MODULE 1

ENERGY RESOURCES

Introduction: .
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work and power is the rate at which the energy is
consumed. Energy is required to do work, to provide warmth, to move people and
goods from one place to another, to cook, to run household appliances and machines.
Energy resources are generally defined as anything that can be used a source of energy.

Energy resources are classified as renewable and non-renewable resources. The sources
which are formed in the earth crust over millions of years and which get depleted with
their use are known as non-renewable sources of energy (conventional source).
Examples: Coal, Petroleum products, nuclear fuels, fossil fuels.
The sources which will not deplete with their use are known as renewable sources of
energy (non conventional source).
Examples: Solar energy, Wind energy, Hydel energy etc.

Differences between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy

Renewable energy resource
1. These energy sources are non-
exhaustible with their use.
2. These are pollution free (does not
cause harm to environment).
3. These are available free of cost.
4. Initial cost to extract the energy source Initial cost is less but maintenance cost is
is more, but maintenance cost is less.
5. The technology to extract the energy
sources is not yet completely developed
6. It is intermittently available
Examples: Solar energy, Wind energy,
Hydel energy.
Non-renewable energy resource
These energy resources are exhaustible
with their use.
Causes pollution (hazardous to
environment).
These are not directly available at free of
cost.
more.
The technology to extract the energy
sources is developed.
It is continuously available.
Examples: Coal, nuclear fuels, fossil fuels.

Solar Power:
Solar Constant: It is the radiation solar energy at the outer layer of the earth’s
atmosphere that has a mean value of 1370 watts per square meter. It is the average
amount of solar radiation received by the earth’s atmosphere, per unit area when the
earth is at its mean distance from the sun. It is equal to 1367.7 W/m².
Solar Radiation : It is the radiation energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion
reaction that creates electromagnetic energy. Solar radiation comes in many forms such
as visible light, radio waves, heat, x-rays and ultraviolet rays.
Solar radiation can be converted to other forms of energy by 3 processes.
 1. Helio Chemical process: Photosynthesis is a form of biological conversion of
solar energy into chemical energy called bio energy stored in plants.
2. Helio electrical process: It is generated by photovoltaic effect caused when the
sun is beamed on the semiconductor.
3. Helio thermal process: Radiant Solar energy is converted to thermal energy
(heat energy) by using a collector.
Example: Flat plate collector.

Flat Plate Collector

The principle usually followed is to expose a dark surface to solar radiation so that the
radiation is absorbed. A part of the radiation is then transferred to a fluid like air or
water. A schematic diagram of a liquid flat plate collector is shown in figure1(a.)

Figure 1(a) : Flat Plate Collector

It consists of an absorber plate on which solar radiation falls after coming through a
transparent cover usually made of glass. The absorber plate is coated black to absorb
solar radiation and transparent cover helps in reducing losses by convection and re-
radiation. The absorbed radiation is partly transferred to a liquid flowing through copper
tubes, which are fixed to the absorber plate. The liquid most commonly used is water.
The solar collector is usually insulated to avoid heat loss.
When conduction, convection and radiation losses during absorption, generation and
transfer are prevented, this method of solar energy conversion will have very high
conversion efficiencies even as high as 100%.

The use of glass cover serves as diathermanous medium permitting the short
wavelength solar radiation to be transmitted through it while blocking the long
wavelength radiation from surface of blackened sheet. Flat plate collectors are used for
wide variety of low temperature applications such as cooking, water heating, drying of
food grains & vegetables, seasoning of wood, desalination of water etc.
Solar Pond
Solar pond is a pool of saltwater that is used to collect and store solar energy. A salt
gradient solar pond consists of 3 layers as shown in Fig1(b)

1) An upper connective zone (UCZ) called surface zone of clear fresh water that
acts as solar collector. It is shallow in depth and is at atmospheric temperature.

2) The lower convective zone (LCZ) has the highest salt concentration and is the
zone that collects and stores solar energy in the form of heat. It is also called
storage zone. Salt concentration and temperature are nearly constant in this
zone.

3) The middle layer is the gradient zone or non convective zone (NCZ) which
separates lower and upper zone. This zone acts as transparent insulator between
upper and lower zones and permits the solar radiation to reach the lower zone
and entraps it there. Here salt concentration increases as depth increases creating
density gradient which does not allow water to rise or fall by natural convection.

