Content

1. Introduction

2. What is the need of animal husbandry.

3. Management of farm and farm animals.

 Dairy farm management.

 Poultry farm Management.

4. Animal breeding

 Inbreeding

 Out breeding

5. Some examples.

6. Bee Keeping [Apiculture].

Introduction
Vaccination is the most important method of
preventing infection of micro organisms, especially of
bacteria and viruses. In this, a vaccine (antigen) is
inoculated inside body to stimulate the formation of
antibodies by the defensive system of the body, so a
vaccine has antibody provoking agents.

Vaccination is a “preventive inoculation” as it

protects a person from attack of pathogenic
microorganisms without the occurrence of disease.

Invention of vaccination:-
The process of vaccination was first developed by Dr.
Edward Jenner in 1796 A.D. He derived the word
vaccine from Latin word vacca meaning “Cow”. He
found that milkmaids once attacked by a milder
disease, cowpox, were immune to small pose. He
confirmed his observations by experimenting on a
healthy eight years old boy namely James Phipps on
14th May, 1796. He first inoculated the boy with a
cowpox pustule (a small inflamed area having pus)
taken from a milkmaid, sarah Nelmes. He noticed
that boy suffered from a mild infection of cowpox
and recovered. Dr. Jenner then inoculated the boy
with material pustule. He concluded that the boy
must have developed the immunity against the
smallpox. This led to the discovery of small pox
vaccine. Later it was Louis Pasteur (1885 A.D.),
who discovered the vaccine against rabies or
hydrophobia and called Pasteur treatment.

Lauis Pasteur also discovered vaccine for on thrax

and chicken cholera. He found that ageing culture of
cholera bacteria were too weak to cause disease when
injected in to the chickens. But chickens injected with
these cultures became immune to towl cholera. In
 some 2 or 3 additional doses, called booster doses, are
given to produce immunity e.g. polio.

Working of Vaccine in the Body :-

Immunization by vaccination is based on the principle
of “memory” of the immune system. “So a vaccine
mimics the microbe we want to vaccinate against”.
Each vaccine provides a disease specific means of
prevention.

In this, the antigenic substance of a vaccine generates

the primary immune response of low intensity and the
memory of B-and T-cells. When the vaccinated person
is attacked by the same pathogen, the existing memory
T or B-cells recognize the antigen quickly and produce
large number of lymphocytes and antibodies called
secondary immune response of high intensity. So the
principle of immunization by vaccination is based on
the property of “memory” of the immune system.
This method of use of a vaccine for the treatment of a
disease is called vaccinotherapy. The immunity
developed may be temporary (e.g. cholera vaccine
immunity lasts for about 6 months) or permanent e.g.
vaccine against smallpox, whooping caugh, diphtheria
and typhoid; or toxoids (toxins with antigenic property
but with no toxic property) e.g. for tetanus or
attenuated live pathogens e.g. OPV, BCG and MMRC
(Mumps, Measels and Rubeolla) or antibodies against
the pathogen e.g. ATS, vaccination develops acquired,
immunity. Dead organisms or toxoids or attenuated
live pathogens are no longer capable of causing disease
but still have their chemical antigens. Capable of
causing disease but still have their chemical antigens.

Now, vaccines are available against the diseases like :-

 Typhoid – TAB vaccine

 Tuberculosis – BCG (developed by calmette and

Guerin)
  Tetanus

 Cholera

 Small pox (developed by Jonas Salk)

 Measles (developed by Enders)

 Whooping cough etc.

In India, vaccines are generally produced at Hoffkins

Institute at Mumbai and virus Institute at pune. But
no vaccine is yet available against malaria,
trypanosomiasis etc.

First Generation Vaccines :- The

vaccines produced by conventional methods from
inactivated pathogens or live but weakned pathogens
are called first generation vaccines. These have side
effects on the.

