HEAT TREATMENT & ITS APPLICATION

Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and
mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes
done inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such
as welding or forming.

Heats Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can
also be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining,
improve formability, and restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very
enabling manufacturing process that can not only help other manufacturing process, but
can also improve product performance by increasing strength or other desirable
characteristics.

Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat
treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any other material. Steels are
heat treated for many reasons.

This study material will benefit persons involved in casting, forging, rolling, and welding
fabrication, manufacturing of metal products and also equally benefit persons involved in
mechanical maintenance.

_________________________ _________________________
Prepared by Approved by
R N Sarkar Mr. B N Choudhury
Manager, Iron & Steel Group Group Head - Iron & Steel Group

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Sl. No. Topic Page #

1. Materials and civilization 3

1.1 Structure of engineering material 3

1.2 Classification of engineering material 3

1.3 Property of engineering material 5

2. Crystallography-Atomic Arrangement in crstals 5

3. Defects in crystalline solids 11

4. Basics of Heat treatment 14

4.2 Quench Media 19

5. Surface engineering 24

6. Questions for self evaluation 29

7. Reference Book 30

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1. Materials and Civilization:
1. Stone age Natural materials (Wood, clay, skin, leaves, FIRE)
2. Bronze age Winning of minerals
3. Iron age Engineering and fabrication
4. Industrial age (aircraft, automobile, machinery, medicine, weapons)
5. Electronics age (valves, ICs, transistors, devices)
6. Computer age (Internet, Database, e-commerce)
Natural materials → Synthetic materials
↓
Industrial revolution ← Engineering materials
↓
Engineering and Technology
Stages: Procurement → Winning → Fabrication/manufacturing
↓
USE ← Marketing/sales ← Treatments/processing

Driving force/Motivation ⇒ “Need”

1. Protection (shelter, clothes, weapons)
2. Survival/sustenance (food, health care, reproduction)
3. Amenities (transportation, communication)
4. Production (utilities, energy, material)
5. Education (Information storage and dissemination)
6. Recreation (sports, culture, entertainment)

1.1 Structure of engineering materials:

Structure means the nature of atomic aggregate responsible for the material properties in a
given state.
Structure of engineering materials
Microstructure (mm-nm) Macrostructure (> 0.1 mm)

Structural hierarchy:
1. Atomic and sub-atomic (electronic structure)
2. Molecular structure (nuclear structure)
3. Crystal or aggregate structure (long range order)
4. Sub-structure (dislocation, vacancy, clusters)
5. Microstructure (grain, boundaries, twins)
6. Macrostructure (macroscopic aggregate)

1.2 Classification of engineering materials:

Universe

Matter

Engineering Materials

Metallic Ceramic Polymeric Semiconductor Composite

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Basis of classification: 1. Bonding 2. Internal structure
3. Origin or method of fabrication
4. Properties or application

1.2.1 Metallic materials:

• Inorganic substance with one or more metallic elements (may contain some dissolved
non-metallic elements, too)
• Characterized by metallic bonding (non-directional)
• Typical example - iron, copper, aluminum, steel, brass, inconel
• Mostly crystalline (2/3rd FCC or HCP, rest mostly BCC)
• Hard, strong, ductile, amenable to heat treatments
• Good conductor of heat and electricity
• Opaque, lustrous, prone to oxidation and corrosion

1.2.2 Ceramic materials:

• Inorganic materials comprising metallic and non-metallic elements
• Characterized by ionic (non-directional) or covalent (directional)
• Crystalline (complex), non-crystalline, or mixture of both
• High hardness but brittle, high temperature strength and resistance
• Low density, poor ductility, high resistivity
• Stable and corrosion/oxidation resistant

1.2.3 Polymeric materials:

• Both organic and inorganic compounds with long molecular chains or networks
connected to each other by strong or weak forces
• Characterized by covalent and Van der Waal bonding
• Mostly non-crystalline, may contain varying degree of crystallinity
• Highly plastic, formable, corrosion resistant and inexpensive
• Poor creep strength and reproducibility
• Good insulators, light and poor conductor of heat

1.2.4 Semiconductor materials:

• Inorganic elements (Group IVA) or compounds (III-V or II-VI)
• Characterized by covalent bonding and semiconducting property
• Typical examples: silicon, germanium, tin, GaAs, CdS, ZnO
• Mostly crystalline (diamond cubic, zinc sulphide structures)
• Used for electronic, optical, electro-magnetic devices

1.2.5 Composite materials:

• Both of organic/inorganic and natural/synthetic origin
• Combination of the three major classes of engineering materials (metals, ceramics,
polymers) to derive the most advantageous combination of properties for a given
application (tailor made)
• Characterized by a mixed nature of bonding
• Typical examples – wood, fiber glass, plywood, structural tiles
• Based on mostly the ‘best of both’ and ‘rule of mixture’ principles

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1.3 Property of engineering materials:
Property: A set of characteristics or material traits arising out of the interaction between
material/component and external stimuli (expressed in terms of the kind and extent of that
interaction).

