O&M Engineears Tranning .

MAHARASHTRA STATE POWER GENERATION CO. LTD.
KORADI TRAINING CENTRE
INDUCTION LEVEL TRAINING

FOR ENGINEERS - PHASE I
BOOK - I
OFFICE OF
THE CHIEF GENERAL MANAGER (TRG)
KORADI, NAGPUR - 441 111
Tel. : 07109 - 262737 (O) FAX : 07109 - 262167
Email : ktcmseb_ngp@sancharnet.in Website : www.mahagenco.in
(FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION ONLY)

Published by
The Chief General Manager (TRG),
Koradi Training Centre,
Koradi, Nagpur
Printed by :
M/s Kalyani Computers & Printers
Chotti Dhantoli, Nagpur - 12.
# 0712 - 2446576
Maharashtra State Power Generation Co. Ltd.
Preface
It is a great pleasure in presenting this Book-I to the Trainees of Induction

level training Programme at Koradi and Nashik Training Centres. Both Koradi and
Nashik Training Centres are engaged in imparting Induction Level Training as per I.E.
Rules to the Engineers since last 16 Years. The years ahead are hugely significant
for both Training Centres, in view of evolving culture and vision of development of
MAHAGENCO as a company of excellence in Power and Energy business.
On restructuring of Maharashtra State Electricity Board, responsibilities of

Power Generation are entrusted to M.S. Power Generation Co. Ltd. All Generating
Plants are under the management control of MSPGCL since 6th June 2005. Power
Scenario in the country is continuously changing and MSPGCL is responding to the
changes with enthusiasm.
Training Programmes conducted by both the Training Centres are also being
changed to make them relevant to the needs and with this, format and contents of
Induction Level Training are also changed. Now the programme shall be conducted in
three phases. This training programme is designed and developed to cover the
mandatory topics as required under rule 3 (2A), Annexure - XIV, of Indian Electricity
(Amendment) Rules 1981. In addition, the programme also covers the topics relevant
to changes taking place since last 25 years in Technology and business scenario.
Focus is also on the development of Personality and I hope, this training will make
you not only competent Engineers and managers, but also good human beings.
To augment the knowledge delivered by Experienced and competent faculty

members, who are practising successfully in their area of competencies, this Book-I
is brought out by Koradi Training Centre. It covers all the topics related to power
generation, mainly Thermal Power Generation and also on Tariff Structure, CERC/
MERC regulations, Costing and Financial Management etc. I am thankful to the
faculty members, who took keen interest in writing and making available the handouts
for inclusion in this book. Staff Members of Koradi Training Centre have put in lots of
efforts in making this first version a reality. At the same time I express my confidence
that this version shall be reviewed continuously to make it more enriching and
relevant from time to time.
I take this opportunity to keep on record the efforts taken by Shri
D.W. Patil, SE, Shri R. S. Kulakrni, EE, Shri A. R. Saoji, EE, Shri A. D. Khare,
Dy.EE, Shri P. D. Deshmukh, DYEE, Shri B.B. Bhandarkar, DyEE, all from
Koradi Training Centre, who prepared and compiled the handouts appearing
in this “Book-I of Phase I of Induction Level training Programme for
Engineers.”
I am also thankful to Shri R.B. Jain, Retired Chief Engineer and Shri
S.D. Shinde, Retired General Manager, who guided and motivated the
staff in last three years for preparing, writing and compiling the handouts
appearing in this book. I also thank to Shri Jayant Totade, Chief General
Manager (HR) for his valuable help for the Induction Level Training Program.
I am greatful to our Managing Director, Hon’ble Shri Ajoy Mehta,

who has personally guided us in designing this training program and
motivated us to endeavour for the best.
I also thank Shri Vinay Bapat, Director (Op) and Shri A.R. Kulakrni,
Executive Director (Gen. O&M) and for their constant guidance and
motivation in making this book a success.
I take this opportunity to wish you all a happy, healthy and

prosperous carrier with Mahagenco.
Date: 22.7.2006 M. P. Hedaoo

Chief General Manager (Trg)
Koradi Training Center,
M.S. Power Generation Co. Ltd. Koradi
INDEX
BOOKLET NO KTC/ILT/PH I/BOOK 1
(FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION ONLY.)
SN Topic Master File ID Page No.
1. H R D Concepts PH1/M2/2,Rev.00,1-06-06 1
2. Modern Thermal Power Plant Cycle PH1/M3/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 5
3. Principles of Thermal and Hydropower PH1/M3/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 9

generation
4. Introduction to thermodynamics PH1/M3/3&4,Rev.00,1-6-06 15
5. Concepts of Heat transfer PH1/M3/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 24
6. The Rankine cycle PH1/M3/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 33
7. Concept of Electrical Power Generation PH1/M3/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 43
8. Energy Balance of Thermal Power Plant PH1/M3/8,RRev.00,1-6-06 62
9. Plant Layout of Large Thermal Power Station PH1/M3/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 65
10. Planning & Design of Large Thermal Power Stations PH1/M3/10,Rev.00,1-6-06 68
11. Various heating elements used in Boiler, Fuel used PH1/M3/11,Rev.00,1-6-06 71

and heat transfer
12. Coal Sampling procedure and analysis of coal PH1/M3/12,Rev.00,1-6-06 80
13. General working and description of PH1/M4/1,2,3,Rev.00,1-6-06 84

