ASSIGNMENT ON FUNDAMNETAL THEORETICAL

CONCEPTS OF SURVEY RESEARCH AND CASE STUDY

METHODOLOGY

COMPILED BY

ANJANA VARADARAJAN

15-S211031
What is Research?

Psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline because the behavior of individuals
is subject to scientific scrutiny. The field is no more the study of mere intangible cognitive
processes but observable behavior. All sciences are based on empiricism i.e. evidence based,
objectivity, replication, control, predictability and hypothesis testing. The fact that the field
employed empirical data collection and research methods (i.e., systematic observation,
measurement, hypothesis testing, etc.) to understanding human conscious experience and
behavior calls the subject as a science.

Fred Kerlinger defines research as a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. In short, the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is
research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of theory is
also research.

To help understands the emphasis in these guidelines on practical research; it is useful to

consider the full range of research. The PAPA model conceptualizes four main types of
research: Pure, Applied, Policy and Action. Pure research is concerned solely with scientific
outcomes. The purpose is to expand knowledge and to discover new things because they are
of interest to the scientist and to science. Scientists are driven by sheer curiosity and research
was often motivated by the researchers’ interest in what were, to them, new and strange
societies. Applied research is concerned with topics that have potential for practical
application. The researcher wants to find out how things work and wants the findings to be
used, but does not become involved in implementation. Policy research is based on practical
issues of interest to those who make decisions about them. Governmental authorities, for
example, might have a policy of reducing crime and want to know whether the policy is
having an effect. Usually, this type of work is time bound and requires research teams with
specialist skills and considerable experience. Action research is concerned with working on
activities to make direct improvements. An organization might review some of its systems
and procedures to make it more efficient, or review its staffing arrangements. This type of
research is quite common, especially to evaluate the success and failure of new projects.

This PAPA classification was proposed by Guthrie. However, different researchers choose to
classify types of research differently. For example, Kothari identifies 4 basic types of
research. Descriptive vs Analytical; Applied vs. Fundamental; Quantitative vs. Qualitative;
Conceptual vs. Empirical.

Once the researcher has selected one among the many types of research, the next step will be
to select and define the research problem in objective terms. After having conceptualized the
problem, a research design of the research project needs to be prepared. Decisions regarding
what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry constitute a research
design. It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to research purpose with economy in procedure. A major decision
that needs to be taken is with respect to the method of data collection. This can be limiting
due to the variables whatsoever that has been hypothesized. There are different methods of
data collection including observation method, interview method, data through questionnaires,
data obtained through schedules, laboratory experiments, and case study method. Survey
research as a methodology remains the most popular methods of data collection, particularly
in case of big enquiries.

THE LOGIC OF SURVEY RESEARCH:

What is a Survey?

Researchers utilize questionnaires or interviews to learn people’s beliefs or opinions in many

research situations. Survey research is a quantitative research in which the researcher
systematically asks many people the same questions and then records their answers. For this
purpose, they use a written questionnaire or formal interview to gather information on
backgrounds, behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes of many people. The researcher does not
manipulate a situation or condition to see how people react. Often researchers select the
people for a survey using a random sampling technique, so they can legitimately generalize
information from sample to population. Survey research is often co-relational. Researchers
use control variables to approximate the rigorous test for causality that experimenters achieve
with their physical control over temporal order and alternative explanations.
A HISTORY OF SURVEY RESEARCH:

Surveys of some sort have been conducted ever since people began needing information on
the distribution and size of human communities and their social characteristics. However,
until the rise of modern bureaucratic state and popular elections, the need for precision and
periodic updating was slight. Census and surveys were born out of the needs of modern state
bureaucracies. A modern survey can be traced back to ancient forms of census. A census
includes information on characteristics of entire population in a territory. It is based on what
people tell officials or what officials observe.

The survey has a long and varied history. Its use for social research in the United States and
Great Britain began with the social reform movements and social service professions
documenting the conditions of urban poverty. At first, surveys were overviews of an area
based on questionnaires and other data. Scientific sampling and statistics were absent. The
social survey grew into both the modern quantitative survey research and qualitative field
research in a community. It used systematic empirical inquiry to support sociopolitical reform
goals. Most of these surveys were explanatory and descriptive. However, the social survey
reshaped into modern quantitative survey research and four major factors led to this
reshaping. First, researchers applied statistically based sampling techniques and precise
measurement to survey. Second, researchers created scales and indexes to gather systematic
quantitative data on attitudes, opinions and subjective aspects of social life. Third, many
others adapted survey to applied areas. Fourth, empirical social research was reoriented away
from non-academics using a mix of methods to focus on local social problems, and toward
respectable, “scientific” methods modeled after the natural sciences.

Survey research expanded during the World War II, especially in the United States. Survey
researchers studied morale, consumer demand, production capacity and effectiveness of
bombing. Academic researchers and applied practitioners worked in coalition to learn from
each other and gain experience in conducting many large-scale surveys.