Engineering properties:
1. Mechanical (strength, hardness, stress, strain, ductility, fatigue, creep)
2. Electrical (conductivity, resistivity, capacitance, piezo-electricity)
3. Thermal (conductivity, diffusivity, heat capacity, specific heat)
4. Magnetic (permeability, coercivity,
5. Optical (wavelength, color, photoelectricity, luminescence)
6. Chemical (melting/boiling points, vapor pressure, corrosion)

Example of selection hierarchy:

Conductivity: Metals → Semiconductor → Ceramics → Polymers
Strength: Metals → Composites → Ceramics → Polymers

Selection of materials:
1. Properties. 2. Availability. 3. Economics. 4. Energy.
5. Environmental factors (pollution). 6. Scope of recycling.
7. Service record/history. 8. Marketing/political strategy.

2. Crystallography - Atomic Arrangement in Crystals

Atomic arrangement

Crystalline Amorphous or glassy

Atoms of equal size Atoms of unequal size

Local Global

Short range order Random Long range order

crystalline

2.1 Space lattice:

Regular and repeated arrangement of (imaginary) points in 3 dimension forming the basis or
skeleton or framework of atomic arrangement with global order (random crystalline or long range
order).
- each point has identical surrounding
- equivalent points (origin anywhere)
- indistinguishable
- possessing all properties of the crystal

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2.2 Unit cell:
Smallest building blocks (local arrangement) or a parallelepiped with atoms at specific
locations or bearing a fixed relation with those and preserving all properties of the crystal
system/lattice. Characterized by the lattice parameters or constants – axial lengths (a, b, c) and
angles (α, β, γ).

2.3 Crystal systems:

Seven possible variations of the fundamental shapes of unit cells to fill up the three
dimensional space. The unit cells having atoms only at the corners are called the primitive cells.
Cubic a = b = c, α = β = γ = 900 P, I, F
Tetragonal a = b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 900 P, I
0
Orthorhombic a ≠ b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90 P, I, C, F
Rhombohedral a = b = c, α = β = γ ≠ 900 R
o 0
Hexagonal a = b ≠ c, α = β = 90 ≠ γ = 120 P
Monoclinic a ≠ b ≠ c, α = γ = 90o ≠ β P, C
Triclinic a ≠ b ≠ c, α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900 P
2.4 Bravais/crystal lattice:
14 Bravais lattices with atoms both at corners (primitive) and inner positions (non-primitive
sites: body, face and base centers). FORTEEN is a magic number (maximum possible variations of
Bravais lattices). Space lattice, unit cell, crystal system, Bravais lattice are all imaginary structures.

2.4.1 Fundamental tenets of crystallography:

Fig. 1 Elemental crystals:

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1. Atoms are hard, inelastic, non-compressible spheres.
2 Spheres touch each other in close packed direction.
2. Not the entire volume of unit cell is filled up.
3. Atoms are indistinguishable.
4. Each atom/ion has an identical surrounding.
5. Any crystallographic point is equivalent and can be treated as origin.
6. Unit cells make up space lattice with no gap in 3-d by repetition.
7. Atoms/ions are located on lattice points or bear fixed relationship to them (atomic
association).
8. Each space lattice possesses some minimum symmetry elements.
9. Repetition of symmetry operations on a single point may generate the whole crystal in
space.
10. Space lattices are defect free ideal crystals.

Compound crystals:
1. Vector translations must begin and end on same kind of atoms/ions.
2. A and B sets of atoms must separately possess the same minimum symmetry elements such
that the said symmetry operations bring the atoms of same kind into self-coincidence.
Nf Nc
Number of atoms in orthogonal cells (N) = Ni + +
2 8
2.5 Symmetry in a crystal:
A body/structure is said to be symmetrical when its components are arranged in such a
balance that certain operations can bring the body into self-coincidence.
Four macroscopic symmetry operations: reflection, rotation, inversion, rotation-
inversion.
• 7 crystal systems
• 14 Bravais/crystal lattices
• 32 point groups (microscopic symmetry elements)
• 230 space groups (microscopic symmetry elements

Fig. 2 Hexagonal closed pack (HCP) crystal structure

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2.6 Indexing of Directions and Planes in a Crystal

• Crystalline materials are characterized by regular and repeated arrangement of atoms in

3-dimension.
• All crystalline aggregates are anisotropic for the very nature of crystallinity (even for
cubic system).
• Not the entire unit cell volume is filled with atoms (hard spheres packed in space
touching each other only in close packed direction).
• Anisotropy arises because of the difference in linear atomic density in different
directions and planar density in different crystal planes.
• Hence, all structure sensitive material properties (mechanical, physical, chemical, semi-
conducting) of crystalline aggregates are anisotropic, too.