Second Generation Vaccine :-

 The vaccines produced by recombinant DNA techniques
are called second generation vaccine e.g. Hepatitis B
Vaccine has been produced from yeast by recombinant
DNA technology and acts against hepatitis B virus
which causes jaundice and liver cancer. It has been
produced from the transgenic yeast.

Third Generation Vaccine :- Now a day

synthetic vaccines, called third generation vaccines
have been introduced. These vaccines have been
included in the immunis deadly disease small pox while
have enormously decreased the frequency of many other
diseases like polio proumonia tetanus, diphtheria etc.

Diseases and their vaccines :-

1. Haemophilus influenza type B
(Ilib) – Heamophilus influenza type b (Hib) each
year kills more than 300000 people world wide and
causes an estimated two to three million cases of Hib
disease, mostly in developing countries. Hib mainly
affects children under five years of age and is a
significant cause of meningitis (in flammation of the
covering of the brain) and bacterial pneumonia in
children. Hib can be treated with antibiotics and
conjugate Hib vaccines provide more than 95%
protection in infants receiving the complete series of
pediatric vaccination.

2. Rotavirus Disease :- Rotavirus is the

most common cause of severe diarrheal disease in
children world wide and is responsible for the deaths of
more than 500,000 children each year 85% of whom
live in developing countries. Rotavirus is found in all
countries. Regardless of hygiene practices or access to
clean water, nearly every child in the world will be
infected with rotavirus before age five. In young
children, rotavirus disease is characterized by diarrhea,
vomiting fever, and severe dehydration. In fatal cases
death is caused by severe dehydration due to rotavirus
infection. This disease can not be treated with
antibiotics or other drugs. Rehydration therapy is an
important part of treating dehydration due to due to
diarrheal diseases including rotavirus vaccination
offers the best hope for preventing severe rotavirus
illness, particularly in settings where access to medical
care is limited.

Rotavirus Vaccines :- There are 2 currently

licensed vaccines against toravitus. These are :-
Merck’s Rota Tea® and GlaxosmithK line’s Rotarix
®. Studies of these vaccines have demonstrated their
safety and efficiency among children in every region of
the world. Safety and efficiency trials in Africa and
Asia found that the vaccines dramatically reduced
severe disease among infants in developing countries,
where the majority of Rotavirus deaths occur. Results
from these trials are essential to national governments
as they make informed decisions about introducing
rotavirus vaccines into the public sector. In 2009, the
world health organization recommended that rotavirus
vaccines should be included in every countries
immunization. Where they have been introduced
rotavirus vaccines are making major impact – slashing
hospitalizations due to rotavirus, while also reducing
hospitalizations for diarrhea of any cause. While
current manufactures play an important role in meeting
the global demand for the existing vaccines additional
vaccine options and manufacturers are critical to
ensuring a sustainable, offer able supply. Several
manufacturers are developing rotavirus vaccines,
including many from developing integrated prevention
and treatment strategy to control diarrheal disease.
Other elements of this strategy include low osmolarity
oral rehydration solution, zinc supplementation
exclusive breast feeding proper nutrition and safe
water.

3. HPV disease :-
HPV is a common infection that most man and women
acquire at some point in their lives. HPV causes
cervical cancer and other health problems, leading to
about 530000 cervical cancer diagnosis and 275000
deaths each year. 85% of deaths occurs in the
developing world. These are more than 100 types of
HIV most of which do not cause severe disease. Low
risk types of HPV can cause genital wasts whereas
high risk types can lead to cancer of the cervix, vagina,
anus, and penis. Cervical cancer is the most common by
far. HPV is the most common sexually transmitted
infection. Most sexually active adults are infected with
HPV at some time in their lives.

Usually HPV infections resolve without causing

health problems, but some time they persist. Treatment
at the precancer stage is relatively simple does not cause
serious health problems to the patient and has high
rates of success.

