Flexural Members or Beams

Chapter F, Chapter B5 and Chapter I

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Beams in Steel Frame Buildings

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 Introduction
• Beam: is generally considered to be any member subjected to transverse
gravity (include end moments) or vertical loading.
• Type of beams:
– Girders: Usually the most important one, they are at wide spacing
– Joist: The closely spaced beams supporting the floors and roofs of buildings
– Lintels: The beams over opening in masonry walls, such as windows and doors.
– Spandrel: They support the exterior walls of building and perhaps part of the floor and hallway loads.
– Stringers: The beams in bridge floors running parallel to the roadway (longitudinal)
– Floor beam: The larger beams in many bridge floor (perpendicular to the roadway)
– Purlins: Roof beams spanning between trusses

• Section:
• W shape: most economical
• Channel: for beam subjected to light loads, such as purlins
• Open-web steel joist (bar joist): support floor and roof slabs

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

General Design Steps for Beam

• Using factored loads, determining the bending moments, Mu, and shear force ,Vu,
along the beam.

• Compute the nominal flexural strength,

Mn, for the beam.(max moment beam can
sustain without a flexural failure) and
compute the nominal shear strength,
Vn, for the beam. (max shear force beam can
sustain without a shear failure)

• Strength design requirement:

– Mu < Φ Mn
– Vu < Φ Vn

• Check serviceability:
– Beam deflection under service load
– Floor vibration under service load

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Bending Stress
• Bending moment → Bending strain → compressive and tensile stress
• Under positive moment→ compressive stress in top & tensile stress in bottom
• For rectangular beam under bending moment , stress at any point:

MC M I
Flexure Formula: fb = = Section modulus: S=
I S C

This expression is applicable only when the MAX stress in the beam is below the elastic limit.

This expression is based on:
stress is proportional to strain: stress-strain law
A plane section before and after bending remains a plane section

Plastic Moment

• Moment applied→ Stress varies linearly from the neutral axis to extreme fibers (b)

• Moment increase→ Stress increase →Till yield stress is reached in the outermost fibers (c)
– Yield moment (My): The moment that will just produce the yield stress in the outmost fiber of the
section.

• Moment increase more → outermost fibers continue to have the same stress but yield → duty of providing the
necessary additional resisting moment will fall on the fibers nearer to neutral axis (d) & (e)

• Finally a full plastic distribution is approached (f)

• Plastic hinge has formed.
– Plastic moment (MP): The moment that will produce full plasticity in a member cross section and create a plastic
hinge.
• No additional moment can be resisted, any additional moment cause the beam to rotate
• Shape factor: Mp/My rectangular section:1.5 & standard rolled beam section= 1.1-1.2

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Plastic Hinge Length
• Pn is increased till the yield moment is reached and the outermost fiber is stressed to the yield
stress.
• Pn is increased more till the outer fibers begin to yield:

– The yielding spreads out to the other fibers, away from the section of maximum moment. This distance is
dependent on:
• The loading condition
• Member cross section
– For rectangular, concentrated load: in the middle:1/3 of the span
– W shape, concentrated load: in the middle:1/8 of the span

– Although the effect of a plastic hinge extend for some distance along the beam:
• For analysis, assume to be concentrated at one section
• For deflection and the design of brace, the extended yield length is important

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Elastic Design
• Until recent years: Elastic theory has been the basis for steel structural design and
analysis
– The maximum load that the structure could support is equal the load that first caused a
stress somewhere in the structure to equal the yield stress (Fy) of the material

• But ductile member do not fail until a great deal of yielding occurs after the yield
stress is first reached

The Elastic and Plastic Modulus

• The yield moment My equals the yield stress Fy times elastic modulus S:

My= Fy S
• The yield moment Mp equals the yield stress Fy times plastic modulus Z:

Mp= Fy Z

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• Example 1 :
• Find the My and Mp for a rectangular section bxd.
 My
• Two method:
– The flexural formula
– The internal couple method
• The flexural formula:

M yC My
Fy = =
I S
M y= F y S

I =bd3/12, C= d/2

S= I/C = (bd3/12)/ (d/2) = bd2/6

Fy bd2
My= Fy S =
6
CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

• The internal couple method

Fy bd 2 Fy bd2
• My = Force x Moment arm = x d=
4 3 6

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Mp (plastic moment or nominal moment of section, Mn)

d d Fy db 1 Fy bd2
• Mp = Force x Moment arm = T =C = x d=
2 2 2 2 4
 The plastic moment is equal to the yield stress Fy times the plastic modulus Z.
2 2
Mp= Fy Z= Fy ( bd ) Z = bd
4 4

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Shape Factor
• The shape factor: how much additional moment can be carried by a cross section
after first yield occurs.