Figure 1(b): Solar Pond

The trapped heat (solar energy) in the LCZ is taken off from pond in the form of hot
brine to an evaporator which acts as a heat exchanger and this heat in the form of steam
is fed to a turbine and generator coupled to turbine generates power.

Cold water from UCZ is fed to a condenser where droplets formed are pumped to heat
exchanger (evaporator). The cold water is again brought back to the UCZ and loop
continues. Salt is continuously added to bottom zone to maintain proper density and
surface layer is periodically washed with fresh water.
Solar ponds can lead to salt pollution of land & ground water if not sealed properly.
Largest operating solar pond in the world is located in Bhuj in Kutch district in Gujarat.
 Applications:
1) To generate electricity
2) Textile processing, dairy and cold storage
3) To dry agricultural products, timber & chemicals
4) It can be coupled with desalting unit to purify water

Solar photovoltaic principle

Solar energy can be directly converted to electrical energy by photovoltaic principle
conversion. Photovoltaic energy conversion is a technology that produces electricity
directly from sunlight without the use of a working fluid such as steam or gas. The basic
unit of a photovoltaic system is the solar cell. Figure 1(c) shows schematic
representation of a solar cell composed of pn semiconductor junctions.

p-type silicon

p-n junction

n-type silicon

Fig 1(c) Solar Photo voltaic Cell

The sun’s photons strike the cell on the micro thin p side and penetrate to the junction.
There they generate electron hole pairs and an electric potential is produced. When the
cell is connected to a load as shown the electrons will diffuse from n to p and causes the
current to flow. Solar cells are circular wafers about 76mm in diameter and 0.3mm
thick. A single cell produces a power of 1Watt at voltage of 0.5V. They are then
connected electrically in series parallel arrangement called a panel to produce the
required current and voltage.

Note:
Semi conductor are metals having electrical conductivity value falling between a
conductor (copper) and an insulator (glass)
Eg. Silicon, germanium, cadmium sulphide, gallium arsenide etc. Silicon is used
commonly because of its higher conversion efficiency, longer life and low cost.

1) n type silicon  Silicon with added materials like arsenic or phosphorous

2) p type silicon  Silicon with added materials like boron, gallium

A semiconductor device is made either form p-type or n-type base material into which
one or more impurities of the positive polarity are introduced to form p-n layers. The
interface between the layers having opposite polarity is called p-n junction.
Electric field (permanent) is built in the vicinity of p-n junction, because of charge
distribution & potential difference across the function.

Wind power (energy)

Wind energy is an indirect source of solar energy. It is the energy contained in the force
of the winds blowing across the earth’s surface. Wind energy can be converted into
mechanical energy for performing work such as pumping water, grinding grain by wind
mills & producing electrical energy by wind turbines. Wind energy is defined as the
kinetic energy associated with the movement of large masses of air over the earth’s
surface.

Formation of wind
During day the air above land heats up more quickly than the air over water. The warm
air over the land expands and rises and the heavier cooler air rushes in to take its place,
creating wind. At night the wind is reversal because the air cools more rapidly over the
land than over water. Wind flow pattern at a particular place remain constant year after
year. Average wind speeds are greater in hilly and costal areas then they are well inland.
Wind speed increases with height.

Principle of operation of wind mill

Windmill is the oldest device built to convert the wind energy into mechanical energy
used for grinding, milling & pumping applications. It consists of a rotor fitted with large
sized blades. This is mounted on a tall tower (with propeller on top). The wind blows
making the propeller to rotate, which turns a generator to produce electricity.
Schematic diagram of horizontal axis windmill is shown in Fig 1(d)

Figure 1(d): Wind Mill

Advantages of wind energy
1) It is inexhaustible/renewable source of energy
2) Wind energy is free, non polluting and cheap source of power
3) Best source to generate energy in remote area for rural areas.
Disadvantage
1) Large size conversion machines are necessary due to dilute form of energy.
2) High initial cost and low power coefficient.
3) Storage device is required to store energy when wind is good and use it when it
is calm.
4) Wind velocity is neither constant in magnitude nor in direction and varies from
bottom to top of a large rotor. This imposes cyclic loads on turbine blades.
5) It can be harnessed in selected places only & it is a fluctuating source as it
depends on velocity of wind.

