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An Introduction to the Study of Calculus

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Science, Tech, Math › Math
 An Introduction to the Study of Calculus
The branch of mathematics studies rates of change
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by Deb
Updated November 09, 2017

Calculus is the study of rates of change. The principals behind calculus date back
centuries to the ancient Greeks, as well as to ancient China, India and even medieval
Europe. Before calculus was invented, all math was static: It could only help calculate
objects that were perfectly still. But, the universe is constantly moving and changing. No
objects—from the stars in space to subatomic particles or cells in the body—are always
at rest. Indeed, just about everything in the universe is constantly moving. Calculus
helped to determine how particles, stars, and matter, actually move and change in real
time.

History

Calculus was developed in the latter half of the 17th century by two mathematicians,
Gottfried Leibniz and Isaac Newton. Newton first developed calculus and applied it
directly to the understanding of physical systems. Independently, Leibniz developed the
notations used in calculus. Put simply, while basic math uses operations such as plus,
minus, times, and division (+, -, x, and ÷), calculus uses operations that
employ functions and integrals to calculate rates of change.
The Story of Mathematics explains the importance of Newton's fundamental theorem of
the calculus:

"Unlike the static geometry of the Greeks, calculus allowed mathematicians and
engineers to make sense of the motion and dynamic change in the changing world
around us, such as the orbits of planets, the motion of fluids, etc."

Using calculus, scientists, astronomers, physicists, mathematicians, and chemists could

now chart the orbit of the planets and stars, as well as the path of electrons and protons
at the atomic level. Economists to this day use calculus to determine the price elasticity
of demand.

Two Types of Calculus

There are two main branches of calculus: differential and integral calculus. Differential
calculus determines the rate of change of a quantity, while integral calculus finds the
quantity where the rate of change is known. Differential calculus examines the rates of
change of slopes and curves, while integral calculus determines the areas of those
curves.

Practical Applications

Calculus has many practical applications in real life, as the

website, teachnology explains:

"Among the physical concepts that use concepts of calculus include motion, electricity,
heat, light, harmonics, acoustics, astronomy, and dynamics. In fact, even advanced
physics concepts including electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of relativity use
calculus."

Calculus is also used to calculate the rates of radioactive decay in chemistry, and even to
predict birth and death rates, the science website notes. Economists use calculus to
predict supply, demand, and maximum potential profits. Supply and demand are, after
all, essentially charted on a curve—and an ever-changing curve at that.

Economists refer to this ever-changing curve as "elastic," and the actions of the curve as
"elasticity." To calculate an exact measure of elasticity at a particular point on a supply
or demand curve, you need to think about infinitesimally small changes in price and, as
a result, incorporate mathematical derivatives into your elasticity formulas. Calculus
allows you to determine specific points on that ever-changing supply-and-demand
curve.

CITE

 Using Calculus to Calculate Price Elasticity of Supply

How Slope and Elasticity Are Related

Using Calculus to Calculate Elasticities

Calculate Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand (Calculus)

Using Calculus To Calculate Income Elasticity of Demand

How to Calculate Point Elasticity Versus Arc Elasticity

Introduction to Elasticity

Introduction to Price Elasticity of Demand



Economics Lesson: The Demand Curve Explained

Mathematics: What You Need to Learn Calculus

Can You Solve This Elasticity of Demand Practice Problem?

Shifting the Demand Curve

What Are the Effects of a Black Market on Supply and Demand?

What Is the Price Elasticity of Demand?

What Is a Null Hypothesis? Definition and Examples


 An Introduction to the Concept of Elasticity in Economics

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Calculus
With the technical preliminaries out of the way, the two fundamental aspects of
calculus may be examined:

 a. Finding the instantaneous rate of change of a

variable quantity.
 b. Calculating areas, volumes, and related
“totals” by adding together many small parts.
Although it is not immediately obvious, each process is the inverse of the other, and
this is why the two are brought together under the same overall heading. The first
process is called differentiation, the second integration. Following a discussion of
each, the relationship between them will be examined.
Differentiation
Differentiation is about rates of change; for geometric curves and figures, this means
determining the slope, or tangent, along a given direction. Being able to calculate rates
of change also allows one to determine where maximum and minimum values
occur—the title of Leibniz’s first calculus publication was “Nova Methodus pro
Maximis et Minimis, Itemque Tangentibus, qua nec Fractas nec Irrationales
Quantitates Moratur, et Singulare pro illi Calculi Genus” (1684; “A New Method for
Maxima and Minima, as Well as Tangents, Which Is Impeded Neither by Fractional
nor by Irrational Quantities, and a Remarkable Type of Calculus for This”). Early
applications for calculus included the study of gravity and planetary motion, fluid
flow and ship design, and geometric curves and bridge engineering.

Average rates of change

A simple illustrative example of rates of change is the speed of a moving object. An
object moving at a constant speed travels a distance that is proportional to the time.
For example, a car moving at 50 kilometres per hour (km/hr) travels 50 km in 1 hr,
100 km in 2 hr, 150 km in 3 hr, and so on. A graph of the distance traveled against the
time elapsed looks like a straight line whose slope, or gradient, yields the speed
(see figure).

Graph of distance traveled versus time elapsed for the motion of an automobileBecause the speed of the automobile
is constant in this example (50 kilometres per hour), the graph is a straight line.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Constant speeds pose no particular problems—in the example above, any time interval
yields the same speed—but variable speeds are less straightforward. Nevertheless, a
similar approach can be used to calculate the average speed of an object traveling at
varying speeds: simply divide the total distance traveled by the time taken
to traverse it. Thus, a car that takes 2 hr to travel 100 km moves with an average speed
of 50 km/hr. However, it may not travel at the same speed for the entire period. It may
slow down, stop, or even go backward for parts of the time, provided that during other
parts it speeds up enough to cover the total distance of 100 km. Thus, average
speeds—certainly if the average is taken over long intervals of time—do not tell us
the actual speed at any given moment.
Instantaneous rates of change
In fact, it is not so easy to make sense of the concept of “speed at a given moment.”
How long is a moment? Zeno of Elea, a Greek philosopher who flourished about
450 BCE, pointed out in one of his celebrated paradoxes that a moving arrow, at any
instant of time, is fixed. During zero time it must travel zero distance. Another way to
say this is that the instantaneous speed of a moving object cannot be calculated by
dividing the distance that it travels in zero time by the time that it takes to travel that
distance. This calculation leads to a fraction, 0/0, that does not possess any well-defined
meaning. Normally, a fraction indicates a specific quotient. For example, 6/3 means 2,
the number that, when multiplied by 3, yields 6. Similarly, 0/0 should mean the number
that, when multiplied by 0, yields 0. But any number multiplied by 0 yields 0. In
principle, then, 0/0 can take any value whatsoever, and in practice it is best considered
meaningless.
Despite these arguments, there is a strong feeling that a moving object does move at a
well-defined speed at each instant. Passengers know when a car is traveling faster or
slower. So the meaninglessness of 0/0 is by no means the end of the story. Various
mathematicians—both before and after Newton and Leibniz—argued that good
approximations to the instantaneous speed can be obtained by finding the average
speed over short intervals of time. If a car travels 5 metres in one second, then its
average speed is 18 km/hr, and, unless the speed is varying wildly, its instantaneous
speed must be close to 18 km/hr. A shorter time period can be used to refine the
estimate further.
If a mathematical formula is available for the total distance traveled in a given time,
then this idea can be turned into a formal calculation. For example, suppose that after
time t seconds an object travels a distance t2 metres. (Similar formulas occur for
bodies falling freely under gravity, so this is a reasonable choice.) To determine the
object’s instantaneous speed after precisely one second, its average speed over
successively shorter time intervals will be calculated.
To start the calculation, observe that between time t = 1 and t = 1.1 the distance
traveled is 1.12 − 1 = 0.21. The average speed over that interval is therefore 0.21/0.1 =
2.1 metres per second. For a finer approximation, the distance traveled between
times t = 1 and t = 1.01 is 1.012 − 1 = 0.0201, and the average speed is 0.0201/0.01 =
2.01 metres per second.
The table displays successively finer approximations to the average speed after one
second. It is clear that the smaller the interval of time, the closer the average speed is
to 2 metres per second. The structure of the entire table points very compellingly to an
exact value for the instantaneous speed—namely, 2 metres per second. Unfortunately,
2 cannot be found anywhere in the table. However far it is extended, every entry in the
table looks like 2.000…0001, with perhaps a huge number of zeros, but always with a
1 on the end. Neither is there the option of choosing a time interval of 0, because then
the distance traveled is also 0, which leads back to the meaningless fraction 0/0.
Approximations to a rate of change
start time end time distance traveled elapsed time average speed