Mp FyZ Z
= = bd2
My FyS S
Z 4
• For rectangular section : Shape factor= = = 1.5
• Neutral axis for plastic condition: S 2
bd
 For symmetrical section:
6
 The neutral axis for the plastic condition is the same as elastic.
 For unsymmetrical section:
 The total internal compression must equal the total internal tension.
 In plastic condition all fibers has stress Fy→ The areas above and bellow the plastic neutral axis
must be equal. Acomp= Atension

• P=0 → p=∫σdA= ∫σcompdA+ ∫σtensiondA=0 → For a fully plasstic cross section:

→ σcomp=σtension=+-Fy →P=-Fy ∫AcompdA+ Fy ∫AtensiondA=0 → Acomp= Atension

• Z: The first moment of area about the neutral axis when the areas above and below the neutral
axis are equal. Z=∫∫AydA

6
• Example 2 :
• Determine My, Mn, Z, shape factor and W n that can be placed on the beam
for a 12-ft simple span. Fy = 50 ksi

• Elastic calculation.
A= (8in)(11/2) + (6in)(2in)=24 in2
Y= ((12in2)(0.75in) +(12in2)(4.5in)) / (24 in2 )= 2.625 in from top of flange
I = 1/12 (8 in)(1.5 in)3 +(8in)(1.5in)(1.875in) 2 + 1/12 (2in)(6in)3
+(2in)(6in)(1.875in)2=122.6 in4
S= I/C= (122.6 in4) / (4.875 in) =25.1 in3
My= Fy S = (50 ksi)(25.1 in3)) / (12 in/ft) = 104.6 ft-k

• Plastic calculation: plastic neutral axis is at base of flange:

Z=∫∫AydA ⇒ Z = (12 in2)( 0.75in) + (12in2)(3in)= 45 in3
Mn= Mp= FyZ= ((50 ksi)(45 in3))/(12 in/ft) =187.5 ft-k

Shape factor = Mp / My= or Z/S = ( 45in3 ) / ( 25.1in3 ) =1.79

Mn=(W nL2)/8 → W n= (8)(187.5 ft-k))/ (12ft)2 =10.4 K/ft

Bonus problem: what is the affect of residual stress in plastic moment?

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Theory of Plastic Analysis
• Those parts of the structure that have been stressed to the yield stress cannot resist
additional stresses.

• They instead will yield the amount required to permit the extra load or stress to be
transferred to other parts of the structure where the stresses are below the yield
stress.

• A ductility of steel permitted a redistribution of stresses in an overloaded, statically

indeterminate structure.

• The strain hardening could permit

steel members to withstand additional
stress?
Large strain, practical standpoint,
(Large deflection)
Inelastic buckling→ MP

Ideal stress- strain diagram for steel

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

The Collapse Mechanism

• A statically determinate beam will fail if one plastic hinge developed.

– P at midspan of simply supported beam

– At the point of maximum moment, by increasing P, plastic hinge is developed
– Unstable structure will have been created, any further increase in load → collapse

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 The Collapse Mechanism
• For statically indeterminate structure to fail, it is necessary for more than one
plastic hinge to form.
– The fix-end beam can not fail unless the three plastic hinges are developed
– As the load increased, there is a redistribution of moment, because the plastic hinge can
resist no more moment
– The mechanism is defined as the arrangement of plastic hinges and perhaps real hinges
which permit the collapse in a structure

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Plastic Analysis of Structure

• There are various methods that can be used to perform plastic analysis for
given structure:
– The virtual-work (kinematic) method
– Equilibrium method
– Systematic (event-to-event) method

• The virtual-work (kinematic) method

• The structure assumed to be loaded to its nominal capacity
• Then, it is assumed to deflect through a small additional displacement after the
ultimate load is reached.
• The work performed by the external loads during this displacement is equated to the
internal work absorbed by the hinges.

• Small angle theory is used:

– Sine of small angle= tangent of that angle= same angle in radian

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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• Example 3 :
• Determine the plastic limit or nominal distribution load W n in terms of the
plastic or nominal moment Mn developed at hinges.
• Sketch the collapse mechanism
• Symmetry :
– same rotation θ at each end
• External work:
– Force x distance
δ=
W nL x the average deflection (δ)
tanθ = θ = δ / (L/2)
δ = (θL / 2)
δave= ½ δ = (θL / 4)
• Internal work:
• The internal work absorb by hinges is equal the sum of plastic moment Mn at each plastic
hinge times the angle through which it works: Mn(θ) + Mn(2θ) + Mn(θ)
• External work= Internal work W ext = W int
W ext = W int →(W nL)(δave) = Mn(θ) + Mn(2θ) + Mn(θ) → (W nL)(θL / 4) = 4 θ Mn →
2
for 18-ft span, the plastic W n= (16 Mn)/ L
limit distributed load → W n= (16 Mn)/ (18)2= 0.05Mn

• Example 4 :
• Determine the plastic limit or nominal load pn in terms of plastic or nominal
moment Mn developed at the hinges.
• Sketch the collapse mechanism
• Symmetry :
C
– same rotation θ at each end
• External work:
– Pn x the deflection (δ)
tanθ = θ = δ / (L/2)
δ = (θL / 2)

Concentrated load → (δ)
• Internal work:
• The internal work absorb by hinges is equal the sum of plastic moment Mn at each plastic
hinge times the angle through which it works: Mn(θ) + Mn(2θ)

Point C is a real hinge and no moment occurs at that point
• External work= Internal work W ext = W int
W ext = W int →(Pn)(δ) = Mn(θ) + Mn(2θ) → (Pn)(θL / 2) = 3 θ Mn →
for 20-ft span, the plastic Pn= (6 Mn)/ L
limit load → Pn= (6 Mn)/ (20) = 0.3Mn