After World War II, many researchers returned to universities and created new social
research organizations. At first, universities were hesitant to embrace survey research since it
was expensive and involved many people. Additionally, traditional researchers were wary of
quantitative research and skeptical of a technique used in private industry. Yet, surveys grew
in use. Today, this method is the most commonly used by different sectors like government,
marketing, and private policy research, mass media, education etc.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS APPROPRIATE FOR A SURVEY:

Any survey asks respondents about their beliefs, opinions, characteristics, and past or present
behavior. Surveys are appropriate for research questions about self-reported beliefs or
behaviors. Researchers usually ask about many things at one time in surveys, measure many
variables (often with multiple indicators), and test several hypotheses in a single survey.
Scholars warn against using surveys to ask “why” questions (E.g., Why do you think crime
occurs?). “why” questions are appropriate, however, if a researcher wants to discover a
respondent’s subjective understanding or informal theory. Because few respondents are fully
aware of the causal factors that shape their beliefs or behavior, such questions are not a
substitute for the researcher developing a consistent causal theory of his or her own that
builds on existing scientific literature

WHAT IS ASKED IN A SURVEY?

Behavior: e.g., how frequently do you brush your teeth? When did you last visit a close
relative?

Attitudes/Beliefs/Opinions: e.g., what is the biggest problem facing the nation these days?
What kind of job do you think the mayor is doing?

Characteristics: e.g., Are you married, never married, single, divorced, separated, or
widowed? Do you belong to a union?

Expectations: e.g., do you plan to buy a new car in the next 12 months? do you think the
population in this town will grow, shrink or stay the same?

Self-classification: e.g., do you consider yourself to be liberal, moderate, or conservative?

Would you say you are highly religious or not religious?

Knowledge: e.g., about what population of people in this city is nonwhite? Who was the
elected mayor in the last year?
Surveys include the use of a questionnaire —an instrument designed to elicit information that
will be useful for analysis. Although some of the specific points to follow are more
appropriate for structured questionnaires than for the more open-ended questionnaires used in
qualitative, in-depth interviewing, the underlying logic is valuable whenever researchers ask
people questions to gather data.

Choose Appropriate Question Forms:

Some of the options available to researchers in creating questionnaires include using

questions or statements and choosing open-ended or closed-ended questions. Although the
term questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, a typical questionnaire often presents as
many statements as questions. Often, the researcher wants to determine the extent to which
respondents hold an attitude or perspective. Attitudes can be summarized in brief statements
and then respondents are asked whether they agree or disagree with it. As you may
remember, Rensis Likert greatly formalized this procedure through the creation of the Likert
scale, a format in which respondents are asked to strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly
disagree, or perhaps strongly approve, approve, and so forth. Researchers can use both
questions and statements profitably. Using both in each questionnaire gives more flexibility
in the design of items and can make the questionnaire more interesting as well.

Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions:

In asking questions, researchers have two options. They can ask open-ended questions, in
which case the respondent is asked to provide his or her own answer to the question. For
example, the respondent may be asked, “What do you feel is the most important issue facing
the United States today?” and be provided with a space to write in the answer. In-depth,
qualitative interviewing relies almost exclusively on open-ended questions. However, they
are also used in survey research. In the case of closed-ended questions, the respondent is
asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. Close-ended
questions are quite popular in survey research because they provide a greater uniformity of
responses and are more easily processed than open-ended ones. Open-ended responses must
be coded before they can be processed for computer analysis. This coding process often
requires the researcher to interpret the meaning of responses, opening the possibility of
misunderstanding and researcher bias. Close-ended responses, on the other hand, can often be
transferred directly into a computer format. Close ended questions are more appropriate for a
survey research.

TYPES OF SURVEY RESEARCH:

There are many different survey methods and the wide choice reflects the many different
interests, approaches and objectives of psychologists. Same techniques may not be applicable
to studying different sections of people or different fields in psychology. it is difficult to say
that one method is always better than another, though some techniques are certainly better
than others for particular purposes.

Surveys can be generally divided into three types:

Census is the most complete type of survey. It aims for responses from everybody in a
population to get basic demographic and socio-economic data for information and planning
purposes. This is a large-scale and expensive enterprise that does not involve sampling and
can normally only be undertaken by governments. The advantage of censuses is completeness
and, usually, accuracy their main role in survey research is to provide a population baseline
against which to test samples. Data obtained is tabulated, presented s percentage and
analyzed in terms to socio-economic variables such as age, gender, education, marital status,
income etc. the major disadvantage of census is its inconvenience in terms of time and efforts
required. This type of survey is limited to few cases of data collection and to only certain
circumstances. Despite limitations, researchers often must use them as a reference point
because there is no better alternative.