1 1.1 0.21 0.1 2.1

1 1.01 0.0201 0.01 2.01

1 1.001 0.002001 0.001 2.001

1 1.0001 0.00020001 0.0001 2.0001

1 1.00001 0.0000200001 0.00001 2.00001

Formal definition of the derivative

More generally, suppose an arbitrary time interval h starts from the time t = 1. Then
the distance traveled is (1 + h)2 −12, which simplifies to give 2h + h2. The time taken
is h. Therefore, the average speed over that time interval is (2h + h2)/h, which equals 2
+ h, provided h ≠ 0. Obviously, as happroaches zero, this average speed approaches 2.
Therefore, the definition of instantaneous speed is satisfied by the value 2 and only
that value. What has not been done here—indeed, what the whole procedure
deliberately avoids—is to set h equal to 0. As Bishop George Berkeleypointed out in
the 18th century, to replace (2h + h2)/h by 2 + h, one must assume h is not zero, and
that is what the rigorous definition of a limit achieves.
Even more generally, suppose the calculation starts from an arbitrary time t instead of
a fixed t = 1. Then the distance traveled is (t + h)2 − t2, which simplifies to 2th + h2.
The time taken is again h. Therefore, the average speed over that time interval is
(2th + h2)/h, or 2t + h. Obviously, as h approaches zero, this average speed approaches
the limit 2t.
This procedure is so important that it is given a special name: the derivative of t2 is 2t,
and this result is obtained by differentiating t2 with respect to t.
One can now go even further and replace t2 by any other function f of time. The
distance traveled between times t and t + h is f(t + h) − f(t). The time taken is h. So the
average speed is(f(t + h) − f(t))/h. (3)If (3) tends to a limit as h tends to zero, then that
limit is defined as the derivative of f(t), written f′(t). Another common notation for the
derivative isdf/dt,symbolizing small change in f divided by small change in t. A
function is differentiable at t if its derivative exists for that specific value of t. It is
differentiable if the derivative exists for all t for which f(t) is defined. A differentiable
function must be continuous, but the converse is false. (Indeed, in 1872 Weierstrass
produced the first example of a continuous function that cannot be differentiated at
any point—a function now known as a nowhere differentiable function.) Table 2 lists
the derivatives of a small number of elementary functions. It also lists their integrals,
described below.

Graphical interpretation
The above ideas have a graphical interpretation. Associated with any function f(t) is
a graph in which the horizontal axis represents the variable t and the vertical axis
represents the value of the function. Choose a value for t, calculate f(t), and draw the
corresponding point; now repeat for all appropriate t. The result is a curve, the graph
of f (seepart A of the figure). For example, if f(t) = t2, then f(t) = 0 when t = 0, f(t) = 1
when t = 1, f(t) = 4 when t = 2, f(t) = 9 when t = 3, and so on, leading to the curve
shown in part B of the figure, known as a parabola.

Graph of a functionPart A illustrates the general idea of graphing any function: choose a value for the independent
variable, t, calculate the corresponding value for f(t), and repeat this process until the general shape of the graph is
apparent. (In practice, various techniques are available to reduce the number of values needed to determine the
graph's basic shape.) In part B a specific function, the parabola f(t) = t2, is graphed for further
illustration.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Expression (3), the numerical calculation of the average speed traveled between
times t and t + h, also can be represented graphically. The two times can be plotted as
two points on the curve, as shown in the figure, and a line can be drawn joining the
two points. This line is called a secant, or chord, of the curve, and its slope
corresponds to the change in distance with respect to time—that is, the average speed
traveled between t and t + h. If, as h becomes smaller and smaller, this slope tends to a
limiting value, then the direction of the chord stabilizes and the chord approximates
more and more closely the tangent to the graph at t. Thus, the numerical notion of
instantaneous rate of change of f(t) with respect to t corresponds to the geometric
notion of the slope of the tangent to the graph.
 An illustration of the difference between average and instantaneous rates of changeThe graph of f(t) shows the
secant between (t, f(t)) and (t + h, f(t + h)) and the tangent to f(t) at t. As the time interval happroaches zero, the
secant (average speed) approaches the tangent (actual, or instantaneous, speed) at (t, f(t)).Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The graphical interpretation suggests a number of useful problem-solving techniques.

An example is finding the maximum value of a continuously differentiable
function f(x) defined in some interval a ≤ x ≤ b. Either f attains its maximum at an
endpoint, x = a or x = b, or it attains a maximum for some x inside this interval. In the
latter case, as xapproaches the maximum value, the curve defined by f rises more and
more slowly, levels out, and then starts to fall. In other words, as xincreases
from a to b, the derivative f′(x) is positive while the function f(x) rises to its maximum
value, f′(x) is zero at the value of x for which f(x) has a maximum value, and f′(x) is
negative while f(x) declines from its maximum value. Simply stated, maximum values
can be located by solving the equation f′(x) = 0.
It is necessary to check whether the resulting value genuinely is a maximum,
however. First, all of the above reasoning applies at any local maximum—a place
where f(x) is larger than all values of f(x) for nearby values of x. A function can have
several local maxima, not all of which are overall (“global”) maxima. Moreover, the
derivative f′(x) vanishes at any (local) minimum value inside the interval. Indeed, it
can sometimes vanish at places where the value is neither a maximum nor
a minimum. An example is f(x) = x3 for −1 ≤ x ≤1. Here f′(x) = 3x2 so f′(0) = 0, but 0 is
neither a maximum nor a minimum. For x < 0 the value of f(x) gets smaller than the
value f(0) = 0, but for x > 0 it gets larger. Such a point is called a point of inflection.
In general, solutions of f′(x) = 0 are called critical points of f.
Local maxima, local minima, and points of inflection are useful features of a
function f that can aid in sketching its graph. Solving the equation f′(x) = 0 provides a
list of critical values of x near which the shape of the curve is determined—concave
up near a local minimum, concave down near a local maximum, and changing
concavity at an inflection point. Moreover, between any two adjacent critical points
of f, the values of feither increase steadily or decrease steadily—that is, the direction
of the slope cannot change. By combining such information, the general qualitative
shape of the graph of f can often be determined.
For example, suppose that f(x) = x3 − 3x + 2 is defined for −3 ≤ x ≤ 3. The critical
points are solutions x of 0 = f′(x) = 3x2 − 3; that is, x = −1 and x = 1. When x < −1 the
slope is positive; for −1 < x < 1 the slope is negative; for x > 1 the slope is positive
again. Thus, x = −1 is a local maximum, and x = 1 is a local minimum. Therefore, the
graph of f slopes upward from left to right as x runs from −3 to −1, then slopes
downward as x runs from −1 to 1, and finally slopes upward again as x runs from 1 to
3. In addition, the value of f at some representative points within these intervals can be
calculated to obtain the graph shown in the figure.