Coal handling Plant
14. Fuel Firing PH1/M5/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 96
15. Boiler Air and Flue gas system PH1/M5/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 100
16. Boiler water circuit/ Types of Furnaces PH1/M5/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 102

and steam Drum
17. Boiler Construction PH1/M5/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 103
18. Bowl Mills (Pulverizer) PH1/M5/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 107
19. Coal Feeder PH1/M5/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 111
20. Construction and working of Air Pre Heater PH1/M5/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 115

21. Bag Filter System at Koradi Thermal Power Plant PH1/M5/8,Rev.00,1-6-06 123
22. Description & working of ASH handling plant PH1/M5/8,Rev.00,1-6-06 136

and Principal of E.S.P.
23. Various types of Fans & their Drives PH1/M5/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 147
24. Ash handling plant PH1/M5/10,Rev.00,1-6-06 158
25. Description and working of a Oil handling plant PH1/M5/11,Rev.00,1-6-06 174
26. Instrument Air and service air compressors PH1/M5/12,Rev.00,1-6-06 183

in power plants
27. Construction and operation of soot blowers PH1/M5/13,Rev.00,1-6-06 185
28. Boiler fittings and mountings PH1/M5/14,Rev.00,1-6-06 188
29. D. M. plant and softening plant PH1/M5/15,Rev.00,1-6-06 199
30. Raw water and pretreatment of water PH1/M5/15-PreTreatment, 209

Rev.00,1-6-06
31. Turbine Steam and Extraction Cycle PH1/M6/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 218
32. Condensate and Feed Water cycle PH1/M6/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 219
33. Condenser Cooling Water cycle and PH1/M6/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 221

Cooling Towers
34. Steam turbine PH1/M6/4&5,Rev.00,1-6-06 222
35. Turbine Bearings and Gland System PH1/M6/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 231
36. Condensers PH1/M6/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 235
37. Construction of Starting Ejector, Main Ejector PH1/M6/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 237
38. DM and GS System PH1/M6/8,Rev.00,1-6-06 240
39. Heat Exchangers PH1/M6/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 242
40. Feed Water Heater and Deaerator construction PH1/M6/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 248
41. Construction and operation of Boiler Feed Pump PH1/M6/10,Rev.00,1-6-06 253
42. Condensate Extraction Pump PH1/M6/11,Rev.00,1-6-06 258
43. H.P. - L.P. By pass System PH1/M6/12,Rev.00,1-6-06 263

44. TG Lubricating oil system PH1/M6/13,Rev.00,1-6-06 272
45. Various Types of Valves PH1/M6/14,Rev.00,1-6-06 273
46. Generator Construction Details (210 MW) PH1/M7/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 279
47. Hydrogen Cooling of Generator and PH1/M7/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 290

D. M. Water cooling of stator
48. Generator Seal Oil System for BHEL 210 MW Units PH1/M7/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 294
(LMW Design)
49. Construction of Exciters PH1/M7/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 299
50. Generator Excitation System PH1/M7/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 303
51. Earthing, Earthing Transformer and PH1/M7/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 312

neutral Grounding Transformer
52. Typical Electrical Supply System PH1/M8/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 314
53. Instrument Transformer (CTs - PTs) PH1/M8/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 328
54. Transformer Construction PH1/M8/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 343
55. Swtichgear PH1/M8/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 350
56. Switchyard Bus Bar Arrangements PH1/M8/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 368
57. General Constructional Features of AC Motors PH1/M8/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 374
58. Protection of AC HT / LT & DC Motors PH1/M9/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 392
59. Transformer Protections PH1/M9/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 411
60. Boiler Protections and Furnace safeguard and PH1/M9/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 426

supervisory system
61. Protections and interlocks of ID/FD/PA Fans PH1/M9/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 428
62. Generator Protection and commissioning test PH1/M9/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 438
63. Protection of Turbine PH1/M9/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 448
64. Furnace safeguard supervisory system (FSSS) PH1/M9/6&8,Rev.00,1-6-06 451
65. Interlocks and protections of pumps PH1/M9/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 459
66. Boiler Light-up and loading PH1/M9/10,Rev.00,1-6-06 461