Cross-sectional surveys represent a particular population at a particular time. Cross-

sectional surveys usually utilize questionnaires to ask about a particular topic at one point in
time. One problem with cross-sectional surveys is that the events, opinions, behaviors, and
other phenomena that such surveys are designed to assess don’t generally remain stagnant.
Thus, generalizing from a cross-sectional survey about the way things are can be tricky.
However, this method is relatively simple and less time consuming. Cross sectional studies
can be conducted in a variety of ways. These are as follows:

 Mail and Self-administered questionnaires: A self-administered questionnaire (SAQ)

refers to a questionnaire that has been designed specifically to be completed by a
respondent without intervention of the researchers (e.g. an interviewer) collecting the
 data. An SAQ is usually a stand-alone questionnaire though it can also be used in
conjunction with other data collection modalities directed by a trained interviewer.
Traditionally the SAQ has been distributed by mail or in person to large groups, but
now SAQs are being used extensively for Web surveys. Because the SAQ is
completed without ongoing feedback from a trained interviewer, special care must be
taken in how the questions are worded as well as how the questionnaire is formatted
to avoid measurement error. It is the cheapest and less time consuming. Moreover,
researchers can send questionnaires to a wide geographical area. It is convenient to
both the researcher and the respondent. Mail questionnaires offer anonymity and
avoid interviewer bias. However, the biggest problem with mail questionnaires is a
low response rate. The conditions under which mail questionnaires are completed
cannot be controlled. Also, no one will be present to clarify questions. This format
also limits the kinds of questions that a researcher can use. Open-ended questions,
contingency questions, questions requiring visual aids etc., do poorly in these types of
questionnaires. Questionnaires are also ill suited for illiterate respondents.
 Telephone Interviews: this method of collecting data consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays an
important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief
merits of this system are that it is flexible in comparison to mailing method. A large
population can be reached by telephone. The researcher can reach a large respondent
across long distances easily. It is cheaper compared to personal interviewing method.
At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for
one reason or the other. There is no requirement of field staff in this method.
However, there are several limitations in this method. Little time is given to
respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five
minutes in most cases. These may be also restricted to respondents who have a
telephone. It may not be suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers
are required. Though viewer reduces anonymity, there is a potential introduction of
interviewer bias. The environment in which the respondents answer cannot be
controlled by the interviewer in a telephonic survey.
 Personal interviews: this method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons it may be
direct personal investigation or indirect oral investigation. This method is particularly
suitable for intensive investigations. This method of collecting data is usually carried
 out in a structured way. Thus researchers call it as structured interviews. It involves
use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of
recording. On the contrary there are also unstructured interviews. Other forms of
personal interviews include focused interview, clinical interview and non-directive
interview. Despite the variations in interview techniques, the major advantages are
that more in depth information can be obtained. Additionally, samples and the
environment in which interview takes place are controlled more effectively by the
interviewer. The interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of
the respondents. This method has the highest response rates and the interviewer can
use non-verbal communication and visual aids. However, the major demerits are high
cost involved, especially when large and widely spread geographical sample is
considered. Certain types of sample, such as important officials and executives may
not be approachable face to face.

Longitudinal surveys: these studies repeat cross-sectional surveys. Unless surveys are
repeated, they do not give much understanding about how people’s views are changing. This
involves taking a sample of participants and following them over a period of time. As an
example, a longitudinal study into the effects of education on IQ might measure the IQs of a
sample of students with 10 years of education and then measure them again 2 years later and
subsequently within periods of time. The advantage of this type of survey is that it allows the
researchers to use each participant as his or her own control and this serves to reduce
uncertainty involved in deciding whether key variables are really having an effect. Three
main types of surveys allow serious analysis of how matters change over time.

 TREND STUDIES take different samples from a general population, for example,
first-year students at a particular university. The population of students changes each
year, as does the sample. This would not matter, if, for example, the aim is to know
whether new students’ expectations or career intentions are changing over time.
 COHORT STUDIES follow the same population over time, for example, all
university’s graduates from a particular year. The population stays the same, but a
new sample is drawn each time.
 PANEL STUDIES trace the same sample over time, for example, a particular
graduate class to follow their professional careers. Highly accurate coding of
respondents and questionnaires is necessary for panel studies so that individual
 circumstances can be followed. Cohort and panel surveys face reductions of
population and sample sizes because it is difficult to trace all members.