A curve sketched with the help of calculusThis graph of f(x) = x3 − 3x + 2 illustrates the essential steps in
constructing a graph. The local maximum (at x = − 1) and the local minimum (at x = 1) are first plotted. Then a
value for x is chosen from each of the three resulting ranges, x < −1, −1 < x < 1, and 1 < x, to suggest the general
shape of the curve. Further values for x may be chosen to produce a more accurate graph.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Higher-order derivatives
The process of differentiation can be applied several times in succession, leading in
particular to the second derivative f″ of the function f, which is just the derivative of
the derivative f′. The second derivative often has a useful physical interpretation. For
example, if f(t) is the position of an object at time t, then f′(t) is its speed at
time t and f″(t) is its acceleration at time t. Newton’s laws of motion state that the
acceleration of an object is proportional to the total force acting on it; so second
derivatives are of central importance in dynamics. The second derivative is also useful
for graphing functions, because it can quickly determine whether each critical point, c,
corresponds to a local maximum (f″(c) < 0), a local minimum (f″(c) > 0), or a change
in concavity (f″(c) = 0). Third derivatives occur in such concepts as curvature; and
even fourth derivatives have their uses, notably in elasticity. The nth derivative of f(x)
is denoted byf(n)(x) or dnf/dxnand has important applications in power series.
An infinite series of the forma0 + a1x + a2x2 +⋯,where x and the aj are real numbers, is
called a power series. The aj are the coefficients. The series has a legitimate meaning,
provided the series converges. In general, there exists a real number R such that the
series converges when −R < x < R but diverges if x < −R or x > R. The range of values
−R < x < R is called the interval of convergence. The behaviour of the series
at x = R or x = −R is more delicate and depends on the coefficients. If R = 0 the series
has little utility, but when R > 0 the sum of the infinite series defines a function f(x).
Any function f that can be defined by a convergent power series is said to be real-
analytic.
The coefficients of the power series of a real-analytic function can be expressed in
terms of derivatives of that function. For values of x inside the interval of
convergence, the series can be differentiated term by term; that is,f′(x) = a1 + 2a2x +
3a3x2 +⋯,and this series also converges. Repeating this procedure and then setting x =
0 in the resulting expressions shows that a0 = f(0), a1 = f′(0), a2= f″(0)/2, a3 = f′′′(0)/6,
and, in general, aj = f(j)(0)/j!. That is, within the interval of convergence of f,

This expression is the Maclaurin series of f, otherwise known as the Taylor

series of f about 0. A slight generalization leads to the Taylor series of fabout a

general value x: All these series are

meaningful only if they converge.
For example, it can be shown thatex = 1 + x + x2/ 2! + x3/ 3! +⋯,sin (x) = x − x3/ 3! + x5/ 5! −
⋯,cos (x) = 1 − x2/ 2! + x4/ 4! − ⋯,and these series converge for all x.
Integration
Like differentiation, integration has its roots in ancient problems—particularly,
finding the area or volume of irregular objects and finding their centre of mass.
Essentially, integration generalizes the process of summing up many small factors to
determine some whole.
Also like differentiation, integration has a geometric interpretation. The
(definite) integral of the function f, between initial and final values t = aand t = b, is
the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f, the horizontal axis, and the vertical
lines t = a and t = b, as shown in the figure. It is denoted by the

symbol Integral on the interval [ , ] of∫ a b abf(t)dt.Here the

symbol ∫ is an elongated s, for sum, because the integral is the limit of a particular
kind of sum. The values a and b are often, confusingly, called the limits of the
integral; this terminology is unrelated to the limit concept introduced in the section
Technical preliminaries.
 Integral region graphThe shaded region, bounded by the vertical lines t = a, t = b, the t-axis, and the graph of f, is

denoted by Integral on the interval [ , ] of∫ a b abf(t)dt. Finding the areas of irregular
regions was one of the motivations for the discovery of the calculus.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The fundamental theorem of calculus

The process of calculating integrals is called integration. Integration is related to
differentiation by the fundamental theorem of calculus, which states that (subject to
the mild technical condition that the function be continuous) the derivative of the
integral is the original function. In symbols, the fundamental theorem is stated

asd/dt(Integral on the interval [ , ] of ∫ a t atf(u)du) = f(t).

The reasoning behind this theorem (see figure) can be demonstrated in a logical
progression, as follows: Let A(t) be the integral of f from a to t. Then the derivative
of A(t) is very closely approximated by the quotient (A(t + h) − A(t))/h. This is
1/h times the area under the graph of f between tand t + h. For continuous
functions f the value of f(t), for t in the interval, changes only slightly, so it must be
very close to f(t). The area is therefore close to hf(t), so the quotient is close
to hf(t)/h = f(t). Taking the limit as htends to zero, the result follows.
 Graphical illustration of the fundamental theorem of calculus: d/dt ( Integral on the interval
[a, t] of ∫ atf(u)du) = f(t)By definition, the derivative of A(t) is equal to [A(t + h) − A(t)]/h as h tends to zero.
Note that the dark blue-shaded region in the illustration is equal to the numerator of the preceding quotient and that
the striped region, whose area is equal to its base h times its height f(t), tends to the same value for small h. By
replacing the numerator, A(t + h) − A(t), by hf(t) and dividing by h, f(t) is obtained. Taking the limit as h tends to
zero completes the proof of the fundamental theorem of calculus.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Antidifferentiation
Strict mathematical logic aside, the importance of the fundamental theorem of
calculus is that it allows one to find areas by antidifferentiation—the reverse process
to differentiation. To integrate a given function f, just find a function F whose
derivative F′ is equal to f. Then the value of the integral is the difference F(b) − F(a)
between the value of F at the two limits. For example, since the derivative of t3 is 3t2,
take the antiderivative of 3t2 to be t3. The area of the region enclosed by the graph of
the function y = 3t2, the horizontal axis, and the vertical lines t = 1 and t = 2, for

example, is given by the integral Integral on the interval

[1, 2] of∫ 123t dt. By the fundamental theorem of calculus, this is the difference
2

between the values of t3 when t = 2 and t = 1; that is, 23 − 13 = 7.