67. Preparation for start up of Turbine PH1/M9/11&12,Rev.00,1-6-06 465
68. Fire Hazards in Power plant and prevention PH1/M10/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 479
69. Permit System PH1/M10/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 485
70. Statutory Acts PH1/M10/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 488
71. Condenser and Feed Water Heater Performance PH1/M11/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 498
72. Heat rate of Thermal power plant PH1/M11/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 504
73. Unit Performance and optimisation PH1/M11/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 516
74. Turbine Performance PH1/M11/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 522
75. Cost accounting, cost control and cost reduction PH1/M11/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 524
76. Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission PH1/M11/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 530

(Terms and conditions of tariff) Regulations 2005
Electricity Act, 2003
77. Quality and Reliability Concepts PH1/M11/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 542
78. Occupational Health Hazards PH1/M10/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 551

M HAGENCO
Induction Level Training for Engineers - Phase I

KORADI
Induction Level Training

for Engineers - Phase I
Book - I
BOOK - I
M HAGENCO
Office of the Chief General Manager (TRG), Koradi Training Centre, Koradi, Nagpur - 441 111
M HAGENCO
(ISO 9001 : 2000 & 14001-2001 Unit) Tel. 07109 - 262737 (O) Fax : 07109 - 262167
Koradi Training Centre
E-mail : ktcmseb_ngp@sancharnet.in Website : www.mahagenco.in
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OUR VISION
“Endeavor to be the best and most efficient state of

the art generating utility in the country producing
reliable and adequate power at competitive and
affordable rates”.
KTC/ILT/PH-1/July - 2006, ver.oo, 31/7/06

(For internal circulation only)
Chief General Manager (TRG)

MSPGCL, KTC, Koradi
M HAGENCO
Forward
A. R. Kulkarni
Executive Director (Gen. O&M)
Maharashtra State Power Generation Co. Ltd
I am happy to forward this Handout on phase I Training of the Junior Engineers

of MAHAGENCO. As a statutory measure MSEB was trifurcated on 6th June 2005 and
Maharashtra State Power Generation Co. Ltd. came into existence. MSPGCL is
preparing itself for new challenges of the changing time. To take up the challenges of
power sector, young engineers are being inducted in the organisation. Training to
young engineers at Induction level is a need of time.
In today's scenario, MSPGCL has much bigger responsibilities. As a company it

must be a profitable and fighting fit to the challenges of the liberalised and open
power sector. I look forward to MSPGCL becoming the organisation of excellence in
technology and management area.
For over 45 years, since its formation in 1960, the Maharashtra State
Electricity Board was at the forefront of technological advances in power sector.
MSPGCL has inherited the wealth of experienced staff in erection, operation and
maintenance of power plant. This booklet of handouts is intended to introduce the
induction level engineers to the state of art technology of Power Sector. This booklet
of handouts shall prove instrumental in assimilation of knowledge and equip the
trainees to work effectively and carry forward the mission and vision of MAHAGENCO.
I express my sincere appreciation to the faculties and KTC personnel for their
valuable contribution to up-date the booklet and publish it in the present form.
A. R. Kulkarni
Executive Director (Gen. O&M),
M. S. Power Generation Co. Ltd.
M HAGENCO
Ajoy Mehta
Managing Director
Message from the Hon’ble Managing Director
I am very happy that Koradi Training Centre is bringing out this Booklet
for Phase I Induction Level Training of Engineers. I am sure this booklet shall
be very useful for learning and understanding of Power Generation Processes
and important topics related to current business environment, not only during
the training, but also for years to come.
Power sector is undergoing continuous change, and becoming more

and more market driven and competitive.
Our company is preparing itself to meet the challenges and shall

emerge as the best and most efficient state of the art generating utility in the
country producing reliable and adequate power at competitive and affordable
rates to its customers.
This training shall equip Young Engineers to play a very important role,
by providing effective and relevant knowledge, in pursuance of the mission
and vision of MAHAGENCO.
I appreciate the efforts of the staff of Koradi Training Centre in

preparing this Booklet in its current form.
Ajoy Mehta
Managing Director,
M HAGENCO
Vinay Bapat
Director (Operation)
Message from Hon’ble Shri Vinay Bapat,

Director (Operation), Maharashtra State Power Generation Co. Ltd.
Proper Training of engineers at induction level is one of the most important

responsibilities of the Management, likewise getting properly trained by utilising the
opportunity of training is the responsibility of the trainees.
Publishing a new booklet of literatures for the newly recruited engineers is a

step toward the fulfilment of a mission of the training centre. This booklet will be very
useful for the trainees of induction level to know the equipment well and effectively
deal with the problems that may occur during the operation of sophisticated power
plants. Faculties and other personnel of Koradi Training Centre have done a
commendable job of writing a much needed consolidated booklet for the trainees of
induction level engineers, I congratulate them and hope they will continue the
tradition of creativity and hope the trainees will fully make use of this literature.
Vinay Bapat
Director (Operation)
M HAGENCO
Vinayak Rao
Director (Finance)
Message from Hon’ble Shri Vinayak Rao,

