Calculus 4

Vectors in the Plane Vectors in Space The Dot Product The Cross Product Lines and Planes in Space
Surfaces in Spac
Calculus
Vectors and the Geometry of Space
Vectors in the Plane Vectors in Space The Dot Product The Cross Product Lines and Planes in Space Surfaces in Spac
Outline
1 Vectors in the Plane
2 Vectors in Space
3 The Dot Product
4 The Cross Product
5 Lines and Planes in Space
6 Surfaces in Space
Vectors
Figure: [8.2a] Directed line Figure: [8.2b] Equivalent vectors.

segment.
Sum of two Vectors
Figure: [8.3a] Resultant vector. Figure: [8.3b] Sum of two vectors.

Scalar Multiplication
If we multiply a vector u by a scalar (a real number) c > 0,
the resulting vector will have the same direction as u, but
will have magnitude c||u||.
Multiplying a vector u by a scalar c < 0 will result in a
vector with opposite direction from u and magnitude |c|||u||.
Figure: [8.4] Scalar multiplication.

Vectors and Analytic Geometry: Position Vectors

Since the location of the initial point is irrelevant, we typically
draw vectors with their initial point located at the origin. Such a
vector is called a position vector. Notice that the terminal
point of a position vector will completely determine the vector,
so that specifying the terminal point will also specify the vector.
Figure: [8.5] Position vector a = ha1 , a2 i.

Consider a position vector a with

terminal point at the point A(a1 , a2 ).
We denote the vector by
−→
a = OA =< a1 , a2 >
We call a1 and a2 the components of

the vector a;
a1 is the first component
a2 is the first component
Figure: [8.5] Position
vector a = ha1 , a2 i.
The magnitude of a position vector a

follows directly from the Pythagorean
Theorem. We have
p
||a|| = a1 2 + a2 2

Consider two position vectors

a =< a1 , a2 > and b =< b1 , b2 >. We
say that the two position vectors are
identical if and only if a1 = b1 and
a2 = b2 .

Vector Addition and Substraction

Consider two position vectors
−→ −→
OA =< a1 , a2 > and OB =< b1 , b2 >
The vector addition of two position

vectors is defined by
< a1 , a2 > + < b1 , b2 >=

< a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 >
Similarly, the vector subtraction of

vectors is defined by
Figure: [8.6] Adding
< a1 , a2 > − < b1 , b2 >= position vectors.
< a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 >
Scalar Multiplication (I)

We define scalar multiplication of position vectors by
c < aa , a2 >=< ca1 , ca2 >
Notice that this says that
||ca|| = |c|||a||
Figure: [8.7a] Scalar Figure: [8.7b] Scalar

multiplication (c > 1). multiplication (0 < c < 1).
Scalar Multiplication (II)
Figure: [8.7c] Scalar Figure: [8.7d] Scalar

multiplication (c < −1). multiplication (−1 < c < 0).
Vector Arithmetic
Example (1.1)
For vector a = h2, 1i and b = h3, −2i, compute
1 a + b,
2 2a,
3 2a + 3b,
4 2a − 3b and
5 k2a − 3bk.
The Zero Vector
If we multiply any vector a by the scalar c = 0, we yield a vector

with zero length, the zero vector
0 =< 0, 0 >
Notice that:
1 this is the only vector with zero length;
2 and it has no particular direction.
The Additive Inverse of a Vector
We define the additive inverse −a of a vector a as
−a = − < a1 , a2 >= (−1) < a1 , a2 >=< −a1 , −a2 >
Notice that:
1 −a is a vector with the opposite direction as a
2 || − a|| = ||a||
Parallel Vectors
Definition (1.1)
Two vectors having the same or opposite direction are call
parallel
Notice that this says that two (nonzero) position vectors a and b
are parallel if and only if
b = ca
for some scalar c.
Determining When Two Vectors Are Parallel
Example (1.2)
Determine whether or not the given pair of vectors is parallel:
1 a = h2, 3i and b = h4, 5i,
2 a = h2, 3i and b = h−4, −6i.
Computing Rules for Vectors
Theorem (1.1)
Let V2 = {(x, y)|x, y ∈ R} denote the set of all position vectors in
two dimension space. Then, for any vectors a, b and c in V2 ,
and any scalars d and e in R the following hold:
1 a+b=b+a (commutativity)
2 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (associativity)
3 a+0=a (zero vector)
4 a + (−a) = 0 (additive inverse)
5 d(a + b) = da + db (distributive law)
6 (d + e)a = da + eb (distributive law)
7 (1)a = a (multiplication by 1) and
8 (0)a = 0 (multiplication by 0).
A Graphical Interpretation of Vector Substraction (I)
Using the commutativity and

associativity of vector addition, we
have
b + (a + b) = (a − b) + b
= a + (−b + b) = a + 0 = a
Notice that this gives us a geometric

interpretation of vector substraction.
Figure: [8.8]
b + (a − b) = a.
A Graphical Interpretation of Vector Substraction (II)

−
→
For any two points A = (x1 , y1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 ), the vector AB
corresponds to the position vector < x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 >.
Figure: [8.9] Vector from A to B.