PROCESS OF CARRYING OUT A SURVEY RESEARCH:

The survey research begins with a theoretical or applied research problem and ends with
empirical measurement and data analysis. The basic steps in a survey research project can be
divided into seven steps. It is important to note that these steps overlap continuously rather
than following a strictly prescribed sequence. If subsequent procedures have not been taken
into account in the early stages, serious difficulties may arise which may even prevent the
completion of the study. However, the following order concerning various steps provides a
useful procedural guideline regarding the research process:

STEP 1: FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM: there are two types of research
problems, viz., those which relate to the states of nature and those which relate to relationship
between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he/she wants
to study, i.e., he/she must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that
they would like to inquire into. First, the problem may be stated in a broad general way and
then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a
particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be
set up. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem. One involves
understanding the problem thoroughly and second involves rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. The best way of understanding the
problem is to discuss it with those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic
institution, researcher can seek help from a guide who is experienced. The researcher must at
the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with the selected
problem. After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms.
The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help
discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must; however, be taken to verify the
objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning the problem.

STEP 2: EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY: once the problem is formulated, a brief

summary of it should be written down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and
indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first to go to.
Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem. It should be remembered that one source leads to
another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully
studied. Researchers may review two types of literature. One is the conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which
will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context.

STEP 3: DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESES: after extensive literature

survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses.
Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. The manner in which the hypotheses are developed is important
since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests
must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required
for the analysis. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in
hand because it has to be tested. The role of hypothesis is to sharpen the thinking of the
researcher and help them focus attention on the more important facets of the problem. It
somewhat gives a structure for the researcher. There are several ways in which one goes
about developing the working hypothesis. It includes discussions with colleagues and experts,
examination of data and records concerning the problem of possible trends, review of similar
studies and exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a
limited scale. Thus, the working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the
subject, examination of the available data and material including related studies and the
counsel of experts and interested parties. They are more useful when stated in precise and
clearly defined terms.

STEP 4: PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN: once the hypothesis has been
formulated, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design. This involves clearly
stating the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation
of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximum
information. Its function is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all this is achieved depends on the research
purpose. Research purpose may be grouped into four categories, viz., i) exploration, ii)
description, iii) diagnosis, iv) experimentation. A flexible research design which provides
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if
the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. There are several research designs,
such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be
either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control,
before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design,
randomized block design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher
must select one for his own project. The preparation of research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves the consideration of the following:
i) The means of obtaining the information.
ii) The availability and skills of the researcher.
iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information
will be organised.
iv) The time available for research.
v) The cost factor relating to research.

STEP 5: DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN: all the items under consideration in any field
of inquiry constitute a population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
“population” is known as a census inquiry. But a census inquiry is less feasible and
practicable in terms of time, effort, money and many other reasons. Hence, quite often we
select only a few items from the population for study purposes. The items so selected
constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must decide the way of
selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. It is a definite plan
determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. The
former one is based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster/area sampling
whereas the latter is based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota
sampling techniques. In practice several of the methods of sampling may be used in the same
study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out that normally one
should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be
estimated. However, the sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking
into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
STEP 6: COLLECTING THE DATA: in dealing with any real life problem, it is often found
that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are
appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the
help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in case of a survey, data
can be collected by any one or more of the following methods discussed in types of survey
research. The steps in the process of survey research as a method of data collection is as
follows

STEP 1:

 Develop hypotheses.
 Decide on type of survey (mail,
interview, telephone)
 Write survey questions.
 Decide on response categories
 Design layout.

STEP 2:

 Plan how to record data

 Pilot test survey instrument

STEP 3:

 Decide on target population

 Get sampling frame
 Decide on sample size
 select sample
 STEP 4:

 Locate respondents
 Conduct interviews
 Carefully record data

STEP 5:

 Enter data into computers

 Recheck all data
 Perform statistical analysis on
data

STEP 6:

 Describe methods and findings

in research report
 Present findings to others for
critique and evaluation

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting data taking into consideration
the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available
time and the desired degree of accuracy.

STEP 7: EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT: execution of the project is a very important step
in the research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on the correct lines, the data
to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The project should be executed in a
systematic manner and time. If the survey is conducted through means of a questionnaire then
data can be readily machine-processed. But if it is collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. A careful
watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as
possible.
STEP 8: ANALYSIS OF DATA: after the data has been collected, the researcher turns to the
task of analysing the data. The analysis requires a number of closely related operations such
as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Coding operation is
usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols
that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the
data for coding. After this, the data is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the
technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. In case of large
inquires this job is done by computers. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on
the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined
statistical formulae. In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). In brief, the
researcher can analyse data with the help of various statistical measures.

STEP 9: HYPOTHESIS TESTING: after analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is
in a position to test the hypotheses he had formulated earlier. The purpose is to find out
whether facts support the hypotheses or refute it. Various statistical tests, such as chi square
test, t-test, F-test should be used to test the hypotheses.

STEP 10: GENERALISATION AND INTERPRETATION: if a hypothesis is tested and

upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to
build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to
explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.