• Thus, the quantitative description of properties of crystals requires a detailed

knowledge of the orientation of crytallographic directions and planes.
• Since physical dimensions (length, area, etc.) in a real crystal are of no
significance for crystallography (unlike that for geography), indexing of
directions and planes in a crystal are done with respect to only the unit cell.

FCC crystal structure

Fig. 3 Face centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure

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2.6.1 Indexing of Directions:

• Choose a crystallographic point as the origin in the lattice.

• Draw a vector parallel to the given direction and passing through the origin.
• The vector may be translated to any other point maintaining parallelism if the reference
cell/origin is shifted.
• Select a point on the vector and determine its coordinates (by drawing projections on the three
Cartesian reference axes, the lengths are measured in terms of the respective lattice parameters,
a, b, c).
• The numbers are reduced to smallest integers by multiplying/dividing with a common factor
(indices with common multipliers represent parallel directions).
• These three indices, not separated by commas and enclosed in parentheses, represent the Miller
indices of the given direction e.g., [uvw].
• The equivalent (symmetrical) directions are expressed as <uvw> and called directions of a
form/family.

For hexagonal (Miller-Bravais) system of indexing:

3 axes, [UVW] = 4 axes, [uvtw]; U = u – t, V = v – t, and W = w and,

u = (2U–V)/3, v = (2V – U)/3, t = – (u + v) = – (U + V)/3, w = W

Linear density of atoms = Reciprocal of interatomic distance in a given direction

Fig. 4 Body centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure

2.6.2 Indexing of Planes:

• Choose a reference frame, origin and unit cell of convenience (the plane should not pass
through the origin, if it does, shift the origin or draw a plane parallel to it by an appropriate
translation).

• Extend the plane in all directions and let it intersect with the reference axes (unless the plane is
parallel to any of the axes).
• Determine the fractional intercepts in terms of the axial lengths (a,b,c).
• Take reciprocal of the fractional intercepts (converts infinity to zero).
• Reduce the indices to smallest integers by operating with a common factor.

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• Negative intercepts (on the negative side of the axes) are expressed with a bar on top of the
number.
• Enclose the indices, without comma or gap, in parenthesis, e.g. (hkl).
• The planes with the same set of indices (for cubic systems) are called planes of a form (having
the same interplanar distance) e.g., {hkl}.
• Planes being parallel to the direction [uvw]are said to belong to the zone [uvw] such that:
[uvw]•(hkl) = 0 or, hu + kv + lw = 0 (dot/scalar product).
• Thus for any two non-planar plane, the zone axis [uvw] is:
u = k1l2 – k2l1, v = h2l1 – l2h1, w = h1k2 – h2k1,

Planar density of atoms = Number of atoms in a given plane within a unit cell

2.7 Interplanar space

Useful for determining crystal structure and crystallographic texture by XRD.

2 2 2
1 h + k + l
2
( cubic ) = 2
d hkl a
2 2 2
1 h + k l
2
( tetragonal ) = 2
+ 2
d hkl a c
2 2 2 2
1 4 h + k + l l
2
( hexagonal ) = ( 2
) + 2
d hkl
3 a c

2.8 Interplanar angle

h 1 h 2 + k 1 k 2 + l1 l 2
Cubic : cos ϕ =
h 12 + k 12 + l 12 + h 22 + k 22 + l 22
h 1h 2 + k 1k 2 l1 l 2
+
Tetragonal : cos ϕ = a2 c2
h 12 + k 12 l 12 h 22 + k 22 l 22
( + )+ ( + )
a2 c2 a2 c2
1 3a 2
h 1h 2 + k 1k 2 + (h 1k 2 + h 2 k 1 ) + l1 l 2
Hexagonal : cos ϕ =
2 4c 2
3a 2 2 3a 2 2
( h 12 2
+ k 1 + h 1k 1 + 2 2
l1 ) + ( h 2 + k 2 + h 2 k 2 + l2 )
4c 2 4c 2

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2.9 Unit Cell Volume:

Cubic: V = a3

Tetragonal: V = a3c

3a 2 c 3
Hexagonal: V= = 0.866 a c
2
2.10 Planar Stacking:
• Atomic packing in close packed crystals (FCC – ABCABC; HCP – ABAB).
• Interstitial and regular atomic locations.

