8.

64 Viscometers—Industrial AR

C. H. KIM (1969, 1982) B. G. LIPTÁK (1995) J. E. JAMISON (2003) AIT

AE
VISC
Flow Sheet Symbol

Types: A. Capillary
A1. Differential pressure
A2. Backpressure
B. Falling element
B1. Falling ball
B2. Falling piston
B3. Falling needle
C. Float in variable-area flow meter
C1. Single-float
C2. Two-float
C3. Concentric
D. Oscillating element
D1. Oscillating blade
D2. Oscillating piston
D3. Torsional oscillating element
E. Plastometers
E1. Cone and plate
E2. Kneader
E3. Capillary extrusion
F. Rotational element
F1. Rotating cone
F2. Agitation power
F3. Double cylinder
G. Vibrating
G1. Reed
G2. Ultrasonic
G3. Rod
H. Coriolis mass flow meter
H1. Measuring tube torsional movement

Design Pressures, See Orientation Table 8.64a

Temperatures, Viscosity
Ranges, Errors:

Materials of Construction: A, B. Hardened stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant metals

C. Same choices as for variable-area flow meters
D1. Wetted parts, stainless steel; sealing ring, silicone rubber
®
D2. Stainless steel and Teflon
D3. E, F. Hardened stainless steel
G, H. Wide selection of corrosion-resistant materials and coatings

Speed of Response: A. From 1 sec to about 5 min

B2. Cycle time from 30 sec to 3 min
C, E, F, H. A few seconds
D1. Strokes every 2 sec, readings averaged over an adjustable number of strokes
D2. About 30 sec
H. Less than 1 sec

1723
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
1724 Analytical Instrumentation

Costs: A1. Balanced dual-capillary element without d/p transmitter for fuel oil service, $3000
to $4000
B1. Falling ball viscometer, from $7000 to $16,000; high-pressure design with digital
readout of ball roll time corrected for density, $23,000
B2. From $2500 to $8000; a driven-piston element, $4000
C1 and C2. Two-float indicators with brass or stainless steel fittings in sizes from 0.5
to 1.5 in. (12 to 38 mm), from $1500 to $3000
C3. 1.5-in. (38-mm) transmitter in stainless steel with 300 PSIG flanges, $8000
D2. Sensor with explosion-proof transmitter, $6000 to $8000
D3. Microprocessor-based temperature-compensated transmitter, $15,000
E. $10,000 to $60,000, depending on features and on degree of automation
F1. Variable-speed microprocessor-based units from $15,000 to $25,000
G. $3000 to $5000, depending materials of construction and transmitter features
H. $400 to $20,000, depending on line size for the in-line treatment

Partial List of Suppliers: Automation Products (G) (www.dynatrolusa.com)

Benz Co. Inc., Edwin H. (B1), (www.benztesters.com)
Bohlin Rheologi (E) (www.bohlinusa.com)
C. W. Brabender Instruments Inc. (E, F1) (www.cwbrabender.com)
Brookfield Engineering Laboratories Inc. (F1) (www.brookfieldengineering.com)
BTG Inc. (D1, F3) (www.btghome.com)
Cambridge Applied Systems Inc. (D2) (www.cambridge-applied.com)
CB Engineering Ltd.(www.cbeng.com)
Conameter Corp. (A1); Dynatrol Viscosity Systems (G3) (www.dynatrolusa.com)
Endress + Hauser (H) (www.endress.com)
Extech Instruments (B2) (www.extech.com)
Fischer & Porter, a Unit of ABB Inc. (C1, C2, C3) (www.abb.com/us)
Gam Rad West Inc. (B1, E) (1-800-321-8452)
Nametre Co. (D3, F1) (www.nametre.com)
Norcross Corp. (B2) (www.viscosity.com)
Petroleum Analyzer Co. (PAC) (A, B2) (www.petroleum-analyzer.com)
Ruska Instrument Corp. (B1) (www.ruska.com)
Solartron Mobrey (G1) (www.solartronusa.com)
Stony Brook Scientific Ltd. (B3) (www.stonybrooksci.com)
Techne Inc. (E3) (www.techneusa.com).

INTRODUCTION
This section covers viscometers that can be installed in a tank
or pipe in an industrial environment. The portable and bench-
top laboratory viscometers are discussed in the previous sec-
tion. The distinction between the two groups is not a sharp
one, and some of the rotary, capillary, cone-and-plate, and
piston designs are actually used in both services.
In this section, centipoise (cP) and centistokes (cSt) are
the viscosity units used. For conversion between these
and others, refer to Tables 8.62d, 8.62e, A.2p, A.2q, and A.2r.
A summary of industrial viscometer features and capa-
bilities is given in the Orientation Table 8.64a. In the follow-
ing paragraphs, the various viscometer designs are discussed
in the same order as listed in the Orientation Table.
CAPILLARY VISCOMETERS
Continuous capillary viscometers are successfully used in oil
refineries to control various products such as fuel oils,
hydraulic oils, lubricating oils, fuels, and various grades of
asphalts. They are also used in fuel oil viscosity control to
optimize atomization in the power industry.
As shown in Equation 8.62(2), the pressure drop under
viscous flow conditions is linearly proportional to viscosity.
Therefore, at constant flow rate, the pressure drop in a cap-
illary can be used as a measure of viscosity.
Sensor for Newtonian Fluids
Newton’s hypothesis assumed that the viscosity of a fluid is
independent of the rate of shear or of the shearing force of
deformation, as long as the flowing temperature and pressure
are fixed. Fluids that behave in this manner are called
newtonian. Based on Poiseuille’s law [Equation 8.62(2)] and
Newton’s hypothesis, we can observe that, if the flow rate
through a fixed capillary tube is held constant, the absolute
viscosity of the flowing liquid will be a linear function of
the capillary pressure drop.
Continuous capillary viscometers are primarily designed
to measure the viscosity of newtonian liquids. Because d/p
transmitters are used to measure the viscosity, they are also
readily adaptable to the automatic control of processes.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 TABLE 8.64a
Orientation Table for Industrial Viscometers

Provides Continuous Signal

(2) Based on Measurement

Features

Remote Readout Trans.

(1) Based on Full Scale

Temp. Compensation

[°C = (°F −32)/1.8]

Fluids

Laboratory Device

(1 Bar = 14.2 PSI)

Size or Flow Rate

Maximum Design

Minimum Sample
Maximum design

Inaccuracy (±%)
Temperature, °F
Non-Newtonian

Pressure, PSIG
Local Readout
In-line Device Applicable Viscosity Ranges

Newtonian
in Centipoise

Gas
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Type of Design 10 10 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Continuous Differential





670 900 1–2(1) 1–4 GPH

capillary pressure
Back pressure





500 210 1.0(1) 1 GPH
Coriolis Torsional






1,440 302 5.0(2) —
or ± 0.5 cP
Falling element Ball or slug






300 350 1.0(1) —
Piston






500 650 1.0(1) —
Needle






2000 662 1.0(1) —
Float Single float






650 450 4.0(2) 0.75–2 GPM
Two-float







300 450 2–4(2) 0.25–2.5 GPM
Concentric




650 450 2–4(2) 2 GPM
Oscillating Blade





375 150 1.0(1) Up to 6.5 fps (2 m/s)
Piston







10,000 700 1.0(2)
Torsional







5,000 850 2.0(2)

8.64 Viscometers—Industrial
Plastometer Cone and plate



100 400 0.5(1) 25 CC Arbitrary Mooney 0–200 Points
Kneader





ATM. 570 1.0(1) 80 CC Units %Scale 0–1,000 Division
Capillary





5,000 570 2.0(1) 0.6 #/HR Are Used MI & CIL 0–200 & 0–100
Rotational Cone disc sphere







1,000 650 1.0(1) —
Agitator power





125 200 ~5.0(1) —
Double cylinder




2465 572 1.0(1) —
Vibrational Reed







3,000 392 1.0(1) —
Rod






1,485 500 1.0(1) —
Normal Range. With Special Modifications.

1725
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
1726 Analytical Instrumentation

In most capillary-type viscometers, the temperature effect SAMPLE PNEUMATIC OR

SWEEPSTREAM ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
on the measurement is eliminated not by temperature com- TO A RECEIVER
CONSTANT DIFFERENTIAL
pensation but by temperature controls. This is done by a STRAINER SPEED PRESSURE
thermostatic device that keeps the sample at a constant ref- MOTOR TRANSMITTER SAMPLE OUTLET

erence temperature as it enters the capillary tube.