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• Example 5 :
• Determine the plastic limit or nominal load pn in terms of plastic or nominal
moment Mn developed at the hinges.
• Sketch the collapse mechanism
• Unsymmetry :
– different rotation θ at each end
• External work:
– Pn x the deflection (δ)
tanθ1 = θ1= δ/(2L/3) →δ = (2L/3)θ1 1

tanθ2 = θ2= δ/(L/3) → δ = (L/3)θ2

θ2
(2L / 3) θ1 = (L / 3) θ2 → θ2= 2θ1 θ1
• Internal work: θ2 + θ1
• The internal work absorb by hinges is equal the sum of plastic moment Mn at each plastic
hinge times the angle through which it works: Mn(2θ 1) + Mn(3θ1)+ Mn(θ 1)
• External work= Internal work W ext = W int
W ext = W int →(Pn)(δ) = Mn(2θ 1) + Mn(3θ1)+ Mn(θ 1) → (Pn)(2L / 3) θ1 = 6θ1 Mn →
Pn= (9 Mn) / L
for 30-ft span, the plastic→ Pn= (9 Mn) / (30) = 0.3Mn
limit load

• Example 6 :

• Complex structure:
 Different ways in which
the structure will
collapse
 The value for which the
collapse load Pn is
smallest in term of Mn is
the correct value.

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 Location of Plastic Hinge for Uniform Loadings
• Example 7 :
As the uniform load is
increased, a plastic hinge
will first form at the fixed
end. Simple Beam

Increase in the load, cause

the moment to change as
represented by dashed
line.

Eventually the moment at

some point (distance x)
reach Mn and create
another plastic hinge.
(WnL)(θ
θ)(L-x)(1/2) = Mn(θ
θ+θ
θ+((L-x)/x) θ)

Solving this equation for

Mn, taking dMn/dx=0, the
value of x can be
calculated to equal 0.414L.

Continuous Beams
• Elastic method is complicated.
• Plastic method is applicable and have a more realistic picture of the strength.
• Use virtual-work separately for each span.
• Example 8 :
• A W18x55 (Zx=112 in3) has been
selected for the beam shown.
Using 50 ksi steel and assuming full
lateral support, determine the value
of W n.
Mn= Fy Z= (50 ksi)(112 in3)/(12 in/ft)=
466.7 ft-k
Drawing the collapse mechanism
for the two spans:

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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• Triangle of right span:
tanθ = θ = δ1 / 15 : δ1 = 15θ
• Triangle of left span:
• X= 0.414L= 0.414(24)=9.94 ft
24- X =24-9.94= 14.06ft
tanθ = θ = δ2/14.06 : δ2 = 14.06θ
Therefore:
tanα=α=δ2/9.94=14.06θ/9.94=1.414θ

Left-hand Span:
Wext = W int →(24W n)(1/2) (14.06 θ)=Mn(3.414θ) → W n = 0.0202Mn=9.43 k/ft

Right-hand Span:
Wext = W int →(30W n)(1/2) (15 θ)=Mn(4θ) → W n = 0.0178Mn=8.31k/ft

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

How to analyze beam:

• Two choices

– Collapse Mechanism Approach

• Assume a collapse mechanism
• Apply virtual work to assumed mechanism to get a relationship
between the applied load and internal moment
• This relationship provides an upper bound estimate of the capacity
of the beam - THUS THIS IS THE UPPERBOUND THEOREM

– Static Approach
• Find a set of internal forces and moments that are in equilibrium
with the applied loads
• If we design the members so that their plastic capacity is larger than
these internal forces and moments everywhere --- The applied
loads become a lowerbound on the true structural resistance.

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Design of Flexural Members or
Beams for Moments

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Possible Flexural Failure Mode

• Development of a fully plastic cross-section failure by excessive deformation
• Local Buckling
– Flange local buckling
– Web local buckling
• Shear buckling
• Bend buckling
• Lateral Torsional Buckling (combination of lateral deformation and twist)
Buckling cause reduction of bending moment and loss of plastic moment capacity

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Compression Member of Beams
• Due to the application of gravity transverse loading , the beam will bend downward, and its
upper part (above neutral axis) will be place in compression and will act as a compression
member.
– This part has small moment of inertia about its y axis (vertical axis) than about its x axis
– So if it is not brace perpendicularly it will fail by instability:

• FLB (Flange local buckling)

• WLB (Web local buckling)
• LTB (Lateral torsional buckling)

Lateral Buckling of Beams

• Lateral buckling will not occur if the compression flange of a member is braced
laterally or if twisting of the beam is prevented at frequent intervals.
– Concrete floor slab connected to compression flange of a girder.
• Floor slab provides continues lateral bracing for the compression flange.

• Types of beams with respect to lateral buckling:

– The beam can be assumed to have continuous lateral bracing for their compression
flange.
– The beams can be assumed to be braced laterally at short intervals
– The beams can be assumed to be braced laterally at larger and larger intervals

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Typical Curve Showing Mn
• Zone 1: Closely spaced lateral bracing;
– Beams fail plastically
– It could be loaded until its full plastic moment plus
moment redistribution is achieved.
– Most beam

• Zone 2: Moderate unbraced length;

– Beams fail inelastically
– Some, but not all, of the compression
fibers are stresses to Fy
– Plastic analysis are not permitted
– Lateral buckling occurs before
plasticity start

• Zone 3: Larger unbracd length;

– Beams fail elastically
– Lateral buckling happen before
the yield stress is reached anywhere (Mcr)

Zone 1:Yielding Behavior-Full Plastic Moment

Mn= Mp= Fy Z (AISC Equation F2-1 page 16.1-47)

