Wastewater

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Greywater (a type of wastewater) in a settling tank

Wastewater (or waste water) is any water that has been affected by human use. Wastewater is
"used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural
activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration".[1] Therefore,
wastewater is a byproduct of domestic, industrial, commercial or agriculturalactivities. The
characteristics of wastewater vary depending on the source. Types of wastewater include: domestic
wastewater from households, municipal wastewater from communities (also called sewage)
or industrial wastewater from industrial activities. Wastewater can contain physical, chemical and
biological pollutants.
Households may produce wastewater from flush toilets, sinks, dishwashers, washing machines, bath
tubs, and showers. Households that use dry toiletsproduce less wastewater than those that use flush
toilets.
Wastewater may be conveyed in a sanitary sewer which conveys only sewage. Alternatively, it can
be transported in a combined sewer which includes stormwater runoff and industrial wastewater.
After treatment at a wastewater treatment plant, the treated wastewater (also called effluent) is
discharged to a receiving water body. The terms "wastewater reuse" or "water reclamation" apply if
the treated waste is used for another purpose. Wastewater that is discharged to the environment
without suitable treatment causes water pollution.
In developing countries and in rural areas with low population densities, wastewater is often treated
by various on-site sanitation systems and not conveyed in sewers. These systems include septic
tanks connected to drain fields, on-site sewage systems (OSS), vermifiltersystems and many more.

Contents
  1Terminology
 2Sources
 3Pollutants
o 3.1Chemical or physical pollutants
o 3.2Biological pollutants
o 3.3Quality indicators
 4Treatment
 5Disposal
 6Reuse
 7Legislation
o 7.1Australia
o 7.2Nigeria
o 7.3Philippines
o 7.4United States
 8See also
 9References

Terminology[edit]
The overarching term sanitation includes the management of wastewater, human excreta, solid
waste and stormwater. The term sewerage refers to the physical infrastructure required to transport
and treat wastewater.

Sources[edit]
Sources of wastewater include the following domestic or household activities:

 Human excreta (feces and urine) often mixed with used toilet paper or
wipes; this is known as blackwater if it is collected with flush toilets
 Washing water (personal, clothes, floors, dishes, cars, etc.), also
known as greywater or sullage
 Surplus manufactured liquids from domestic sources (drinks, cooking
oil, pesticides, lubricating oil, paint, cleaning liquids, etc.)
Activities producing industrial wastewater:

 Industrial site drainage (silt, sand, alkali, oil, chemical residues);

 Industrial cooling waters (biocides, heat, slimes, silt)
 Industrial processing waters
 Organic or biodegradable waste, including waste
from hospitals, abattoirs, creameries, and food factories.
 Organic or non bio-degradable waste that is difficult-to-treat
from pharmaceutical or pesticide manufacturing
 Extreme pH waste from acid and alkali manufacturing
 Toxic waste from
metal plating, cyanide production, pesticide manufacturing, etc.
 Solids and emulsions from paper mills, factories producing lubricants
or hydraulic oils, foodstuffs, etc.
 Water used in hydraulic fracturing
 Produced water from oil & natural gas production
Other activities or events:

 Urban runoff from highways, roads, carparks, roofs,

sidewalks/pavements (contains oils, animal
feces, litter, gasoline/petrol, diesel or rubber residues from tires,
soapscum, metalsfrom vehicle exhausts, de-icing agents, herbicides
and pesticides from gardens,etc.)
 Agricultural pollution, direct and diffuse
Wastewater can be diluted or mixed with other types of water by the following mechanisms:

 Seawater ingress (high volumes of salt and microbes)

 Direct ingress of river water
 Rainfall collected on roofs, yards, hard-standings, etc. (generally clean
with traces of oilsand fuel)
 Groundwater infiltrated into sewage
 Mixing with other types of wastewater or fecal sludge

Pollutants[edit]
The composition of wastewater varies widely. This is a partial list of pollutants that may be contained
in wastewater:
Chemical or physical pollutants[edit]

 Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and chromium

 Organic particles such as feces, hairs, food, vomit, paper fibers, plant
material, humus, etc.;
 Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars,
soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals, etc.;
 Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc.;
 Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, sea-
salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, etc.;
 Macro-solids such as sanitary
napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles, children's toys, dead
animals or plants, etc.;
 Gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.;
 Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants,
emulsified oils, etc.;
 Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.
 Pharmaceuticals and hormones and other hazardous substances
 Thermal pollution from power stations and industrial manufacturers
Biological pollutants[edit]
If the wastewater contains human feces, as is the case for sewage, then it may also
contain pathogens of one of the four types:[2][3]

 Bacteria (for example Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Vibrio

cholerae),
 Viruses (for example hepatitis A, rotavirus, enteroviruses),
  Protozoa (for example Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia
lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum) and
 Parasites such as helminths and their eggs
(e.g. Ascaris (roundworm), Ancylostoma(hookworm), Trichuris (whipw
orm));
It can also contain non-pathogenic bacteria and animals such as insects, arthropods, small fish.
Quality indicators[edit]
Main article: Wastewater quality indicators
Since all natural waterways contain bacteria and nutrients, almost any waste compounds introduced
into such waterways will initiate biochemical reactions (such as shown above). Those biochemical
reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
Such chemicals are also liable to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents and these chemical
reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the chemical oxygen demand (COD). Both
the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen-depletion effect of a waste
contaminant. Both have been widely adopted as a measure of pollution effect. The BOD test
measures the oxygen demand of biodegradablepollutants whereas the COD test measures the
oxygen demand of oxidizable pollutants.
Any oxidizable material present in an aerobic natural waterway or in an industrial wastewater will be
oxidized both by biochemical (bacterial) or chemical processes. The result is that the oxygen content
of the water will be decreased.

Treatment[edit]
Main article: Wastewater treatment
At a global level, around 80% of wastewater produced is discharged into the environment untreated,
causing widespread water pollution.[4]:2
There are numerous processes that can be used to clean up wastewaters depending on the type
and extent of contamination. Wastewater can be treated in wastewater treatment plantswhich
include physical, chemical and biological treatment processes. Municipal wastewater is treated
in sewage treatment plants (which may also be referred to as wastewater treatment plants).
Agricultural wastewater may be treated in agricultural wastewater treatmentprocesses, whereas
industrial wastewater is treated in industrial wastewater treatmentprocesses.
For municipal wastewater the use of septic tanks and other On-Site Sewage Facilities (OSSF) is
widespread in some rural areas, for example serving up to 20 percent of the homes in the U.S.[5]
One type of aerobic treatment system is the activated sludge process, based on the maintenance
and recirculation of a complex biomass composed of micro-organisms able to absorb and adsorb the
organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes (UASB, EGSB)
are also widely applied in the treatment of industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some
wastewater may be highly treated and reused as reclaimed water. Constructed wetlands are also
being used.

Disposal[edit]
Industrial wastewater effluent with neutralized pH from tailing runoff in Peru.

In some urban areas, municipal wastewater is carried separately in sanitary sewers and runoff from
streets is carried in storm drains. Access to either of these systems is typically through a manhole.
During high precipitation periods a combined sewer system may experience a combined sewer
overflowevent, which forces untreated sewage to flow directly to receiving waters. This can pose a
serious threat to public health and the surrounding environment.
Sewage may drain directly into major watersheds with minimal or no treatment but this usually has
serious impacts on the quality of an environment and on the health of people. Pathogens can cause
a variety of illnesses. Some chemicals pose risks even at very low concentrations and can remain a
threat for long periods of time because of bioaccumulationin animal or human tissue.
Wastewater from industrial activities may be pumped underground through an injection well.
Wastewater injection has been linked to Induced seismicity[6].