HPV Vaccines : When given to girls and young women

prior to sexual debut, new vaccines against the two
HPV types that account for 70% of cervical cancer
cases world wide- types of 16 and 18 have proven to be
greater than lesions. Two HPV vaccines currently are
available but they are just loginnivg to be used in
developing countries. In part this is due to the high
price of the vaccine cervical cancer prevention &
strategies must include screening for cervical lesions
among adult women because vaccines do not protect
against all cancer causing types.

4. Hepatitis :- Hepatitis is an inflammation of

the liver, most commonly caused by viral infection.
There are hepatitis viruses referred to as types
A,B,C,D and E. In particular types B and C lead to
chronic diseases in hundreds of millions of people
and together are the most common cause of liver
cirrhosis and cancer. Hepatitis A and E are
typically caused by ingestion of contaminated food
or water Hepatitis B C and D usually occur as a
result of parental contact with infected body fluids
common modes of transmission for these viruses
include receipt of contaminated blood or blood
products invasive medical procedures using
contaminated equipment and for hepatitis.
Transmission from mother to baby at birth from
family member to child and also by sexual contact.
Acute infection may occur with limited or no
symptoms, or may include symptoms such as
jaundice, dark urine, extreme fatigue, nausea
vomiting and abdominal pain.

Hepatitis B is a potentially deadly infection of the

liver that kills about 500000 to 700000 people each
 year mostly in developing countries. Hepatitis B has
infected more than two billion people worldwide
and 360 million people are chronic carriers. As much
as 15% of the populations in the most affected
areas are chronically infected carries of hepatitis B
virus (HBV) currently, there are no effective
treatments for hepatitis B. Drug therapies are
available, however they have not been shown to
change the course to the disease.

Hepatitis B Vaccines :-
The hepatitis B vaccines is produced from plasma or
by recombinant DNA technology and is safe and
effective. The vaccine protects against and is about
95% effective against the disease. Vaccination is
recommended for all infants as the level of
protection is age related. With infants, children and
young adults prevent perinatal (mother to child)
transmission, a first dose of vaccine is given as soon
 as possible after the birth ideally within 24 hours.
Vaccination usually requires receiving 3 doses of
vaccine. To simplify immunization schedules,
hepatitis B vaccine is often given at the same time
as diphtheria – tetanus- pertussis (DTP) vaccine.

WHO recommends that all countries add hepatitis

B vaccine to their national immunization
programs. According to WHO/UNICEF data 160
member states (85%) have introduced hepatitis B
vaccine into routine immunization schedules. As of
2006, 60% of one year old children have been
vaccinated against hepatitis B.

5. Influenza Disease :-
Influenza or flu can be caused by 3 different virus
types. Influenza A, influenza B and influenza C.
This causes 250000 to 500000 deaths per year.
 Influenza Vaccine :- Each year, currently
circulating influenza strains are tested to determine
the 3 strains that will be included in the vaccine
most commonly made from embryonated chicken
eggs. Usually one to two strains covered by the
vaccine change each year.

The influenza vaccine using inactivated influenza

virus is approved for use among healthy people six
months of age or older and those with chronic
medical conditions attenuated, live virus vaccine
Flu Mist is recommended for healthy individuals
between 2 and 50 years old who are not pregnant.

6. Malaria Disease :-
In India malaria is one of the serious topics to be
discussed among the various species of the malaria
protozoan parasite, plasmodium falciparum is the
deadliest. Every year P. Falciparum malaria causes the
deaths of nearly 800,000 people most of them are sub
Saharan african infants and Children. Maleria is
transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito of which
there are more than 40 spcies.

Malaria Vaccines :- No licensed Vaccine against malaria

currently exists. The malaria vaccine community aims to
license by 2015 a first generation vaccine that has 50
percent efficiency against severe disease 20 death with
protection lasting at least one year without the need for
boosting. They also aim to license by 2025 a second
generation malaria vaccine that has a protective efficiency
of at least 80% against clinical disease.