All the basic techniques of calculus for finding integrals work in this manner. They
provide a repertoire of tricks for finding a function whose derivative is a given
function. Most of what is taught in schools and colleges under the
name calculus consists of rules for calculating the derivatives and integrals of
functions of various forms and of particular applications of those techniques, such as
finding the length of a curve or the surface area of a solid of revolution.
 Table 2 lists the integrals of a small
number of elementary functions. In the table, the symbol c denotes an arbitrary
constant. (Because the derivative of a constant is zero, the antiderivative of a function
is not unique: adding a constant makes no difference. When an integral is evaluated
between two specific limits, this constant is subtracted from itself and thus cancels
out. In the indefinite integral, another name for the antiderivative, the constant must
be included.)
The Riemann integral
The task of analysis is to provide not a computational method but a sound logical
foundation for limiting processes. Oddly enough, when it comes to formalizing the
integral, the most difficult part is to define the term area. It is easy to define the area
of a shape whose edges are straight; for example, the area of a rectangle is just the
product of the lengths of two adjoining sides. But the area of a shape with curved
edges can be more elusive. The answer, again, is to set up a suitable limiting process
that approximates the desired area with simpler regions whose areas can be calculated.
The first successful general method for accomplishing this is usually credited to the
German mathematician Bernhard Riemann in 1853, although it has
many precursors (both in ancient Greece and in China). Given some function f(t),
consider the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f, the horizontal axis, and the
vertical lines t = a and t = b. Riemann’s approach is to slice this region into thin
vertical strips (seepart A of the figure) and to approximate its area by sums of areas of
rectangles, both from the inside (part B of the figure) and from the outside (part C of
the figure). If both of these sums converge to the same limiting value as the thickness
of the slices tends to zero, then their common value is defined to be the Riemann
integral of f between the limits a and b. If this limit exists for all a, b, then f is said to
be (Riemann) integrable. Every continuous function is integrable.
 The Riemann integralIf the shaded areas in B (using inscribed rectangles) and C (using circumscribed rectangles)
converge to the same value for their total areas, the common value to which they converge is defined as the Riemann
integral of A.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

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 Introduction
 Historical background
o Bridging the gap between arithmetic and geometry
o Discovery of the calculus and the search for
foundations
 Technical preliminaries
o Numbers and functions
 Number systems
 Functions
o The problem of continuity
 Approximations in geometry
 Infinite series
 The limit of a sequence
 Continuity of functions
o Properties of the real numbers
 Calculus
o Differentiation
 Average rates of change
 Instantaneous rates of change
 Formal definition of the derivative
 Graphical interpretation
 Higher-order derivatives
o Integration
 The fundamental theorem of calculus
 Antidifferentiation
 The Riemann integral
 Ordinary differential equations
o Newton and differential equations
  Newton’s laws of motion
 Exponential growth and decay
o Dynamical systems theory and chaos
 Partial differential equations
o Musical origins
 Harmony
 Normal modes
 Partial derivatives
o Fourier analysis
 Complex analysis
o Formal definition of complex numbers
o Extension of analytic concepts to complex numbers
o Some key ideas of complex analysis
 Measure theory
 Other areas of analysis
o Functional analysis
o Variational principles and global analysis
o Constructive analysis
o Nonstandard analysis
 History of analysis
o The Greeks encounter continuous magnitudes
 The Pythagoreans and irrational numbers
 Zeno’s paradoxes and the concept of motion
 The method of exhaustion
o Models of motion in medieval Europe
o Analytic geometry
o The fundamental theorem of calculus
 Differentials and integrals
 Discovery of the theorem
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o Elaboration and generalization
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Calculus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the branch of mathematics. For other uses, see Calculus (disambiguation).

Part of a series of articles about

Calculus

 Fundamental theorem
 Limits of functions
 Continuity
 Mean value theorem
 Rolle's theorem

Differential[show]

Integral[show]

Series[show]
 Vector[show]

Multivariable[show]

Specialized[show]

Glossary of calculus[show]

 v
 t
 e

Calculus (from Latin calculus, literally 'small pebble', used for counting and calculations, as on
an abacus)[1], is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the
study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations.
It has two major branches, differential calculus (concerning instantaneous rates of change and
slopes of curves),[2] and integral calculus(concerning accumulation of quantities and the areas under
and between curves).[3] These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of
calculus. Both branches make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite
sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit.
Generally, modern calculus is considered to have been developed in the 17th century by Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.[4]Today, calculus has widespread uses
in science, engineering, and economics.[5][better source needed]
Calculus is a part of modern mathematics education. A course in calculus is a gateway to other,
more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, broadly
called mathematical analysis. Calculus has historically been called "the calculus of infinitesimals", or
"infinitesimal calculus". The term calculus (plural calculi) is also used for naming specific methods of
calculation or notation as well as some theories, such as propositional calculus, Ricci
calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus, and process calculus.

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Ancient
o 1.2Medieval
o 1.3Modern
o 1.4Foundations
o 1.5Significance
 2Principles
o 2.1Limits and infinitesimals
o 2.2Differential calculus
o 2.3Leibniz notation
o 2.4Integral calculus
o 2.5Fundamental theorem
 3Applications
 4Varieties
o 4.1Non-standard calculus
 o 4.2Smooth infinitesimal analysis
o 4.3Constructive analysis
 5See also
o 5.1Lists
o 5.2Other related topics
 6References
 7Further reading
o 7.1Books
o 7.2Online books
 8External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of calculus
Modern calculus was developed in 17th-century Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (independently of each other, first publishing around the same time) but elements of it
appeared in ancient Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in medieval
Europe and in India.
Ancient[edit]

Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under a parabola.

The ancient period introduced some of the ideas that led to integral calculus, but does not seem to
have developed these ideas in a rigorous and systematic way. Calculations of volume and area, one
goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Egyptian Moscow papyrus (13th dynasty, c. 1820 BC),
but the formulas are simple instructions, with no indication as to method, and some of them lack
major components.[6]
From the age of Greek mathematics, Eudoxus (c. 408–355 BC) used the method of exhaustion,
which foreshadows the concept of the limit, to calculate areas and volumes,
while Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) developed this idea further, inventing heuristics which resemble
the methods of integral calculus.[7]
The method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century
AD in order to find the area of a circle.[8] In the 5th century AD, Zu Gengzhi, son of Zu Chongzhi,
established a method[9][10] that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of
a sphere.
Medieval[edit]
In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (c. 965 – c. 1040 CE) derived a
formula for the sum of fourth powers. He used the results to carry out what would now be called
an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers
allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.[11]
In the 14th century, Indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method, resembling differentiation,
applicable to some trigonometric functions. Madhava of Sangamagrama and the Kerala School of
Astronomy and Mathematics thereby stated components of calculus. A complete theory
encompassing these components is now well-known in the Western world as the Taylor
series or infinite series approximations.[12] However, they were not able to "combine many differing
ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between
the two, and turn calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today".[11]
Modern[edit]
"The calculus was the first achievement of modern mathematics and it is difficult to overestimate its importance. I
think it defines more unequivocally than anything else the inception of modern mathematics, and the system of
mathematical analysis, which is its logical development, still constitutes the greatest technical advance in exact
thinking."
—John von Neumann[13]

In Europe, the foundational work was a treatise written by Bonaventura Cavalieri, who argued that
volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of infinitesimally thin
cross-sections. The ideas were similar to Archimedes' in The Method, but this treatise is believed to
have been lost in the 13th century, and was only rediscovered in the early 20th century, and so
would have been unknown to Cavalieri. Cavalieri's work was not well respected since his methods
could lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced were disreputable at
first.
The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieri's infinitesimals with the calculus of finite
differences developed in Europe at around the same time. Pierre de Fermat, claiming that he
borrowed from Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to
an infinitesimal error term.[14] The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow,
and James Gregory, the latter two proving the second fundamental theorem of calculus around
1670.