ΦbMn= ΦbFy Z (Φ
Φb= 0.9)

The member’s bending strength about its major axis

No limit of the unbraced for circular or square cross sections

No limit of the unbraced length for I-shaped beams about minor axes

No buckling occur before the development of full plastic moment Mp about the y axis)

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 Zone 1:Yielding Behavior-Full Plastic Moment
Mn= Mp= Fy Z (AISC Equation F2-1 page 16.1-47)
ΦbMn= ΦbFy Z (Φ
Φb= 0.9)

The limiting lengths Lp

• Elastic analysis is used: (AISC Equation F2-5 page 16.1-48)
• Lb < Lp Lp =1.76 ry√ E/Fy

• Plastic analysis is used (AISC Equation A-1-5/8 page 16.1-186)

• I-shape
• Lb<Lpd; Lpd = [0.12 -0.076(M’1/M’2)](E/Fy) ry

• Solid rectangular bars and for rectangular HSS and box-shaped members
• Lb < Lpd; Lpd = [0.17 -0.1(M’1/M’2)](E/Fy) ry > 0.1(E/Fy) ry

• M1 is the smaller moment at the end of the unbraced length of the beam and M2 is the larger. The
ratio M1/M2 is positive when the moments cause the member to be bent in double curvature and
negative if they bend it in single curvature. Fy< 65 (ductile steel)

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Design of Beam, Zone 1

• Beams will be selected that provide sufficient design moment capacities (ΦbMn) and
then checked to see if any of following items are critical:
– Shear
– Deflection
– Crippling
– Lateral bracing for the compression flanges
– Fatigue

• The factored moment will be computed

• Section having that much design capacity will be initially
selected (Table 3-2, page 3-19)

 Normally, the deeper sections will have the lightest weights given the required
plastic moduli
 No limitation on obtaining the desired headroom
 The values from Table 3-2 are given about the horizontal axes for the beam in their
upright position
 Plastic modulus about y axis can be found in Table 3-4 ( W:10-30 % strength)

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 Beam Weight Estimates
• Beam design should include the weight of the beam:

– Method for estimating the beam weight:

1. Calculate the maximum factor bending moment Mu

2. Select a section from Table 3-2

3. The weight of that section or a little more can be used as the estimated
beam weight.

4. Finally, this estimated load can be added to the external dead load acting
on the beam.

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

• Example 9 :
• Select a beam section for the span and loading shown. Assume full lateral
support is provided for the compression flange by the floor slab above (Lb=0)
and Fy=50 ksi.
• Estimate beam weights:
W u not including beam weight:
=(1.2)(1.5)=1.8 k/ft
Pu = (1.6)(30)=48 k
Mu= [ (1.8)(30)2]/8 + [(48)(30) ]/4
=562.5 ft-k
From Table 3-2 a W24x62 has ΦbMpx =574 ft-k → Assume beam wt= 62 lb/ft
• Select beam section:
W u=(1.2)(1.5 + 0.062) = 1.874 k/ft
Pu = (1. 6)(30)=48 k
Mu= [ (1.874)(30)2]/8 + [(48)(30) ]/4 =570.8 ft-k
From Table 3-2 a W24x62 has ΦbMpx =574 ft-k > 570.8 ft-k OK

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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• Example 10
• The 5-in reinforced-concrete slab is to be supported with steel W sections 8 ft 0 in on centers.
The beams, which will span 20 ft, are assumed to be simply supported. If the concrete slab is
designed to support a live load of 100 psf, determine the lightest steel section required to
support the slab. The compression flange of the beam will be fully supported laterally by the
concrete slab. The concrete weights 150 lb/ft3.

Fy =50 ksi

• Calculation of Dead and live loads:

Estimate beam wt = 22 lb/ft
Slab wt = (5/12)(150)(8) = 500 lb/ft W D= 522 lb/ft W = (1.2)(522)+1.6(800)=1906 lb/ft
u
W L=(8)(100) = 800 lb/ft

Mu= ((1.906)(20)2)/8=95.3 ft-k

From AISC Table 3-2: Use W10x22→ ΦbMpx =97.5 ft-k > 95.3 ft-k OK

Lateral Support of the Beam

• Most beam are designed are used in such a manner that their compression flanges
are restrained against lateral buckling. These Types fall into ZONE 1
– The upper flanges of beam used to support building and bridges floors are often
incorporated in these concrete floors

• The compression flange of a beam without lateral support for some distance, will
have the similar behavior as a column.
– When the compression flange of a beam is long enough and slender enough, it may quite
possibly buckle, unless lateral support is provided.

• When the compression flange begin to buckle, the tension in the other flange of a
beam tends to keep that flanges straight and restrain the compression flange from
buckling; but as the bending moment is increased, the tendency of the compression
flange to buckle may become large enough to overcome the tensile restraint. When
the compression flange does begin to buckle, twisting or torsion will occur
– The W, S and channel shape do not have a great resistance to lateral buckling

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Lateral Support of the Beam
• Lateral support of the compression flange may be provided with connecting
beams or with special members inserted for that purpose, instead of floor slab.
• Depending on the spacing of the support the beam will fall into Zones 1,2 or 3.

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Introduction-Zone 2:Inelastic Buckling

• If intermediate lateral bracing is supplied for compression flange of a beam:
– Inelastic buckling can occur when the bracing is insufficient to permit the member to
develop and reach a full plastic strain distribution before buckling occurs.
– Yield strain is reached in some (but not all) of compression elements.