Malaria vaccines in development include : pre erythrocytic

or liver stage vaccines that aim to protect against the early
stage of malaria infection blood stage vaccines that aim to
reduce the severity of disease and transmission blocking
vaccines that are intended person from spreading malaria
to new hosts. The development of malaria vaccine is
complex for several reasons :
1. The size and genetic complexity of the parasite
mean that each infection presents thousands of
antigens to the human immune system.
Understanding which of those can be a useful
target for vaccine development has been
complicated and to date at least 40 promising
antigents have been indentified.

2. The parasite changes through several life stages

even while in the human host, presenting a
different subset of molecules for the immune system
to combat at each stage.

3. The parasite has evolved a series of strategies that

allow it to confuse, hide and misdirect the human
immune system. It is possible to have multiple
malaria infections of different strains at the same
time.
 7.Pneumococcal Disease :-
The pneumococcus loacterium (streptococcus pheumoniae)
is responsible for nearly 1 million deaths of children less
than five years old each year. The bacteria normally are
carried in the nose or upper throat and are spread
through sneezing coughing, or speaking closely with an
infected person 30-40% of children carry the bacteria
without showing any signs or symptoms but they can
still infect others. Drugs such as penicillin are generally
effective for treating pneumococcal disease but antibiotic
resistant pneumococcal disease but antibiotic resistant
pneumococcus is becoming more common world wide.
This situation makes prevention of the disease through
pneumococcal use of pneumococcal vaccines even more
important.

Pneumococcal Vaccines :- Prevnar, a

pneumococcal conjugate vaccine produced by wyeth
pharmaceuticals is licensed for use in infants and young
children and is effective against the seven serotypes most
prevalent in the industrial world.
Glaxo smith kline Biologicals synflorix and wyeth’s
prevnar Bvalent, two other pediatric pneumococcal
conjugate vaccines also entered the market and after
broader protection against 10 & 13 serotypes respectively.
Many other candidates are also in pipeline.
Current pneumococcal vaccines, even with added strain
coverage, do not protect all 90+ pneumococcal serotypes
and they are complex and relatively expensive.
Pneumococcal protein vaccines are being developed to be
more affordable as well as to potentially protect against
most or all of the disease causing serotypes of
pneumococcus.

Vaccines In India :-
India’s immunization programs is one of the largest in the
world in terms of quantities of vaccines used numbers of
beneficiaries and the number of immunization sessions
organized, the geographical spread and diversity of areas
covered. Under the immunization program six vaccines are
used to protect children and pregnant mothers. Against
tubercrlosis, Diphtheria, pertussis, polio measles and
tetanus.

VACCINATION SCHEDULE IN INDIA :-

At Birth BCG, Polio, Hepatitis-B

6 weaks – D tap, Hepatitis B, HiB, Polio, Pneumococcal

10 weaks – D tap, HiB, Polio, Pneumococcal

14 weaks – D tap, HiB, Polio, Pneumococcal

6 monts – Influenza Vaccine

9 monts – Measles Vaccine

12 monts – chicken Pox

15 monts – MMR, pheumococcal booster

18 monts – D Tap, Polio, HiB, Hepatitis A

2 years – Typhoid, Hepatitis A

3 years – Annual Pulse polio, catch-up vaccine if any

4 years – Annual Pulse polio, catch-up vaccine if any

5 years – D Tap, Polio, MMR Booster

10 years – T dap booster

16 years – T dap booster

Vaccines in India for Adults :-

Chickenpox vaccine – 2 doses, if not vaccinated previously
and not infected previously.

Hepatitis A – 2 doses if not vaccinated previously.

Hepatitis B – 3 doses if not vaccinated previously.

Polio Vaccines :-
Polio vaccines are of 2 types :- oral polio vaccine and
injectable polio vaccine.