Isaac Newton developed the use of calculus in his laws of motion and gravitation.
The product rule and chain rule,[15] the notions of higher derivatives and Taylor series,[16] and
of analytic functions[citation needed] were introduced by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he
used to solve problems of mathematical physics. In his works, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit
the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent
geometrical arguments which were considered beyond reproach. He used the methods of calculus
to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness
of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in
his Principia Mathematica(1687). In other work, he developed series expansions for functions,
including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of
the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods
were still considered disreputable.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was the first to publish his results on the development of calculus.

These ideas were arranged into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who
was originally accused of plagiarism by Newton.[17] He is now regarded as an independent inventor of
and contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for working with
infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing
the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz paid a
lot of attention to the formalism, often spending days determining appropriate symbols for concepts.
Today, Leibniz and Newton are usually both given credit for independently inventing and developing
calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of
the notation used in calculus today. The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz provided were
the laws of differentiation and integration, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an
approximating polynomial series. By Newton's time, the fundamental theorem of calculus was
known.
When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was great controversy over which
mathematician (and therefore which country) deserved credit. Newton derived his results first (later
to be published in his Method of Fluxions), but Leibniz published his "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et
Minimis" first. Newton claimed Leibniz stole ideas from his unpublished notes, which Newton had
shared with a few members of the Royal Society. This controversy divided English-speaking
mathematicians from continental European mathematicians for many years, to the detriment of
English mathematics.[citation needed] A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows
that they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton
with differentiation. It is Leibniz, however, who gave the new discipline its name. Newton called his
calculus "the science of fluxions".
Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing
development of calculus. One of the first and most complete works on both infinitesimal and integral
calculus was written in 1748 by Maria Gaetana Agnesi.[18][19]

Maria Gaetana Agnesi

Foundations[edit]
In calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of the subject from axioms and
definitions. In early calculus the use of infinitesimal quantities was thought unrigorous, and was
fiercely criticized by a number of authors, most notably Michel Rolle and Bishop Berkeley. Berkeley
famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed quantities in his book The Analyst in
1734. Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the
century following Newton and Leibniz, and is still to some extent an active area of research today.
Several mathematicians, including Maclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals,
but it would not be until 150 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and Weierstrass, a way
was finally found to avoid mere "notions" of infinitely small quantities.[20] The foundations of
differential and integral calculus had been laid. In Cauchy's Cours d'Analyse, we find a broad range
of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a
(somewhat imprecise) prototype of an (ε, δ)-definition of limit in the definition of differentiation.[21] In
his work Weierstrass formalized the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals (although his
definition can actually validate nilsquare infinitesimals). Following the work of Weierstrass, it
eventually became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal quantities, though the
subject is still occasionally called "infinitesimal calculus". Bernhard Riemann used these ideas to
give a precise definition of the integral. It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were
generalized to Euclidean space and the complex plane.
In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which
contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. The reach of calculus has also been
greatly extended. Henri Lebesgue invented measure theory and used it to define integrals of all but
the most pathological functions. Laurent Schwartzintroduced distributions, which can be used to take
the derivative of any function whatsoever.
Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. Another way is to
use Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis. Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s,
uses technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system
with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The resulting
numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a Leibniz-like development of
the usual rules of calculus. There is also smooth infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-
standard analysis in that it mandates neglecting higher power infinitesimals during derivations.
Significance[edit]
While many of the ideas of calculus had been developed earlier in Greece, China, India, Iraq, Persia,
and Japan, the use of calculus began in Europe, during the 17th century, when Isaac
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz built on the work of earlier mathematicians to introduce its
basic principles. The development of calculus was built on earlier concepts of instantaneous motion
and area underneath curves.
Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration,
the slope of a curve, and optimization. Applications of integral calculus include computations
involving area, volume, arc length, center of mass, work, and pressure. More advanced applications
include power series and Fourier series.
Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion.
For centuries, mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by
zero or sums of infinitely many numbers. These questions arise in the study of motion and area.
The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea gave several famous examples of such paradoxes.
Calculus provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, that resolve the paradoxes.

Principles[edit]
Limits and infinitesimals[edit]
Main articles: Limit of a function and Infinitesimal
Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities. Historically, the first method of
doing so was by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like real numbers but which
are, in some sense, "infinitely small". For example, an infinitesimal number could be greater than 0,
but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and thus less than any positive real number.
From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals. The

symbols and were taken to be infinitesimal, and the derivative was simply their
ratio.
The infinitesimal approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make the
notion of an infinitesimal precise. However, the concept was revived in the 20th century with the
introduction of non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which provided solid
foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals.
In the 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced by the epsilon, delta approach to limits. Limits
describe the value of a function at a certain input in terms of its values at nearby inputs. They
capture small-scale behavior in the context of the real number system. In this treatment, calculus is a
collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits. Infinitesimals get replaced by very small
numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of the function is found by taking the limiting behavior for
smaller and smaller numbers. Limits were the first way to provide rigorous foundations for calculus,
and for this reason they are the standard approach.
Differential calculus[edit]
Main article: Differential calculus
Tangent line at (x, f(x)). The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope (rise over run) of the line tangent
to that curve at that point.

Differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a
function. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. Given a function and a point in
the domain, the derivative at that point is a way of encoding the small-scale behavior of the function
near that point. By finding the derivative of a function at every point in its domain, it is possible to
produce a new function, called the derivative function or just the derivative of the original function. In
formal terms, the derivative is a linear operator which takes a function as its input and produces a
second function as its output. This is more abstract than many of the processes studied in
elementary algebra, where functions usually input a number and output another number. For
example, if the doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs six, and if the squaring
function is given the input three, then it outputs nine. The derivative, however, can take the squaring
function as an input. This means that the derivative takes all the information of the squaring
function—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—
and uses this information to produce another function. The function produced by deriving the
squaring function turns out to be the doubling function.
In more explicit terms the "doubling function" may be denoted by g(x) = 2x and the "squaring
function" by f(x) = x2. The "derivative" now takes the function f(x), defined by the expression "x2", as
an input, that is all the information —such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent
to sixteen, and so on— and uses this information to output another function, the function g(x) = 2x,
as will turn out.
The most common symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called prime. Thus, the
derivative of a function called f is denoted by f′, pronounced "f prime". For instance, if f(x) = x2 is the
squaring function, then f′(x) = 2x is its derivative (the doubling function g from above). This notation
is known as Lagrange's notation.
If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change with respect to
time. For example, if f is a function that takes a time as input and gives the position of a ball at that
time as output, then the derivative of f is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is
the velocity of the ball.
If a function is linear (that is, if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be
written as y = mx + b, where x is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable, b is the y-
intercept, and:
This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the graph
of the function is not a straight line, however, then the change
in y divided by the change in x varies. Derivatives give an exact
meaning to the notion of change in output with respect to change in
input. To be concrete, let f be a function, and fix a point a in the
domain of f. (a, f(a)) is a point on the graph of the function. If h is a
number close to zero, then a + h is a number close to a.
Therefore, (a + h, f(a + h)) is close to (a, f(a)). The slope between
these two points is

This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through

two points on a curve is called a secant line, so m is the slope
of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)). The
secant line is only an approximation to the behavior of the
function at the point a because it does not account for what
happens between a and a + h. It is not possible to discover the
behavior at a by setting h to zero because this would
require dividing by zero, which is undefined. The derivative is
defined by taking the limit as h tends to zero, meaning that it
considers the behavior of f for all small values of h and extracts
a consistent value for the case when h equals zero:

Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent

line to the graph of f at a. The tangent line is a limit of
secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference
quotients. For this reason, the derivative is sometimes
called the slope of the function f.
Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring
function at the input 3. Let f(x) = x2 be the squaring
function.
The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the slope of the line
tangent to that curve at that point. This slope is determined by
considering the limiting value of the slopes of secant lines.
Here the function involved (drawn in red) is f(x) = x3 − x. The
tangent line (in green) which passes through the point (−3/2,
−15/8) has a slope of 23/4. Note that the vertical and
horizontal scales in this image are different.