– Because of the presence of residual stress:

 Yielding will begin in a section
at applied stresses equal to:
 Fy – Fr = 0.7 Fy
 Fy is the yield stress
 Fr is the compressive residual stress

 Mr= (Fy – Fr) S= 0.7 FyS < My

• Mr: moment at first yield in the
presence of residual stresses

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• Example 11
• W 18x60, Fy= 50 ksi, assume Fr= 10 ksi. (Zx=123 in3, Sx=1083)
– My= 108(50)= 5400 in-k
– Mp= 123(50)= 6150 in-k
– Mr= 108(50-10)= 4320 in-k or Mr= 0.7 My = 3780 in-k

Mp=6150 in-k
Mr= 4320≈ 3780 (AISC) in-k

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Cb, Bending Coefficient

 The basic moment capacity equations for Zone 2 and 3 were developed for laterally unbraced
beams subjected to single curvature, with Cb = 1.0.
 The value of Cb = 1.0 is a conservative value.
 Frequently, beams are not bent in single curvature, with the result that they can resist more
moment, so larger Cb (>1) coefficient will be use that are to be multiplied by the computed Mn.

• Cb, called the lateral-torsional buckling modification factor

• Cb, is included in design formulas to account for the effect of different moment gradients on
lateral-torsional buckling

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

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 Cb, Bending Coefficient
• The use of Cb, is to take in the account the effect of following on lateral buckling:

– The end restraint of the member

– Loading conditions of the member

The upper flange is in compression for The length of the upper flange that
its entire length is in compression is much less
(shorter column)

Cb, Bending Coefficient

• The value of Cb for singly symmetric members in single curvature and all doubly
symmetric members is : (Commentary F1. for singly symmetric subjected to reverse curvature)

12.5Mmax
Cb =
2.5Mmax+3MA+4MB+3Mc

Mmax= absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment, kip-in

MA= absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment , kip-in
MB= absolute value of moment at centerline point of the unbraced segment , kip-in
Mc= absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced segment , kip-in

 For cantilevers or overhangs where the free end is unbraced, Cb=1.0

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 Cb, Bending Coefficient
 Moment capacity obtained by multiplying Mn by Cb may not be larger than the plastic
Mn of Zone 1(Mp)

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

12.5Mmax
• Example 12 Cb =
2.5Mmax+3MA+4MB+3Mc
• Determine Cb for the beam shown below. Assume the beam is a doubly symmetric
member.

3 3
32 32
96 96

L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

12.5(1/8) 12.5(1/12)
Cb = =1.14 Cb = = 2.38
2.5(1/8)+3(3/32)+4(1/8)+3(3/32) 2.5(1/12)+3(1/96)+4(1/24)+3(1/96)

Cb = 1.14 Cb = 2.38

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 Cb, Bending Coefficient

Table 3-1, page 3-18

• Sample Cb values for

doubly symmetric
members.

• The x marks represent

points of lateral
bracing of the
compression flange.

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Zone 2:Inelastic Buckling-Moment Capacities

• If the distance between points of torsional bracing is increased beyond Lp, the moment capacity
of the section will become smaller and smaller
• At an unbraced length Lr, the section will buckle elastically as soon as the yield stress is
reached. (Assume cb=1 and residual stress due to rolling operation for compact section)

– At Lb= Lp
• Mp= ZxFy

– At Lb= Lr
• Mr= Sx(Fy – Fr)

– For Lp < Lb< Lr (Zone 2)

• Buckling does not occur when the yield

stress is first reached
 The nominal moment strength will fall
approximately on a straight line between
two above equations-Interpolation
Lb-Lp
Mn = Cb [Mp – (Mp – 0.7 Fy Sx) L -L ] < Mp
r p

24
 Zone 2:Inelastic Buckling-Moment Capacities
• The nominal moment strength for unbraced lengths between Lp and Lr are:

Lb-Lp
Mn = Cb[Mp – (Mp – 0.7 Fy Sx) ] < Mp AISC Equation F2-2 page 16.1-47
Lr-Lp

Or

ΦbMn = Cb [ΦbMpx – ΦbBF (Lb-Lp) ] < ΦbMpx AISC Equation 3-4a page 3-9

BF : Bending factors

Table 3-2 page3-19

• Example 13
• Determine the LRFD design moment capacity of a W24x62 with Fy=50 ksi, Lb = 8.0
ft, and Cb=1.0

– Using a W24 x62 ( from AISC table 3-2: ΦbMpx =574 ft-k, ΦbMrx =344ft-k, Lp=
4.87 ft, Lr = 14.4 ft, ΦbBF = 24.1).

– Noting Lp < Lb< Lr : Zone 2

ΦbMnx = Cb [ΦbMpx – ΦbBF (Lb-Lp) ] < ΦbMpx

ΦbMnx = 1 [574– 24.1 (8.0 - 4.87) ] = 499 ft-k < 574 ft-k

ΦbMnx = 499 ft-k

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

25
 Zone 3: Elastic Buckling
• When the unbraced length of a beam is greater than Lr , the beam will fall in
Zone 3. Lb> Lr
– The section will buckle elastically before the yield stress is reached anywhere
in the section
– Member will fail due to buckling of the compression portion laterally about the
weaker axis, with twisting of the entire cross section about the beam’s
longitudinal axis between the point of lateral bracing.