This type of viscometer can measure viscosities up to CONSTANT
HEAT
15,000 poise (1500 Pa⋅s) and can operate at temperatures EXCHANGER
TEMPERATURE
BATH
CAPILLARY

up to 900°F (480°C). The viscosity span of this sensor is a

FILTER
function of the bore and the length of the capillary. To minimize
METERING
the end effects (the nozzle effect at the tip of the capillary), PUMP
the use of large-diameter bores and long capillary tubes is TEMPERATURE HEAT
EXCHANGER
recommended. CONTROLLER

RELIEF
VALVE
Limitations

Although this type of continuous viscometer is simple enough FIG. 8.64b

Schematic flow diagram of a differential-pressure-type continuous
to be field fabricated (rather than purchased), one of its chief
capillary viscometer.
disadvantages is that, for accurate and reliable measurements,
the capillary tube must be kept absolutely clean. But fouling
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
is likely to occur, because the capillary tube diameter is very TRANSDUCER
PNEUMATIC OR
FLOW ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
small—usually in the range of 0.05 to 0.2 in. (1.25 to 5 mm). CONTROLLER SAMPLE RETURN LINE TO RECEIVER
Because the sample flow rates must be low, this require- P1
ment limits the continuous capillary viscometer to by-pass P1 P1
installations, where the goal is to automatically control the T1

processes with minimal time lag. MAIN LINE

Other potential error sources include (1) fluctuating flow
rates through the capillary tube, (2) a dirty or plugged cap-
illary, (3) leakage in the viscometer, (4) incorrectly set or
drifting transducer zero and span, (5) fluctuating fluid pres-
sure, (6) insufficient sample supply pressure, and (7) fluid
temperature fluctuations due to thermostat malfunctions or
to variation in sample supply temperature.
Calibration
The continuous capillary viscometer can be calibrated using
the following equations:
6 µVL
d=4 8.64(1)
∆P × 10 9
∆Pd 4 × 10 9
µ= 8.64(2)
6VL
Equation 8.64(1) is used to calculate the diameter of the
capillary tube when the viscosity of the process fluid is
known. Equation 8.64(2) is used to prepare the calibration
curve of viscosity versus pressure drop using several fluids
of known viscosity. Such a calibration should produce a
straight line that goes through the zero point of the viscosity
and pressure drop coordinates.
There are basically two types of viscometers that utilize
the continuous capillary principle. One type measures the
pressure drop across the capillary tube, and the other mea-
sures the upstream pressure as the sample flows through the
capillary tube.
FLOW IN FLOW OUT
CAPILLARY METERING PIPE
FIG. 8.64c
Schematic diagram of an in-line, differential-pressure-type contin-
uous capillary viscometer.
Differential Pressure Type
Figure 8.64b is a schematic flow diagram of a differential
pressure viscometer, which requires a bypass installation. An
external strainer is provided to remove any solids from the
sample before it enters the viscometer. A constant sample flow
rate (at about 1 GPH or 3.8 l/h) is maintained by a precision
metering pump, which is driven by a synchronous motor.
Two heat exchangers, before and after the metering pump,
are used to keep the sample fluid in thermal equilibrium with
the thermostatic bath. A relief valve protects against damage
caused by excessive pressures that may occur in a blocked
capillary.
The pressure drop across the capillary is measured with
a differential pressure transducer, which is connected to the
inlet and outlet sides of the capillary. The d/p transmitter
output is a linear indication of the process viscosity and is
used for indicating, recording, or controlling the process.
This type of viscometer can measure viscosities up to
2500 cP (2.5 Pa⋅s) and can operate at temperatures up to
240°F (116°C). If high-pressure capillaries and high-pressure
metering pumps are used, the viscosity measurement can go
up to 15,000 P (1,500 Pa⋅s) and the line pressures can reach
670 PSIG at 900°F (4.6 MPa at 480°C).

© 2003 by Béla Lipták


VIC
DP
VT TRANSMITTER
OIL TO FUEL
PUMPS OR BURNERS
STEAM VISCOMETER
CONTROL
VALVE
HOUSING
OIL FUEL
STEAM PREHEATER OUTLET
SUPPLY OIL
FUEL
INLET
FIG. 8.64d
Balanced dual-capillary viscometer used to control oil viscosity, which guarantees proper atomization and therefore improved combustion
efficiency. (Courtesy of Conameter Corp.)
The range and span of the d/p transmitter determine the
range of a single capillary tube. Overall inaccuracy is about
±1% of full scale, with repeatability being about the same.
The average response time is about 2 min (0.6-min time
constant), but it varies with the length of the sample loop.
In-Line Design To reduce the response time of the viscometer
to less than 1 sec, the capillary tube can be inserted into the
main process stream, and sample flow rate can be increased to
about 4 GPH (15.2 l/h), as shown in Figure 8.64c. In this design,
the constant flow rate through the capillary tube is maintained
by a pressure-regulated, diaphragm-type flow controller.
The error in this measurement is higher than with the
external sampling design, and inaccuracy is about ±2.0% of
full scale when measuring viscosity in the range of 5 to 30
−6 −6
cSt (5 × 10 to 30 × 10 Pa⋅s).
One advantage of this design is its increased speed of
response. Another advantage is that, because the viscosity mea-
surements are made at the process stream temperature, this
viscometer can be used as a viscosity controller that main-
tains constant fluid viscosity by adjusting temperature. Such
applications include controlling fuel oil viscosity to main-
taining optimal atomization patterns in industrial furnaces,
heating plants, steam power stations, and marine boilers.
Dual-Capillary Design Figure 8.64d illustrates a dual-capillary
viscometer that is used for controlling the viscosity of fuel
oil to boilers and other burners. The dual-capillary design is
superior to the single-capillary units, because it is unaffected
by variations in fuel line pressure.
Dual-capillary viscometers are installed because keeping
the viscosity constant guarantees consistent atomization of
the fuel, which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency. In
this viscometer, a gear pump, which is inserted into the fuel
oil pipe, takes a constant flow-rate sample of the oil and
discharges it continuously back into the oil stream. As the
flow rate is constant, the difference between pump suction
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1727
GEAR PUMP
DISCHARGE SIDE
OF GEAR PUMP
+
CONNECTIONS TO THE
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
TRANSMITTERS
−
EQUAL CAPILLARY SUCTION SIDE
TUBES OF GEAR PUMP
FUEL
INLET
REPEATER DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
TO CONTROLLER
FIG. 8.64e
Differential pressure measurement, using extended diaphragm sen-
sors across any section of process pipe to detect viscosity.
and discharge pressures is a linear function of viscosity. This
pressure difference is measured by a d/p cell and is kept
constant by adjusting the heat input into the oil preheater.
This in-line viscometer is provided with 2-in. (50-mm)
DIN flanges, and the flow through it can be up to 100 GPM
(380 l/m). The fuel oil pressure can be up to 500 PSIG (35 barg),
and the temperature can be up to 300°F (149°C). The differ-
ential pressure range of the d/p cell is 0 to 150 in. (0 to 3.8 m)
of water, which in units of viscosity can correspond to 0 to
300 SUS, 0 to 200 Redwood 1, or 0 to 6° Engler.
Pipe Section as Viscometer If the flow is constant or is mea-
sured, and therefore it is possible to compensate for the varia-
tions in flow rate, the pressure drop through any pipe section
in the plant (Figure 8.64e) can be used to detect viscosity. As
long as the inner walls of the pipe section are clean, and as long
as the temperature and flow variations are compensated for, the
detected pressure drop will be linearly proportional to viscosity.
Backpressure Type
The operation of this viscometer is quite similar to the differ-
ential pressure type except that it measures only the upstream
pressure to a capillary tube that discharges to the atmosphere
or returns the sample to a pressure-regulated process line.
1728 Analytical Instrumentation

PROCESS LINE OR VESSEL

SAMPLE
The backpressure-type viscometer can measure viscosi-
−6 −4
T1
OUTLET ties within the range of 5 to 500 cSt (5 × 10 to 5 × 10
Pa⋅s) at temperatures up to 210°F (99°C). Its overall inaccu-
HEATING
CAPILLARY racy and repeatability are ±1% of full scale, and its response
COIL TO
RECEIVER
time is 3 to 6 min.
P1