The slope of the tangent line to the squaring function at

the point (3, 9) is 6, that is to say, it is going up six
times as fast as it is going to the right. The limit process
just described can be performed for any point in the
domain of the squaring function. This defines
the derivative function of the squaring function, or just
the derivative of the squaring function for short. A
computation similar to the one above shows that the
derivative of the squaring function is the doubling
function.
Leibniz notation[edit]
Main article: Leibniz's notation
A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the
derivative in the example above is

In an approach based on limits, the symbol dy/dx is

to be interpreted not as the quotient of two
numbers but as a shorthand for the limit computed
above. Leibniz, however, did intend it to represent
the quotient of two infinitesimally small
numbers, dy being the infinitesimally small change
in y caused by an infinitesimally small
change dx applied to x. We can also think
of d/dx as a differentiation operator, which takes a
function as an input and gives another function, the
derivative, as the output. For example:

In this usage, the dx in the denominator is read

as "with respect to x". Another example of
correct notation could be:

Even when calculus is developed using limits

rather than infinitesimals, it is common to
manipulate symbols like dx and dy as if they
were real numbers; although it is possible to
avoid such manipulations, they are sometimes
notationally convenient in expressing
operations such as the total derivative.
Integral calculus[edit]
Main article: Integral
Integral calculus is the study of the definitions,
properties, and applications of two related
concepts, the indefinite integral and the definite
integral. The process of finding the value of an
integral is called integration. In technical
language, integral calculus studies two
related linear operators.
The indefinite integral, also known as
the antiderivative, is the inverse operation to
the derivative. F is an indefinite integral
of f when f is a derivative of F. (This use of
lower- and upper-case letters for a function and
its indefinite integral is common in calculus.)
The definite integral inputs a function and
outputs a number, which gives the algebraic
sum of areas between the graph of the input
and the x-axis. The technical definition of the
definite integral involves the limit of a sum of
areas of rectangles, called a Riemann sum.
A motivating example is the distances traveled
in a given time.
If the speed is constant, only multiplication
is needed, but if the speed changes, a
more powerful method of finding the
distance is necessary. One such method is
to approximate the distance traveled by
breaking up the time into many short
intervals of time, then multiplying the time
elapsed in each interval by one of the
speeds in that interval, and then taking the
sum (a Riemann sum) of the approximate
distance traveled in each interval. The
basic idea is that if only a short time
elapses, then the speed will stay more or
less the same. However, a Riemann sum
only gives an approximation of the distance
traveled. We must take the limit of all such
Riemann sums to find the exact distance
traveled.

Constant velocity

Integration can be thought of as measuring

the area under a curve, defined by f(x),
between two points (here a and b).

When velocity is constant, the total

distance traveled over the given time
interval can be computed by multiplying
velocity and time. For example, travelling a
steady 50 mph for 3 hours results in a total
distance of 150 miles. In the diagram on
the left, when constant velocity and time
are graphed, these two values form a
rectangle with height equal to the velocity
and width equal to the time elapsed.
Therefore, the product of velocity and time
also calculates the rectangular area under
the (constant) velocity curve. This
connection between the area under a
curve and distance traveled can be
extended to any irregularly shaped region
exhibiting a fluctuating velocity over a
given time period. If f(x) in the diagram on
the right represents speed as it varies over
time, the distance traveled (between the
times represented by a and b) is the area
of the shaded region s.
To approximate that area, an intuitive
method would be to divide up the distance
between a and b into a number of equal
segments, the length of each segment
represented by the symbol Δx. For each
small segment, we can choose one value
of the function f(x). Call that value h. Then
the area of the rectangle with base Δx and
height h gives the distance
(time Δx multiplied by speed h) traveled in
that segment. Associated with each
segment is the average value of the
function above it, f(x) = h. The sum of all
such rectangles gives an approximation of
the area between the axis and the curve,
which is an approximation of the total
distance traveled. A smaller value
for Δx will give more rectangles and in
most cases a better approximation, but for
an exact answer we need to take a limit
as Δx approaches zero.

The symbol of integration is ,

an elongated S (the S stands for "sum").
The definite integral is written as:

and is read "the integral

from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x."
The Leibniz notation dx is intended to
suggest dividing the area under the
curve into an infinite number of
rectangles, so that their
width Δx becomes the infinitesimally
small dx. In a formulation of the
calculus based on limits, the notation

is to be understood as an operator
that takes a function as an input
and gives a number, the area, as
an output. The terminating
differential, dx, is not a number,
and is not being multiplied by f(x),
although, serving as a reminder of
the Δx limit definition, it can be
treated as such in symbolic
manipulations of the integral.
Formally, the differential indicates
the variable over which the
function is integrated and serves
as a closing bracket for the
integration operator.
The indefinite integral, or
antiderivative, is written:

Functions differing by only a

constant have the same
derivative, and it can be
shown that the antiderivative
of a given function is actually a
family of functions differing
only by a constant. Since the
derivative of the
function y = x2 + C,
where C is any constant,
is y′ = 2x, the antiderivative of
the latter given by:

The unspecified
constant C present in the
indefinite integral or
antiderivative is known as
the constant of integration.
Fundamental
theorem[edit]
Main article: Fundamental
theorem of calculus
The fundamental theorem
of calculus states that
differentiation and
integration are inverse
operations. More
precisely, it relates the
values of antiderivatives to
definite integrals. Because
it is usually easier to
compute an antiderivative
than to apply the definition
of a definite integral, the
fundamental theorem of
calculus provides a
practical way of computing
definite integrals. It can
also be interpreted as a
precise statement of the
fact that differentiation is
the inverse of integration.
The fundamental theorem
of calculus states: If a
function f is continuous on
the interval [a, b] and
if F is a function whose
derivative is f on the
interval (a, b), then

Furthermore, for
every x in the
interval (a, b),

This realization,
made by
both Newton and
Leibniz, who
based their results
on earlier work
by Isaac Barrow,
was key to the
proliferation of
analytic results
after their work
became known.
The fundamental
theorem provides
an algebraic
method of
computing many
definite
integrals—without
performing limit
processes—by
finding formulas
for antiderivatives.
It is also a
prototype solution
of a differential
equation.
Differential
equations relate
an unknown
function to its
derivatives, and
are ubiquitous in
the sciences.