3. Defects in Crystalline Solids

Defects

Macroscopic Microscopic
Pores, holes, cracks, pipe, shrinkage cavity Dislocation, twins, kink/jog, faults, boundary

3.1 Energtics of point defects:

∆H V
NV = N O exp(− )
kT
where, ∆HV = enthalpy of vacancy formation, T = temperature (K), k = Boltzman’s constant

3.2 Point defects in ionic compounds:

M = cation sub-lattice, X = anion sublattice
1. Mv = Mi or, Xv = Xi (Frenkel).
2. Mv = Xv (Schottky, no interstitial.
3. Mi = Xi, no vacancy.
4. Substitutional disorder between M and X.

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3.3 Foreign atoms in a crystal:

Fig: 5a Substitutional point defect Fig; 5b Interstitial point defect

Defects

Primary (Pure Defect) Secondary (Defect Complex)

More important at high temperature More important at low temperature

Electronic
Atomic

Vacancy Foreign atom Electron

Holes

Interstitial Substitutional Extrinsic Intrinsic

Defects (dimension wise)

Point (0-D) Line (1-D) Surface (2-D) Volume (3-D)

Vacancy, foreign atom Dislocation, kink Boundary, twin Inclusion, void

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Crystal Defects

Fig. 6a Grain boundary defects

Fig. 6b Misalignment grain boundary Fig. 6c Edge dislocation

Fig: 6d Twin and Twin boundary

Fig. 6c

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4. Basics of Heat Treatment

4.1 Objectives of Heat Treatments
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical and
mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes done
inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as welding or
forming.

Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can also be used
to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining, improve formability,
restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus it is a very enabling manufacturing process
that can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also improve product performance by
increasing strength or other desirable characteristics.

Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat treatment and
the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any other material. Steels are heat treated for one of
the following reasons:

Softening

Hardening

Material Modification

4.2 Common Heat Treatments

Softening: Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, improve
toughnesss, restore ductility, refine grain size or change the electromagnetic properties of the
steel.

Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is a necessary operation when a large amount of
cold working is to be performed, such as in a cold-rolling operation or wiredrawing. Annealing —
full Process, spheroidizing, normalizing and tempering — austempering, martempering are the
principal ways by which steel is softened.

Hardening: Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength and wear properties. One of
the pre-requisites for hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy content. If there is sufficient Carbon
content then the steel can be directly hardened. Otherwise the surface of the part has to be Carbon
enriched using some diffusion treatment hardening techniques.

Material Modification: Heat treatment is used to modify properties of materials in addition

to hardening and softening. These processes modify the behavior of the steels in a beneficial
manner to maximize service life, e.g., stress relieving, or strength properties, e.g., cryogenic
treatment, or some other desirable properties, e.g., spring aging.

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Full annealing is the process of slowly raising the temperature about 50 ºC (90 ºF) above the
Austenitic temperature line A3 or line ACM in the case of Hypo eutectoid steels (steels with
< 0.77% Carbon) and 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Austenite-Cementite region in the case of
Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.77% Carbon).

It is held at this temperature for sufficient time for all the material to transform into Austenite or
Austenite-Cementite as the case may be. It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 ºC/hr (36
ºF/hr) in a furnace to about 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Ferrite-Cementite range. At this point, it can be
cooled in room temperature air with natural convection.

Fig:7 Different phases of steel

The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or Cementite (depending on whether hypo or
hyper eutectoid). The steel becomes soft and ductile.

Fig. 8
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Normalizing is the process of raising the temperature to over 60 º C (108 ºF), above line A3 or
line ACM fully into the Austenite range. It is held at this temperature to fully convert the structure
into Austenite, and then removed form the furnace and cooled at room temperature under natural
convection. This results in a grain structure of fine Pearlite with excess of Ferrite or Cementite.
The resulting material is soft; the degree of softness depends on the actual ambient conditions of
cooling. This process is considerably cheaper than full annealing since there is not the added cost
of controlled furnace cooling.

The main difference between full annealing and normalizing is that fully annealed parts are
uniform in softness (and machinablilty) throughout the entire part; since the entire part is exposed
to the controlled furnace cooling. In the case of the normalized part, depending on the part
geometry, the cooling is non-uniform resulting in non-uniform material properties across the part.
This may not be desirable if further machining is desired, since it makes the machining job
somewhat unpredictable. In such a case it is better to do full annealing.