Director (Finance), Maharashtra State Power Generation Co. Ltd.
I am indeed happy that Koradi Training Centre is publishing a booklet for the
induction level trainee engineers. The booklet will be very useful to the trainees to
understand the technical know how of the Thermal Power Plant Technology and
discipline of the Power Plant Engineering. The trainees are exposed to the working
knowledge of Power Plant Engineering in the induction level training and this booklet
will definitely be useful to them in the training period as well in the power plant also.
I express my gratitude toward the faculty and staff of Koradi Training Centre
for publishing this booklet. I am hopeful that they will continue their endeavour in this
direction for years to come.
Vinayak Rao
Director (Finance)
CONDENSER AND FEED WATER HEATER
PERFORMANCE
Condenser performance is one of the important factors for efficient operation of the
plant. Higher the Rankine cycle efficiency if lower is the temperature at which heat is rejected.
Hence maintaining condenser back pressure at design value is important. Condenser design
is based on expected values of Heat load, C. W. Inlet temperature and quantity of insoluble
gases. If any one or more of these values exceed the design value, higher than expected back
pressure may result. Objective of the Condenser performance test is to know whether condenser
is performing as per the design expectations at operating parameters. Deviations are then
analyzed for finding out the causes and actions for improvement are initiated. Analysis of
condenser performance is based on following indices, which are evaluated from test results.
Performance Indices :
Absolute pressure deviation from expected/ design.
Terminal temperature Difference (TTD)
Cleanliness Factor.
Sub-cooling of condensate and air / steam mixture
Heat Transfer Coefficient
Effectiveness of tube cleaning
Circulating water velocity in tubes
Circulating water temperature rise
Flow rate of air / steam mixture
Dissolved Oxygen in condensate
Effect of condenser performance on heat rate
These indices are computed from the test results in following ways.
Condenser Duty : It is the measure of heat load on condenser. Based on test data, this
parameter is computed and deviation from design value is found out.
Condenser Duty = (Heat added in Main Steam + Heat added in HRH steam) – 860 × (Gross
Generator output in KW + Generator losses in KW + Heat lost by radiation)
Where Heat added in Main Steam = M.S. Flow in Kg/ Hr (Enthalpy of Main Steam –
Enthalpy of Feed Water) Kcal / Hr
Heat added in Reheat Steam = HRH Steam Flow in Kg/ hr (Enthalpy of HRH steam –
Enthalpy of CRH steam) Kcal / Hr
Radiation Loss = 0.1% of Gross Generation in KW
Generator Losses = (Mechanical Losses + Iron Losses + Stator Current losses) KW,
These Values taken from Generator Loss Curve
860 = Equivalent heat energy for 1 KWh electrical energy.
498
Condenser Duty (Kcal /hr)
Condenser cooling water Flow = ——————————————— m3 / hr
Cp (Tout – Tin) × D
Where Cp = Specific Heat of Water = 1 Kcal / Kg deg C

D = Density of water = 1000 Kg / m3
Tout = Average C W outlet temperature, deg C
Tin = Average C W inlet temperature, deg C
Alternate Method : C W flow can be found out from cooling water pump’s Head Vs Discharge
flow characteristics. Head developed by the pump is measured during the test. It is then
corrected for design speed as follows.
Head Developed × (Nd) ²
Computed Head = ——————————————
(N) ²
Where Computed Head = in mwc

Head developed by the pump = in mwc
Pump Running speed ‘N’ = rpm
Pump Design speed ‘Nd’ = rpm
Water Velocity in Condenser Tubes :

C. W. Flow Rate × 106
Velocity = ————————————————————————————
3600 × Tube area × (Number of tubes – No. of tubes plugged)
Where Tube velocity is in m/s

C.W. Flow rate is in m3/ hr
Tube area is in mm2
Log Mean temperature Difference :
Tout - Tin
LMTD = —————————
Tsat - Tin
Ln ——————
Tsat – Tout
Where LMTD is in Deg C

Tsat is in deg C, (Saturation temperature corresponding to condenser pressure)
Cleanliness Factor :
U actual (Actual Heat Transfer Coefficient)
Cleanliness Factor = ————————————————————————————
U theoretical (Theoretical Heat transfer coefficient)
499
Condenser flow × Cp × (Tout – Tin) × Density of water
U actual = ———————————————————————————
A condensing × LMTD
U actual = kcal/ hr m2 0C
Density of water = 1000 Kg/ m3
A condensing = (Tubes surface area × No. of tubes ) in m2
U theoretical = C1 × C2 × C3 × C4 × Velocity
Values of Constants C1 through C4 are known from the tables given below
Values of constant C1
Tube diameter in inches 3/4 7/8 1.0
C1 (V in m/s and U in W/(m -K) 2
2777 2705 2582
Water temp ° C 21.11 26.66 32.22 37.77
C1 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.10
Tube Material Tube wall Gauge - BWG
24 22 20 18 16 14 12
Admiralty Brass 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.0 0.96 0.92 0.87
Arsenical Copper 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.0 0.96 0.92 0.87
Copper Iron 194 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.0 0.96 0.92 0.87
Aluminum Brass 1.03 1.02 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.90 0.84
Aluminum Bronze 1.03 1.02 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.90 0.84
90-10 Cu-Ni 0.99 0.97 0.94 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.74
70-30 Cu-Ni 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.82 0.77 0.71 0.64
Cold rolled low Carbon Steel 1.00 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.80 0.74
Stainless Steel Type 304/ 316 0.83 0.79 0.75 0.69 0.63 0.56 0.49
Titanium 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.71 - - -
C4 0.85 for clean tubes, less for algae covered tubes.
500
Expected LMTD for Deviation from design value :
Correction for C W Inlet temperature, Ct:

1/4
Saturation Temp Test – LMTD test
Ct =
Saturation Temp design – LMTD design
Correction for C.W. Flow, Cf :

1/2
Tube Velocity test
Ct =
Tube velocity design
Correction for condenser heat load Cq :

Condenser Duty design
Cq =
Condenser Duty test
Expected LMTD = LMTD test × Ct × Cf × Cq deg. C
Expected Saturation temperature :

| Tin – Tout × Expo [ Z ] |
Expected Saturation temperature =
| 1 – Expo [ Z ] |
Z = (Tout – Tin) / Expected LMTD
Where Tout = Temperature of C.W at condenser outlet

Tin = Temperature of C.W at condenser inlet
Feed Water Heater Performance :

Feed Water heater performance indices are :
1. Terminal Temperature Difference, also called TTD
2. Drain Cooler Approach, DCA,
3. Extraction steam flow rate to the heater.
These indices are computed from the Extraction Steam Parameters, Feed water Inlet/
outlet parameters and Drain or drip parameters. These indices are then compared with design
/ expected values and actions are planned to correct the deviations. Following discussions
explain how these indices are evaluated.
Terminal temperature Difference, TTD :

TTD = (Saturation temperature of extraction steam – Temperature of Feed Water at Heater
outlet)
Drain Cooler Approach, DCA :

DCA = (Temperature of Heater Drip – Temperature of feed water at Inlet)
501
Extraction Steam Flow :
The heat balance around the heater is given by
Heat Energy released from extraction steam = Heat energy absorbed by feed water
Heat Energy released from extraction steam = Extraction steam flow rate × (sp. enthalpy
of steam – specific enthalpy of drip water)
Heat energy absorbed by feed water = Feed flow rate through heater × (Sp. Enthalpy of
Feed water at heater outlet - Sp. Enthalpy of Feed water at heater inlet) + Drain flow from
cascaded heater × (Enthalpy of Drain from cascaded heater – Enthalpy of drain in the
heater under analysis)
Heat energy absorbed by feed water
Extraction steam flow rate =
(Enthalpy of steam – Enthalpy of drip water)
Measured values are

1) Extraction steam pressure and temperature
2) Feed water temperature and pressure at inlet and outlet of heater
3) Drip temperature
4) Feed Flow rate
Typical Feed Water Heater :

Extraction Steam Inlet
Drain From cascaded heater Feed Water O/ L
Desuperheating
Condensing
Drain Cooling
FW I/L
Drain Outlet
Shell Steam
Temperature
Desuperheating Condensing Zone Subcooling
502
Profile of Heat Gain by feed water in Heater
Poor performance of the heater results in Low feed water temperature at Heater outlet.
Probable reasons can be found out from the performance indices as per following guidelines.
Reasons for Low Feed Water Temperature are

1) Excessive makeup
2) Poor performance of the heater.
High T.T.D. or High D.C.A. temperature results in Poor performance.
Reasons for high TTD are :

1) Excessive Venting because of worn out vents, vent malfunction
2) High water level in heater shell due to Tube leaks or improper setting of Heater level
control
3) Leak in the partition of the header for feed water inlet / outlet
4) Noncondensible gases in shell side
5) Excessive tube bundle pressure drop because of tubes internal fouling ro excessive no. of
tubes plugged
Reasons for high DCA temperature are :