Finding a Position Vector

Example (1.3)
Find the vector with
1 initial point at A(2, 3) and terminal point at B(3, −1) and
2 initial point at B and terminal point at A.
−
→ −
→
Figure: [8.10a] AB = h1, −4i. Figure: [8.10b] BA = h−1, 4i.
Standard Basis
We define the standard basis
vectors i and j by
i =< 1, 0 > and j =< 0, 1 >
Notice that i and j are unit vectors,

i.e., ||i|| = ||j|| = 1. We say that i and j
form a basis for V2 , since we can
write and vector a ∈ V2 in terms of i
and j, as follows:
a =< a1 , a2 >= a1 i + a2 j
Figure: [8.11] Standard
where a1 and a2 are the horizontal
basis.
and vertical components of a,
respectively.
Normalization
Theorem (1.2)
For any nonzero position vector a = ha1 , a2 i, a unit vector
having the same direction as a is given by
1
u= a.
kak
The process of dividing a nonzero vector by its magnitude

is sometimes called normalization.
A vector’s magnitude is sometimes called its norm.
Finding a Unit Vector
Example (1.4)
Find a unit vector in the same

direction as a = h3, −4i.
Figure: [8.12] a =< 3, −4 >.

Polar Form of a Vector

It is often to write a vector explicitly
in terms of its magnitude and
direction. For instance
3 −4
< 3, −4 >= 5 < , >
5 5
Notice that || < 53 , −4
5 > || = 1.
Now let a be a position vector. If θ
is the angle between the positive
x-axis and a then
a = ||a|| < cos θ, sin θ > .

Figure: [8.12] Polar form of
This representation is called the a vector.
polar form of the vector a.
Finding the Net Force Acting on a Skydiver
Example (1.5)
At a certain point during a
jump, there are two principal
forces acting on a skydiver:
gravity exerting a force of 180
pounds straight down, and air
resistance exerting a force of
180 pounds up and 30 pounds
to the right. What is the net
force acting on the skydiver?
Figure: [8.13] Forces on a

skydiver.
Steering an Aircraft in a Headwind and a Crosswind
Example (1.6)
An airplane has an air speed
of 400 mph. Suppose that the
wind velocity is given by the
vector w = h20, 30i. In what
direction should the airplane
head in order to fly due west
Figure: [8.14] Forces on an
(i.e., in the direction of the unit
airplane.
vector −i = h−1, 0i)?
Vector in Space
In this section we extent the concepts of vectors from the two

dimensional Euclidean space R2 to the three dimension
Euclidean space R3 .
Three Dimensional Coordinate System (I)

In R3 , we describe points by an ordered triple (a, b, c),
where the coordinates a, b and c represents (signed)
distance from the origin along each of three axes (x, y and
z).
A 3D right-handed coordinate system is illustrated in the
figure.
Figure: [8.15a] Coordinate axes Figure: [8.15b] Right-handed

in R3 . system.
Locating a Point (a, b, c) ∈ R
First we move along the x-axis,

a distance of a units from the
origin, and arrive at (a, 0, 0)
Moving parallel to the y-axis a
distance of b units from (a, 0, 0),
we arrive at the point (a, b, 0)
Moving c units from (a, b, 0)
parallel to the z axis, we arrive
at (a, b, c).
Figure: [8.16] Locating
the point (a, b, c).
Plotting Points in Three Dimensions

Example (2.1)
Plot the points (1, 2, 3), (3, −2, 4) and (−1, 3, −2).
Figure: [8.17a] The Figure: [8.17b] The Figure: [8.17c] The

point (1, 2, 3). point (3, −2, 4). point (−1, 3 − 2).
Octans
Recall that in R2 , the coordinate

axes divide the xy-plane into
four quadrants.
In a similar fashion, the three
coordinate planes in R3 (the
xy-plane, the yz-plane and the
xz-plane) divide space into eight
octants (see Figure)
The first octant is the one with
x > 0, y > 0 and z > 0, and we
do not usually distinguish
among the other seven octants. Figure: [8.18] The
coordinate planes.
The Distance between two Points in R3

Let d{P1 , P2 } denote the distance between two points
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) The distance formula for R3 :
q
d{(x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 )} = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2
Figure: [8.19] Distance in R3 .

Computing Distance in R3
Example (2.2)
Find the distance between the points (1, −3, 5) and (5, 2, −3).
Vectors in R3 (I)
A vector v is represented by
any directed line segment
with the appropriate
magnitude and direction.
The position vector a with
terminal point at
A(a1 , a2 , a3 )(and initial point
at the origin) is denoted by
< a1 , a2 , a3 > (see Figure)
Figure: [8.20a] Position vector in

R3 .
Vectors in R3 (II)
We denote the set of all

three-dimensional position
vectors by
V3 = {< x, y, z > |x, y, z ∈ R}
The magnitude of the

position vector
a =< a1 , a2 , a3 > follows
directly from the distance
formula, i.e.,
||a|| = || < a1 , a2 , a3 > ||

Figure: [8.20a] Position vector in
q
= a21 + a22 + a23 R3 .
Vectors in R3 (III)
A vector with initial point at

P(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and the terminal
point at Q(b1 , b2 , b3 )
corresponds to the position
vector
−→
PQ =< b1 − a1 , b2 − a2 , b3 − a3 >
Figure: [8.20b] Vector from P to Q.