PCV
PIT
PCV
SAMPLE POV
RETURN
FIG. 8.64f
Schematic system diagram of a backpressure-type continuous cap-
illary viscometer.
As shown in Figure 8.64f, the sample fluid is continuously
fed to the instrument from the process line or from a vessel.
The sample temperature is maintained by flowing through a
heat exchanger, which is immersed in a constant-temperature
bath. The sample then passes through a pressure regulator
followed by a flow controller. Under these conditions of
constant flow rate and constant temperature, the sample pres-
sure at the entrance to the measuring capillary tube is linearly
proportional to the viscosity of the liquid.
The inlet pressure to the capillary is sensed by a strain
gauge. The strain gauge signal is converted to the desired
units of viscosity and is transmitted to indicate, record, or
control the process viscosity. Because this viscometer mea-
sures only the inlet pressure to the capillary tube, it is
extremely important to maintain the outlet side at constant
pressure by discharging the capillary to atmosphere or to a
pressure-regulated vessel or pipeline.
FALLING-PISTON VISCOMETER
The falling-piston viscometer has been used in paper sizing,
printing, coating, polymerization, starch conversion, textile siz-
ing, and blending process applications. The working principle
of the falling-piston viscometer is quite similar to the falling-
ball viscometer, discussed in the previous section in connection
with Figure 8.63n. Because of its excellent reproducibility, the
falling piston viscometer can be used for the measurement of
the viscosity of both newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
The measuring element consists of a piston inside a mea-
suring tube as shown in Figure 8.64g. The measuring element
can be installed in a tank (open or closed) or in a liquid-filled
pipeline, as long as the measuring tube is completely
immersed in the fluid.
During the filling phase, the piston, which is resting at
the bottom of the tube, is automatically raised by an air lifting
mechanism or by a motor-cam mechanism. As the piston is
raised, a sample of the liquid is drawn in through the openings
in the sides of the tube and fills the measuring tube as the
piston is withdrawn.
Process Pressure-Operated Design
In some in-line units, the piston can be raised by the process
fluid itself. In such designs, the measuring tube is filled

ATTACHED TO LIFTING
MECHANISM

MAGNET

PROXIMITY SWITCH

SWITCH HOUSING

PISTON ROD

LIQUID LEVEL

TUBE OPENING

MEASURING TUBE

PISTON

FIG. 8.64g
The falling-piston viscometer.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1729

through an opening at the bottom of the tube, and the filling
and measuring cycles are controlled by the periodic opening
and closing of a valve. The pressure drop across the measur-
ing tube is about 5 PSI (35 kPa).
During the measuring phase, the piston assembly is allowed
to fall by gravity, expelling the sample out of the tube through
the same route that it entered. The time of fall is a measure
of viscosity, using the clearance between the piston and the
inside wall of the measuring tube as the measuring orifice. The
timed interval is then displayed on an indicator or recorded.
For process control or for high-low alarm purposes, the inter-
mittent time signal is converted to a continuous signal by a
simple clutch mechanism or by a sling-wire mechanism that
is linked to the recorder pen.
When high-viscosity materials are to be detected, and it
is desired to make the measurement within a reasonable
cycle, a two-way air cylinder is used to lift and force down
the piston. This design also accommodates the use of any
mounting position that is desired.
6 −
The viscosity range of this sensor is from 0.1 to 10 cP (10
4 3
to 10 Pa⋅s). Each piston has a 100:1 range. The inaccuracy
of this viscometer is 1% of full scale, and the reproducibility
and sensitivity are 0.25% and 0.1% of full scale, respectively.
Because the cycle frequency of the measurement is from
once every two minutes up to two cycles per minute, it is
applicable to both batch and continuous process applications,
with or without automatic process-control capabilities. Pres-
sure and temperature ratings of the standard in-line unit are
from full vacuum to 300 PSIG (2 MPa) and for up to 650°F
(340°C). A special high-pressure unit is available for operat-
ing pressures up to 500 PSIG (3.5 MPa).
Precautions
As in the case of all other viscometers, operating temperature
and pressure should be specified and kept constant when
using this sensor. The error caused by small variations in the
process fluid temperature can be substantial, so the use of either
a temperature-controlled sampling system or a temperature-
compensated design should be used. Naturally, if compensa-
tion is the choice, the viscosity vs. temperature relationship
must be accurately known.
Because this viscometer operates in a batch manner, it
4. The measuring unit should be cleaned at regular
intervals—frequency depends on the rate of material
buildup.
5. An in-line filter should be used to remove any larger
sized solids or foreign materials. The maximum allow-
able size of solids remaining should be small enough
that they will not interfere with the measurement.
6. Sensitivity requirements should be known for blending
process applications.
7. Do not use this viscometer if the process liquids have
poor flow characteristics.
8. Erratic readings may result if this detector is subjected
to severe vibration.
Falling-Slug or Falling-Ball Viscometers
This instrument automatically measures the time required for
a cylindrical slug of a specific density to fall a given distance
in a vertical tube, which is filled with the process liquid at a
constant temperature.
As shown in Figure 8.64h, this viscometer operates by
the sample pump first purging the system of the previous
sample and then introducing a fresh one. Two separate ther-
mostats control the purge and recirculation cycles by chang-
ing the direction of flow through a three-way valve.
In the recirculation phase, the sample pump flow raises
the slug to the top of the fall tube. When the sample temper-
ature has stabilized and matches the thermostat set point, the
pump and the sample flow stops, thereby permitting the slug
to fall. As it does, it actuates two magnetic switches that are
attached to the side of the fall tube.
The first switch starts the recorder motor. When the slug
sinks to and actuates the second magnetic switch, located at
an adjustable distance (1 to 20 in., or 25 to 500 mm) below
the first, this switch stops the recorder motor. The resultant
time measurement is directly proportional to the viscosity of
the sample. Actuation of the lower switch also initiates the
system purge phase.
PROCESS
STREAM
PROCESS
STREAM
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
M M
WELL WELL

should not be used where fast (less than one minute) response
OUTLET THREE-WAY THREE-WAY
time is required. Where a sampling loop is used, the rate of VALVE VALVE
MAGNETIC MAGNETIC
sample pumping should be set to minimize the lag time. To SWITCH SWITCH
FO
obtain reasonable reproducibility, the following should be FALL FO
FALL
TUBE TUBE
observed: MAGNETIC MAGNETIC
SWITCH SWITCH

INLET
1. Avoid any vapor entrainment in the sample liquid GEAR TYPE INLET GEAR TYPE
SAMPLE PUMP SAMPLE PUMP
caused by agitation or boiling.
PURGE PHASE RECIRCULATION PHASE
2. Avoid turbulence.
3. Calibrate the instrument regularly to correct for mea- FIG. 8.64h
surement drift caused by gradual material buildup or The purge and the recirculating (measuring) cycle of the falling-
for wear of the piston and tube. slug viscometer.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