Reuse[edit]
Main articles: Reclaimed water and Reuse of excreta
Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in cooling towers), in artificial recharge of
aquifers, in agriculture and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in wetlands). In
rarer cases it is also used to augment drinking water supplies. There are several technologies used
to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment
standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from bacteria
and viruses. The following are some of the typical technologies: Ozonation, ultrafiltration, aerobic
treatment (membrane bioreactor), forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, advanced oxidation.
Some water demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be
reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment
where toilets can be flushed using greywater from baths and showers with little or no treatment.
Irrigation with recycled wastewater can also serve to fertilize plants if it contains nutrients, such as
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In developing countries, agriculture is using untreated
wastewater for irrigation - often in an unsafe manner. There can be significant health hazards related
to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. The World Health Organization developed guidelines
for safe use of wastewater in 2006.[7]

Legislation[edit]
Further information: Reclaimed water § Guidelines and regulations
Australia[edit]
As part of the Environmental Protection Act 1994, the Environmental Protection (Water) Policy 2009
is responsible for the water management of Queensland, Australia.[8]
Nigeria[edit]
In Nigeria, the Water Resources Act of 1993 is the law responsible for all kinds of water
management.
Philippines[edit]
In the Philippines, Republic Act 9275, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of
2004,[9] is the governing law on wastewater management. It states that it is the country's policy to
protect, preserve and revive the quality of its fresh, brackish and marine waters, for which
wastewater management plays a particular role.[9]
United States[edit]
The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollutionin
surface waters.[10] Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water
Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Superfund act.

See also[edit]

 Water portal

Wikimedia Commons has

media related
to Wastewater.

Scholia has a topic profile

for Wastewater.

 Fecal sludge management

 List of waste-water treatment technologies
 Sanitation
 Waste management
 Water management
 Water pollution

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph., Zurbrügg,
C. Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies – (2nd Revised
Edition). Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology
(Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland. p. 175. ISBN 978-3-906484-57-
0. Archivedfrom the original on 8 April 2016.
2. Jump up^ World Health Organization (2006). Guidelines for the safe use
of wastewater, excreta, and greywater. World Health Organization.
p. 31. ISBN 9241546859. OCLC 71253096.
 3. Jump up^ Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B., Kvarnström, E.,
McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and Trimmer, C. (2016). Sanitation,
Wastewater Management and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to
Resource Recovery Archived 1 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine..
Nairobi and Stockholm: United Nations Environment Programme and
Stockholm Environment Institute. ISBN 978-92-807-3488-1, p. 56
4. Jump up^ WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment
Programme) (2017). The United Nations World Water Development
Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource. Paris. ISBN 978-92-
3-100201-4. Archived from the original on 8 April 2017.
5. Jump up^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
(2008). "Septic Systems Fact Sheet." Archived 12 April 2013 at
the Wayback Machine. EPA publication no. 832-F-08-057.
6. Jump up^ van der Baan, Mirko; Calixto, Frank J. (2017-07-01). "Human-
induced seismicity and large-scale hydrocarbon production in the USA
and Canada". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 18 (7): 2467–
2485. doi:10.1002/2017gc006915. ISSN 1525-2027.
7. Jump up^ WHO (2006). WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of
Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater – Volume IV: Excreta and greywater
use in agriculture Archived 17 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine..
World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland
8. Jump up^ "Environmental policy and legislation". Department of
Environmental and Heritage Protection. Queensland
Government. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017.
Retrieved 20 October 2017.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b "An Act Providing For A Comprehensive Water Quality
Management And For Other Purposes". The LawPhil
Project. Archived from the original on 21 September 2016. Retrieved 30
September 2016.
10. Jump up^ United States. Clean Water Act. 33 U.S.C. § 1251 et
seq. Pub.L. 92-500 Archived 16 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine., 18
October 1972; as amended.

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Back to previous page

Wastewater Treatment
Water Use

What is wastewater, and why treat it?

 We consider wastewater
treatment as a water use because it is so interconnected with the other uses
of water. Much of the water used by homes, industries, and businesses must
be treated before it is released back to the environment.

If the term "wastewater treatment" is confusing to you, you might think of it

as "sewage treatment." Nature has an amazing ability to cope with small
amounts of water wastes and pollution, but it would be overwhelmed if we
didn't treat the billions of gallons of wastewater and sewage produced every
day before releasing it back to the environment. Treatment plants reduce
pollutants in wastewater to a level nature can handle.