Application
s[edit]

The logarithmic
spiral of
the Nautilus
shell is a
classical image
used to depict
the growth and
change related
to calculus.
Calculus is used
in every branch of
the physical
sciences, actuarial
science, computer
science, statistics,
engineering,
economics,
business,
medicine, demogr
aphy, and in other
fields wherever a
problem can
be mathematically
modeled and
an optimal solutio
n is desired. It
allows one to go
from (non-
constant) rates of
change to the total
change or vice
versa, and many
times in studying
a problem we
know one and are
trying to find the
other.
Physics makes
particular use of
calculus; all
concepts
in classical
mechanics and el
ectromagnetism a
re related through
calculus.
The massof an
object of
known density,
the moment of
inertia of objects,
as well as the total
energy of an
object within a
conservative field
can be found by
the use of
calculus. An
example of the
use of calculus in
mechanics
is Newton's
second law of
motion: historically
stated it expressly
uses the term
"change of
motion" which
implies the
derivative
saying The chang
e of momentum of
a body is equal to
the resultant force
acting on the body
and is in the same
direction. Commo
nly expressed
today as
Force = Mass × a
cceleration, it
implies differential
calculus because
acceleration is the
time derivative of
velocity or second
time derivative of
trajectory or
spatial position.
Starting from
knowing how an
object is
accelerating, we
use calculus to
derive its path.
Maxwell's theory
of electromagnetis
m and Einstein's
theory of general
relativity are also
expressed in the
language of
differential
calculus.
Chemistry also
uses calculus in
determining
reaction rates and
radioactive decay.
In biology,
population
dynamics starts
with reproduction
and death rates to
model population
changes.
Calculus can be
used in
conjunction with
other
mathematical
disciplines. For
example, it can be
used with linear
algebra to find the
"best fit" linear
approximation for
a set of points in a
domain. Or it can
be used
in probability
theory to
determine the
probability of a
continuous
random variable
from an assumed
density function.
In analytic
geometry, the
study of graphs of
functions, calculus
is used to find
high points and
low points
(maxima and
minima),
slope, concavity a
nd inflection
points.
Green's Theorem,
which gives the
relationship
between a line
integral around a
simple closed
curve C and a
double integral
over the plane
region D bounded
by C, is applied in
an instrument
known as
a planimeter,
which is used to
calculate the area
of a flat surface on
a drawing. For
example, it can be
used to calculate
the amount of
area taken up by
an irregularly
shaped flower bed
or swimming pool
when designing
the layout of a
piece of property.
Discrete Green's
Theorem, which
gives the
relationship
between a double
integral of a
function around a
simple closed
rectangular
curve C and a
linear combination
of the
antiderivative's
values at corner
points along the
edge of the curve,
allows fast
calculation of
sums of values in
rectangular
domains. For
example, it can be
used to efficiently
calculate sums of
rectangular
domains in
images, in order
to rapidly extract
features and
detect object;
another algorithm
that could be used
is the summed
area table.
In the realm of
medicine, calculus
can be used to
find the optimal
branching angle of
a blood vessel so
as to maximize
flow. From the
decay laws for a
particular drug's
elimination from
the body, it is
used to derive
dosing laws. In
nuclear medicine,
it is used to build
models of
radiation transport
in targeted tumor
therapies.
In economics,
calculus allows for
the determination
of maximal profit
by providing a
way to easily
calculate
both marginal
cost and marginal
revenue.
Calculus is also
used to find
approximate
solutions to
equations; in
practice it is the
standard way to
solve differential
equations and do
root finding in
most applications.
Examples are
methods such
as Newton's
method, fixed
point iteration,
and linear
approximation.
For instance,
spacecraft use a
variation of
the Euler
method to
approximate
curved courses
within zero gravity
environments.
Varieties[edit
]
Over the years,
many
reformulations of
calculus have
been investigated
for different
purposes.
Non-standard
calculus[edit]
Main article: Non-
standard calculus
Imprecise
calculations with
infinitesimals were
widely replaced
with the
rigorous (ε, δ)-
definition of
limit starting in the
1870s.
Meanwhile,
calculations with
infinitesimals
persisted and
often led to
correct results.
This led Abraham
Robinson to
investigate if it
were possible to
develop a number
system with
infinitesimal
quantities over
which the
theorems of
calculus were still
valid. In 1960,
building upon the
work of Edwin
Hewitt and Jerzy
Łoś, he
succeeded in
developing non-
standard analysis.
The theory of non-
standard analysis
is rich enough to
be applied in
many branches of
mathematics. As
such, books and
articles dedicated
solely to the
traditional
theorems of
calculus often go
by the title non-
standard calculus.
Smooth
infinitesimal
analysis[edit]
Main
article: Smooth
infinitesimal
analysis
This is another
reformulation of
the calculus in
terms
of infinitesimals.
Based on the
ideas of F. W.
Lawvere and
employing the
methods
of category
theory, it views all
functions as
being continuous
and incapable of
being expressed
in terms
of discrete entities
. One aspect of
this formulation is
that the law of
excluded
middle does not
hold in this
formulation.
Constructive
analysis[edit]
Main
article: Constructiv
e analysis
Constructive
mathematics is a
branch of
 mathematics that
insists that proofs
of the existence of
a number,
function, or other
mathematical
object should give
a construction of
the object. As
such constructive
mathematics also
rejects the law of
excluded middle.
Reformulations of
calculus in a
constructive
framework are
generally part of
the subject
of constructive
analysis.

See also[edit]


Mathematics
portal

 Analysis
portal
Main
article: Outline of
calculus
Lists[edit]

 Glossary of
calculus
 List of
calculus
topics
 List of
derivatives
and integrals
in alternative
calculi
 List of
differentiation
identities
 Publications
in calculus
 Table of
integrals
Other related
topics[edit]

 Calculus of
finite
differences
 Calculus with
polynomials
 Complex
analysis
 Differential
equation
 Differential
geometry
 Elementary
Calculus: An
Infinitesimal
Approach
 Fourier series
 Integral
equation
 Mathematical
analysis
 Multiplicative
calculus
 Multivariable
calculus
 Non-classical
analysis
 Non-
Newtonian
calculus
 Non-standard
analysis
 Non-standard
calculus
 Precalculus (
mathematical
education)
 Product
integral
 Stochastic
calculus
 Taylor series

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e great
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and
anxious for
quick
results;
consequen
tly they left
the
foundation
s of
analytical
geometry
and the
infinitesima
l calculus
insecure.
Leibniz
believed in
actual
infinitesima
ls, but
although
this belief
suited his
metaphysi
cs it had
no sound
basis in
mathemati
cs.
Weierstras
s, soon
after the
middle of
the
nineteenth
century,
showed
how to
establish
the
calculus
without
infinitesima
ls, and
thus at last
made it
logically
secure.
Next came
Georg
Cantor,
who
developed
the theory
of
continuity
and infinite
number.
"Continuity
" had
been, until
 he defined
it, a vague
word,
convenient
for
philosophe
rs like
Hegel, who
wished to
introduce
metaphysi
cal
muddles
into
mathemati
cs. Cantor
gave a
precise
significanc
e to the
word, and
showed
that
continuity,
as he
defined it,
was the
concept
needed by
mathemati
cians and
physicists.
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means a
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Further
reading[edit]
Books[edit]