Hydro power
Hydro energy is an indirect source of solar energy. This energy is converted into
mechanical energy and further into electrical energy in a hydro power station show in
figure 1(e)

Figure 1(e): Hydro-Power Station

Principal of electric power generation from Hydro power plants

Water from earth’s surface gets evaporated by solar heat and is transported by winds.
This results in rainfall. The rain water flowing as river can be stored to higher levels by
building dams across the river and released in a controlled way to get mechanical
power. The potential energy of water stored at a height is converted into mechanical
energy in water turbines. The mechanical energy produced by water turbines is further
converted into electrical energy by the electric generators which are coupled to water
turbines.
Merits
1) Electrical energy generation by hydro electric power plant is non polluting and
renewable source of energy.
2) Less maintenance and reliable
3) Hydro reservoirs can also be used to control flooding and irrigation
Demerits
1) Construction of giant dams alters ecology of upstream and downstream regions.
2) Dislocation of living activities
3) Submerging of agricultural lands .
4) Large dams are expensive to construct.

Nuclear Power
Nuclear energy is the chemical energy released during the splitting or fusing of atomic
nuclei. The amount of heat liberated due to nuclear fusion or fission may be utilized for
the generation of steam. This steam is then used to drive turbine coupled to generators
to generate electricity. From heavier unstable atoms such as Uranium, Thorium or very
light atoms like Hydrogen and its heavy isotopes the enormous energy can be produced
through nuclear reaction processes.

Most nuclear power plants are based on the fission of nucleus of U 235 atoms. This
nucleus is relatively unstable and can split into two or more fragments when struck by a
neutron. The splitting or fission yields energy together with emission of more neutrons,
which in turn cause further splits in other nuclei producing more energy and more
neutrons. This is known as chain reaction. Ref Fig 1(f).

Figure 1(f) : Nuclear Fission Reaction

Nuclear Power plant :

The device is which this chain reaction is initiated, sustained at a steady rate and
controlled is called a nuclear reactor. Figure1(g) shows the schematic diagram of a
Nuclear power plant.
It consists of a Nuclear reactor, a steam generator, a cooling water condenser, a cooling
tower, turbine and a generator. Control rods are housed inside the reactor vessel. These
rods are used to control the splitting of Uranium atoms. The reactor and steam generator
are housed inside a containment structure. The Nuclear reaction produces enormous
amount of heat, which is transferred into a steam generator where steam is produced by
reaction of heat with cooling water. This steam is led to the turbine using a steam line
and this steam is utilized to drive the turbine and hence generate power using a
generator. Here the radioactive steam/water never gets into contact with turbine.
 Figure 1(g): Nuclear Power Plant

Advantages of nuclear energy / power plants

1) Space required is less as compared to other conventional power plants.
2) Large storage facilities are not needed.
3) Nuclear power plant consumes small quantity of fuel.
4) Functioning of the plant is not affected by adverse weather conditions.
5) Can be used as alternate fuel to liquid, gaseous fuels.

Disadvantages
1) Initial cost of power plant is high.
2) Not suited for varying load conditions.
3) Storage involves much risk & if radioactive wastes are not disposed carefully
will have adverse / bad effect on inhabitants.
4) It requires trained personnel for handling the operation and maintenance of the
plant.
5) Maintenance cost of plant is high.

Steam Formation and Application of Steam

Steam: Steam is the vapour form of water. It is widely used in different process
industries like chemical industries, sugar factories pharmaceutical industries etc. It is
also used for power generation in steam power plants. Steam is generated in a closed
metallic vessel called boiler by heating water beyond its boiling point.