STEP 11: PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THESIS: finally, the researcher has to
prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great
care keeping in view the following:

The layout should be as follows: i) the preliminary pages; ii) the main text; iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of
graphs and charts given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts

 Introduction containing a clear statement of the objective of the research and

explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of
the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
 Summary of findings: after introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non-technical language. Extensive findings should be
summarised.
 Main report: the main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
 Conclusion: towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the
end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
The following flow chart summarizes the stages in the research process:

Define
research
problem

Review of
literature
(theories and
previous research
findings)

Formulate
hypotheses

F Research
design FF
(including
sample design)

FF Collect data

Analyse data (test

hypotheses)

Interpret and
report

Where F = feedback (helps in controlling the sub-system to which it is transmitted)

FF = feed forward (serves the vital function of providing criteria for evaluation)
CONSTRUCTION OF CHECKLISTS OR QUESTIONNAIRES:

Questionnaires are one of the most common forms of survey instrument. There are some
important principles that a researcher needs to bear in mind while constructing a
questionnaire. The most important feature is that it needs to be user-friendly and welcoming.
Since the respondent is doing a favour, the researcher must do everything to make the
respondent’s task as easy and pleasant as possible. The researcher must start by providing a
clear introduction to the questionnaire that explains what it is about, why it is worthwhile,
and provides key information that the participant needs to know (e.g., who is going to use the
information, and what it will be used for) and which may reassure them (that their responses
will be kept confidential).

The questionnaire as a whole then needs to be set out clearly, to avoid using jargon, and to
ask questions in as straightforward a way as possible. It should be easy to read, pleasing on
the eye, and create a positive impression. It should not be any longer than it needs to be, as
the longer it is, the more off-putting it is likely to be. Nonetheless, sometimes a questionnaire
needs to be long and in such cases it is worthwhile paying careful attention to the way it is
structured.

It is often best to put the most important questions towards the start of the questionnaire, and
to place open-ended questions towards the end. Information regarding the demographic
details of the respondent should be placed at the beginning of a questionnaire. However,
information regarding sensitive issues (such as whether the person is a homosexual or
heterosexual) should be asked towards the end because they can be reactive. This can affect
the responses of the respondent.

It is also very common for researchers to ask respondents to provide answers to questions
using response scales where the nature of a response is indicated by selecting one of a
number of options that are sequentially ordered on a scale. When using such scales it is
important to attach meaningful labels to the numbers. This can be done either by providing
anchors in which only the end-points are labelled, or by attaching labels to all scale points.
Labelling all scale points reduces some of the ambiguity in a scale and makes it easier for
participants to understand what a particular response means. On the other hand, under certain
circumstances, using a scale with an even number of points can be useful, as the absence of a
clear mid-point makes it impossible for respondents to ‘sit on the fence’. At their simplest,
such scales take the form of two-option forced-choice responses (e.g., ‘yes-no’).
Principles of good question writing: two key principles for good survey questions are to avoid
confusion and keep the respondents perspective in mind. Good survey questions both give the
researcher valid and reliable measures, and help respondents feel that they understand the
question and that their answers are meaningful. While constructing a questionnaire the
researcher also needs to be sensitive to cultural variations. Thus question writing is more of
an art than a science which requires skill, practice, patience and creativity.

 Avoid Jargon, slang and abbreviations unless a specialized population is being

surveyed. The words used in the questionnaire should not be beyond the
understanding of layman.
 Avoid ambiguity, confusion and vagueness.
 Avoid emotional language and prestige bias. Words have implicit connotative as well
as explicit denotative meanings. Likewise, titles or positions in society carry prestige
or status. Words with strong emotional connotations and stands on issues linked to
people with high social status can colour how respondents hear and answer survey
questions.
 Avoid double-barreled questions. A double-barreled question consists of two or more
questions joined together. It makes a respondents answer ambiguous.
 Avoid leading questions. Make respondents feel that all responses are legitimate. Do
not let them become aware of an answer that the researcher wants. A leading response
is one that leads the respondent to choose one response over another by its wording.
 Avoid asking questions that are beyond respondent’s capabilities. People have
cognitive limitations, especially when it comes to memory of past events. It is
pointless to ask people about things that are not natural ways for them to think.
 Avoid false premises. Do not begin a question with a premise with which respondents
may not agree, and then ask about choices regarding it.
 Avoid double negatives. Double negatives in ordinary language are grammatically
incorrect and confusing.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEY RESEARCH:

Key characteristics of survey research:

 Survey research is often a quantitative method but can be qualitative which requires
standardized information from and/or about the subjects being studied. The subjects
might be individuals, groups, organizations or communities.
  Sample selection must be done without any prejudice or preference so that the data
collected through the survey will represent the entire population.
 The primary way of collecting information is by asking people structured and pre-
defined questions to meet the objectives of the study.
 Interviews or questionnaires are the common methods used for data collection.
 Surveys are widely used in the social sciences and follow specific procedures based
on survey science and the scientific method.
 It is one of the few techniques available for the study of attitudes, values, beliefs and
motives.
 The survey process is highly inter-connected.