1) Drain cooler inlet not submerged in the drip
2) Low water level in the heater due to improper setting of the set point or Control valve
bypass left open or it is passing
3) Excessive tube bundle pressure drop because of tubes internal fouling or excessive no. of
tubes plugged
Low feed water temperature also result due to passing of the Heater’s Feed side
bypass valve.
✦✦✦
503
HEAT RATE OF THERMAL POWER PLANT
In thermal power plant, Chemical Energy of fuel is converted to electrical energy. The
conversion cycle is based on Thermodynamic Vapor Cycle, called Rankine Cycle. Conversion
takes place through various stages and different processes are involved for the purpose. Due
to the various limitations nature has imposed, such as Irreversibility in the process, heat
losses to atmosphere, Friction losses, Heat Transfer losses, to name a few, efficiency of
conversion is always less than 100%. In addition to these losses, some heat energy is rejected
because, steam temperature and pressure drop to such low values (after doing work in Turbine),
that further conversion to useful work is not possible. Due to all these reasons, energy input
is much more for one kWh electrical energy output from the Generator. If the Chemical /
Electrical conversion process should have been 100% efficient, 860 Kcal heat energy input
should have given one kWh electrical energy out put at Generator terminals. This ratio of
Electrical Energy Output over a certain period of time to Chemical Energy input to the Plant
over the same period is called Heat rate.
In modern plants, designed for High temperature and pressure Steam admission to
Turbine, efficiency and heat rate can be around 36% and 2400 Kcal/ KWh respectively.
The term “Heat rate” is defined in many ways as follows:
Net Unit Heat rate: It is the ratio of energy input to Boiler in terms of Heat energy of fuel, for
one kWh of electrical energy output at Bus Bars, i.e. after UAT. If the out put and input is
considered for a period of an hour, then it is Net Unit Heat rate for one Hour. Similarly, it can
be calculated over a period of a Day, a Week, a Month or a Year.
In this case, it is the sent out energy that is considered, hence, consumption of electrical
energy for driving the plant’s auxiliaries is also accounted for.
Gross Unit Heat rate : It is the ratio of energy input to Boiler in terms of Heat energy of fuel,
for one kWh of electrical energy output at Generator Terminals. In this case, auxiliary
consumption is NOT accounted for.
Net Turbine Cycle Heat rate : It is the ratio of heat energy contained in steam admitted to
Turbine for one kWh of electrical energy output at Generator Terminals. In this case, auxiliary
consumption and losses in Boiler are NOT accounted for.
Operating Heat rate : It is the heat rate calculated by considering the inputs and outputs
from the plant only when it is synchronized with the grid. In this case, the fuel input required
for steam conditioning, from light up to synchronization is not considered. Also auxiliaries
consumption during the period of plant shut down is not considered.
What information does “Heat rate“ give?

The plant is designed to generate electricity at certain design heat rate. Deviations from
design values give a valuable information regarding the operational and maintenance practices.
Also, by comparison with the historical data, decisions can be taken while making investments
on the maintenance and renovation. Also, problem area can be identified and analyzed for
improvements. A deviation in Gross Turbine Cycle heat rate tells us about energy conversion
scenario in turbine, including condenser and regenerative feed heating process. If Net average
unit heat rate deviates from that of design, it tells us how much extra amount of energy is put
in and how much money is “wasted”.
504
Now a days, tariff for supply of electricity to consumers is fixed by Maharashtra Electricity
Regulatory Commission. While fixing tariff, MERC has given the benchmark heat rate values
for all power plants in MSEB. If actual heat rate is more than the benchmark heat rate, the
additional expenditure incurred shall not be considered in Generation cost for fixing tariff.
Naturally MSEB will have to absorb the cost of this expenditure. Another important aspect is
of conservation of fast depleting natural resources, such as coal and fuel oil. When power is
generated at optimum heat rate, minimum possible fuel is consumed. Less fuel consumption
also leads to lesser extent of pollutants added to the environment. Hence monitoring and
controlling the heat rate to the optimum level has many benefits.
Calculations of heat rate :

Net Unit Heat rate, for given time period, is calculated by the formula,
(Coal Consumption × Its Calorific Value + Oil Consumption × Its Calorific Value)
——————————————————————————————————————————
Generation measured at Bus Bars
To measure coal consumption accurately is very difficult. Also the calorific value of coal
varies and its continuous, on line measurement is not possible.
Hence, in normal practice, unit heat rate is calculated by the simpler method:
Unit Heat rate = Turbine Cycle Heat rate / Boiler Efficiency calculated by loss method.
Turbine Cycle Heat rate = (Total Heat added to Turbine in Kcal) / (Generation in MU)
Total Heat added to Turbine Cycle =
((Sp. Enthalpy of S.H. Steam at Boiler Outlet x Total Steam Flow Rate to H.P.T.) –
(Sp. Enthalpy of Feed Water at economizer inlet x Feed Water Flow rate at
economiser inlet))
+ (Sp. Enthalpy of R.H. Steam at Reheater outlet – Sp. Enthalpy of C.R.H. steam
at Reheater inlet) x Reheat Steam Flow
+ (Sp. Enthalpy of S.H. Steam at Boiler Outlet – Sp. Enthalpy of S.H. spray) x
S. H. Attemperator Flow
+ (Sp. Enthalpy of R.H. Steam at Reheater outlet – Sp. Enthalpy of Reheat attemporator)
x R. H. Attemperator Flow.
Values of temperature, pressure and flow rate are known from instrumentation and
specific enthalpy can be known from Steam tables. The value of generation is known from the
Energy Meters. If reading of energy meter connected to Generator terminals is considered in
this formula, the heat rate obtained is Gross Heat rate and if that from Bus Bar energy meter
is considered, then it is the net heat rate.
For method of calculation of Boiler efficiency by loss method pl. refer the chapter on the topic.
Factors affecting the Turbine Heat rate :