1730 Analytical Instrumentation
The viscosity range of this detector is 10 to 1,000,000
3
cP (0.01 to 10 Pa⋅s). The specific ranges for particular appli-
cations are field selectable by adjusting the distance between
the two magnetic switches on the fall tube. Full scale indi-
cation can be selected from 10 to 250 sec in five steps. The
inaccuracy and the reproducibility of this viscometer are both
about ±1% full scale, depending on the precision of the
thermostat and of the recorder. Errors caused by small vari-
ations in the process fluid temperature can be substantial.
The viscometer is designed to operate at temperatures up
to 300°F (150°C) and at pressures up to 200 PSIG (1.4 MPa).
This detector is suited for continuous viscosity measurement
applications in which it is sufficient to make a reading once
every 3 min. The falling-slug viscometer is recommended for
use only on clean process fluids that are not shear sensitive.
FLOAT VISCOMETERS
The float viscometer has been successfully used to maximize
combustion efficiency by controlling the viscosity of fuel oils
in marine and stationery boilers. Other areas of application
have been in measuring the viscosity of cement slurry, starch,
glue, and petroleum products (motor oils).
These viscometers are used both industrially and in the pilot
plant to measure the viscosity of process fluids and to contin-
uously indicate, record, or control the process. This type of
viscometer is used in a closed-flow system. The operating prin-
ciple is similar to that of the variable area flow meter (Section
2.27), where the viscous drag force on a float is proportional
to the orifice opening required (between float and tapered tube)
to move the fluid through that orifice at a constant flow rate.
In a rotameter-type flow meter, the forces acting on the
float are affected by the flow rate, by the float and liquid
specific gravity, and by the viscosity of the fluid being
metered. For flow metering applications, the floats are
designed so that the viscous drag area is relatively small, so
the float is relatively insensitive to viscosity while being
sensitive to flow rate and density changes.
In the viscometer version of this design, the flow rate
through the variable area meter is held constant. Therefore,
if the position of the float changes, that change is an indica-
tion of a change in fluid viscosity and density or in kinematic
viscosity. To increase its sensitivity, the viscometer float is
designed with a large viscous drag area. To obtain accurate
viscosity measurements with float-type viscometers, the flow
rate must be constant. Because this required flow control can
be obtained in three different ways, there are three different
designs: single-float, two-float, and concentric.
Precautions
When using float type viscometers, the following recommen-
dations should be observed:
1. The float viscometer must be installed vertically, with
the outlet at the top.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
2. The instrument should be installed in a vibration-free
location.
3. The process fluid temperature should be carefully
controlled, or temperature compensation should be
employed. If no automatic compensation is provided,
viscosity vs. temperature curves should be available
for use by operating personnel.
4. The flow rate and the pressure of the process fluid
should both be constant and smooth, pulsating meter-
ing pumps should not be used.
5. The process fluid should be free of foreign material
to prevent plugging of the small orifice (0.1 in., or
2.5 mm, dia. min.) inside the viscometer. The use of
in-line filters is recommended to remove all foreign
materials.
6. Install the viscometer in a bypass line to permit the
flushing of the main pipeline and to facilitate viscom-
eter maintenance and service.
7. Make certain that the specified operating conditions
are not exceeded.
8. The viscometer should be periodically recalibrated
using a known viscosity fluid. At the time of calibra-
tion, the tube and float should also be cleaned.
9. The sample fluid flow rate through the instrument
should be sufficient to give good speed of response
and sensitivity, but the rate of flow should not cause
turbulence within the viscometer, which would result
in erratic readings.
10. All air and vapor entrainment should be removed
from the sample liquid.
11. When the process temperature is other than ambient,
make sure the viscometer is insulated or stream traced,
as required.
Single-Float Design
The single-float viscometer is a continuous and direct reading
viscosity instrument. As illustrated in Figure 8.64i, a positive
displacement pump (other flow control devices can also be used)
provides the constant sample flow rate through the instrument.
THERMOMETER
MAIN LINE
THERMOMETER
FLOAT
SINGLE FLOAT
VISCOMETER
PRECISION
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
METERING PUMP
FIG. 8.64i
Typical piping arrangement of a single-float viscometer.

The recommended flow rate is between 0.75 and 2.0 GPM
(2.9 and 7.6 l/m). Automatic temperature compensation is
not available for this type of direct reading viscometer. If a
metering pump is used to generate the constant flow rate, the
temperature rise through the pump should be measured and
corrected for by the use of a viscosity vs. temperature curve.
The single-float viscometer is also available as a transmit-
ter that is used when remote displays or controls are required.
In this case, the float position is detected by the use of an
armature attached to the float extension rod with a magnetic
sensing device around its outer periphery.
The glass tube viscometer is rated for 450°F (232°C)
temperature and for 90 PSIG (621 kPa) pressure. With steel-
tube viscometers, the pressure rating depends on the operat-
ing temperature, such as a unit for 650 PSIG service at 450°F
(4.5 MPa at 232°C).
The single-float viscometer can be used to measure the
viscosity of non-Newtonian fluids at less that 400 cP (0.4 Pa·s)
and can handle newtonian fluids up to 10,000 cP (10 Pa⋅s).
The rangeability of this viscometer is between 3:1 and 6:1.
The inaccuracy of this sensor is ±4% of actual indication,
and the reproducibility is ±4% of indication.
Two-Float Design
This is a relatively low-cost viscometer designed to provide
intermittent viscosity measurement in the laboratory, on the
test bench, or in industry. It is only for local indication, not
for transmission.
The design incorporates two floats. The upper float is
sensitive to fluid flow rate, and the lower is sensitive to
viscosity. When making a measurement, the fluid flow rate
is first manually adjusted to a constant value as indicated by
the position of the upper float. Under such conditions, but
only while maintaining the volumetric flow constant, the
position of the other float indicates the viscosity of the fluid
on a direct reading scale.
The recommended piping configuration for a two-float
viscometer is shown in Figure 8.64j. In the main pipeline, a
throttling valve or an orifice plate can be used between the
viscometer inlet and outlet connections to produce the required
THROTTLING VALVE OR ORIFICE
MAIN LINE
FLOW RATE FLOAT
NEEDLE
VALVE VISCOSITY FLOAT
TWO-FLOAT VISCOMETER
THERMOMETER
FIG. 8.64j
Typical bypass piping arrangement of a two-float viscometer.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1731
pressure differential to provide sufficient flow through the
instrument. The required flow rate is 0.25 to 2.5 GPM (0.95
to 9.5 l/m), depending on size.
The throttling valve or orifice plate is not required if the
outlet can be discharged to a location where the pressure is
lower than that of the main pipe. A needle valve should be
used on the viscometer inlet to allow sensitive and accurate
flow rate adjustment. As a function of size, the unit is rated
for pressures up to 300 PSIG at 450°F (2 MPa at 232°C),
depending on size.
The two-float viscometer can measure the viscosity of
−4
newtonian fluids from 0.3 to 250 cP (10 to 0.25 Pa⋅s). It
has a rangeability of 10:1 and an inaccuracy of ±4% of
indication when the viscosity is higher than 35 cP (0.035
Pa⋅s). When measuring lower viscosities, the error is ±2%.
Concentric Design
The concentric viscometer (Figure 8.64k) consists of a dif-
ferential pressure regulator that maintains a constant pressure
drop across the meter, and a variable area flow meter, which
is provided with a viscosity-sensitivity float. As the fluid
enters the instrument, it splits into two streams.
The portion of the fluid that flows upward on the outside,
around the differential pressure float, is used to control the
pressure drop across the meter. The upper end of the differ-
ential pressure float acts as a control valve so that, when the
EXTENSION WELL
FLOAT EXTENSION
OUTLET
VISCOSITY FLOAT
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
FLOAT
INLET
VISCOMETER TUBE
ORIFICE
FIG. 8.64k
Cross-sectional view of a concentric viscometer.
1732 Analytical Instrumentation
100
% CHART INDICATION
80
60
RECOMMENDED
RANGE
40
20
0 rized adjustments. If the main line flow rate is lower than 2
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1 2 4 6 10 20
TOTAL FLOW RATE, GPM
FIG. 8.64l
The characteristics viscosity reading of a concentric viscometer as
a function of flow rate through the meter.
RESTRICTION (ORIFICE OR VALVE)
MAIN LINE
BY-PASS
VALVE
FIG. 8.64m
Bypass installation of a concentric viscometer.
flow rate changes, it throttles the flow to maintain a constant
pressure drop. The pressure drop across this portion of the
meter is determined by the weight of the d/p float.
The portion of the fluid that flows downward enters the
viscometer tube through an orifice and then passes the viscosity-
sensitive float. The flow rate through the viscometer tube is
maintained constant, because the fluid passes through the
orifice at a fixed pressure drop. Thus, constant flow rate is
maintained, which is a requirement for the measurement of
viscosity.
An extension attached to the viscosity float transmits its
movement through a magnetic coupling to a receiver for
display, recording, or automatic process control, as desired.
The unit may be placed in either the main process line
or in a sample line, depending on the process flow rates. As
shown in Figure 8.641, this viscometer does have a flow-
insensitive range, so the flow rate through it should not
exceed 30 GPM (114 l/m).
The recommended piping configuration for bypass instal-
lation is shown in Figure 8.64m. The restriction orifice shown
in this figure should be sized for approximately 4 PSI (28 kPa)
pressure drop. If a valve is used in place of an orifice, the
correct valve position can be determined by slowly opening
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
the valve until the viscometer reading levels off. Further
opening will cause the reading to start to fall off and then,
when turbulent conditions evolve, rise sharply, as illustrated
in Figure 8.641.
The valve openings that produce steady viscosity read-
ings are in the operating range. This procedure should be
carried out when the main line flow is at a maximum; after
that, the valve should be locked in place to prevent unautho-
40 60 100
GPM (7.6 l/m), a booster pump should be used to provide
adequate flow rate through the meter. The unit is rated for
650 PSIG pressure at a temperature of 450°F (4.5 MPa at
232°C).
The concentric viscometer can measure viscosities in the
−4
range of 0.5 to 550 cP (5 × 10 to 0.55 Pa⋅s) and is available
with a span range of 10:1. Its inaccuracy is ±2% of indication
for viscosities lower than 35 cP (0.035 Pa⋅s), and it is ±4%
for higher viscosities.
OSCILLATING VISCOMETERS
INDICATING
TRANSMITT
Oscillating Blade
Figure 8.64n illustrates the oscillating blade viscometer in
which, as the blade moves between the fixed side walls, it
VISCOMETER
discharges the process fluid through the openings of one wall
of the measuring chamber while pulling in a fresh sample
through the other. The blade is rotated around its fulcrum by
a plunger/solenoid mechanism as its tip travels the distance
between points A and B. When the stroke is completed, the
polarity of the current to the plunger coil is reversed, and the
blade is returned to its original position.
Adjustable mechanical stops are provided to limit the
stroke. The time of travel between points A and B is detected
optically as, upon the completion of the stroke, a beam inter-
rupter blocks a light beam. The total stroke time is about
0.2 sec, and the blade makes a stroke about every 2 sec. The
average time of several strokes (adjustable) is measured as
an indication of viscosity.
This intrinsically safe, indicating in-line transmitter can
detect viscosities between 10 and 200,000 cP. It has a mini-
mum span of 20 cP and a maximum span of 200,000 cP. The
maximum allowable liquid velocity in the process pipe can
be up to 6.5 ft/sec (2 m/s), but the fluid should not contain
particles that are larger than 0.04 in. (1 mm) in diameter.
Oscillating Piston
The unit illustrated in Figure 8.64o can be used as an on-line
industrial viscometer. In this design, the alternate energization
of two coils (A and B) causes a piston, located in the inner
cavity of the probe, to move back and forth within the cavity.
The viscosity of the process fluid resists the movement of the
piston, so the travel time of the piston increases as the process
viscosity rises. This travel time is measured as an indication
of viscosity. About 30 sec is needed to make a measurement.
 8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1733