 Boyer, Carl
Benjamin (1949
). The History
of the Calculus
and its
Conceptual
Development.
Hafner. Dover
edition
1959, ISBN 0-
486-60509-4
 Courant,
Richard ISBN 9
78-3-540-
65058-
4 Introduction
to calculus and
analysis 1.
 Edmund
Landau. ISBN 0
-8218-2830-
4 Differential
and Integral
Calculus, Ameri
can
Mathematical
Society.
 Robert A.
Adams.
(1999). ISBN 9
78-0-201-
39607-
2 Calculus: A
complete
course.
 Albers, Donald
J.; Richard D.
Anderson and
Don O.
Loftsgaarden,
ed.
(1986) Undergr
aduate
Programs in the
Mathematics
and Computer
Sciences: The
1985–1986
Survey,
Mathematical
Association of
America No. 7.
 John Lane
Bell: A Primer
of Infinitesimal
Analysis,
Cambridge
University
Press,
1998. ISBN 978
-0-521-62401-
5.
Uses synthetic
differential
geometry and
nilpotent
infinitesimals.
 Florian Cajori,
"The History of
Notations of the
Calculus." Ann
als of
Mathematics,
2nd Ser., Vol.
25, No. 1 (Sep.
1923), pp. 1–
46.
 Leonid P.
Lebedev and
Michael J.
Cloud:
"Approximating
Perfection: a
Mathematician'
s Journey into
the World of
Mechanics, Ch.
1: The Tools of
Calculus",
Princeton Univ.
Press, 2004.
 Cliff Pickover.
(2003). ISBN 9
78-0-471-
26987-
8 Calculus and
Pizza: A Math
Cookbook for
the Hungry
Mind.
 Michael Spivak.
(September
1994). ISBN 97
8-0-914098-89-
8 Calculus.
Publish or
Perish
publishing.
 Tom M.
Apostol.
 (1967). ISBN 9
78-0-471-
00005-
1 Calculus,
Volume 1, One-
Variable
Calculus with
an Introduction
to Linear
Algebra. Wiley.
 Tom M.
Apostol.
(1969). ISBN 9
78-0-471-
00007-
5 Calculus,
Volume 2,
Multi-Variable
Calculus and
Linear Algebra
with
Applications.
Wiley.
 Silvanus P.
Thompson and
Martin Gardner.
(1998). ISBN 9
78-0-312-
18548-
0 Calculus
Made Easy.
 Mathematical
Association of
America.
(1988). Calculu
s for a New
Century; A
Pump, Not a
Filter, The
Association,
Stony Brook,
NY. ED 300
252.
 Thomas/Finney
.
(1996). ISBN 9
78-0-201-
53174-
9 Calculus and
Analytic
geometry 9th,
Addison
Wesley.
 Weisstein, Eric
W. "Second
Fundamental
Theorem of
Calculus." Fro
 m MathWorld—
A Wolfram Web
Resource.
 Howard Anton,
Irl Bivens,
Stephen
Davis:"Calculus
", John Willey
and Sons Pte.
Ltd.,
2002. ISBN 978
-81-265-1259-1
 Larson, Ron,
Bruce H.
Edwards
(2010). Calculu
s, 9th ed.,
Brooks Cole
Cengage
Learning. ISBN
978-0-547-
16702-2
 McQuarrie,
Donald A.
(2003). Mathem
atical Methods
for Scientists
and Engineers,
University
Science
Books. ISBN 97
8-1-891389-24-
5
 Salas,
Saturnino
L.; Hille, Einar;
Etgen, Garret J.
(2007). Calculu
s: One and
Several
Variables(10th
ed.). Wiley. ISB
N 978-0-471-
69804-3.
 Stewart,
James (2012).
Calculus: Early
Transcendental
s, 7th ed.,
Brooks Cole
Cengage
Learning. ISBN
978-0-538-
49790-9
 Thomas,
George B.,
Maurice D.
Weir, Joel
 Hass, Frank R.
Giordano
(2008), Calculu
s, 11th ed.,
Addison-
Wesley. ISBN 0
-321-48987-X

Online
books[edit]

 Boelkins, M.
(2012). Active
Calculus: a
free, open
text (PDF).
Archived
from the
original on 30
May 2013.
Retrieved 1
February 2013.
 Crowell, B.
(2003).
"Calculus".
Light and
Matter,
Fullerton.
Retrieved 6
May 2007
from http://www
.lightandmatter.
com/calc/calc.p
df
 Garrett, P.
(2006). "Notes
on first year
calculus".
University of
Minnesota.
Retrieved 6
May 2007
from http://www
.math.umn.edu/
~garrett/calculu
s/first_year/not
es.pdf
 Faraz, H.
(2006).
"Understanding
Calculus".
Retrieved 6
May 2007 from
Understanding
Calculus.com,
URL http://www
.understanding
 calculus.com (
HTML only)
 Keisler, H. J.
(2000).
"Elementary
Calculus: An
Approach
Using
Infinitesimals".
Retrieved 29
August 2010
from http://www
.math.wisc.edu/
~keisler/calc.ht
ml
 Mauch, S.
(2004). "Sean's
Applied Math
Book" (pdf).
California
Institute of
Technology.
Retrieved 6
May 2007
from https://we
b.archive.org/w
eb/2007061418
3657/http://ww
w.cacr.caltech.
edu/~sean/appl
ied_math.pdf
 Sloughter, Dan
(2000).
"Difference
Equations to
Differential
Equations: An
introduction to
calculus".
Retrieved 17
March 2009
from http://syne
chism.org/drup
al/de2de/
 Stroyan, K.D.
(2004). "A brief
introduction to
infinitesimal
calculus".
University of
Iowa. Retrieved
6 May 2007
from https://we
b.archive.org/w
eb/2005091110
4158/http://ww
w.math.uiowa.e
du/~stroyan/Inf
 smlCalculus/Inf
smlCalc.htm (H
TML only)
 Strang, G.
(1991).
"Calculus"
Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology.
Retrieved 6
May 2007
from http://ocw.
mit.edu/ans787
0/resources/Str
ang/strangtext.
htm
 Smith, William
V. (2001). "The
Calculus".
Retrieved 4
July
2008 [1] (HTML
only).

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 Hazewinkel,
Michiel, ed.
(2001)
[1994], "Calcu
lus", Encyclop
edia of
Mathematics,
Springer
Science+Busi
ness Media
B.V. / Kluwer
Academic
Publishers, IS
BN 978-1-
55608-010-4
 Weisstein,
Eric
W. "Calculus".
MathWorld.
 Topics on
Calculus at Pl
anetMath.org.
 Calculus
Made Easy
(1914) by
Silvanus P.
Thompson Ful
l text in PDF
 Calculus on In
Our Time at
the BBC
 Calculus.org:
The Calculus
page at
University of
California,
Davis –
contains
resources and
links to other
sites
 COW:
Calculus on
the Web at
Temple
University –
contains
resources
ranging from
pre-calculus
and
associated
algebra
 Earliest
Known Uses
of Some of
the Words of
Mathematics:
Calculus &
Analysis
 Online
Integrator
(WebMathem
atica) from
Wolfram
Research
 The Role of
Calculus in
College
Mathematics f
rom
ERICDigests.
org
 OpenCourse
Ware
Calculus from
the Massachu
setts Institute
of Technology
 Infinitesimal
Calculus – an
article on its
historical
development,
in Encycloped
ia of
Mathematics,
ed. Michiel
Hazewinkel.
 Daniel
Kleitman,
MIT. "Calculu
s for
 Beginners
and Artists".
 Calculus
Problems and
Solutions by
D. A. Kouba
 Donald Allen's
notes on
calculus
 Calculus
training
materials at
imomath.com
 (in English) (in
Arabic) The
Excursion of
Calculus,
1772

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Integrals

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Infinitesimals

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Calculus

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Areas of mathematics

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 Isaac Newton

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Glossaries of science and engineering

N: sh85018802

Categories:
 Calculus
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