Oral polio vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine given as

drops to children. This is the most common mode of polio
vaccine in India. However, most developed countries have
long back switched to Injectable polio vaccine (IPV).
Injectible polio vaccine or Inactivated polio vaccine
contains killed virus and thus eliminates the changes of
any occurrence of vaccine associated paralytic
poliomyelitis and any vaccine induced wild polio
outbreaks.

Recently government of India decided to start introducing

Injectable Polio vaccine from 2009 starting with 9
districts of uttar Pradesh and gradually expand it nation
wide.

Injectable polio vaccine has now been available in India

for some time. These are available as single dose Imovax
and few other brands or in combination with DTap and
HiB as pentaxim.

Combination Vaccines :-
The advantages of combination vaccines are :-
1. Less number of injections for the child and

2. The cost will be less compared to taking the vaccines

separately.

Efficiency of some combination vaccines available in

India have not been proven by sufficient studies and as
such we do not regularly recommend many of the
combination available in the market.

These are some of the combinations recommended

Tritanrix HB + Hiberix

Infanrix + Hiberix

Tetra Act HIB

Tripacel + ActHiB

Tripacel + ActHiB

Pentaxim

Multi Dose and $Mono Dose Vaccines :-

 Single dose vaccines may cost slightly higher because of
packing and other expenses involved but they are
recommended for the following reasons:

1. Less chance of contamination and associated risks.

2. Less chances of quantity errors by administering nurse

or doctor.

3. Better chance of maintaining efficiency.

So, wherever possible parents should insist on sinle dose

vaccines for children.

Vaccine Safety :-

Vaccines are actually very safe, despite implications to

the contrary. Most Vaccine adverse events are minor and
temporary, such as a sore arm or mild fever. Those can
often be controlled by taking paracetamol before or after
vaccination. More serious adverse events occur rarely on
the order of 1 per 1000 to 1 per million of doses and some
are so rare that the risk can not be accurately assessed of
all deaths reported to VAERS (Vaccine Adverse Event
Reporting System) in VSA between 1990 and 1992, only
one is believed to be even possibly associated with a
vaccine. Each death reported to VAERS is thoroughly
examined to ensure that it is not related to new vaccine
related problem. But little or no evidence suggests that
vaccines have contributed to any of the reported deaths or
serious side effects. The Institute of Medicine in its report
states that the risk of death from vaccines is
“extraordinarily low”. Any such extremely low risks from
vaccines pale in comparison to the chances of
complications of may serious diseases they protect
against.

Investigation
Vaccinations Available in the government hospital
of Khargone :

During my visit to government hospital, I found

that in government hospital of our town within 24
 hours of delivery of the child, he/she is given
tetanus and Hepatitis B vaccine. Other vaccines
available for children in government hospital of
Khargone are:

Age Vaccine
After Birth BCG
O dose Polio
Hepatitis B
1 First of polio
12 monts
DPT
Hepatitis B 1st dose.
1 Polio 2nd Dose
2 2 monts
DPT
Hepatitis B 2nd Dose
1 Polio 3rd dose
32 monts
DPT
Hepatitis B 3rd dose
9 months Measles vaccine (Khasra) solution of vitamin
A
16 to 24 months Polio dose
DPT booster
6 months to 6 years Vitamin solution
in every 6 months
Vaccines acailable for pregnant ladies in government
hospital of khargone are tetanus -1 and tetanus -2 or
boostor.

Vaccination is the most important method of preventing

infections of microorganisms, especially of bacteria and
viruses. The process of vaccination was first developed by
Dr. Edward Jenner in 1796 AD. He derived the word
vaccine from a Latin word ‘Vacca’ meaning cow. A
vaccine mimics the microbe we want to vaccinate against.
Diseases which can not be treated by antibiotics such as
pneumococcal disease can be treated with the help of
vaccines. Thus vaccines play a very important role in our
lives.
 Bibliography
NCERT Biology text book for class 12th

abc biology reference for – class 12th

Gateway self master of Biology – Class 12th

Internet.