PLUNGER COIL
OPTICAL SENSOR
BEAM INTERRUPTER SOLENOID HOUSING

225
MECHANICAL 160 9" 65
STOPS 6.3" 2.5"

SEALING RING FULCRUM

BLADE

FIXED SIDE WALLS Min 100

4"

FIG. 8.64n
Oscillating-blade-type viscosity transmitter. (Courtesy of BTG Inc.)

11/4" NPT
1/ " PIPE 1/ " NPT
2 2
WITH ELBOW

1.48"
(37.6 mm)

11/4" NPT(M)
1.75"
(44.5 mm)

2.6"
(66 mm)
MIXING BLADE
RESERVOIR

COILS SENSOR

A B

WIRES

A B

DEFLECTOR
PLATE OSCILLATING
PISTON

FIG. 8.64o
As the piston is made to oscillate by coils A and B, which are alternately energized, the time of piston travel is registered as viscosity.
(Courtesy of Cambridge Applied Systems Inc.)

This viscometer is provided with an integral resistance
temperature detector that provides temperature compensa-
tion. The oscillating piston viscometer can operate at high
pressures (up to 10,000 PSIG, or 700 barg) and at high
temperatures (600°F, or 315°C). The wetted parts of the
sensor are made of stainless steel and Teflon.
It can be provided with a choice of pistons to cover
viscosity ranges from 0.1 to 2 cP up to 1000 to 20,000 cP.
To use this sensor, the process fluid should be free of solid
particles that are larger than about 25 µm in size. The inac-
curacy claimed is 2% of actual reading or better. The elec-
tronics are available in explosion-proof construction and can

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

1734 Analytical Instrumentation
PROCESS
FLUID
SMALL LINES
FIG. 8.64p
Pipeline installation of the oscillating-piston viscometer. (Courtesy of Cambridge Applied Systems Inc.)
DETECTOR DRIVER
COIL COIL
SENSOR THERMOCOUPLE
FIG. 8.64q
Torsional oscillation-type viscometers are available with spherical and rod-type probe sensors. (Courtesy of Nametre Co.)
be either the local indicator or the transmitter type. The pipe-
line installation of this detector is illustrated in Figure 8.64p.
Torsional Oscillation Design
The sensor in a torsional oscillation-type viscometer can either
be spherical or rod-shaped. The spherical elements can be used
between 0.1 and 200,000 cP, and the rod-shaped ones from 10
to 2,000,000 cP. Both can be exposed to high pressures (5000
PSIG, or 352 barg) and high temperatures (850°F, or 454°C).
As shown in Figure 8.64q, the sensor is electromechan-
ically oscillated in torsion by a rigid inner shaft around its
central axis. The amplitude of oscillation is only 1 µ m, and
the power required to maintain that amplitude is proportional
to viscosity. To provide temperature compensation, the tem-
perature of the process fluid is detected by a thermocouple,
which is inserted through a central hole in the shaft.
To minimize inaccuracy (error), automatic range switching
is available. By always selecting the smallest span to measure
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
11/4" (32 mm)
TEE
PROCESS
FLUID
LARGE LINES
AND TANKS
PUSH PULL
DRIVER AND
PICKUP
the prevailing viscosity, the error can be reduced to 2% of
actual reading. In addition, a compensating filter is provided
to minimize the effect of pipeline vibrations.
The viscometer reads the product of absolute viscosity
(cP) and density. To correct for density variations, the density
of the process fluid can be manually dialed in or automati-
cally measured and compensated. These transmitters are
available in explosion-proof construction and can be provided
with threaded (1.5-in. NPT) or flanged (2-in. Class 150 ANSI)
connections.
PLASTOMETERS
Plastometers are employed to study the plastic behavior (melt
flow) of plastic materials or the molecular weight distribution
of polymers. Some materials do not begin to flow unless the
stress has exceeded their yield stress value. Such materials

behave as elastic bodies that yield with time as the stresses
exceed the yield limit. This phenomenon is called plastic
behavior.
Plastic Behavior
Prof. Eugene Bingham assumed that the flow rate for such
materials was zero when they experienced stresses below a
critical value and was linear with stresses above this limit
value. A body that behaves in such a manner is called a
Bingham solid or an ideal plastic. Extremely few solids
behave in this manner. For most plastic materials, the yield
value is not sharp and shows a nonlinear behavior with a
delayed and imperfect recovery. The different types of plas-
tics behave differently, and their behavior also changes with
temperature.
For this reason, a plastometer gives only a relative indi-
cation of polymer behavior, thus characterizing a plastic
material. Because the shear stress/shear rate relationship is
based on the molecular behavior of materials, the plasticity
can be related to the molecular weight of a material or to its
distribution. The plasticity of plastic materials is expressed
in arbitrary units such as ASTM melt index (MI), Canadian
Industries Limited (CIL) flow index, Mooney points, or per-
cent of full scale.
In general, the plastometer consists of a heating chamber
to keep the sample at constant temperature, a mechanism to
apply a high shear force, and a device to measure torque or
flow rate of the sample material and thereby detect the plas-
ticity of the sample. Plastometers can be used in a laboratory
(Section 8.63) to study polymeric behavior or used on line
to control processes manually or automatically. This type of
rheometer is an invaluable tool in manufacturing plastics and
synthetic rubbers.
Cone-and-Plate Plastometer
The cone-and-plate plastometer is used to conduct tests in
evaluating crude rubber, rubber compounds, or reclaims; in
the control of mill breakdown of polymer molecules; in the
determination of time to scorch; in the calculation of optimal
cure time; and for the evaluation of the processing charac-
teristics of plastics.
This plastometer incorporates the features of the Mooney
plastometer and is designed to meet the requirements of
ASTM standard test method D-1646. The working principle
of this sensor is the same as discussed in connection with
laboratory-type cone-and-plate viscometers (Figure 8.63r).
As shown in Figure 8.64r, this detector is designed to
eliminate polymer “ball-up” and slippage tendencies by con-
fining the sample in a disc-shaped cavity. Machined serra-
tions provided on all of the die and rotor surfaces prevent
slippage. In operation, the sample is introduced into a cylin-
drical test chamber where integral heaters are used to bring
it to the predetermined test temperature (up to 400°F, or
204°C).
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1735
THERMOCOUPLE OR DRIVING SHAFT
THERMOMETER
HEATER
UPPER DIE PLATEN
ROTOR
LOWER DIE PLATEN
SAMPLE CHAMBER
TORQUE SENSOR
FIG. 8.64r
Cone-and-plate plastometer.
After the warm-up period has been completed, the plastic
behavior of the sample is tested by driving the rotor at either
a constant speed (normally at 2 r/min) or at various speeds
between 0.05 to 2 r/min to test for relative molecular weight.
The shearing action that takes place between the rotor and
the die cavity is measured by the deflection of a calibrated
U-spring, which is attached to the torque sensing rotor.
The deflection of the U-spring is directly proportional to
the shearing torque of the specimen being tested. An elec-
tronic strain gauge may be attached to the U-spring to trans-
mit this signal for continuous recording. The plastometer
operates within a range of 0 to 200 (Mooney) units and has
a repeatability of ±0.5 units.
The Unit of Mooney Dr. Mooney gives the following equa-
tion to determine the average viscosity ( µ ) of solids:
G 188.44gθ
µ= 8.64(3)
2πωR 3 ( R/2a + h/b)
where
G = gauge reading
g = acceleration from gravity
θ = pitch radius of worn gear
ω = angular velocity of rotor, radians/sec
R = radius of rotor, inches
a = vertical clearance between rotor and stator above or
below the rotor, inches
h = thickness of rotor, inches
b = effective radial clearance between rotor and stator
Kneader Plastometer
This instrument is widely used in measuring the plastic char-
acteristics of plastic, rubber, food, pigment, cement, paint,
cosmetics, and coating products. This type of plastometer is
equally suitable for both laboratory and on-line measurement
and the control of highly viscous flowing materials. The chief
advantage of this instrument is that it measures plastic behav-
ior of melt viscosity under conditions that are very similar
to those that exist in the processing equipment.
Many different shapes of measuring heads are available
(see Figure 8.64s) to accommodate a wide range of viscosities.
1736 Analytical Instrumentation

