hemispherical ends. The pressure of compressed air inside the cylinder is not to
exceed 20 kg/sq cm. If the material is a steel whose yield point is 2,500 kg/sq cm and a factor
of safety of 3.5 is used, calculate the required wall thickness of the cylinder and thicknesses
of the hemispherical ends. Neglect localised effects at the Junction of cylinder and
hemisphere.
Solution # 03:
The permissible stress In the material = 2500 / 3.5 = 715 kg/sq cm.
The thickness of the cylindrical wall is given by
pD 20 x 100 where, p = Internal Pressure = 20 kg/cm 2
t = ----- = --------------- = 1.4 cm. D = Internal Dia. Of the Cylinder = 100 cm.
2fT 2 x 715 fT = Permissible Tensile Stress intensity in the
Adopted 14 mm. material of the shell = 715 kg/cm2
The thickness of the hemispherical ends is given by the formula
pD 20 x 100
t = ---- = ------------ = 0.7 cm.; adopted 8 mm.
4fT 4 x 715

Sums to practice:
Problem # 10: A bronze spherical pressure vessel of 2.5 metre diameter is installed in a chemical
plant. Such a pressure vessel is subjected to internal pressure of 11 kg/sq cm. Calculate the required
thickness oj the shell if the permissible stress in the bronze material is not to exceed 50 kg/sq cm.
Ans. 1.4 cm.
Problem # 11: To assist motorists, who have tyre trouble, many service stations bring a small
cylindrical tank, closed by hemispherical ends, .filled with compressed air to the scene of any
difficulty. Such a tank of 50 cm diameter when filled carries a pressure of 10 kg/sq cm. Neglecting the
bending effect in the vicinity of the connection of two elements, determine the thickness of the
cylindrical and spherical portion. Take the permissible stress in the material to be 560 kg/sq cm.
Ans: 6 mm;3 mm.

Problem # 12: A spherical metal vessel 120 cm diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 15
kg/sq cm. If the permissible stress in the metal is 625 kg/sq cm and the efficiency of the riveted Joints
is 75%, find the required thickness of the plate. Ans.1 cm.
4. Design of Pipes:
The pipes are generally made of cast iron, wrought iron, steel and brass. Cast iron pipes are made for
water and gas mains. They are also used for sewage system. For pressures up to 7 kg/sq cm, cast
iron steam pipes can be used. Wrought iron and steel pipes are used for conveying steam, air and oil.
Brass pipes are used in pressure lubrication system on prime movers. The steel and wrought iron
pipe may be lap welded, butt welded, solid drawn and riveted. The majority of pipes used for pressure
purposes are lap welded but for high pressure steam solid drawn pipes are preferred.
When the material of construction is decided upon, the main items of the design of the pipe are
internal diameter and thickness of the pipe. The main purpose of the pipe installation is to carry a
certain quantity of fluid from one point to another point. The velocity of the fluid in the pipe must be
specified. When the velocity of the fluid and the quantity to be handled are known, we can determine
the inner diameter of the pipe.
Let, D = the internal diameter of the pipe,
Q = the quantity of fluid to be carried by volume per unit time and V the velocity of fluid in the
pipe per unit time, then
Q = 0.784D2V or D= 1.13  ( Q/V) … … … … (i)
The thickness of the wall must be able to withstand internal fluid pressure. After we have
decided the inner diameter of the pipe, the thickness of the wall can be determined by the thin
cylinder formula
p.D
t = ------ … … … … … … … (ii)
2fT
If the thickness of the pipe is calculated from the thin cylinder formula, it will be found to be too
small to give rigidity required for practical purposes. For this reason the formula of the form
p. D
t = -------- + c is suggested for the thickness of the pipe.
2fT
The value of the constant c depends upon various circumstances. For cast iron pipes the thickness of
the pipe determined by calculations based on strength alone is often too small to produce good
casting. In such cases the thickness of the castings should not be less than a certain practicable
minimum, which depends upon the size of the pipe. These considerations hold good for any cast
material. The minimum thickness will differ for each material. The table on page 6 gives the average
values of minimum thicknesses for various castings.