Vectors in R3 (IV)
We define vector addition in V3

by drawing a parallelogram, as
seen in the figure
Figure: [8.20c] Vector addition.

Vectors in R3 (V)
Notice that for vectors a =< a1 , a2 , a3 > and b =< b1 , b2 , b3 >,
we have
a + b = < a1 , a2 , a3 > + < b1 , b2 , b3 >

= < a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 >
a − b = < a1 , a2 , a3 > − < b1 , b2 , b3 >
= < a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 >
For any scalar c ∈ R, ca is a vector in the same direction as a

when c > 0 and the opposite direction as a when c < 0. We
have
ca = c < a1 , a2 , a3 >=< ca1 , ca2 , ca3 >
Also
||ca|| = |c|||a||
Vectors in R3 (VI)
We define the zero vector to be the vector in V3 of length 0:
0 =< 0, 0, 0 >
We define the additive inverse of a vector a ∈ V3 to be
−a = − < a1 , a2 , a3 >=< −a1 , −a2 , −a3 >

The Rules of Algebra for Vectors in R3
Theorem (2.1)
For any vectors a, b and c in V3 , and any scalars d and e in R,
the following hold:
1 a+b=b+a (commutativity)
2 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (associativity)
3 a+0=a (zero vector)
4 a + (−a) = 0 (additive inverse)
5 d(a + b) = da + db (distributive law)
6 (d + e)a = da + eb (distributive law)
7 (1)a = a (multiplication by 1) and
8 (0)a = 0 (multiplication by 0).
Standard Basis for V3

We define the standard basis for V3
by
i = < 1, 0, 0 >
j = < 0, 1, 0 >
k = < 0, 0, 1 >
as pictured in the figure.

Note that
||i|| = ||j|| = ||k|| = 1
For any a ∈ V3 , we can write
a = < a1 , a2 , a3 > Figure: [8.21] Standard

basis for V3 .
= a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
Unit Vectors
For any vector

a =< a1 , a2 , a3 >6= 0
a unit vector in the same direction as a is given by
1
u= a
||a||
and
||u|| = 1
Finding a Unit Vector
Example (2.3)
Find a unit vector in the same direction as h1, −2, 3i and write
h1, −2, 3i as the product of its magnitude and a unit vector.
Finding the Equation of a Sphere
Example (2.4)
Find the equation of the
sphere of radius r centered at
the point (a, b, c).
Figure: [8.22] Sphere of radius r

centered at (a, b, c).
Finding the Center and Radius of a Sphere
Example (2.5)
Find the geometric shape described by the following equation:
0 = x2 + y2 + z2 − 4x + 8y − 10z + 36.
The Dot Product: Definition
Definition (3.1)
The dot product of two vectors a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and
b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i in V3 is defined by
a · b = ha1 , a2 , a3 i · hb1 , b2 , b3 i = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
Likewise, the dot product of two vectors in V2 is defined by
a · b = ha1 , a2 i · hb1 , b2 i = a1 b1 + a2 b2 .
Notice that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar (i.e., a
number, not a vector). For this reason, the dot product is also
called the scalar product.
Computing a Dot Product in R3
Example (3.1)
Compute the dot product a · b for a = h1, 2, 3i and b = h5, −3, 4i.
Computing a Dot Product in R2
Example (3.2)
Find the dot product of the two vectors a = 2i − 5j and
b = 3i + 6j.
Basic Rules for Computing Scalar Products
Theorem (3.1)
For vectors a, b and c and any scalar d, the following hold:
1 a·b=b·a (commutativity)
2 a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c (distributive law)
3 (da) · b = d(a · b) = a · (db)
4 0 · a = 0 and
5 a · a = kak2 .
Notice that a · b = 0 does not imply that either a = 0 or b = 0.
The Angle between two Vectors (I)
Consider any two nonzero vectors a

and b in V3 with their initial points
located at the same place. We
notice that the two vectors form an
angle θ between them, where
0 ≤ θ ≤ π (as shown in the figure)
We refer to this angle θ as the angle
between the vectors a and b
Figure: [8.23a] The angle

between two vectors.
The Angle between two Vectors (II)
If a and b have the same

direction, then θ = 0.
If a and b have the opposite
directions, then θ = 0.
We say that a and b are
orthogonal or perpendicular if
θ = π/2.
We consider the zero vector 0
to be orthogonal to every
vector. Figure: [8.23a] The angle
between two vectors.
The Angle between two Vectors (III)