Formation of steam at constant pressure

Formation of steam takes place when water is continuously heated.Figure 1(h) below
shows steam generation process, by heating the water from 00 C at a constant pressure.
 Figure 1(h): Formation of Steam (mechanism)

Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston which moves freely in it. One Kg of water at
00C (ice) is taken in the cylinder and piston is loaded with weight ‘W’ to maintain
constant pressure as shown in fig (a).
When it is heated, temperature rises and it continues until boiling point is reached. The
temperature at which water begins to boil is called as boiling temperature or saturation
temperature. The volume of water also increases to V f as shown in fig (b).If this process
of heating is further continued, water begins to change its phase as shown in (fig)c and
wet steam formulation takes place. Wet steam is the seam which contains both water
particulars as well as vapour. Further addition of heat absorbs all water particles present
in it and converts wet steam into dry steam as shown in fig (d) whose volume is Vg. It is
called as dry saturated steam and it will be at saturation temperature (t s) .When dry
steam is further heated at constant pressure, its temperature and volume increases as
shown in fig (e). The steam obtained is called as superheated steam which is at t sup0C.
The superheated steam behaves as a perfect gas.

Temperature enthalpy diagram or T-H diagram

The formation of steam at constant pressure can be represented on temperature enthalpy
diagram as shown in figure 1(i) below. The various stages are:

Figure 1(i): Temperature – Enthalpy Diagram

i) Point A represents water (1Kg) which is taken in the cylinder (temperature is

00C)

ii) If it is heated at constant pressure the temperature rise until it reaches boiling
state

iii) The boiling point is shown on graph at ‘B’ which is at saturation temperature
(ts oC)

iv) Further addition of heat will cause change of phase.Point ‘C’ represents dry
steam where there will be no water particles.

v) Dry steam, if heated further temperature rises and this state is represented by
point ‘D’ which is at super heated temperature (T sup) and the steam known as
superheated steam.

Types of steam
1) Wet Steam: It is a mixture of liquid and vapour particles at saturation
temperature.
2) Dry steam: It doesn’t contain water particles at saturation temperature.
3) Superheated steam: When steam heated beyond its dry saturated state.

Note: Enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal energy and the product of the pressure
and volume. It is denoted by ‘H’
H=(u+pv/J)
For constant pressure steam generation process, the amount of heat supplied to water to
convert into steam is equal to the change in enthalpy.

Steam Boilers

A steam boiler or generator is a closed vessel in which the steam at the desired pressure
and temperature is generated from water by the application of heat. The steam generated
in the boiler will be having high pressure and temperature. This steam is passed through
a nozzle which increases the velocity. This high velocity steam passes through a turbine
which converts kinetic energy of steam into rotational energy. This rotational energy
when coupled to a generator, electricity is produced.

Classification of boilers:
a) According to relative position of water and hot gases
i. Fire tube or smoke tube boiler
ii. Water tube boiler
b) Depending on the location of furnace
i. Internally fired
ii. Externally fired
c) Depending upon the position of tubes (or axis of shell)
i. Horizontal
ii. Vertical
iii. Inclined
d) Depending upon the number of tubes
i. Single tube
ii. Multi tube (Multi tubular boiler)
e) Depending on the method of circulation of water and steam
i. Natural circulation
ii. Forced circulation
f) Depending on the use
i. Stationary
ii. Locomotive
iii. Marine
iv. Portable etc
g) Depending on the source of heat
i. Combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel
ii. Hot waste flue gases
iii. Electrical energy
iv. Nuclear energy etc

Lancashire Boiler
Lancashire Boiler is a horizontal, internally fired, natural circulation fire tube boiler. It
is used for supplying steam to stationary engines in factories and power stations. It
raises steam up to a pressure of 15 bar and maximum evaporative capacity of 8500 kg
of steam per hour. The boiler is widely used in sugar mills and chemical industries
where the steam is required for processing work.

Construction: It consists of a horizontal cylindrical shell with flat or dished ends. There
are two flue or furnace tubes, which extend over the entire length of the boiler. The flue
tubes are built up of several cylindrical rings or of corrugated in construction. The flue
tubes are made large in diameter at the front to accommodate the furnace and are
tapered to a smaller diameter at the rear end. There are 2 grates one for each flue tube
and two fire holes. At the back end of grate is a low fire brick bridge which prevents the
entry of unburned fuel and ash particles into flue tubes. A manhole is provided at the top
of the shell for cleaning the boiler and inspection or repairs. A mud hole is provided at
the bottom of the shell to remove the sediment, which gets accumulated.
The boiler shell is filled with water to three fourths of its volume which will submerge
both the flue tubes. The remaining space above the surface of water in the boiler shell is
the steam space.
The fuel is charged through the furnace doors. The fuel burns in the grates. The product
of combustion pass first through the flue tubes, then return along a brick built flue under
the boiler to front end. Here the hot gases divide and flow along the two side flues to the
rear end and then pass to the chimney. The steam is accumulated in steam space above
the surface of water and can be tapped off through the steam stop valve connected to an
anti-priming tube. Fig 1(j) shows Lancashire Boiler.