1) Main Steam Temperature at H.P.T Inlet
2) Main Steam Pressure at H.P.T Inlet
3) Reheat Steam Temperature at I.P.T Inlet
4) Reheat Steam Pressure at I.P.T Inlet
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5) Condenser Vaccume
6) Temperature of Feed Water at Economiser Inlet.
7) Boiler efficiency
8) S.H. and R.H. attemperation flow rate.
The effect of individual parameter is discussed below:

Rankine cycle efficiency, ηrankine = 1 – (T2/ Tm1) (1)
Where; T2 is temperature of heat rejection, (2)
Tm1 is Mean temperature of steam admission = (h1 - h4s) / (s1 - s4s). (3)
h1 & s1 are specific enthalpy and entropy of steam at admission temperature and pressure,
h4s and s4s are the Sp. Enthalpy & entropy of feed water at Economiser inlet.
1) Temperature and Pressure of steam admission (M. S. as well as H.R.H) : For ηrankine to
be high, Mean temperature of Steam admission (Tm1 in expression 1 above) should be as
high as possible. Metallurgical constrains limit these values for the given Turbine. However, by
maintaining the steam parameters close to the values specified by the Manufacturer, maximum
possible Mean temperature of Steam admission is achieved thus cycle is operated at design
efficiency. Effect on heat rate due to Deviation from design values for 210 MW LMW plant is
as follows :
Parameter Expected Value Actual Value Heat rate Excess Coal Excess coal
deviation Consumption consumption
Kcal/kwh /KWh ( C.V. 3500 over the year,
Kcal/Kg) at 80% PLF
Main Steam temp. 537° C 532° C 1.648 0.0048 Tons
H.R. Steam temp. 537° C 532° C 3.3342 0.0009 2190Tons
Main Steam Pressure 140 Kg/cm² 138 Kg/cm² 2.417 0.0.0006 1016 tons
2) Condenser Vaccume plays a very important role in efficiency of the Rankine Cycle. If
vaccume is less than design value, i.e. if Condenser absolute pressure is more than design
value, corresponding saturation temperature is more, thus Heat is rejected at Higher
Temperature (T2 in expression 1 is less than design) and cycle efficiency drops. This increases
Heat rate. Also the of the L.P.T. backpressure increases, thus reducing the conversion of Heat
Energy to work in Turbine. This increases specific steam rate thus increasing fuel consumption.
In Condenser, only latent heat is rejected, hence condensate temperature is always at saturation
temperature. If condenser pressure is less than design value, temperature of condensate
shall also be less. This causes low feed water temperature, thus increasing the heat rate.
Following table shows effect of deterioration of condenser vaccume on heat rate.
Parameter Expected Actual Excess Heat rate Excess Coal Consumption / Excess coal
Kcal / KWh KWh ( C.V. 3500 Kcal/Kg) consumption over the
year, at 80% PLF
Condenser 690 670 19 0.0054 7989 Tons

mm Hg. mm Hg.
3) Less Temperature of feed water at Economizer inlet causes efficiency of Rankine Cycle to
drop, as Mean temperature of steam admission decreases. Values of h4s and s4s in expression
3 above are high, thus reducing Mean temperature.
506
year, at 80% PLF
Feed Water 253° C 248° C 22 0.0063 9261 Tons

Temp.
Reasons for Low Steam temperature and Pressure :

In the Power Plant, there can be many reasons for low temperature of Steam at Boiler
and Reheater outlet. Passing spray water control valves and motorized valves, inadequately
tuned temperature control system, fouled surfaces of the Super Heaters are some of the
reasons. These reasons become more dominant when the plant is operating at loads below
maximum rating. Throttling of steam flow due to partially shut valves is the major reason for
low pressure of steam at Turbine admission.
Reasons for poor vaccume in Condenser :