Process Annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made out of low-Carbon steels (<
0.25% Carbon). This allows the parts to be soft enough to undergo further cold working without
fracturing. Process annealing is done by raising the temperature to just below the Ferrite-
Austenite region, line A1on the diagram. This temperature is about 727 ºC (1341 ºF) so heating it
to about 700 ºC (1292 ºF) should suffice. This is held long enough to allow recrystallization of the
ferrite phase, and then cooled in still air. Since the material stays in the same phase through out
the process, the only change that occurs is the size, shape and distribution of the grain structure.
This process is cheaper than either full annealing or normalizing since the material is not heated to
a very high temperature or cooled in a furnace.

Stress Relief Anneal is used to reduce residual stresses in large castings, welded parts and
cold-formed parts. Such parts tend to have stresses due to thermal cycling or work hardening.
Parts are heated to temperatures of up to 600 - 650 ºC (1112 - 1202 ºF), and held for an extended
time (about 1 hour or more) and then slowly cooled in still air.

Spheroidization is an annealing process used for high carbon steels (Carbon > 0.6%) that will
be machined or cold formed subsequently. This is done by one of the following ways:

Heat the part to a temperature just below the Ferrite-Austenite line, line A1 or below the
Austenite-Cementite line, essentially below the 727 ºC (1340 ºF) line. Hold the temperature for a
prolonged time and follow by fairly slow cooling. Or
Cycle multiple times between temperatures slightly above and slightly below the 727 ºC (1340 ºF)
line, say for example between 700 and 750 ºC (1292 - 1382 ºF), and slow cool. Or
For tool and alloy steels heat to 750 to 800 ºC (1382-1472 ºF) and hold for several hours followed
by slow cooling.

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Fig. 9 Grain structure on spheroidization

All these methods result in a structure in which all the Cementite is in the form of small globules
(spheroids) dispersed throughout the ferrite matrix. This structure allows for improved machining
in continuous cutting operations such as lathes and screw machines. Spheroidization also
improves resistance to abrasion.

Tempering is a process done subsequent to quench hardening. Quench-hardened parts are often
too brittle. This brittleness is caused by a predominance of Martensite. This brittleness is removed
by tempering. Tempering results in a desired combination of hardness, ductility, toughness,
strength, and structural stability. Tempering is not to be confused with tempers on rolled stock-
these tempers are an indication of the degree of cold work performed.

Fig. 10 Different phases of steel on tempering

The mechanism of tempering depends on the steel and the tempering temperature. The prevalent
Martensite is a somewhat unstable structure. When heated, the Carbon atoms diffuse from
Martensite to form a carbide precipitate and the concurrent formation of Ferrite and Cementite,
which is the stable form. Tool steels for example, lose about 2 to 4 points of hardness on the
Rockwell C scale. Even though a little strength is sacrificed, toughness (as measured by impact
strength) is increased substantially. Springs and such parts need to be much tougher — these are
tempered to a much lower hardness.

Tempering is done immediately after quench hardening. When the steel cools to about 40 ºC
(104 ºF) after quenching, it is ready to be tempered. The part is reheated to a temperature of 150
to 400 ºC (302 to 752 ºF). In this region a softer and tougher structure Troostite is formed.
Alternatively, the steel can be heated to a temperature of 400 to 700 ºC (752 to 1292 ºF) that
results in a softer structure known as Sorbite. This has less strength than Troostite but more
ductility and toughness.

The heating for tempering is best done by immersing the parts in oil, for tempering upto 350 ºC
(662 ºF) and then heating the oil with the parts to the appropriate temperature. Heating in a bath

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also ensures that the entire part has the same temperature and will undergo the same tempering.
For temperatures above 350 ºC (662 ºF) it is best to use a bath of nitrate salts. The salt baths can

be heated upto 625 ºC (1157 ºF). Regardless of the bath, gradual heating is important to avoid
cracking the steel. After reaching the desired temperature, the parts are held at that temperature
for about 2 hours, then removed from the bath and cooled in still air.

Austempering is a quenching technique. The part is not quenched through the Martensite
transformation. Instead the material is quenched above the temperature when Martensite forms
MS, around 315 ºC (600 ºF). It is held till at this temperature till the entire part reaches this
temperature. As the part is held longer at this temperature, the Austenite transforms into Bainite.
Bainite is tough enough so that further tempering is not necessary, and the tendency to crack is
severely reduced.

Martempering is similar to Austempering except that the part is slowly cooled through the
martensite transformation. The structure is martensite, which needs to tempered just as much as
martensite that is formed through rapid quenching. The biggest advantage of Austempering over
rapid quenching is that there is less distortion and tendency to crack.