Advantages of Survey Research:

 Faster data collection than other methods

 Relatively inexpensive data collection
 Survey data can be very accurate if sampling is probabilistic
 Access to a wide range of participants
 Usually, high reliability is easy to obtain--by presenting all subjects with a
standardized stimulus, observer subjectivity is greatly eliminated.
 Consequently, very large samples are feasible, making the results statistically
significant even when analyzing multiple variables.
 It is more ethical than experiments.
 Standardized questions make measurement more precise by enforcing uniform
definitions upon the participants.
 Standardization ensures that similar data can be collected from groups then
interpreted comparatively (between-group study).
 It uses the methods, materials and setting of the study of the real-life situation which
is under investigation to ensure ecological validity.
 It is the sole way of retrieving information about a respondent’s past history.
 It is the only method where generalized information could be collected from almost
any human population.

Disadvantages of Survey Research:

 Data may be superficial.

  Can be expensive to ensure representative data.
 Data may not have internal validity.
 Data may not have construct validity because of self report problems.
 Data may not have external validity because of poor sampling or because of non
response bias.
 A methodology relying on standardization forces the researcher to develop questions
general enough to be minimally appropriate for all respondents, possibly missing what
is most appropriate to many respondents.
 Survey research method is an inappropriate tool for the study of multitudes.
 The critics of the methods say that individual respondent is placed outside the social
context and collection of individuals cannot be treated as a group.
 Direction of one’s own perception and judgment.
 Survey research lacks dynamism.

WRITING A SURVEY RESEARCH REPORT:

Research report is considered a major component of the research study; otherwise the
research task remains incomplete. As a matter of fact, even the most brilliant hypothesis,
highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and
findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to others. The purpose of
research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. Research results
must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the significance of
writing research report. Writing a research report is a technical activity which demands all the
skills and patience from the researcher. It requires “considerable thought, effort, patience and
penetration and an overall approach to the problem, data and analysis, as well as firm control
over language and greater objectivity”. To write the report, a vast amount of planning and
preparation is necessary for organizing and then writing the report. Besides, perfection in the
research report is achieved by continuous and persistent thought and creative and intelligent
writing. Only hard and patient work on the facts, careful and critical assessment and
intelligent planning of the organization of the report can facilitate communication.

The investigator while writing the report may consider the steps like (i) logical analysis of the
subject matter; (ii) preparation of the final outline; (iii) preparation of the rough draft; (iv) re-
writing and polishing; (v) preparation of the final bibliography; and (vi) writing the final draft
Logical analysis of subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and
(b) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often
consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The
directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order.

Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report "Outlines are
the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical
organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now
sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down
the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various
limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and
generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem
concerned.

Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all
formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The
careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While
rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development
or presentation. The researcher should also "see whether or not the material, as it is presented,
has unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern,
like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brick."4 In
addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been
consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.

Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the
final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a
list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all
those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically and may be divided into two parts; the first containing the names of books and
pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles.
Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a
concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as "it
seems", "there may be", and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must
avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common
experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in
communicating the research findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must
enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that
every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to
the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the
reader.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about the
study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its
methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this
purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to
what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report
should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter.

(A) Preliminary Pages In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date,
followed by acknowledgements in the form of 'Preface' or 'Foreword'. Then there should be a
table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or
anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the
report.

(B) Main Text The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with
all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main' text
and then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the
second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of
the report should have the following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and
recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v) The
summary.
(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the
readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough
background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered
worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the
present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions
of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of
the report. The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The
scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried
out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental one, then what were the
experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or
interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule
is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on observation, then what
instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader
should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? All
these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the
findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this the
scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various
imitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.

ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must
contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can
be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point
they should be put in the summarized form.

(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the
main text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over
several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and
reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical
sequence and split into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in
the report. But how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite often
guidance comes primarily from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with
which the study was concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgment
in deciding the outline of his report. "Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly
the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the
problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.

iv) Implications of the results: toward the end of main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that
flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for
understanding the human behavior. Such implications may have three aspects as stated
below:

 A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected
to apply in similar circumstances.
 The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate
generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.
 The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the
study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for
them.

It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarizes
and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should
be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same
time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research
which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable.

(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief
summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the
Major conclusions drawn from the research results.

(C) End Matter

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography
of sources consulted should also be given. Index should invariably be given at the end of the
report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents
in the report.
 CASE STUDY METHODOLOGY:

The case study is but one of several ways of doing social science research.Yin (1984) defines
the case study research method “as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.”In
general, case studies are the preferred strategy when "how" or "why" questions are being
posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a
contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context. Such "explanatory" case studies
also can be complemented by two other types-"exploratory" and "descriptive" case studies.
Regardless of the type of case study, investigators must exercise great care in designing and
doing case studies to overcome the traditional criticisms of the method.