Advantages
1) It is simple in design and construction.
2) Easy to operate, clean and inspect.
3) Less maintenance.
4) Heating surface area per unit volume is more.
5) It can meet sudden demands of steam.
6) Overall efficiency of boiler is considerably large (about 85%).

Disadvantages
1) Occupies more floor space.
2) Formation of steam is slow.
3) Suitable for steam up to 20bar only.
4) The brickwork setting is expensive and trouble some in working.
5) The shell construction restricts the maximum working pressure.
 Figure 1(j) : Lancashire Boiler

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

It is a horizontal, externally fired, natural circulation, stationary water tube boiler. This
boiler raises steam normally between 10 bar to 20 bar at a steam rate of 200 kg per hour.
These are used in thermal power stations for generating large quantities of steam at high
pressure. This boiler is specially suited for thermal power stations, since it is capable of
coping up very quickly for the sudden increase in pressure and steaming rate at high
peak loads.Fig 1(k) shows Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.

Figure 1(k): Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

In this boiler, water passes through the tubes and hot gases flow over these tubes. The
tubes are placed at an angle of 150 to the horizontal. The tubes are 75-100mm in
diameter and about 600mm length. The water is introduced into the boiler drum through
the feed valve (water inlet valve).The water descends at the rear end into the drum take
header and passes up in the inclined water tubes. The hot gases from the furnace grate
are collected by the baffle plates.
As the hot gas passes they come in contact directly with water tubes. Now the water in
these tubes gets evaporated. The water and steam mixture now ascends through the
uptake header and reaches the boiler drum. The steam will get separated from the
surface of the water in the boiler drum. The steam from the steam space then fed into
the superheater where the steam is superheated. The steam from superheater is passed to
the steam stop valve. From the steam stop valve the superheated steam is passed over a
steam turbine to generate power.

Merits
1) Evaporation capacity is high.
2) The defective tubes can be replaced easily.
3) Efficiency is high compared to fire tube boiler.
4) Can be used in power plants for power generation.
5) It can meet sudden fluctuation of load.
6) Boiler can expand and contact freely due to flexible support structure.

Demerits
1) High initial and maintenance cost.
2) Most of the parts need to be assembled at the site.
3) Not suitable for mobile applications.
4) Water should be treated to avoid condensation problem in tubes.
Applications of steam

1) Steam is used in different process industries like chemical industries, sugar

factories, pharmaceutical industries etc.
2) Steam is used for power generation in steam power plants.
3) Steam is used for heating and as working substance in steam engines & steam
turbines.
4) For home heating in cold countries.
5) Saturated steam is used as heating source for process fluid heat exchangers, re
boilers, reactors, combustion air pre heaters and other type of heat transfer
equipment. (In a heat exchanger, steam raises the temperature of product by heat
transfer, after which it turns into condensate and is discharged through a steam
trap).
6) Superheated steam (heated to 200-8000C) at atmospheric pressure is easy to
handle and is used in household steam ovens.
7) Steam is used for propulsion (as driving force) in applications such as steam
turbines. Steam turbines are used for generation of electricity in thermal electric
power plants.
8) Superheated steam is often used in steam turbines due to more heat content and
to prevent damage to equipment as it does not pose corrosion problem.
 9) Other applications (propulsion/drive applications) include turbine driven
compressors or pumps. Example: gas compressors, cooling tower pumps.
10) Steam is used to clean a wide range of surface as in soot blower for cleaning
furnace walls to remove combusted deposits in boilers (boiler tube cleaning with
soot blowers).
11) Steam is used to add moisture to a process while at the same time supplying
heat. Steam is used for moisturization in the production of paper to avoid
microscopic breaks or tears of paper moving on high speed rolls.
12) Steam is used for Humidification in large commercial and industrial facilities
especially in cold climates for conditioning the air for indoor comfort,
preservation of books, records and infection control (dry saturated steam).

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