Theorem (3.2)
Let θ be the angle between nonzero vectors a and b. Then,
a · b = kakkbk cos θ.
Figure: [8.23b] The angle between two vectors.
An immediate and important consequence of the Theorem is:
Two vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if a · b = 0

Finding the Angle between Two Vectors
Example (3.3)
Find the angle between the vectors a = h2, 1, −3i and
b = h1, 5, 6i.
Determining Whether Two Vectors Are Orthogonal
Example (3.4)
Determine whether or not the following pairs of vectors are
orthogonal:
1 a = h1, 3, −5i and b = h2, 3, 10i and
2 a = h4, 2, −1i and b = h2, 3, 14i.
Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality
Theorem (3.3)
For any vectors a and b,
|a · b| ≤ kakkbk.
The Triangle Inequality
Theorem (3.4)
For any vectors a and b,
ka + bk ≤ kak + kbk.
Figure: [8.24] The Triangle Inequality.

Components and Projections

In pulling a child’s wagon, we exert a force in the convenient
direction, instead of in the direction of motion (see the figure).
An important question is whether there is a force of smaller
magnitude that can be exerted in a different direction and still
produce the same effect on the wagon.
Figure: [8.25] Pulling a wagon.

Components (I)
Consider two nonzero position vectors a and b. Let the angle
between the vectors be θ.
We refer to ||a|| cos θ as the component of a along b, denoted
by compb a:
compb a = ||a|| cos θ
Figure: [8.26a] compb a, for Figure: [8.26b] compb a, for

π
0 < θ < π2 . 2 < θ < π.
Components (II)
Observe that we can rewrite compb a as
||b||
compb a = ||a|| cos θ = ||a|| cos θ
||b||
1 a·b
= ||a||||b|| cos θ =
||b|| ||b||
Figure: [8.26a] compb a, for Figure: [8.26b] compb a, for

π
0 < θ < π2 . 2 < θ < π.
Projections
Consider any two nonzero position vectors a and b. Denoted by
projb a, the projection of a onto b, as indicated in the figures is
defined as

b a·b b a·b
projb a = (compb a) = = b,
||b|| ||b|| ||b|| ||b||2
Figure: [8.27a] projb a, for Figure: [8.27b] projb a, for

π
0 < θ < π2 . 2 < θ < π.
Finding Components and Projections
Example (3.5)
For a = h2, 3i and b = h−1, 5i, find the component of a along b
and the projection of a onto b.
Calculating Work
Example (3.6)
You exert a constant force of
40 pounds in the direction of
the handle of the wagon
pictured in Figure 8.28. If the
handle makes an angle of π4
with the horizontal and you
pull the wagon along a flat
surface for 1 mile (5280 feet),
Figure: [8.28] Pulling a wagon.
find the work done.
The Cross Product of Two Vectors
In the previous, we have introduced the dot product of two

vectors. In this section, we introduce the cross product of two
vector.
Preliminary: Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix
Definition (4.1)
The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix of real numbers is defined by

a1 a2
b1 b2 = a1 b2 − a2 b1 .

Computing a 2 × 2 Determinant
Example (4.1)

1 2
Evaluate the determinant .
3 4
Preliminary: Determinant of a 3 × 3 Matrix
Definition (4.2)
The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix of real numbers is defined as
a combination of three 2 × 2 determinants, as follows:

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3

b1 b3

b1 b2
b1 b2 b3 = a1 c c − a2 c c + a3 c c

2 3 1 3 1 2
c1 c2 c3
Evaluating a 3 × 3 Determinant
Example (4.2)

1 2 4

Evaluate the determinant −3 3 1 .
3 −2 5
Cross Product of Two Vectors
Definition (4.3)
For two vectors a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i in V3 , we
define the cross product (or vector product) of a and b to be

i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a × b = a1 a2 a3 = i− j+ k.

b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2
b3
Notice that the cross product of two vector is a vector rather

than a scalar.
Computing a Cross Product
Example (4.3)
Compute h1, 2, 3i × h4, 5, 6i.
The Cross Product of Two Parallel Vectors
Theorem (4.1)
For any vector a ∈ V3 , a × a = 0 and a × 0 = 0.
The theorem states that the cross product of two parallel
vectors is a zero vector.
a · (a × b) = b · (a × b) = 0
Theorem (4.2)
For any vectors a and b in V3 , a × b is orthogonal to both a and
b.
Right-Hand Rules and the Direction of a × b

Notice that since a × b is orthogonal to both a and b, it is also
orthogonal to every vector lying in the plane containing a and b,
and the direction of a × b follows the right-hand rule
Figure: [8.29a] a × b. Figure: [8.29b] b × a.