Wastewater is used water. It includes substances such as human waste,

food scraps, oils, soaps and chemicals. In homes, this includes water from
sinks, showers, bathtubs, toilets, washing machines and dishwashers.
Businesses and industries also contribute their share of used water that
must be cleaned.

Wastewater also includes storm runoff. Although some people assume that
the rain that runs down the street during a storm is fairly clean, it isn't.
Harmful substances that wash off roads, parking lots, and rooftops can harm
our rivers and lakes.

Why Treat Wastewater?

It's a matter of caring for our environment and for our own health. There are
a lot of good reasons why keeping our water clean is an important priority:

Fisheries

Clean water is critical to plants and animals that live

in water. This is important to the fishing industry, sport
fishing enthusiasts, and future generations.

Wildlife Habitats

Our rivers and ocean waters teem with life that

depends on shoreline, beaches and marshes. They are critical
habitats for hundreds of species of fish and other aquatic life.
Migratory water birds use the areas for resting and feeding.

Recreation and Quality of Life

Water is a great playground for us all. The scenic and

recreational values of our waters are reasons many people
choose to live where they do. Visitors are drawn to water
activities such as swimming, fishing, boating and picnicking.

Health Concerns

If it is not properly cleaned, water can carry

disease. Since we live, work and play so close to water,
harmful bacteria have to be removed to make water safe.

Effects of wastewater pollutants

If wastewater is not properly treated, then the environment and human

health can be negatively impacted. These impacts can include harm to fish
and wildlife populations, oxygen depletion, beach closures and other
restrictions on recreational water use, restrictions on fish and shellfish
harvesting and contamination of drinking water. Environment
Canada provides some examples of pollutants that can be found in
wastewater and the potentially harmful effects these substances can have on
ecosystems and human health:

 decaying organic matter and debris can use up the dissolved oxygen in
a lake so fish and other aquatic biota cannot survive;
 excessive nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen (including
ammonia), can cause eutrophication, or over-fertilization of receiving
waters, which can be toxic to aquatic organisms, promote excessive
plant growth, reduce available oxygen, harm spawning grounds, alter
habitat and lead to a decline in certain species;
 chlorine compounds and inorganic chloramines can be toxic to aquatic
invertebrates, algae and fish;
  bacteria, viruses and disease-causing pathogens can pollute beaches
and contaminate shellfish populations, leading to restrictions on
human recreation, drinking water consumption and shellfish
consumption;
 metals, such as mercury, lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic can
have acute and chronic toxic effects on species.
 other substances such as some pharmaceutical and personal care
products, primarily entering the environment in wastewater effluents,
may also pose threats to human health, aquatic life and wildlife.

Wastewater treatment

The major aim of wastewater treatment is to remove as much of the

suspended solids as possible before the remaining water, called effluent, is
discharged back to the environment. As solid material decays, it uses up
oxygen, which is needed by the plants and animals living in the water.

"Primary treatment" removes about 60 percent of suspended solids from

wastewater. This treatment also involves aerating (stirring up) the
wastewater, to put oxygen back in. Secondary treatment removes more
than 90 percent of suspended solids.

Visit a wastewater-treatment plant Uses of reclaimed wastewater

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 RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT
 WASTEWATER DRAINAGE

WASTEWATER DRAINAGE
OUT OF SIGHT, OUT OF MIND. WHAT TO DO WITH THE
WASTEWATER?
In the second half of the 19th century, conditions in Germany still stank to high heaven. Wastewater,
and in some cases even faeces, was routinely disposed of in the gutters. The bodies of surface
water received this unpleasant cargo – out of sight, out of mind.

Naturally, some of this wastewater infiltrated into the soil and contaminated the groundwater. In the
Emscher-Lippe region, widespread mining subsidence furthermore frequently caused water drainage
to fail completely. The results were devastating epidemics. Only an overall plan for the region, which
would control wastewater disposal and purification, drainage and flood protection, could sustainably
improve the situation for the population along the rivers. In 1899, the
EMSCHERGENOSSENSCHAFT took on these Tasks for the Emscher region. The LIPPEVERBAND
followed in 1926.