– The critical moment, or flexural-torsional moment Mcr in a beam will be made up

of:
• Torsional resistance (St-venant torsion) of the section
• Warping resistance of the section

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Zone 3: Elastic Buckling- Moment Capacities

• I-Shape members:

Mn = FcrSx < Mp AISC Equation F2-3 page 16.1-47

Fcr =
Cbπ2 E
(Lb/rts)2
√ 1+ 0.078 SJch x 0
(Lb/rts)2

AISC Equation F2-4page 16.1-47

• rts= effective radius of gyration, in (provided in AISC Table 1-1)

• J = torsional constant, in4 (provided in AISC Table 1-1)
• c = 1.0 for doubly symmetric I-shapes
• h0= distance between flange centroids, in (provided in AISC Table 1-1)

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

26
• Example 14
• Determine The LRFD design moment capacity of a W18x97 with Fy=50 ksi,
Lb = 38.0 ft, and Cb=1.0.
– Using a W18 x97 (Lr = 30.4, rts =3.08 in, J= 5.86 in4, c= 1.0, Sx= 188in3,
h0 = 17.7 in, and Zx= 211in3).
– Noting Lb =38 ft > Lr =30.4 ft : Zone 3

Fcr =
Cbπ2 E
(Lb/rts)2
√ 1+ 0.078 SJch x 0
(Lb/rts)2

√
(1)π2 (29e3)
Fcr = (5.86)(1) (12x38/3.08)2
((12x38/3.08)2 1+ 0.078
(188)(17.7)
Fcr = 26.2 ksi

Mnx = FcrSx = (26.2)(188))/12 =410 ft-k < Mp=(50)(211)/12= 879 ft-k

ΦbMnx = (0.9)(410) =369 ft-k

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Good news:
Design Charts
• The value of ΦbMn for section normally
used as beams have been computed and
plotted for a wide range of unbraced
lengths, in Table 3-10 in the AISC
manual.
• Example 15
• Assume Cb=1, Fy = 50 ksi, Lb= 18 ft, Mu =
544 ft-k.
– AISC Table 3-10 (page 3-122)
• Any section to the right and above this
intersection point will have
– A greater unbraced length
– Greater design moment capacity
• Dash line:W16x89 & W 14x90
– Uneconomical range
• Solid line W24x84
– Lightest satisfactory section

• Solid circle:Lp
• Hollow circle: Lr
CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

27
• Example 16
• Using 50 ksi steel, select the lightest
available section for the beam.
Lateral bracing provided for its compression flange, only at its ends. Assume cb=1?
Using Chart:
W u = 1.2(1.0 k/ft) +1.6(2.0 k/ft)= 4.4 k/ft → Mu = [ (4.4 k/ft)(20ft)2]/8 = 220 ft-k
Enter AISC Table 3-10 with Lb=20 ft and Mu = 220 ft-k
Try W12x53
Add self weight of 53 lb/ft
Wu= 1.2(1.053 k/ft) +1.6(2.0 k/ft)= 4.46 k/ft → Mu = [ (4.46 k/ft)(20ft)2]/8 = 223 ft-k
Re-enter AISC Table 3-10 → Use W12x53
Finding ΦbMnx :
1) From Table 3-10: ΦbMnx= 230.5 ft-k > Mu = 223 ft-k
2)Using Equation: Using a W12 x53 ( from AISC table 3-2: ΦbMpx =292 ft-k,
ΦbMrx =185ft-k, Lp= 8.76 ft, Lr = 28.2 ft, BF = 5.5).→ Lp < Lb<Lr: Zone 2
ΦbMnx = Cb [ΦbMpx – BF (Lb-Lp) ] < ΦbMpx

ΦbMnx = 1 [292– 5.5 (20 – 8.76) ] = 230.18 ft-k < 292 ft-k
ΦbMnx = 230.18 ft-k > Mu = 223 ft-k
CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

• Example 17
• Using 50 Ksi steel, select the lightest section. Bracing is provided only at the ends
and center line of the member and thus Lb=17ft
• Using Table 3-1: Cb=1.67
(neglect self weight for Cb )
Pu= 1.2(30k) +1.6(40k) =100 k
Mu= [100 k (34 ft) ] /4= 850 ft-k

Enter AISC Table 3-10 with Lb=17ft and Mu efective = 850/1.67 = 509 ft-k:
Try W 24 X76 (from AISC table 3-2: ΦbMpx =750 ft-k)
ΦbMpx =750 ft-k < Mu= 850 ft-k N.G

Try W27 x84 (from AISC table 3-2: ΦbMpx =915 ft-k)
Add self weight of 84 ld/ft : W u = 1.2(0.084 k/ft)= 0.101 k/ft
Mu = [ (0.101 k/ft)(34ft)2]/8 + [100 k (34 ft) ] /4 =865ft-k < 915 ft- k OK

28
 Mu efective = 509 ft-k:

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures Lb=17ft

Compact/Noncompact/Slender Section
Non-slender member

• A compact section is a section that has sufficiently stocky profile so that it is

capable of developing a fully plastic stress distribution before buckling locally
(web or flange). λ < λp

• A noncomact section is one for which the yield stress can be reached in some,
but not all, of its compression elements before buckling occurs, it is not capable
of reaching a fully plastic stress distribution. λp <λ < λr

• A slender compression elements (flange of build up section): λ > λr

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

29
 Width-to-thickness Ratios: compression Elements Members
Subjected to Flexure
Table B4.1b page 16.1-17 p

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

30
 Compression Flange Local Buckling
• Almost all f the standard hot-rolled W,M,S and C shapes listed in AISC manual are
compact, and none of them fall into the slender classification. All of these shape
have compact webs, but few have noncompact flanges.
• Built-up section may very well be noncompact or slender.