Rules Related to the Cross Product of two Vectors
Theorem (4.3)
For any vectors a, b and c in V3 and any scalar d, the following
hold:
1 a × b = −(b × a) (anticommutativity)
2 (da)×b = d(a×b) = a×(db)
3 a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c (distributive law)
4 (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c (distributive law)
5 a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c (scalar triple product) and
6 a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c (vector triple product)
The Magnitude of a × b
Theorem (4.4)
For nonzero vectors a and b in V3 , if θ is the angle between a
and b (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then
ka × bk = kakkbk sin θ.
An immediately consequence of the theorem is the following:
Two nonzero vectors a, b ∈ V3 are parallel if and only if
a × b = 0.
A Geometric Interpretation of the Cross Product

For any two nonzero vectors a and
b, as long as a and b are not
parallel, they form two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram as shown in
the figure. We observe that the are
of the parallelogram is
Area = (base)(altitude)
= ||b||||a|| sin θ
= ||a × b||
So the magnitude of the cross

product of two vectors gives the Figure: [8.30] Parallelogram.
area of the parallelogram with two
adjacent side formed by the two
vectors.
Finding the Area of a Parallelogram Using the Cross

Product
Example (4.4)
Find the area of the parallelogram with two adjacent sides
formed by the vectors a = h1, 2, 3i and b = h4, 5, 6i.
The Distance of a Point to a Line in R3

Let d denote the distance from the point Q to the line through
the points P and R as shown in the figure.
Observe that
−→
d = ||PQ|| sin θ
where θ is the angle between
−→ −
→
PQ and PR. Since
−→ − → −→ − →
||PQ × PR|| = ||PQ||||PR|| sin θ
−→
= ||PR||d Figure: [8.31] Distance from a
point to a line.
Hence,
−→ − →
||PQ × PR||
d= −
→
||PR||
Finding the Distance from a Point to a Line
Example (4.5)
Find the distance from the point Q(1, 2, 1) to the line through the
points P(2, 1, −3) and R(2, −1, 3).
Scalar Triple Product: c · (a × b) (I)

The scalar c · (a × b) is called the scalar triple product of the
vectors a, b and c. For a =< a1 , a2 , a3 >, b =< b1 , b2 , b3 > and
c =< c1 , c2 , c3 >, we have

i j k

c · (a × b) = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
=< c1 , c2 , c3 > · i − j + k

b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
= c1
− c2 + c3

b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2

c1 c2 c3

= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
The Scalar Triple Product: c · (a × b) (II)
Consider the parallelepiped formed

by using three noncoplanar vectors,
a, b and c, as three adjacent edges
as pictured in the figure. Recall that
the volume of such a solid is given
by
Volumn = (Area of base)(altitude) Figure: [8.32] Parallelepiped

formed by the vectors a, b
and c.
The Scalar Triple Product: c · (a × b) (III)

Observe that the area of base and
the altitude are:
||a × b||
and
|a · (a × b)|
||compa×b c|| =
||a × b||
Hence the volume of the

parallepiped is then
Figure: [8.32] Parallelepiped
|a · (a × b)| formed by the vectors a, b
Volume = ||a × b|| and c.
||a × b||
= |a · (a × b)|
Finding the Volume of a Parallelepiped Using the

Cross Product
Example (4.6)
Find the volume of the parallelepiped with three adjacent edges
formed by the vectors a = h1, 2, 3i, b = h4, 5, 6i and c = h7, 8, 0i.
Application of the Cross Product: Torque (I)
Applying a force F at the end of the

wrench handle in the direction as
indicated in the figure, creates a
torque τ acting alone the axis of
the bolt, where
τ =r×F
and
||τ || = ||r|| ||F|| sin θ
Figure: [8.33] Torque, τ .

Application of the Cross Product: Torque (II)
From the expression
||τ || = ||r|| ||F|| sin θ
we observe the following:

1 If θ = 0 then ||τ || = 0, even
||r|| ||F|| 6= 0
2 For θ 6= 0, the larger ||r|| is, the
greater the magnitude of the
torque.
3 ||τ || is maximized when θ = pi2 ,
i.e., when the force vector F is
orthogonal to the position
Figure: [8.33] Torque, τ .
vector r.
Finding the Torque Applied by a Wrench
Example (4.7)
If you apply a force of magnitude 25 pounds at the end of a
π
15-inch-long wrench, at an angle of to the wrench, find the
3
magnitude of the torque applied to the bolt. What is the
maximum torque that a force of 25 pounds applied at that point
can produce?
Application of the Cross Product: Magnus Force (I)
Suppose that a ball is spinning with

angular velocity ω (in rad/sec) the
ball spin about an axis as shown in
the figure. We define the spin vector
s to have the magnitude ω, i.e.,
||s|| = ω,
and direction parallel to the spin

axis. To distinguish between the two Figure: [8.34] Spinning ball.
directions parallel to the spin axis,
we can use a right-hand rule.
Application of the Cross Product: Magnus Force (II)

Consider the two examples shown below. The motion of the
ball disturbs the air through which it travels, creating a force
acting on the ball called the Magnus force. The Magnus force
Fm acting on a ball moving with velocity v and spin vector s is
given by
Fm = c(s × v)
for some positive constant c.
Figure: [8.35a] Backspin. Figure: [8.35b] Topspin.

Application of the Cross Product: Magnus Force (III)
Consider a backspin ball moving into the page with velocity v.