In the course of the mining era, the waterways were expanded into drawn-out, open wastewater
collectors, which safely transported away stormwater and wastewater. The risk of epidemic disease
was banished. Today, it is possible to keep the wastewater out of the waterways. It is routed to the
wastewater Treatment plants through underground sewers. The wastewater-free waterways now
have the opportunity for near-natural restructuring. They thus become available again to the
population as living elements of a river landscape.

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 SSWM University Course
 Module 2: Centralised And Decentralised Systems For Water And
Sanitation
 Further Resources: Wastewater Collection
  Open Channels And Drains

27 April 2018

Open Channels and Drains

Author/Compiled by

Beat Stauffer (seecon international gmbh)

Dorothee Spuhler (seecon international gmbh)

Executive Summary
A storm water system with open channels for the discharge of rainwater exists in most
urbanised areas. The channels usually drain off rainwater into rivers or sometimes into
agricultural irrigation canals. Unauthorised discharge of domestic wastewater into the
system leads to surface water pollution and spreading of pathogens. Solid waste is also
commonly disposed of in these open channels. This is particularly a problem in many
middle- to low-income countries. To avoid blockages and unauthorised discharge of litter
or wastewater, open drains can be covered by concrete slabs. However, where no
wastewater infrastructure exists, drainage of waste and greywater into such a system could
be a temporary solution. Before discharging waste- or greywater into open drains,
appropriate settling and possibly treatment of wastewater should be considered (e.g. septic
tanks, biogas settlers, constructed wetland or waste stabilisation ponds).

Advantages
Low-cost drain-off solution if drains already exist

Simple to construct

Construction materials are often locally available

Creates employment (construction and maintenance)

Disadvantages
High health risk due to risk illegal discharge of wastewaters and solid waste

Blockages can cause spill-over and flooding

Foul odour source establishment

Breeding ground for insects and pests

Regular cleaning service required to remove solids

In Out

Precipitation, Greywater, Treated Water Precipitation, Greywater

Factsheet Block Title

Introduction
Factsheet Block Body

The most basic way to drain off rain and stormwater is via open channels. A more developed but
also more expensive solution is a separate sewer system. Separately collected stormwater has
high potential for increasing agricultural production in rural areas. In addition a more integrated
approach to water management in urban areas can be achieved by replenishing freshwater
resources after a natural pre-treatment of the collected stormwater (e.g. free-surface constructed
wetlands) and a recharge of surface or groundwater bodies (see also stormwater management). In
both cases the receiving water bodies may be sea, lake, river or groundwater (also see surface
disposal of liquids, surface groundwater recharge, subsurface groundwater recharge).
Factsheet Block Title

Basic design principles

Factsheet Block Body

An open channel or drain system generally consists of a secondary drainage system, with a
network of small drains attached (micro-drainage). Each serves a small catchment area that
ranges from a single property to several blocks of houses (WHO 1991). These small drains bring
the water to a primary drainage system, composed of main drains (also called interceptor drains),
which serve large areas of the city. Thereafter these drains are generally connected with natural
drainage channels such as rivers or streams (WHO 1991).

El Gran Canal in Mexico City used as primary drainage system. The water in this canal, which also transports rain and
stormwater, is heavily polluted with litter and untreated wastewater. Source: WALDWIND (n.y.)

Not all water precipitating as rain needs to be removed by the drainage system. Some will direct
absorption by naturally infiltrating into the ground, while some may stand in puddles and other
depressions and eventually evaporate. The part that drains off the ground surface (runoff) into
the drainage system is known as the runoff coefficient. There is little chance for evaporation
during a rainstorm, so that the runoff coefficient used to calculate the size of the drains required
should be based on the infiltration capacity of the ground. The latter mainly depends on soil
condition (if the drainage system is not lined, as is often the case in rural areas, chances of
percolation are high); the slope of the terrain (steep slope or flat area); land use in the catchment
area (roofs and pavement prevent infiltration) and the intensity of rainfall (e.g. design for a 5-
year storm return period).
Baffles (a) and steps (b) built into the drain slow down the water flow. So do checkwalls (c) for unlined drains. The water
deposits silt behind each checkwall, gradually building up a stepped drain. The checkwalls should be buried well into the ground.
Source: WHO(1991)

A return period of five years is widely used to design primary drainage systems in tropical cities,
but shorter periods (three years or less) are more suitable for micro-drainage within residential
areas, where an occasional overflow is less likely to cause serious damage. If it is designed too
big, it may never be fully amortised within its lifetime. In this case the money for the big
construction could have been used for other constructions (e.g. micro-drainage in areas without
any canals).