TYPES OF CASE STUDY METHOD:

There are several types of case study. Yin, notes three categories, namely exploratory,
descriptive and explanatory case studies. First, exploratory case studies set to explore any
phenomenon in the data which serves as a point of interest to the researcher. For instance, a
researcher conducting an exploratory case study on individual’s reading process may ask
general questions, such as, “Does a student use any strategies when he reads a text?” and “if
so, how often?”. These general questions are meant to open up the door for further
examination of the phenomenon observed. In this case study also, prior fieldwork and small
scale data collection may be conducted before the research questions and hypotheses are
proposed. As a prelude, this initial work helps prepare a framework of the study. A pilot
study is considered an example of an exploratory case study and is crucial in determining the
protocol that will be used.

Second, descriptive case studies set to describe the natural phenomena which occur within the
data in question, for instance, what different strategies are used by a reader and how the
reader use them. The goal set by the researcher is to describe the data as they occur.
McDonough and McDonough suggest that descriptive case studies may be in a narrative
form. The challenge of a descriptive case study is that the researcher must begin with a
descriptive theory to support the description of the phenomenon or story. If this fails there is
the possibility that the description lacks rigor and that problems may occur during the project.
An example of a descriptive case study using pattern-matching procedure is the one
conducted by Pyecha on special education children. Through replication, data elicited from
several states in the United States of America were compared and hypotheses were
formulated. In this case, descriptive theory was used to examine the depth and scope of the
case under study.

Third, explanatory case studies examine the data closely both at a surface and deep level in
order to explain the phenomena in the data. For instance, a researcher may ask the reason as
to why a student uses an inference strategy in reading. On the basis of the data, the researcher
may then form a theory and set to test this theory. Furthermore, explanatory cases are also
deployed for causal studies where pattern-matching can be used to investigate certain
phenomena in very complex and multivariate cases. Yin, notes that these complex and
multivariate cases can be explained by three rival theories: a knowledge-driven theory, a
problem-solving theory, and a social-interaction theory. The knowledge-driven theory
stipulates that eventual commercial products are the results of ideas and discoveries from
basic research. Similar notions can be said for the problem-solving theory. However, in this
theory, products are derived from external sources rather than from research. The social-
interaction theory, on the other hand, suggests that overlapping professional network causes
researchers and users to communicate frequently with each other.

Other researchers also mention about other categories of case study. For instance, according
to McDonough and McDonough other categories include interpretive and evaluative case
studies. Through interpretive case studies, the researcher aims to interpret the data by
developing conceptual categories, supporting or challenging the assumptions made regarding
them. In evaluative case studies, the researcher goes further by adding their judgment to the
phenomena found in the data.

In defining case studies, Stake distinguishes three types, the intrinsic, the instrumental and the
collective. In an intrinsic case study, a researcher examines the case for its own sake. For
instance, why does student A, age eight, fail to read when most children at that age can
already read? In an instrumental case study, the researcher selects a small group of subjects in
order to examine a certain pattern of behavior, for instance, to see how tertiary level students
study for examination. In a collective case study, the researcher coordinates data from several
different sources, such as schools or individuals. Unlike intrinsic case studies which set to
solve the specific problems of an individual case, instrumental and collective case studies
may allow for the generalization of findings to a bigger population.
ADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDIES AS A RESEARCH METHOD:

Case study research is a highly legitimate research method appropriate for both qualitative
and quantitative research, mainly dealing with “the understanding and change of interwoven
complexities associated with interpersonal processes that emerge in a wider social context”.
The major advantage of the case study is that it can “close in” on reallife situations and test
views directly in relation to phenomena as they unfold in practice. A few researchers agree
and state that the most obvious advantage is that the case study provides a detailed analysis in
the individual case. These intensive study methods have their strength in obtaining detailed
and relevant data. The information will not be taken out of context and the study includes
multiple variables and runs deep. The internal validity is therefore high, which makes these
studies very valuable. One of the advantages of studying individual cases in-depth is that we
can find information we did not anticipate to find from the start. Because of this, case study
research is a very good method for creating hypotheses. These hypotheses help structure
future research, and case studies therefore play an important part in advancing a field’s
knowledge base. Case studies can also offer important evidence to complement experiments.
They are very well suited to help explain the how and why questions by investigating and
they are also highly useable when the investigator has little control over events. Case studies
are preferable when investigating current or contemporary events when it’s not possible to
manipulate relevant variables. The case study research provides great strength in
investigating units consisting of multiple variables of potential importance and it allows
investigators to retain a holistic view of real-life events, such as individual life cycles, small
group behavior, organizational and managerial processes, neighborhood change, school
performance, international relations and the maturation of industries. Gomm, Hammersley
and Foster (2000) argue that case study research, opposed to experiments, can investigate
casual processes “in the real world” rather than in artificially created settings. Also, case
studies tend to have a wider web to catch information, while experiments and surveys usually
have a narrower focus. Researchers stress the unique strength of case studies: their ability to
handle and combine multiple kinds of data collection methods (documents, interviews,
questionnaires, objects and observations).
DISADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDIES AS A RESEARCH:

Most critics indicate that it is the case study’s theory, reliability, and validity that are at issue;
thus, the very status of the case study as a scientific method is questioned. The findings and
recommendations that case studies provide can be neither confirmed nor denied in terms of
utility and veracity, because of the nature of the case study. Researchers therefore question if
the case study might not just be able to provide a story to tell and little else. Several scientists
express the disadvantages of the case study as a research method:

There are five commonly discussed disadvantages concerning case study research:

 One cannot generalize from a single case

 Theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge

 The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more
suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building

 It is often difficult to summarize specific case studies

 The case study contains a bias toward verification “It is widely believed that case studies
are useful in the study of human affairs because they are down-to-earth and attention-holding
but that they are not a suitable basis for generalization”. This is one of the biggest concerns
and most common critiques against case studies, its lack of scientific generalizability. The
major problem is that the studies are highly specific, that is, that they only relate to a
particular context or a few units. The question that arises is if it is possible to generalize from
the result, to say that what applies to the few also apply to all others. Critics believe that, in
fact, the study of a small number of cases cannot offer any grounds for establishing reliability
or generality of findings. The area that is studied in case studies are often too narrow to be
able to draw scientific conclusions and are therefore said to have low external validity. Critics
of case study research believe that the study’s usefulness is limited to, and only appropriate
for, the exploratory phase of an investigation and that experiments are the only justified way
of doing explanatory and casual inquiries. Case studies are seen as only a preliminary
research method and cannot be used to describe or test propositions. Miles (1979) also
critique case research because collecting and analyzing the data is a highly labor-intensive
activity, often causing much stress, even for skilled researcher.
PROCESS OF CARRYING OUT A CASE STUDY: Design begins with formulating
appropriate research questions that will shape the structure of the study to come. At this stage
you should clearly define what the ‘cases’ in the case study will be, for example whether they
are individuals, organizations, events and so on. Cases form the unit of analysis for your
study. Research questions should also make it clear what aspects of the cases are of interest;
it will not be feasible to investigate every aspect of your chosen cases. Design also involves
engaging with existing theory and this is one of the differences between case study research
and designs like ethnography and grounded theory. In practice the degree of formal
theorizing will vary so this step is called ‘thematising’, to recognize that prior theory may be
used in various ways in case study research. Although some studies involve deductive theory
testing, many case studies take a more inductive approach. In such situations, that theory is
commonly used in one of three ways in case study research:

 As an initial guide to design and data collection, to create a theoretical framework

which takes account of existing knowledge in the area.
 As part of an iterative process of data collection and analysis, with theoretical
understandings being modified in the light of findings from the data.
 As a final product of the research.

COLLECTING THE DATA:

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually
involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g.
questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more
commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of
multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the
internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the
research question). An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should
lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help
develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon. Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods
case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care program. Here, quantitative
measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the
intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews
with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related
aspects of the program, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors
reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to
influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been
obtained from quantitative methods alone. In collective or multiple case studies, data
collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case
to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programs), before considering the
emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one
program is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases
are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature
and depth.

WRITING A CASE REPORT:

Following is a suggested guideline for preparing case study reports as per APA format:

Cover Page

(Include student names and student Ids)

Executive Summary

(If appropriate – should be written last to focus on key points/findings)

Introduction

Current Situation Analysis and pertinent Background including a synopsis of the relevant
information from the case analysis tool short form.

Body

May include:

 Target Market Identification

 Market Needs

 Forms of IMC in use

 Analysis of Case

 Key Issues/Goals
  Recommendations

Should include:

 Decision Criteria

 Assumptions

 Data Analysis (analysis in appendix and summary info in body)

 Preferred Alternative with rationale.

 Justification/Predicted Outcome

Conclusion

References

Recommend that you source journals, periodicals, and textual references as well as any
online research. The research should be supported with facts and figures. It is essential to
one’s own words and ideas based on research rather than copy and paste other’s words from
the internet.

Appendices

All charts, financials, visuals, and other related items can be placed here and referenced in the
report.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Babbie, E. (2016). The Basics of Social Research (7 ed.). Cenage Publications.

Guthrie, G. (2010). Basic research methods. SAGE publications, India.

Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Delhi: Surjeet Publications.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New age International.

McGarty, S. A. (2003). Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. SAGE Foundations of

Psychology.

Neuman. (2007). Social research methods. Pearson education India.

Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and Methods. SAGE publications.