Using the right-hand rule, we see that the Magnus force acting
on the ball acts in the upward direction.
Figure: [8.35a] Backspin.

Figure: [8.36a] Magnus force for
a ball with backspin.
Application of the Cross Product: Magnus Force (IV)
Consider a topspin ball moving into the page with velocity v.

Using the right-hand rule, we see that the Magnus force acting
on the ball acts in the downward direction.
Figure: [8.35b] Topspin.

Figure: [8.36b] Magnus force for
a ball with topspin.
Finding the Direction of a Magnus Force (I)

Example (4.8)
The balls shown in Figures 8.37a and 8.37b are moving into the
page and away from you with spin as indicated. The first ball
represents a right-handed baseball pitcher’s curveball, while
the second ball represents a right-handed golfer’s shot.
Determine the direction of the Magnus force and discuss the
effects on the ball.
Figure: [8.37a] Right-hand Figure: [8.37b] Right-hand golf

curveball. shot.
Finding the Direction of a Magnus Force (II)
Figure: [8.37a] Right-hand

curveball. Figure: [8.38a] Magnus force for
a right-handed curveball.
Finding the Direction of a Magnus Force (III)
Figure: [8.37b] Right-hand golf

shot. Figure: [8.38b] Magnus force for
a right-handed golf shot.
Specifying a Line in Space
A line in the xy-plane can be determined by either:

1 specifying any two points on the line, or
2 specifying a single point on the line and its direction.
In two dimensions, the direction is indicated by the slope of the
line. But how can we specify the direction of a line in three
dimensions?
Lines and Planes in Space (I)
Consider the line passing through

the point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and parallel to
the position vector a =< a1 , a2 , a3 >
as shown in the figure. For any
other point P(x, y, z) on the line, the
−−→
vector P1 P must be parallel to a, i.e.,
−−→
P1 P = at
where t is a scalar.
Figure: [8.39] Line in space.

Lines and Planes in Space (II)

Parametric Equations of a Line
Since
−−→
P1 P =< x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 >
we have
< x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 >= ta
= t < a1 , a2 , a3 >
or equivalently,
x − x1 = a1 t
y − y1 = a2 t
z − z1 = a3 t Figure: [8.39] Line in space.
Lines and Planes in Space (III)

The equations
x − x1 = a1 t,
y − y1 = a2 t, and
z − z1 = a3 t
are called parametric equations for the line, and t is the

parameter.
Provided none of a1 , a2 or a3 are zero, we can solve for the
parameter in each of the three equations, to get
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
a1 a2 a3
We refer to the above expression as the symmetric equations
of the line.
Finding Equations of a Line Given a Point and a Vector

Example (5.1)
Find an equation of the line through the point (1, 5, 2) and
parallel to the vector h4, 3, 7i. Also, determine where the line
intersects the yz-plane.
Figure: [8.40] The line x = 1 + 4t, y = 5 + 3t, z = 2 + 7t.

Finding Equations of a Line Given Two Points

Example (5.2)
Find an equation of the line passing through the points
P(1, 2, −1) and Q(5, −3, 4).
x−1 y−2 z+1

Figure: [8.41] = = .
4 −5 5
Definition (5.1)
Let l1 and l2 be two lines in R3 , with parallel vectors a and b,
respectively, and let θ be the angle between a and b.
1 The lines l1 and l2 are parallel whenever a and b are
parallel.
2 If l1 and l2 intersect, then
(a) the angle between l1 and l2 is θ and
(b) the lines l1 and l2 are orthogonal whenever a and b are
orthogonal.
Showing Two Lines Are Not Parallel but Do Not

Intersect
Example (5.3)
Show that the lines l1 and l2
are not parallel, yet do not
intersect, where

 x − 2 = −t
l1 : y − 1 = 2t
z − 5 = 2t

and

 x−1=s
l2 : y − 2 = −s
Figure: [8.42] Skew lines.
z − 1 = 3s

Skew Lines
Definition (5.2)
Nonparallel, nonintersecting lines are called skew lines.
Figure: [8.43] Skew lines.

Planes in R3
In general, a plane in space is determined by specifying a
vector n =< a, b, c > that is normal to the plane (i.e.,
orthogonal to every vector lying in the plane) and a point
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) lying in the plane as shown in the figure.
Figure: [8.45] Plane in R3 .