Hardness is a function of the Carbon content of the steel. Hardening of a steel requires a change
in structure from the body-centered cubic structure found at room temperature to the face-centered
cubic structure found in the Austenitic region. The steel is heated to Autenitic region. When
suddenly quenched, the Martensite is formed. This is a very strong and brittle structure. When
slowly quenched it would form Austenite and Pearlite which is a partly hard and partly soft
structure. When the cooling rate is extremely slow then it would be mostly Pearlite which is
extremely soft.

Fig. 11 Different phase of steel during heat treatment

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Hardenability, which is a measure of the depth of full hardness achieved, is related to the type and
amount of alloying elements. Different alloys, which have the same amount of Carbon content,
will achieve the same amount of maximum hardness; however, the depth of full hardness will

vary with the different alloys. The reason to alloy steels is not to increase their strength, but
increase their hardenability — the ease with which full hardness can be achieved throughout the
material.

Usually when hot steel is quenched, most of the cooling happens at the surface, as does the
hardening. This propagates into the depth of the material. Alloying helps in the hardening and by
determining the right alloy one can achieve the desired properties for the particular application.

Such alloying also helps in reducing the need for a rapid quench cooling — thereby eliminate
distortions and potential cracking. In addition, thick sections can be hardened fully.

4.2 Quench Media

Quenching is the act of rapidly cooling the hot steel to harden the steel.

Water: Quenching can be done by plunging the hot steel in water. The water adjacent to the hot
steel vaporizes, and there is no direct contact of the water with the steel. This slows down cooling
until the bubbles break and allow water contact with the hot steel. As the water contacts and boils,
a great amount of heat is removed from the steel. With good agitation, bubbles can be prevented
from sticking to the steel, and thereby prevent soft spots.

Water is a good rapid quenching medium, provided good agitation is done. However, water is
corrosive with steel, and the rapid cooling can sometimes cause distortion or cracking.

Salt Water: Salt water is a more rapid quench medium than plain water because the bubbles are
broken easily and allow for rapid cooling of the part. However, salt water is even more corrosive
than plain water, and hence must be rinsed off immediately.

Oil: Oil is used when a slower cooling rate is desired. Since oil has a very high boiling point, the
transition from start of Martensite formation to the finish is slow and this reduces the likelihood of
cracking. Oil quenching results in fumes, spills, and sometimes a fire hazard.

Polymer quench: Polymer quenches that will produce a cooling rate in between water and oil.
The cooling rate can be altered by varying the components in the mixture-as these are composed
of water and some glycol polymers. Polymer quenches are capable of producing repeatable results
with less corrosion than water and less of a fire hazard than oil. But, these repeatable results are
possible only with constant monitoring of the chemistry.

Cryogenic Quench: Cryogenics or deep freezing is done to make sure there is no retained
Austenite during quenching. The amount of Martensite formed at quenching is a function of the
lowest temperature encountered. At any given temperature of quenching there is a certain amount
of Martensite and the balance is untransformed Austenite. This untransformed Austenite is very
brittle and can cause loss of strength or hardness, dimensional instability, or cracking.

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Quenches are usually done to room temperature. Most medium carbon steels and low alloy steels
undergo transformation to 100% Martensite at room temperature. However, high carbon and high

alloy steels have retained Austenite at room temperature. To eliminate retained Austenite, the
quench temperature has to be lowered. This is the reason to use cryogenic quenching.

Introduction
The Carbon content in the steel determines whether it can be directly hardened. If the Carbon
content is low (less than 0.25% for example) then an alternate means exists to increase the Carbon
content of the surface. The part then can be heat-treated by either quenching in liquid or cooling
in still air depending on the properties desired. Note that this method will only allow hardening on
the surface, but not in the core, because the high carbon content is only on the surface. This is
sometimes very desirable because it allows for a hard surface with good wear properties (as on
gear teeth), but has a tough core that will perform well under impact loading.

Carburizing is a process of adding Carbon to the surface. This is done by exposing the part to a
Carbon rich atmosphere at an elevated temperature and allows diffusion to transfer the Carbon
atoms into steel. This diffusion will work only if the steel has low carbon content, because
diffusion works on the differential of concentration principle. If, for example the steel had high
carbon content to begin with, and is heated in a carbon free furnace, such as air, the carbon will
tend to diffuse out of the steel resulting in Decarburization.

Pack Carburizing: Parts are packed in a high carbon medium such as carbon powder or cast
iron

shavings and heated in a furnace for 12 to 72 hours at 900 ºC (1652 ºF). At this temperature CO
gas is produced which is a strong reducing agent. The reduction reaction occurs on the surface of
the steel releasing Carbon, which is then diffused into the surface due to the high temperature.
When enough Carbon is absorbed inside the part (based on experience and theoretical calculations
based on diffusion theory), the parts are removed and can be subject to the normal hardening
methods.