THERMOSTATING JACKET
HEATING
MEDIUM
EXTRUDER FLOW
OUT

HEATING
MEDIUM
SELECTOR
IN
SIGMA BLADE DELTA BLADE CAM BLADE VALVE
FOR PLASTIC FOR FOOD, FOR RUBBERS &
DOUGHTY MATERIALS TOOTH PASTE, PLASTICS
FATS AND
METERING
VASELINE TYPE
PUMP

DC
FIG. 8.64s MOTOR
Measuring heads of kneader plastometer.
EXTRUDATE

GEAR
REDUCER
STRANDING DIE TO RECEIVER
TACHOMETER
EXTRUDER FLOW

FIG. 8.64u
CIL PRESSURE Flow-sensing capillary plastometer.
TRANSDUCER
SS

MI PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
PRC
MI & CIL
SELECTOR
VALVE
GEAR
REDUCER
TACHOMETER
RECEIVER
FIG. 8.64t
Pressure-controlled capillary plastomer.
In this plastometer, the jacket heater keeps the sample at a
constant temperature (up to 570°F, or 299°C) by the jacketed
heater. The kneader is driven by a dynamometer (available
with variable-speed and fixed-speed drives). The resistance
encountered by the mixing blades is detected and transmitted
to the dynamometer housing, which tends to rotate in a direc-
tion opposite to that of the driving shaft.
The torque is transmitted for recording or to automati-
cally control processes with medium-viscosity, free-flowing
fluids. The readings and recordings are on a 1000-unit divi-
sion arbitrary scale, used for indicating shearing torque of
the specimen being tested. Repeatability is ±1% of full scale.
The measurement range can be adjusted.
Capillary Plastometer
This plastometer is designed for use in polymer manufactur-
ing plants and is based on the capillary-tube viscometer prin-
ciple. The capillary plastometer shown in Figure 8.64t is
calibrated to record either ASTM melt index (flow rate of
polyethylene through an open-ended capillary at 190°C
METERING [374°F] and 43.2 PSIG [298 kPa] pressure). It can also record
PUMP
CIL flow index (190°C and 1500 PSIG [10 MPa] for polypro-
DC pylene) or can alternately record both ASTM and CIL melt
MOTOR
indexes.
These two measurements for a particular polymer can be
interpreted as both a molecular weight parameter and as a
molecular weight distribution parameter. The capillary-type
TO plastometer is not as versatile as the previously described
plastometers.
In feeding the capillary type plastometer, the polymer
melt is first conditioned to be at some specific temperature
and pressure. It is then extruded through a capillary of suit-
able dimensions. The rate of flow of the polymer through the
capillary is measured by detecting the output of the tachom-
eter on the metering pump and is recorded in units appropri-
ate for the test (Figure 8.64u).
The operating range of this plastometer is 0 to 200 MI
and 0 to 100 CIL units, with a repeatability within ±2% of
full scale. The unit is designed to operate at up to 570°F
(299°C) and up to 5000 PSIG (35 MPa) in pressure.
Advantages One advantage of this instrument is that it can
be used as an automatic on-line process control device for
both viscous fluids and plastic solids. Especially for the solu-
tion polymerization processes, the polymer solution can be
directly analyzed in this plastometer as the sample is received
from the processing reactors through an autosampling device
that flashes the solvent and the unreacted monomers, and
melts the polymer prior to sending it to the plastometer.
For plastic solids, the die unit (capillary) can be mounted
to the pelletizing extruder of the process stream for measure-
ment. The capillary type plastometer is ideally suited for
study of plastic behavior of materials that are processed
through injection molding or finishing operations.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták


Limitations The following conditions might degrade the accu-
racy of the measurements obtained using capillary-extrusion
viscometers:
1. Nonuniformity of sample shear rate
2. Entrance effects—energy losses at the capillary
entrance and discharge points
3. Compressibility of fluids
4. Pressure loss produced by the flow in the sample
chamber
5. Temperature gradient created by shear-induced heat
When performing scientific research, great care should
be taken to correct for these errors. If that is done, capillary-
extrusion viscometers have excellent reproducibility and are
well suited for routine industrial and scientific work.
ROTARY VISCOMETERS
Rotating-cone viscometers have been applied chiefly to mea-
sure non-Newtonian fluids such as paints, printing ink, starch,
size solution, and varnishes. They are designed to operate
continuously in industrial environments. They measure vis-
cosity by detecting the torque required to continuously rotate
a cone, disk, sphere, or spindle in a liquid. In this type of
process viscometer application, the sample is continuously
replaced and is subjected to a constant shear rate; thus, the
measurement of non-Newtonian apparent viscosity is possi-
ble, as well as absolute viscosity measurement of newtonian
fluids.
Rotary Spindle Design
In the design illustrated in Figure 8.64v, a synchronous induc-
tion motor (for safety) drives a cage coupled through a cal-
ibrated spring to a spindle arm that supports the spindle or
cylinder in the fluid being measured. During measurement,
the spring tends to wind up until the force it generates equals
SPEED
REDUCTION SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
GEARS
ROTOR & STATOR BRUSHES
SIGNAL
VARIABLE CAPACITOR PLATES
TO RECEIVER
CALIBRATED SPRING
CAGE
FRICTION CLUTCH
SPINDLE EXTENSION
SPINDLE
FIG. 8.64v
The operation of the rotating-spindle-type industrial viscometer.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1737
the viscous drag on the spindle. At this point, the cage and
spindle both rotate at the same speed but with a definite angular
relationship to each other. This angular relationship is pro-
portional to the torque on the spring.
Two methods are used to convert the angular relationship
into a viscosity reading. One method is shown in Figure 8.64v,
where one side of a variable capacitor is attached to the cage
and the other to the spindle arm. A capacitance is thus made
proportional to the angular relationship between cage and
spindle.
The other method is based on a potentiometer mounted
in the cage with its free member connected to the spindle
arm. In this case, a resistance is made that is directly propor-
tional to the angular relationship between cage and spindle.
In either case, the measured signal is transmitted to a receiver
and is converted into viscosity units.
When measuring low viscosities, the variable capacitor
type design is preferred. This type of viscometer can measure
viscosity ranges from 0–10 cP (0–0.01 Pa⋅s) to 0–50,000 cP
(0–50 Pa⋅s). Its inaccuracy is ±1% of full scale between the
ranges of 0 to 100 and 0 to 50,000 cP (0 to 0.1 and 0 to
50 Pa⋅s). Its repeatability is ±0.3% of full scale for all ranges.
The response time of this viscometer is less than 30 sec
for detecting a full scale change in viscosity. The measure-
ment range of this viscometer can be varied over a 30:1 ratio
by changing the size or shape of the spindle. The standard
spindle speed is 50 r/min. In some installations, the maximum
range can be increased to 0 to 100,000 cP (0 to 100 Pa⋅s).
Installation This viscometer may be installed on a tank, in
an open vessel, or in a sampling line (Figure 8.64w). For in-
line installations, the flow rate of the process liquid should
be constant, nonpulsating, and laminar (less than 3 GPM
[11.4 l/m] for a standard 4-in. [101.6-mm] pipe). Swirling
motion in the measurement chamber may be reduced by
installation of a spider-type deflector in the inlet port.
The viscometer head is designed to operate at tempera-
tures up to 160°F (71°C) and at pressure ranges of 8 mm Hg
absolute to 100 PSIG (1 to 690 kPa). The head should be
3
purged with dry air or other inert gases at a rate of 0.5 ft /min
HOUSING FOR
DRIVER & CAPACITOR
BAFFLE TUBE
SPINDLE
FLOW
(A) ON A REACTOR, TANK OR VESSEL (B) IN A SAMPLING LINE
FIG. 8.64w
Tank and pipeline installation of the rotating spindle viscometer.
1738 Analytical Instrumentation