Equation of a Plane (I)
To find an equation of the plane, let

P(x, y, z) be any point point in the
plane. Since the vectors n and
−−→
P1 P =< x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 > are
orthogonal, their dot product is zero,
i.e.,
−−→
0 = n · P1 P
= < a, b, c > · < x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 >
= a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1)
Figure: [8.45] Plane in R3 .
Equation of a Plane (II)
Expanding out the expression shown previously, we get
0 = a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1)

= ax + by + cz + (−ax1 − by1 − cz1 )
| {z }
constant
We refer to this last equation as a linear equation in the three

variables x, y and z. In particular, this says that every equation
of the form
0 = ax + by + cz + d
where a, b, c and d are constants is the equation of a plane with
normal vector < a, b, c >.
The Equation of a Plane Given a Point and a Normal Vector
Example (5.4)
Find an equation of the plane containing the point (1, 2, 3) with
normal vector h4, 5, 6i.
Figure: [8.46] The plane through (8, 0, 0) (0, 32 16

5 , 0) and (0, 0, 3 ).
Finding the Equation of a Plane Given Three Points
Example (5.5)
Find the plane containing the
three points P(1, 2, 2),
Q(2, −1, 4) and R(3, 5, −2).
Figure: [8.47] Plane containing

three points.
Angle between Planes
In three dimensions, two planes are

either parallel or they intersect in a
straight line. Suppose that two
planes having normal vectors a and
b, respectively, intersect. Then the
angle between the planes is the
same as the angle between a and b
(see figure). With this in mind, we
say that the two planes parallel
whenever their normal vectors are
parallel and the planes are
orthogonal whenever their normal Figure: [8.48] Angle
vectors are orthogonal. between planes.
The Equation of a Plane Given a Point and a Parallel

Plane
Example (5.6)
Find an equation for the plane through the point (1, 4, −5) and
parallel to the plane defined by 2x − 5y + 7z = 12.
Drawing Some Simple Planes
Example (5.7)
Draw the plane y = 3; draw the plane y = 8.
Figure: [8.49] The planes y = 3 and y = 8.

Finding the Intersection of Two Planes
Example (5.8)
Find the line of intersection of
the planes: x + 2y + z = 3 and
x − 4y + 3z = 5.
Figure: [8.50] Intersection of

planes.
The Distance from a Plane to a Point (I)
Suppose that we want to find the

distance from the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 and a point
P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ). Notice that the
distance is measured alone a line
segment connecting the point to
the plane that is orthogonal to the
plane.
Figure: [8.51] Distance from a
point to a plane.
The Distance from a Plane to a Point (II)
To compute this distance, pick any

point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) lying in the plane
and let n =< a, b, c > denote a
vector normal to the plane. Next,
notice from the figure that the
distance from P0 to the plane is
−−→
simply |compn P1 P0 |
Figure: [8.51] Distance from a

point to a plane.
The Distance from a Plane to a Point (III)
Hence,

−−→ −−→ n
|compn P1 P0 | = P1 P0 ·
||n||

< a, b, c >
= < x0 − x1 , y0 − y1 , z0 − z1 > ·

|| < a, b, c > ||
|a(x0 − x1 ) + b(y0 − y1 ) + c(z0 − z1 )|
= √
a2 + b2 + c2
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 − (ax1 + by1 + cz1 )|
= √
a2 + b2 + c2
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|
= √
a2 + b2 + c2
Finding the Distance between Parallel Planes
Example (5.9)
Find the distance between the parallel planes
P1 : 2x − 3y + z = 6
and
P2 : 4x − 6y + 2z = 8.
Cylinder Surfaces
The term cylinder is used to refer to

any surface whose traces in every
plane parallel to a given plane are
the same. For instance, consider
the graph of the equation
x2 + y2 = 9
We observe that the intersection of

the surface with the plane z = 0 is a
circle of radius 3, centered at the
origin. Moreover, the intersection
Figure: [8.52] Right circular
with every plane parallel to z = 0 is cylinder.
also a circle of radius 3.
Sketching a Surface
Example (6.1)
Draw a graph of the surface z = y2 in R3 .
Figure: [8.53a] Trace Figure: [8.53b] Figure: [8.53c]

in the yz-plane. z = y2 . Wireframe of z = y2 .
Sketching an Unusual Cylinder
Example (6.2)
Draw a graph of the surface z = sin x in R3 .
Figure: [8.54a] The surface Figure: [8.54b] Wireframe:

z = sin x. z = sin x.
Quadric Surfaces
The graph of the equation
ax2 + by2 + cz2 + dxy + eyz + fxz + gx + hy + jz + k = 0
in three dimensional space (where a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h, i, j, k are

constants and at least one of a, b, c, d, e or f ) is referred to as a
quadric surface.
Quadric Surfaces (II)

The most familiar quadric surface is

the sphere
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = r2
of radius r centered at the point

(a, b, c).
Figure: [8.55] Sphere.

Quadric Surfaces (III)

A generalization of the sphere is the

ellipsoid:
(x − a)2 (y − b)2 (z − c)2

+ + =1
d2 e2 f2
(Notice that when d = e = f , the

surface is a sphere.)
Figure: [8.56b] Ellipsoid.
Sketching an Ellipsoid
Example (6.3)
Graph the ellipsoid
x2 y2 z2
+ + = 1.
1 4 9
Figure: [8.56a] Ellipse in yz-plane. Figure: [8.56b] Ellipsoid.

Different Plot Modes of an Ellipsoid
Figure: [8.56c] Figure: [8.56d] Figure: [8.56e]

Wireframe ellipsoid. Implicit wireframe Parametric plot.
plot.
Sketching a Paraboloid
Example (6.4)
Draw a graph of the quadric surface
x2 + y2 = z.
Figure: [8.57a] Traces. Figure: [8.57b] Paraboloid.