The Carbon on the surface is 0.7% to 1.2% depending on process conditions. The hardness
achieved is 60 - 65 RC. The depth of the case ranges from about 0.1 mm (0.004 in) upto 1.5 mm
(0.060 in). Some of the problems with pack carburizing is that the process is difficult to control as
far as temperature uniformity is concerned, and the heating is inefficient.

Gas Carburizing: Gas Carburizing is conceptually the same as pack carburizing, except that
Carbon Monoxide (CO) gas is supplied to a heated furnace and the reduction reaction of
deposition of carbon takes place on the surface of the part. This processes overcomes most of the
problems of pack carburizing. The temperature diffusion is as good as it can be with a furnace.
The only concern is to safely contain the CO gas. A variation of gas carburizing is when alcohol is
dripped into the furnace and it volatilizes readily to provide the reducing reaction for the
deposition of the carbon.

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Liquid Carburizing: The steel parts are immersed in a molten carbon rich bath. In the past,
such baths have cyanide (CN) as the main component. However, safety concerns have led to non-
toxic baths that achieve the same result.

Nitriding is a process of diffusing Nitrogen into the surface of steel. The Nitrogen forms
Nitrides with elements such as Aluminum, Chromium, Molybdenum, and Vanadium. The parts
are heat-treated and tempered before nitriding. The parts are then cleaned and heated in a
furnace in an atmosphere of

dissociated Ammonia (containing N and H) for 10 to 40 hours at 500-625 ºC (932 - 1157 ºF).
Nitrogen diffuses into the steel and forms nitride alloys, and goes to a depth of upto 0.65 mm
(0.025 in). The case is very hard and distortion is low. No further heat treatment is required; in
fact, further heat treatment can

crack the hard case. Since the case is thin, surface grinding is not recommended. This can restrict
the use of nitriding to surfaces that require a very smooth finish.

Carbonitriding process is most suitable for low carbon and low carbon alloy steels. In this
process, both Carbon and Nitrogen are diffused into the surface. The parts are heated in an
atmosphere of hydrocarbon (such as methane or propane) mixed with Ammonia (NH3). The
process is a mix of Carburizing and Nitriding.

Carburizing involves high temperatures (around 900 ºC, 1652 ºF) and Nitriding involves much
lower temperatures (around 600 ºC, 1112 ºF). Carbonitriding is done at temperatures of 760 - 870
ºC (1400 - 1598 ºF), which is higher than the transformation temperatures of steel that is the
region of the face-centered Austenite.

It is then quenched in a natural gas (Oxygen free) atmosphere. This quench is less drastic than

water or oil-thus less distortion. However this process is not suitable for high precision parts due
to the distortions that are inherent. The hardness achieved is similar to carburizing (60 - 65 RC)
but not as high as Nitriding (70 RC). The case depth is from 0.1 to 0.75 mm (0.004 to 0.030 in).
The case is rich in Nitrides as well as Martensite. Tempering is necessary to reduce the brittleness.

Introduction
Machining induces stresses in parts. The bigger and more complex the part, the more the stresses.
These stresses can cause distortions in the part long term. If the parts are clamped in service, then
cracking could occur. Also hole locations can change causing them to go out of tolerance. For
these reasons, stress relieving is often necessary.

Typically, the parts that benefit from stress relieving are large and complex weldments, castings
with a lot of machining, parts with tight dimensional tolerances and machined parts that have had
a lot of stock removal performed.

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Fig. 12

Stress relieving is done by subjecting the parts to a temperature of about 75 ºC (165 ºF) below
the transformation temperature,line A1 on the diagram, which is about 727 ºC (1340 ºF) of steel—
thus stress relieving is done at about 650 ºC (1202 ºF) for about one hour or till the whole part
reaches the temperature. This removes more than 90% of the internal stresses. Alloy steels are
stress relieved at higher temperatures. After removing from the furnace, the parts are air cooled in
still air.

Examples of Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Transformations on the T-T-T Diagram

Figure 13 . Fe-Fe3C T-T-T Diagram, Adapted from Callister pg. 295, Fig. 10.6

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The time-temperature transformation curves correspond to the start and finish of transformations
which extend into the range of temperatures where austenite transforms to pearlite. Above 550
C, austenite transforms completely to pearlite. Below 550 C, both pearlite and bainite are formed
and below 450 C,

only bainite is formed. The horizontal line C-D that runs between the two curves marks the
beginning and end of isothermal transformations. The dashed line that runs parallel to the solid
line curves represents the time to transform half the austenite to pearlite. Below we have listed
some simple examples as an exercise at other temperatures that result in different phase
transformations and hence different microstructures.