On steep terrain, erosion could damage the drain. It is therefore important to prevent water from
flooding down in uncontrolled flows that may wash out houses and turn passages such as
pathways and streets into an impassable gulleys. As a rule of thumb, slopes of more than 5% can
be considered steep slopes. There are several types of constructions that impede the water flow
(WHO 1991).
The central channel or “cunette” with a narrow bottom carries the flow in dry weather and moderate rain, while the outer
channel facilitates for the occasional heavy flood flow. The outer channel floor should preferably slope gently down to the
central channel. Source: WHO (1991)

In flat low-lying areas subject to flooding, a major problem often results from the relatively high
level of the receiving water body. Because of the limited slope to which drains can be laid when
water flows along them it is quite slow and inefficient. Together with the difficulty of digging
deep drainage channels especially where the groundwater level is high, results in drains having
to be proportionally wider in order to have sufficient water passage. There is also a risk of puddle
building in which pests such as mosquitoes can breed. Building a drainage channel with sloping
sides and a narrow bottom helps to maintain a steady flow speed whatever the water level in the
channel. A refinement of this principle is to build a channel with a composite section (see picture
above) (WHO 1991).

Transportation of wastewater in open drains

As mentioned in the executive summary, it could be a temporary solution to transport wastewater
(greywater or even blackwater) in open drainage systems.Open drains are not a satisfactory
technology for transporting sewage, even when the solids have been removed by some form
of septic/interceptor tank (even sullage is likely to carry faecal contamination from laundry
wastes, hand and body washing etc., albeit the concentrations being lower this should be
considered). There are two reasons why open drains are unsatisfactory for sewage transport
(CORCORAN et al. 2010):

1. People can easily come into contact with the wastewater, with its potentially high pathogen
content.
2. Since it is almost impossible to keep stormwater out of drains, any flooding will be floodwater
merged with diluted sewage (WORLDBANK 2011). Very often open drains/channels are misused
for depositing litter, excreta and household sewer lines are sometimes illegally connected to
open drainage systems.
Factsheet Block Title

Cost considerations
Factsheet Block Body
 Compared to underground sewer systems (e.g. conventional sewer or separate sewer) open drains
are a less expensive solution. The precise cost depends on local conditions. If terrain is very step,
extra construction has to be fabricated to slow down the velocity. Also very flat areas could raise
the budgeted cost (deep, or where groundwater table is high, wide excavation). Consideration of
community participation could have a positive offset on the overall costs. For example voluntary
labour can permit significant savings in cost, which can be an important consideration for most
municipalities in developing countries, due to very limited availability of funds to invest in
infrastructure. A typical value for the annual cost of maintenance would be about 8% of the
construction cost of the system (WHO 1991).

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Operation and maintenance

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Keeping drains free of refuse poses a problematical obstical. Unfortunately it is commonly

believed that a drain is a convenient place for depositing solid waste, wastewater, greywater and
even faecal sludge, especially where there is no adequate refuse or wastewater collection service
(see also water pollution). Refuse and faecal matter in drains quickly becomes malodorous as it
decomposes and poses as a suitable medium for flies and mosquitoes for egg-laying and as a
hospitable site for many pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Removal of such material from the
drains is not a popular task (WHO 1992), but crucial for protecting the public health (see
also health and hygiene issues).

The main duties and responsibilities for operation and maintenance of an open channel drainage
system are (WHO 1991):

 Routine drain cleaning

 Reporting of defects and blockages
 Semiannual inspection
 Repairs
 Payment for maintenance
 Passing of by-laws regarding the use of drains
 Enforcement of by-laws.
Cleaning out open drains is difficult to organise but utterly necessary. Blockages can cause spill-over and cause flooding. A
solution could be to cover it with concrete slabs. Source: SANIMAS (2005)

However, the most important issues to optimise existing open drain systems are: preventing
overflow (see operation and maintenance above) and waste entering the system. To prevent
faecal matter and solid waste from entering the system is to cover the drains and provide
adequate wastewater treatment and collection systems as well as solid waste management.