According to Weisbaeh, the following values of constant ‘c’ are suggested:

Material Cast Iron Copper Lead Zinc Mild Steel

Value of c (in cm) 0.9 cm 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.3

For determining the thickness of cylindrical part of boilers, the thin cylinder formula is modified as
under:
p .D
t = -------+ c cm,
2ft
where c = 0.1 for t  3 cm, 0.05 for t >3 cm and 0.0 for t greater than 4 cm.
Example # 04: Determine the thickness of a cast iron pipe to carry 30 cu metre of compressed
air per minute at a pressure of 7 kg/sq cm. The velocity of air in the pipe is limited to 8 mps.
Solution # 04: The amount of air flowing per second = 30 / 60= 0.5 cu metre/sec.
Cross sectional area of the pipe = 0.5 / 8 = 0.0625 sq metre.
If D be the internal diameter of the pipe, then
0.7854 D2 = 0.0625 or D = 0.282 mtr or 28.2 cm., adopted 30 cm.

Let the permissible Tensile Stress in the Pipe material be 150 kg/cm 2.
Let, t = Minimum Thickness of the pipe
p. D 7 x 30
t = -------- = ------------ = 0.7 cm., adopted 10 mm.
2FT 2 x 150

Example # 05: A steam boiler has 75 sq metre of heating surface and the rate of evaporation
is 20 kg/sq metre/hour of heating surface. The pressure of steam generation is 8 kg/sq cm.
The specific volume of steam is 0.2448 cumetre /kg. Determine the diameter and thickness of
the steel steam pipe to carry .the steam from this boiler with a velocity of steam in the pipe at
25 metre/sec. The permissible tensile stress intensity in the pipe material is 400 kg/sq cm.

Solution # 05:
Amount of steam generated = 75 X 20 = 1,500 kg/hour.
1500 X 0.2448
Volume of steam flowing in the pipe = ------------------- = 0.1 cu metre/sec.-
60 X 60
If D be the diameter of the steam pipe, then 0.784 D2 x 25 = 0.1
or, D = 0.072 mtr. = 72 mm adopted 75 mm.
Let, t = Minimum Thickness of the pipe
p. D 8 x 75
t = -------- = ------------ = 0.075 cm., this is too small and as such adopted 3 mm thick drawn tube.
2FT 2 x 400

Sums to practice:
Problem # 13: Steel Pipe 300 cm diameter is used for penstocks in a hydraulic plant to guide the
water from the intake at the top of a Dam to the turbine placed at a vertical depth of 100 meter.
Calculate the necessary thickness of the pipe at the Turbine if the design stress for the pipe material
is not to exceed 700 kg/cm2 Ans : 22 mm.

Problem # 14: Determine the thickness of a cast iron pipe 25 cm internal diameter to withstand the
fluid pressure of 12 Kg/cm2. The stress intensity in the material of pipe is limited to 250 kg/cm2
Ans : 12 mm
Problem # 15: A Seamless Steel Tube is to carry 2,000 CuM of Superheated Steam per hour at a
steam pressure of 10 kg/cm2. The Velocity of Steam in the pipe is limited to 30mps. Determine the
minimum diameter of the Steam pipe, assuming the permissible Tensile Stress intensity to be 400
kg/cm2. Ans. 16 cm, 2 mm.
5. Design of thick cylinders:
In engineering we come across many cylinders or pressure vessels, which are frequently required to
operate under pressures up to 300 kg/sq cm or more. A cannon, while the projectile is traveling the
length of its barrel, may be considered a pressure vessel subjected to an internal pressure which may
exceed 2,500 kg/sq cm. Under such heavy pressures, the thickness of the wall of the pressure vessel
should be relatively large and so that the usual assumption regarding the uniform stress distribution in
the wall of the pressure vessel is not valid and the theory of thin cylinder cannot be applied.

Several theories have been suggested for the stress distribution in the wall of thick cylinders. Here,
the theory, which has been briefly described, is known as Lame's theory, and is based on maximum
normal stress. The assumptions are;--
(i) The material of the cylinder is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hook's law.
(ii) The cylinder is open at ends.
(iii) The pressure intensity, is axi-symmetrical as shown in figure below.