Different Plot Modes of a Paraboloid
Figure: [8.57c] Figure: [8.57d] Figure: [8.57e]

Wireframe Wireframe paraboloid Parametric plot
paraboloid. for 0 ≤ z ≤ 15. paraboloid.
Sketching an Elliptic Cone

Example (6.5)
y2
x2 + = z2 .
4
Figure: [8.58a] Trace in xz-plane. Figure: [8.58b] Elliptic cone.

Different Plot Modes of an Elliptic Cone
Figure: [8.58c] Wireframe cone. Figure: [8.58d] Parametric plot.

Sketching a Hyperboloid of One Sheet

Example (6.6)
x2 z2
+ y2 − = 1.
4 2
Figure: [8.59a] Trace in yz-plane. Figure: [8.59b] Hyperboloid of

one sheet.
Different Plot Modes of a Hyperboloid of One Sheet
Figure: [8.59c] Wireframe Figure: [8.59d] Parametric plot.

hyperboloid.
Sketching a Hyperboloid of Two Sheets

Example (6.7)
x2 z2
− y2 − = 1.
4 2
Figure: [8.60a] Traces in xy- and Figure: [8.60b] Hyperboloid of

xz-planes. two sheets.
Different Plot Modes of a Hyperboloid of Two Sheets
Figure: [8.60c] Wireframe Figure: [8.60d] Parametric plot.

hyperboloid.
Sketching a Hyperbolic Paraboloid

Example (6.8)
Sketch the graph of the quadric surface defined by the equation
z = 2y2 − x2 .
Figure: [8.61c]
Figure: [8.61a] Figure: [8.61b] The Wireframe plot of
Traces in the xz- and surface z = 2y2 − x2 . z = 2y2 − x2 .
yz-planes.
An Application of Paraboloids
Figure: [8.62] Radiotelescope. Figure: [8.63] Reflecting

telescope.
A Summary of the graphs of Quadric Surfaces


Calculus 4

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Calculus 4

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Vectors in the Plane Vectors in Space The Dot Product The Cross Product Lines and Planes in Space

1 Vectors in the Plane

3 The Dot Product

4 The Cross Product

5 Lines and Planes in Space

Figure: [8.2a] Directed line Figure: [8.2b] Equivalent vectors.

Sum of two Vectors

Figure: [8.3a] Resultant vector. Figure: [8.3b] Sum of two vectors.

Figure: [8.4] Scalar multiplication.

Vectors and Analytic Geometry: Position Vectors

Figure: [8.5] Position vector a = ha1 , a2 i.

Vectors and Analytic Geometry: Position Vectors

Consider a position vector a with

We call a1 and a2 the components of

Vectors and Analytic Geometry: Position Vectors

The magnitude of a position vector a

Figure: [8.5] Position

Vectors and Analytic Geometry: Position Vectors

Consider two position vectors

Figure: [8.5] Position

Vector Addition and Substraction

The vector addition of two position

< a1 , a2 > + < b1 , b2 >=

Similarly, the vector subtraction of

Scalar Multiplication (I)

Figure: [8.7a] Scalar Figure: [8.7b] Scalar

Scalar Multiplication (II)

Figure: [8.7c] Scalar Figure: [8.7d] Scalar

The Zero Vector

If we multiply any vector a by the scalar c = 0, we yield a vector

The Additive Inverse of a Vector

We define the additive inverse −a of a vector a as

−a = − < a1 , a2 >= (−1) < a1 , a2 >=< −a1 , −a2 >

Determining When Two Vectors Are Parallel

Computing Rules for Vectors

A Graphical Interpretation of Vector Substraction (I)

Using the commutativity and

Notice that this gives us a geometric

A Graphical Interpretation of Vector Substraction (II)

Figure: [8.9] Vector from A to B.

Finding a Position Vector

i =< 1, 0 > and j =< 0, 1 >

Notice that i and j are unit vectors,

The process of dividing a nonzero vector by its magnitude

Finding a Unit Vector

Find a unit vector in the same

Figure: [8.12] a =< 3, −4 >.

Polar Form of a Vector

a = ||a|| < cos θ, sin θ > .

Finding the Net Force Acting on a Skydiver

Figure: [8.13] Forces on a

Steering an Aircraft in a Headwind and a Crosswind

In this section we extent the concepts of vectors from the two

Three Dimensional Coordinate System (I)

Figure: [8.15a] Coordinate axes Figure: [8.15b] Right-handed

Locating a Point (a, b, c) ∈ R

First we move along the x-axis,

Plotting Points in Three Dimensions

Figure: [8.17a] The Figure: [8.17b] The Figure: [8.17c] The

Recall that in R2 , the coordinate

The Distance between two Points in R3

Figure: [8.19] Distance in R3 .

Figure: [8.20a] Position vector in

We denote the set of all