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Health aspects
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Greywater from laundry (left) and solid garbage which is disposed in open drains (right) pollute water and cause health hazards.
Bangalore, Nepal. Source: BARRETO (2009)

Open drain bear a high health risk because they are very often used illegally for the discharge of
domestic and/ or industrial wastewater, and solid waste. Moreover, ponding water forming pools
encourage mosquito breeding, and children have a tendency to play in them. Ponding is likely to
occur where: the terrain is flat and the drain slope small, where the drains are rough and unlined
so that water collects in depressions, where solid waste is deposited in the drains leading to a
clogging effect and where drains are filled to allow vehicles or pedestrians to cross (WHO 1992).
This is a high risk for the public health (see also waterborne diseases - pathogens and
contaminants). Also defecation into those drains is not an unusual habit and needs to be
circumvented by the community.

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At a glance
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The open drains collect storm and sometimes sewage, then drain it off into rivers, lakes or
Working principle
agricultural irrigation canals.
To be found in smaller and larger urban as well as rural areas, in coastal areas often influenc
Capacity/adequacy
tide level of sea. Furthermore they are prone to flooding or clogging in rainy season.
Performance Good performance if designed correctly and kept free from solid waste.
Still cheaper than advanced sewer systems, but terrain, labour and material could raise the
Costs
investment costs.
Self-help
High
compatibility
O&M Open drains are easy to maintain but must be well organised.
Reliability Open drains are prone to blockage caused by garbage and solids.
Main strength Simple to construct with locally available materials
Main weakness It is prone to be used as a disposal for all kinds of waste and can cause health risks for resid
Applicability
Open drains are easy to construct and if there are existing drains it is a low-cost solution. It can
be constructed in almost all types of settlements (urban or rural), but enough land area is required
to build a reasonable construction. To prevent clogging scheduled maintenance is necessary.If a
new drainage system is planned, the community should be involved to solve problems of land
requirement and workforce before the construction start to avoid conflicts and create productive
employment.

Even though open drainage systems offer very simple solutions for stormwater conduction they
bear many risks for public health and the environment due to the risk of illegal discharge of
wastewater and solid waste. Therefore, if possible, they should be applied only where an
adequate wastewater treatment and collection system is in place and a solid waste management is
provided.

Library References
Further Readings
Case Studies
Awareness Raising Material
Important Weblinks
 Perspective Structure

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Factsheet Details

Factsheet created on 25 August 2010

Download Presentation Sewer Systems PPT

Factsheet Contents

 Executive Summary

 Advantages

 Introduction

 Basic design principles

 Cost considerations

 Operation and maintenance

 Health aspects
  At a glance

 Applicability

 Library References

 Further Readings

 Case Studies

 Important Weblinks

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MORE ON THE SUBJECT

 EU WFD
 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
 WASTEWATER DRAINAGE
 SEWAGE SLUDGE RECYCLING
 ECOLOGICAL WATERBODY DEVELOPMENT
 FLOOD MANAGEMENT
 WATER DRAINAGE
 GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT
 BENCHMARKING

WHAT TO DO WITH THE RAINWATER?

 When it rains, the mixed water sewers of the Emscher and Lippe are filled with rushing water – and
the wastewater treatment plants eventually reach the limits of their capacity. Then stormwater
overflow basins and sewer overflows prevent the system from collapsing. Equipped with significantly
larger diameters than normal sewers, these act as underground buffers for the volumes of mixed
water than cannot immediately be processed by the wastewater treatment plants. After the rain
stops, the stored water is gradually routed to the wastewater treatment plants.

In the stormwater overflow basins and sewer overflows, the pollutants already begin to settle to the
ground. In the event of sustained rain, the heavily diluted and mechanically pre-clarified wastewater
can thus be discharged directly into the waterways without excessive contamination.

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