−4 3
(2.4 × 10 m /s) or greater. A positive pressure differential CONNECTING ROD
TO MEASURING
of 3 PSI (21 kPa) should be maintained between the viscom- POTENTIOMETER
eter and the process vessel to prevent liquid or vapor pene-
SYNCHRONOUS
tration into the head. MOTOR
The temperature of the mounting flange on which the
viscometer is placed should not exceed 600°F (316°C).
Above 220°F (104°C), it is necessary to use a cooling pad BALL BEARING
STAINLESS STEEL/
and place it between the flange and the viscometer. The SAPPHIRE BEARING
MAGNET (ROTATING)
process liquid temperature can be up to 2500°F (1370°C). NICKEL ROD
(ARMATURE OF
COUPLING)
Performance The rotating-cone viscometer is not affected
by normal industrial vibration. It is provided with overrange SAMPLE IN
protection through a friction clutch on the spindle extension.
It is simple to clean the spindle. The sample fluid should be
maintained at a constant temperature, or the viscosity mea- MEASURING BODY
(ROTATING DISC
surement should be compensated for temperature variations. MEASURING IN LIQUID)
Logarithmic temperature-compensating units are available CELL
LOWER BODY BEARING
and are matched to the viscosity–temperature relationship
shown by the particular process fluid. Logarithmic compen- FIG. 8.64x
sation to within 1% error over a span of 10°F (6°C) can be Magnetically coupled rotational industrial viscometer.
provided.
A baffle tube should always be installed when this viscom-
eter is used in an agitated tank or reactor to obtain laminar
flow condition. However, if very violent agitation or bubbling
conditions exist, this viscometer should not be used at all.
The spindle should always be immersed, and the liquid level
should be kept constant to obtain reproducible readings.
The frequency of the power supply should be checked.
Wide deviations from the specified frequency will cause spin-
dle speed changes and can introduce errors in the viscosity
measurement of non-Newtonian fluids, because their appar-
ent viscosity is related to shear rate.
The rotating-cone viscometer is an electromechanical
device, so a monthly preventive maintenance and cleaning FIG. 8.64y
schedule is recommended. If the unit is operated continu- Pipeline and vessel installations of the gyrating element viscometer.
ously, the speed reduction gears will need to be replaced on (Courtesy of C. W. Brabender Instruments Inc.)
a yearly basis.
Because of its simple design, ease of cleaning, and non- The magnetically coupled viscometer should not be used
clogging features, this viscometer has been successfully used to measure fluids that contain fiber, ferrite, or abrasive mate-
in monitoring solid and liquid blending processes. Rotating- rials, because they interfere with the operation of the mag-
cone viscometers are quite versatile in their application over netic coupling or can damage the stainless steel–sapphire
wide ranges of viscosities and are equally applicable for bearings.
measuring the viscosities of newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids. Gyrating-Element Viscometer

The viscometer illustrated in Figure 8.64y differs from the

Magnetically Coupled Viscometer
In the rotating-cone viscometer shown in Figure 8.64x, a
magnetic coupling is provided between the electronic detec-
tor (which is at atmospheric pressure) and the rotating sensor
in the measuring cell (which is operated at the process pres-
sure). With this separation between atmospheric and pressur-
ized areas, the requirement for purging is eliminated and, in
the measuring cell, operating conditions can be up to 2850
PSIG (19.7 MPa) at 20°C or 1620 PSIG (11.2 MPa) at 300°C.
previously described designs in that its element gyrates
instead of rotates. This gyrating motion is the result of the
drive shaft not being straight. The drive and the torque-
sensing mechanism are isolated from the process side by
stainless steel bellows that are capable of operating at up to
1000 PSIG (70 barg) operating pressures and 572°F (300°C)
operating temperatures.
The drive motor speed is adjustable from 15 to 120 r/min,
and the unit can detect viscosities between 10 and 10 million
cP (the overall range is subdivided into several working ranges).

© 2003 by Béla Lipták


AGITATOR HORSE POWER LIMIT
VISCOSITY
RECOMMENDED
OPERATING RANGE
TORQUE
FIG. 8.64z
Relationship between viscosity and torque in agitator power
viscometer.
For pipeline installation, the minimum pipe size is 4 in.
(100 mm).
Agitator Power
This type of instrument is widely used in the paper industry
to control and measure the consistency of paper pulp slurries.
In this viscometer, instead of measuring the torque exerted on
a rotating cone, a transmitting wattmeter is used to detect the
torque exerted on the process agitator. It measures the power
consumed as the agitator is being driven in a mixing tank.
As shown in Figure 8.64z, because most of the industrial
agitator motors are oversized, the torque response of this
sensor is poor at low viscosities. The size of the motor and
impeller should be selected so that the agitator will operate
in a region where the viscosity-vs.-torque relationship is lin-
ear. The motor, reducer, bearing assembly, and pressure seal
are all part of the viscometer, and any change in character-
istics of these components would also affect the power con-
sumption of the motor and, in turn, the viscosity reading.
This instrument is simple and easy to install, but it has
low sensitivity and a low ratio between agitator power con-
sumption and changes in viscosity of the fluid. Many different
impeller designs are available to improve the sensitivity and
rangeability. Because it is a self-cleaning and agitating
design, it is ideal for materials that have a tendency to cling
to slow-moving parts or to settle out from suspensions.
This type of instrument should not be used with fluids
that are thixotropic or rheopectic (materials whose viscosity
changes with duration of agitation or shear). However, it can
be used in in-line applications for all non-Newtonian fluids,
because the process fluid is continuously replaced by a fresh
sample at a reasonably constant flow rate.
The accuracy and sensitivity of this method of viscosity
detection are both poor, but its repeatability is reasonable at
about ±1% of full scale.
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1739
Double-Cylinder Viscometer
Figure 8.64aa illustrates the double-cylinder type of in-line
viscometer. It consists of a stationary outer and a rotating
inner cylinder. This viscometer provides self-cleaning oper-
ation and fast measurement.
The process fluid is drawn into the measuring chamber
through the apertures in the stationary outer cylinder by the
propeller. The propeller pumps the process fluid downward
into the measurement zone, where the sensor cylinder is
rotated inside the stationary external cylinder. The measuring
zone is the clearance space between the two cylinders. The
torque required to rotate the measuring cylinder is propor-
tional to viscosity.
The self-cleaning nature of this viscometer is partially
created by the lip on the upper edge of the measuring cylin-
der, which serves to prevent the entry of larger particles into
the measurement zone. In addition, the solids that enter the
measurement zone can also leave through two slots that are
provided in the outer cylinder. Large particles will not enter
the measuring zone at all but will leave through the outlet
holes that are provided on the top of the rotating cylinder.
Viscometers are available for in-line installation in pipe
sizes from 3 to 10 in. (76 to 250 mm) in diameter. The
viscometer can detect viscosities from 5 to 350 cP at pres-
sures up to 145 PSIG (10 barg) and temperatures up to 300°F
(150°C). The wetted parts can be made out of stainless steel
or Hastelloy C with Viton, EPDM, or silicone O-ring seals.
The mechanical seal can be cooled and lubricated by water.
VIBRATING-REED VISCOMETER
The vibrating-reed viscometer is designed for continuous
measurement. It can be installed directly into the process
vessels or pipelines. As illustrated in Figure 8.64bb, it con-
sists of a frequency generator, a vibrating spring rod, a probe,
and a pickup unit to complete a measurement loop through
the process material.
The drive coil is excited at a frequency of 120 Hz from
a 60-Hz input frequency. This produces a pulsating magnetic
field that causes the drive armature to vibrate at the same
frequency. The mechanical vibration of the drive armature is
transmitted to the probe through an all-welded, pressure-
sealed node that is located where the amplitude of vibration
is zero.
The principle of operation is based on the fact that the
amplitude of probe vibration depends on the viscosity of the
process media. The resistance to the shearing action caused
by the probe’s vibration increases with an increase in the
viscosity of the process media. The amplitude of probe vibra-
tion is sent through a second welded node point by the upper
spring rod to the pickup end of the detector.
The pickup end is similar to that of the driver end, except
that a permanent magnet is used to induce a 120-Hz AC voltage
in the pickup coil from the vibration of the pickup armature.
1740 Analytical Instrumentation

RECEIVER

CHECK VALVE WATER FOR COOLING AND

FLUSH
LUBRICATION OF MECHANICAL SEAL
FLUSHING OF BY-PASS PIPE

PROCESS FLUID

SEALING
ELEMENT

OUTLET HOLE
APERTURES ON
EXTERNAL CYLINDER

PROPELLER

MEASURING
ZONE

ROTATING
MEASURING
STATIONARY CYLINDER
EXTERNAL
CYLINDER

FIG. 8.64aa
Self-cleaning cylinder viscometer. (Courtesy of BIG Inc.)