Example

Fig. 14.Time-Temperature Paths on Isothermal Transformation Diagram

1. Given Fig. 2, describe what transformations happen in:

a. Path 1 (Red line)

b. Path 2 (Green line)
c. Path 3 (Blue line)

d. Path 4 (Orange line)

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Solution a. (Red) The specimen is cooled rapidly to 433 K and left for 20 minutes. The cooling
rate is too rapid for pearlite to form at higher temperatures; therefore, the steel remains in the
austenitic phase until the Ms temperature is passed, where martensite begins to form. Since 433
K is the temperature at which half of the austenite transforms to martensite, the direct quench
converts50% of the structure to martensite. Holding at 433 K forms only a small quantity of
additional martensite, so the structure can be assumed to be half martensite and half retained
austenite.

b. (Green) The specimen is held at 523 K for 100 seconds, which is not long enough to form
bainite. Therefore, the second quench from 523 K to room temperature develops a martensitic
structure.

c. (Blue) An isothermal hold at 573 K for 500 seconds produces a half-bainite and half-austenite
structure. Cooling quickly would result in a final structure of martensite and bainite.

d. (Orange) Austenite converts completely to fine pearlite after eight seconds at 873 K. This
phase is stable and will not be changed on holding for 100,000 seconds at 873 K. The final
structure, when cooled, is fine pearlite.

5. Surface Engineering
It is a multidisciplinary activity intended to tailor the properties of the surface of
engineering components.

The Desired Properties:

Improved Corrosion resistance

Improved oxidation and/or sulfidation resistance

Improved wear resistance

Reduced frictional energy loss

Improved fatigue resistance

Improved electronic/electrical properties

Improved thermal insulation

Improved aesthetic appearance

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5.1 Surface Dependent Properties

Surface Dependent Properties

Physical Mechanical Chemical

Roughness Fatigue Catalysis

Color Corrosion
Wear

High Temp.
Oxidation

Fatigue
Fatigue is defined as the degradation of materials under the action of cyclic loading.

Factors affecting fatigue life Protection method

Frequency of cyclic loading Shot peening

The form of stress cycle Carburizing
Environment Nitriding
Thickness of Test specimen Grain refinement
Temperature Changing design

Wear
Progressive loss of material from the metal surface due
to it’s mechanical interaction with environment/other surface.

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Adhesive Abrasive

Wear

Erosive Fatigue

Abrasive wear
It is defined as the wear because of hard particles or hard protuberances forced against
and moving along the solid surface.

Adhesive wear
Wear due to localized bonding between contacting solid surfaces leading to material
transfer between the two surfaces or the loss from either surface.

Erosion
Removal of material from a surface due to mechanical interaction between that surface
and a fluid, a multi-component fluid, or impinging liquid or solid particles.

Fatigue Wear
Fracture of material from a solid surface caused by the cyclic stresses produced by
repeated rolling or sliding on a surface.

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5.2

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5.3

Fig. 15 Mechanical methods of work hardening

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6. Questionnaire for self evaluation:

1. What are the different types of structure of an engineering material?
2. What properties should engineering materials posses?
3. What is crystal and crystal system?
4. What are the common defects in a polycrystalline material?
5. What is the objective of Heat treatment of steel?
6. What is Annealing Heat treatment?
7. When process Annealing is done?
8. What are the different quench media and their applications?
9. What is surface engineering?
10. What are the common surface engineering methods?

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7. Reference books:
Books

1. The Physical Metallurgy of Microalloyed Steels (Book)

by T. Gladman
2. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel
(Steel Making and Refining) (Book and CD-ROM) by Richard J. Fruehan
3. Engineering Metallurgy: Part 1 by Raymond Aurelius Higgins
4. Introduction to Physical Metallurgy by Sidney H. Avner
5. Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel by George Krauss
6. Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (4th Edition) by Serope
Kalpakjian
7. Continuous Casting (Book / Metals Society) by Metals Society
8. Physical Metallurgy and the Design of Steels (Developments Series) by F. B.
Pickering
9. Hot Rolling of Steel (Manufacturing Engineering and Materials Processing) by Roberts
11. Mathematical and Physical Simulation of the Properties of Hot Rolled Products by J.G.
Lenard

Journals

1. Journal of Materials Processing Technology

Volumes 153-154, 10 November 2004, Pages 482-487
Proceedings of the International Conference in Advances in Materials and Processing
Technologies

2. S.J. Kim, C.G. Lee, I. Choi and S. Lee, Effects of heat treatment and alloying elements on
the microstructures and mechanical properties of 0.15 wt.% C transformation-induced
plasticity-aided cold-rolled steel sheets, Metall. Mater. Trans 32A (2001) (3), pp. 505–514.

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