(a) (b)
Stresses in thick cylinders

In order to derive an expression for the stresses induced in the material, an element is cut from the
wall of the cylinder and by considering statics, geometry and mechanical properties of the material
and combining all the three we can derive a differential equation for the radial displacement of the
element considered. The solution of the differential equation gives the following general expressions
for the tangential and radial stresses at any radius r within the cylinder wall.
B
Tangential stress = fT = A + ---- … … … … (i)
2
r
B
Radial stress = fR = A -- ---- … … … (ii)
r2
where, A and B are the constants which are to be determined from the boundary conditions.
And r = any radius between inner and outer radius
These equations are known as Lame's general equations for the tangential and the radial stresses at
any radius r in the wall of a thick cylinder. These stresses are the maximum normal stresses in the
wall at the radius r.
In machine design, it is to be dealt as if the cylinders are subjected to internal pressure only.
In this case Lame's general equations for the Longitudinal and Radial Stress at any radius, r
will be;--
 . a2  . a2 b2 p.a2 b2
fT = p. --------------- + p . --------------- . ----- = ------------ ( 1 + --- ) … … (iii)
 (b2 -- a2 )  (b2 -- a2 ) r2 (b2 -- a2 ) r2

 . a2  . a2 b2 p.a2 b2
fR = p. --------------- -- p . --------------- . ----- = ------------ ( 1 -- --- ) ... … (iv)
 (b2 -- a2 )  (b2 -- a2 ) r2 (b2 -- a2 ) r2
where, a and b are the internal and external radii of the cylinder respectively.
p is internal pressure acting in the cylinder.
So, b - a is the thickness of the cylinder wall.
Radial stress, f R is always a compressive stress and
Tangential stress, f T is always a tensile stress
The maximum value of the tangential stress is at the inner radius and is equal to
a2 + b2
fT max = p . ----------- … … … … … (v) [here, r = a]
b2 – a2
The maximum value of the tangential stress is always greater than the internal pressure.

The maximum value of the radial stress is p and it occurs at the inner radius. The radial stress
vanishes at the outer radius which is not the case with the tangential stress.
2pa2
The tangential stress at the outer radius is ---------- … (vi) [here r = b ]
b2 – a2
Fig above explains the nature of stress distribution in the walls of a thick cylinder when subjected to
internal pressure.
From equation (v), we get;--
f a2 + b2 f+p (a2 + b2 ) + (b2 -- a2) 2b2
---- = ----------- or -------- = ----------------------------- = ---- = (b/a)2
2 2
p b -- a f -- p (a2 + b2 ) – (b2 -- a2) 2a2
f+p b b+a–a b –a t
or,  ( ------- ) = --- = --------------- = 1+ --------- = 1 + ---- [ here, t is the thickness of the
f–p a a a a Cylinder wall = b – a]
t f+p f+p
or, ---- =  ( ------- ) -- 1 So, t = a [  ( ------- ) -- 1] … …(vii)
a f–p f–p
this equation is based on Principal Stress in the wall and is valid for Brittle material e.g. Cast Iron,
Cast Steel, Aluminum, etc. From the above equation it is also clear that if p is  f , no thickness of the
cylinder wall can prevent failure. As such it is difficult to design a cylinder which will withstand fluid
pressure greater than allowable working stress for a given material. This problem is overcome by
using Compound Cylinder.

There are two techniques commercially adopted for the purpose. One method is shrinking one
cylinder over another cylinder. The inner diameter of the outer cylinder is smaller than the outer
diameter of the inner cylinder. The outer cylinder is heated and slipped over the inner cylinder. On
cooling, at junctions of two cylinders, contact pressure will be developed which will induce
compressive tangential stresses in the material of the inner cylinder and tensile tangential stresses in
the material of the outer cylinder. The entire assembly is effective in resisting internal pressure and
will withstand higher internal pressure than a single cylinder having the same over all dimensions.
The second technique makes use of the theory of plasticity. Temporary high internal pressure is
applied till the plastic state is reached near the inside of the cylinder wall, which results in a residual
compressive stress upon the removal of the initial pressure.