• If we have a section with noncompact flanges (λp <λ < λr ) the value of Mn is given
by the equation as follow:

λ- λpf
Mn = Mp – (Mp – 0.7 FySx)
AISC Equation F3-1 page 16.1-49 λrf - λpf

• If we have a section with slender flanges (λ > λr ) the value of Mn is given by the
equation as follow:
0.9 EKcSx
Mn = AISC Equation F3-2 page 16.1-49

– Kc= 4 / √(h/tw)
λ2
CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

• Example 18
• Determine the LRFD flexural design stress for a 50 ksi W12x65 section which has full
lateral bracing.
• Using W12x65 (bf=12.00in, tf= 0.605, Sx=87.9in3, Zx=96.8in3)
– Is the flange noncompact?
λp= 0.38 √E/fy = 0.38 √29e3/50 =9.15
λr= 1 √E/fy = 1 √29e3/50 =24.08
λ= bf/2tf = 12.00/ (2)(0.605) =9.92
λp =9.15<λ =9.92< λr =24.08→ The flange is noncompact
• Calculate the nominal flexural stress.
• Mp= FyZ=(50)(96.8) = 4840 in-k

λ- λpf
Mn = Mp – (Mp – 0.7 FySx)
λrf - λpf
9.92- 9.15
Mn = 4848 – (4840 – 0.7 (50)(87.9)) =4794 in-k= 395.7ft-k
24.08- 9.15
• ΦbMn = 0.9(395.7)= 356 ft-k
• These values correspond to the values given in AISC Table 3-2.

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

31
 Design for Shear in Beams

Chapter G

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Shear
• Generally , Shear is not a problem in steel beams , because the webs of rolled
shapes are capable of resisting rather large shearing forces.

• Most common situation where shear might be excessive:

– Large concentrated loads be placed near beam support
• They cause large internal forces without corresponding increase in bending moments
– Very tall building, upper columns are offset with respect to the columns below

– Panel zone: (junction of columns and beams in rigid frame)

– Where beams are notched or coped

– Short beams

– Thin web are used

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

32
 Shear stress in the beam
• From basic mechanics: fv (τ ) = VQ / Ib where

– V is the external shear

– Q is the static moment of that portion of the section lying above or below the line of which fv
is desired, taken about the neutral axis
– b(t) is the width of the section where the unit shearing stress is desired
– I is moment of inertia for entire cross-section

• Variation in shear stress across the cross section:

• In I beam the shear is primarily resisted by the web

Assumption
• For design the following assumptions are made:

– The web carries the entire shear force

– The shear stress can be computed as the average value over the area of the web:

• τ Web Ave= V/ AWeb

• Shear limit state

– Shear yielding of web:
» Shear yielding occurs when the average web shear stress = 0.6 Fy
» V= 0.6 (Fy)(Aweb)

– Shear buckling of web:

» For slender webs (large h/tw), the web can buckle prior yielding

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

33
 The Nominal Shear Strength
• Shear Strength: Vn = 0.6 Fy AW Cv AISC Equation G2-1 page 16.1-69

– For webs of rolled I-shaped members with h/tw < 2.24 √E/fy (Almost all W, S and HP)
• Cv = 1 and Φv = 1

– For webs of all other doubly symmetric shapes and singly symmetric shapes and channels,
except round HSS, the web shear coefficient, Cv, is determined as follows: Φv = 0.9
Plastic shear failure
• When h/tw < 1.10 √ [(kvE)/Fy ] ⇒ Cv = 1

Inelastic shear failure

• When 1.10 √ [(kvE)/Fy ] < h/tw <1.37 √ [(kvE)/Fy] ⇒Cv = (1.10 √ [(kvE)/Fy ] )/(h/tw)
Elastic shear failure
• When h/tw >1.37 √ [(kvE)/Fy ] ⇒ Cv = (1.51 kvE) / (h/tw )2 Fy

– For webs without transverse stiffeners and with h/tw < 260: The web plate shear buckling coefficient Kv =5
(AISC SpecifivationG2.1b)

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Notes on Shear
• The values of ΦvVnx with Fy=50 ksi are given for W shape in the Table 3-2 of manual

• Aw : Area of the web is the overall depth times the web thickness, dtw, in2

• h:
– For rolled shapes, is the clear distance between flanges less than the fillet (the distance between the
web toes of the fillets)
– For built-up welded section is the clear distance between flanges, in.

• K: Two values are given in manual. Use the one in decimal for design calculation

• In some cases instead of select heavier section to satisfy shear strength, doubler plates may
be welded.

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

34
• Example 19
• A W21 x55 with Fy = 50 ksi
is used for the beam and
loads as shown. Check the
shear adequacy.