DRIVE COIL
PICKUP END
DETECTOR OUTPUT SIGNAL

800
DRIVER END
3/4"
N.P.T. 600
(MVAC)

PROBE (1) (2) (3) (4)

400

9/16" 200
1 10 100 1k 10k 100k
NODE LOG. VISCOSITY (CENTIPOISE)
POINT DRIVE
1/2" CONDUIT ARMATURE SOFT IRON FIG. 8.64cc
HUB STATOR
The response curves of four vibrating-reed viscometers.
FIG. 8.64bb
Vibrating-reed viscometer.
Typical response curves of four different detector units are
shown in Figure 8.64cc.
The magnitude of the voltage generated in the pickup coil is Because the viscosity of fluids depends on their temper-
a measure of the process viscosity, because it is proportional ature and pressure, it is mandatory to maintain the process
to the pickup armature vibration. The 120-Hz output signal pressure and temperature constant. As shown in Figure
from the detector is converted into a 0 to 10 mV DC signal 8.64dd, if the fluid temperature must be allowed to fluctuate,
to indicate, record, or control the viscosity of newtonian or temperature compensation is required. Before ordering a vis-
non-Newtonian fluids. cometer for in-process use, the fluid’s viscosity must be mea-
sured as a function of temperature so that this characteristic
Performance Inaccuracy of the instrument is about ±1% of curve can be used in the converter.
full scale, and reproducibility is a little better. There are five For accurate measurements, laminar flow conditions should
different detector units to cover the viscosity ranges from be maintained. Therefore, the installation of this type of
−1 5 −4 2
10 to 10 cP (10 to 10 Pa⋅s) at relatively low shear rate. viscometer directly in an agitated vessel is not recommended.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1741

VISCOSITY DETECTOR vibration frequency is close to 120 Hz, it can interfere with
the reliability of viscosity measurement by this sensor.

CONVERTER RECORDER

CORIOLIS MASS FLOW METER

TEMPERATURE
ELEMENTS Measuring Tube Torsional Movement
SPAN ADJUSTOR
ZERO ADJUSTOR Coriolis mass flow meters currently are well established in
process industry applications and have extremely good func-
FIG. 8.64dd tionality and performance. They have proven multivariable
Complete loop diagram of a temperature-compensated vibrating- measurement capabilities, including mass flow, density, and
reed-type viscosity recorder.
temperature, that can be transmitted via various methods such
as 4 to 20 mA signals, pulse, and various fieldbus links. Ease
FLUID OUT of installation and maintenance are also well established.
Further details on these flow meters are available in another
section of this volume.
Very recently (at the time of the writing of this volume),
VISCOSITY a new development was announced by a manufacturer of
DETECTOR
Coriolis meters. Viscosity can now be added to the list of
multivariable measurements. Viscosity is obviously a key
process variable, and to be able to acquire it via an existing
proven technique is significant. Four significant process vari-
TEMPERATURE ables can be measured simultaneously with proven in-line
SENSING
ELEMENT technology.
FLUID IN
The measurement principle for this viscosity process
FIG. 8.64ee variable is the torsional movement of the measuring tube.
Installation recommendation for an in-line vibrating-reed viscometer. For an optimal balance, and for isolation from external influ-
ences, a pendulum is mounted on the single measuring tube
that causes an additional torsional movement on it, as shown
If it must done, the viscosity reading should be taken only
in Figures 8.64ff and 8.64gg. Based on this technique, tor-
when the agitator is off.
sional movements are created in addition to the lateral oscil-
lation movements of the measuring tube.
Installation and Calibration Complete immersion of the
A velocity profile is created on the tube cross section by
probe in the process fluid is essential. Figure 8.64ee illus-
the torsional and lateral oscillation movements. This is shown
trates the recommended pipeline installation of this viscom- in Figure 8.64hh. Viscosity measurement is based on the
eter probe in vertical upward flow. Complete immersion of shape of the velocity profile, shear forces, and corresponding
the probe is required at all times. To improve the accuracy
of measurement, the recommended viscometer installation is
in a temperature, pressure, and flow rate controlled sample
loop.
The amplitude of vibration will change with condition
and age of the probe. It is good practice to calibrate the
instrument regularly when it is used for critical operations.
Material build-up on the probe can occur if the process mate-
rial has a tendency to adhere or if it contains long fibrous
materials. Slight or loose buildup can be removed by periodic
in-line purging. If the buildup can be severe, this type of
viscometer should not be used.
Because the detector unit transmits a low-voltage signal,
the use of shielded wires is recommended. The wires should
be grounded at both ends to minimize noise pickup. Supply Pendulum
voltage variations between 105 and 125 V will have no harm- FIG. 8.64ff
ful effects. The frequency of supply power should be checked, Mass flowmeter/measuring tube torsional movement type (pendulum
because the probe vibration frequency is controlled by the on the measuring tube balancing the system for immunity to external
line frequency. If the vessel or pipeline vibrates, and this forces). (Courtesy of Endress + Hauser.)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

1742 Analytical Instrumentation
Pendulum
Measuring tube
FIG. 8.64gg
Mass flowmeter/measuring tube torsional movement type (oscilla-
tion movement of the measuring tube and pendulum). (Courtesy of
Endress + Hauser.)
FIG. 8.64hh
Mass flowmeter/measuring tube torsional movement type (cross sec-
tion of the tube, showing the velocity profile of the fluid). (Courtesy
of Endress + Hauser.)
shear rates developed in the fluid. This is similar to the
rotational element viscometers in which shear rates are
related to viscosity.
The shear forces dampen the tube oscillation, so a larger
drive force is required to maintain tube oscillation. Thus, vis-
cosity can be determined by measuring the required power or
excitation current for tube oscillation and torsional movement.
Repeatability and measurement inaccuracy are both ±5%
of actual reading or ±0·5 cP, whichever is greater. The in-line
meter is 2 in. in diameter and is provided with 600-lb flanges.
The output signal can be 4 to 20 mA or digital. The speed
of response of the meter is high and therefore suited for
closed-loop process control applications.
CONCLUSIONS
Each viscometer exposes the process fluid to a different shear
rate, so, when the process fluid is non-Newtonian, the appar-
ent viscosities will vary with shear rate, and the readings will
vary with the viscometer used.
Some viscometer designs provide intermittent readings
(falling-ball or falling-piston, oscillating-blade, etc.), and
others are continuous. In closed-loop control, the continuous
ones are much preferred. Some viscometers require the taking
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
of a sample from the process (capillary, float, rotational), but
others can be inserted directly into the process pipe or vessel.
Because sampling systems usually increase installation and
maintenance costs, and because sampling also adds dead time
(transportation lag) to the measurement, the in-line designs
are generally preferred.
Viscous process fluids usually also contain solids. For this
reason, the designs that cannot tolerate the presence of solids
(capillary, float) are less desirable, and the self-cleaning designs
(oscillating, vibrational, double-cylinder) are preferred.
In some process applications, the operating viscosity can
change over a wide range. If that is the case, measurement error
can be reduced by using viscometer designs that are capable of
automatic range changing, e.g., the torsional oscillation design.
The torque or shear force measured by most viscometers
will also vary with changes in temperature and density. There-
fore, viscometer designs that provide automatic temperature
compensation and allow for manual or automatic density
correction are likely to provide more accurate readings.
A particularly appealing new approach involves using
existing Coriolis mass flow technology and extending the prin-
ciples and techniques to extract process viscosity. This yields
a proven industrial in-line continuous measurement technique
with three multivariable measurements that can spin out an
additional key process variable, viscosity. Installation is easy,
and no additional independent complex sensors are required.
In addition, one must also be concerned with the viscosity
range, design pressure, design temperature, and required pre-
cision of the measurement. Table 8.64a provides a summary
of the design features of the viscometers discussed in this
section.
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