W u = 1.2(2) +1.6(4) = 8.8 k/ft

Vu= 8.8 k/ft (20ft)/2 =88 k
 Using W21x 55 (A =16.2 in2, d =20.8 in, tw = 0.375 in, and Kdes= 1.02 in)
h= d -2 k= 20.8 – (2)(1.02) = 18.76 in
h/ tw = 18.76/0.375 = 50.03 < 2.24 √29e3/50 = 53.95 → Cv = 1 and Φv = 1 h/tw < 2.24 √E/fy
Aw= d tw = (20.8 in )(0.375in) = 7.80 in2
• Vn= 0.6 Fy Aw Cv = 0.6 (50 ksi)(7.80 in2)(1.0) = 234 k
• ΦvVn= (1.00)(234) =234 k > Vu =88 k OK

 Table 3-2: ΦvVn = 234 k > Vu =88 k OK

• Table 3-6 in manual is provided for determining the maximum uniformed load each W shape can support for various spans. The
values are for 50 ksi steel, and are controlled by maximum moments or shears
 Table 3-6: W21 x55 → W max =189 k > W u =8.8x20=176 k OK

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Deflections in Beams

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

35
 Deflections
• Reasons for defection limitation :
– Excessive deflections may damage other material attached to or supported by the beam.
(plaster cracks by large ceiling joist deflections)
– The appearance of structures is often damaged by excessive deflections.
– Although the structure may be safe from strength stand point, extreme deflections do not
inspire confidence in person using a structure.
• The deflections of steel beams are usually limited to certain values:
– EX: Service live-load deflection to 1/360 span length

The AISC does not specify

exact maximum permissible
deflections.

There are so many different

materials, type of structures,
and loading that no single
set of deflection limitation is
acceptable for all cases.

Limitations must be set by

designer on the basis of
her/his experience and
CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures judgment

Deflection Equation
• Several Methods provide deflection equation for a certain loading condition
based on:
– Moment area method
– Virtual work procedures
• For the center line deflection of a uniformly loaded simple beam:
– ∆= 5 WL4/ 384 EI
Consistent unit

• On page 3-7 in the AISC manual, the following simple formula for
determining maximum beam deflections for W, M, HP, S, C, and MC
sections for several different loading conditions is presented:
– ∆= M(service)L2/ C1 Ix
Deflection determined for service loads not factored load

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

36
• Example 20

• A W24x55 (Ix= 1350 in4) has been selected for a 21-ft simple beam span to support a
total service live load of 3 k/ft (including beam weight). Check the deflection? E=
29X106 lb/in2

• 1) ∆= 5 WL4/ 384 EI = (5)(3000/12)(12x21)4 / (384)(29X106)(1350)=0.335 in

< (L/360) = (1/360)(12x21) =0.70 in

• 2) M= WL2/8= (3)(21)2/8= 165.375 ft-k

∆= M(service)L2/ C1 Ix = (165.375) (21)2 / (161)(1350) = 0.3636 in
< (L/360) = (1/360)(12x21) =0.70 in

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

• Example 21
• Select the lightest available section with Fy=50 ksi to support a service dead load of
1.2 k/ft and a service live load of a 3 k/ft for a 30-ft simple span. The section have full
lateral bracing for its compression flange, and the maximum total service load
deflection is not to exceed 1/1500 the span length.

– Estimate beam Wt= 167lb/ft

– W u= 1.2(1.2+ 0.167) +(1.6)(3) = 6.44 k/ft
– Mu= (6.44 k/ft)(30 ft)2 / 8 = 724.5 ft-k

– From AISC Table 3-2, try W 24x76 (Ix=2100 in4)

– Actual ∆= ML2/ C1 Ix
Mservice= (1.2+0.167+3k/ft)(30ft) 2/ 8 =491.6 ft-k
∆= (491.6)(30)2 / (161)(2100) =1.31 in
> Maximum permissible ∆= (1/1500)(12x30) =0.24 in N.G

Deflections may very well control the size of the beam for longer spans, Table 3-3 is going to useful (Ix)
Min Ix required to limit ∆ to 0.24 in= (1.31/0.24) (2100) = 11,463 in4
From AISC Table 3-3 ⇒ Use W40 x 167 (Ix=11600 in4)

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

37
 Review: Beam Mu ≤ ΦMn
 Determining the bending moments, Mu
 Using elastic analysis (For statically determinate) CEE 200
 Moment Diagram

Mu
 Using plastic analysis (For statically indeterminate/Collapse mechanism) Wext = Wint → Mn/u = (?)Wn

 Compute the nominal flexural strength, Mn, for the beam.

Max moment that beam can sustain without a flexural failure
 First find Lb find
 Zone 1
 Zone 2
 Zone 3

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

Φ bMn= Φ bFy Z (Φ
Φ b= 0.9)
Table 3-2 page3-19
Mp=Fy . Z
12.5Mmax
Cb = or Table 3-1 Residual Stress
2.5Mmax+3MA+4MB+3Mc My= Fy . S ⇒ Mr= 0.7 Fy . S
Φ bMnx = Cb [Φ
Φ bMpx – BF (Lb-Lp) ] < Φ bMpx
Table 3-2 page3-19 Mn = FcrSx < Mp

Fcr =
Cbπ2 E
(Lb/rts)2
√ 1+ 0.078
Jc
Sxh0
(Lb/rts)2

Plastic analysis =1.76 ry√ E/Fy

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

38
 Design Charts
 Determine Lb
 Determine Mu
 Mu < Φ Mn
 Right and above sections
 If using Cb always check always
 Cb Φ Mn < Φ Mp

CEE 451 Design of Metal Structures

39