1) Air ingrace in condenser : Air ejection system of the condenser has the capacity to
remove non-condensable gases present in the steam in normal operation. As the condenser is
operated at less than atmospheric pressure, it is prone for air leaking in to it. Sealing systems,
such as Turbine Gland Sealing, Water sealing of the evacuation system Valves, are provided
to prevent the air ingrace. If Gland sealing steam pressure and temperature and Valve Gland
sealing water pressure are not maintained properly, atmospheric air enters the condenser in
large quantity. Evacuation system can not remove the excess air and hence condenser pressure
increases. Condensers are also provided with many tapping points for instrumentation. Many
of these tapping points are used only for carrying out acceptance tests. Once these tests are
over, the temporary instrumentation connected to condenser is removed. If any of such tapping
point remains open by oversight, air enters the condenser. There is also a chance of cracks
developed on the connection between L.P.T. casing and condenser. Damaged gaskets on flanged
joints, leaking vent valves provided on Pressure gauges, cracked impulse lines, passing vaccume
breaker valves, atmospheric vent or drain valves on C.E.P. inlet piping, if are open, also cause
air ingrace. Evacuation equipment, such as Steam Ejectors, Electrical Vaccume Pumps are
provided with airflow measuring devices. Any increase in the flow rate indicates air ingrace.
Condenser air leaks can be identified by manual inspection while the plant is on load. Helium
Leak Detectors can also check air leaks. When the unit is shut down, condenser leaks can be
detected by filling Condenser with D.M. Water up to certain high level. But this test needs lot
of prior preparation.
2) High C.W. Temperature, Insufficient Flow rate or Fouled heat transfer surface :
Condensers are heat exchangers. Heat transfer takes place from steam to cooling water from
the tube surface. Cooling water takes away the Latent Heat from condensing steam. The heat
transfer equation is
Q = U * A * ∆Tm (1)
Where Q is heat load on condenser, a function of mass rate of steam condensing

U is the coefficient of heat transfer,
A is the surface area of tubes
∆Tm is Log Mean Temperature Difference,
507
∆Ti - ∆Tf
Where ∆Tm = ———————— (2)
Ln (∆Ti / ∆Tf)
∆Ti = (saturation temperature of steam – C.W. inlet temperature) (3)
∆Tf = (saturation temperature of steam – C.W. outlet temperature) (4)
Also called Terminal Temperature Difference or TTD
Relationship between Water flow rate and heat load is given by

mw = Q / ( cp * (T2 – T1) ) (5)
(T2-T1) = (mw * cp) / Q (6)
Where mw is Mass flow rate of Water
cp is specific heat of water = 4.2 Kcal / Kg / °C,
T2 is Temperature of Water at condenser outlet
T1 is Temperature of Water at condenser inlet,
In the installed system, Mass flow rate of water (depends on the C.C.W pumping capacity)
and Heat Load (Mass of steam from LPT exhaust) becomes constant. And as per equation 3
above, heat removal capacity solely depends on (T2 - T1). Temperature of Cooling Water, T2,
at Condenser outlet can increase only up to the value decided by design T.T.D. for the condenser,
Design value for T.T.D. in Condensers is generally 2.5° C, as designing condenser for TTD
below this is not viable. Hence, ultimately, the heat removal becomes directly dependent on
Cooling Water Inlet temperature (assuming other factors to be constant for the given case).
Increase in this temperature will cause reduction in mass of steam getting condensed. In such
cases, some steam remains in vapour form, causing Condenser Pressure to increase. Similarly,
even if Cooling Water temperature is within design limits, but its mass flow rate reduces,
same scenario can be expected.
If heat transfer coefficient deteriorates, it again lead to increased Condenser Pressure,
as all the steam do not condense because of insufficient cooling.
Reasons for High C.W. temperature :

In Cooling Towers, evaporative cooling of Hot water takes place. Air, sucked by the C.T.
Fan, flows in cross flow direction to water flow, comes in contact with air, causing evaporation
of water. The heat energy required is taken from Water, thus cooling it. The rate of evaporation
is dependent on Relative Humidity of air and its dry bulb temperature C.T. design is made
considering yearly average value of R.H. found from historical data.
If the R.H. and Dry bulb temperature of ambient air is high, evaporation is low and
hence Water temperature does not drop to the design values. This situation may arise during
some periods of the year and is not controllable. The controllable reasons are;
1. Non availability of some of the C.T. fans,
2. Unequal distribution of water to individual cell of the cooling tower,
3. Some of the water not coming in contact with air stream,
4. Reduced surface are of mass of water due to damaged or plugged nozzles,
5. Sensible heat gain by cold water when it flows from C.T. to C.W. Pump sump.
508
Reasons for Low C.W. Flow rate;
1) C.W. Flow rate required for maintaining Condenser Vaccume at rated generation from
the plant are calculated by designers. Accordingly C.W. Pump rating is calculated. Velocity of
cooling water through condenser tubes is the controlling factor. The pumps selection is based
on calculated values of Hydraulic Resistance of the C.W. Lines, Condenser tubes, elevation to
which hot water should reach etc. Hydraulic resistance of the C.W. circuit increases due to
following reasons :
i. Number of Plugged condenser tubes more than considered while designing the system
ii. Reduction in Tube cross sectional area due to scaling in the tube or deposit of mud, algae
or organic growth within the tubes
iii. Throttling of Flow distribution valves at C.T. Cells
iv. Throttled isolating valves in the system
v. Deterioration of pump performance due to eroded or corroded impeller.
vi. Heavy and undetected leakage from the under ground piping.
Reasons for deterioration of Heat transfer coefficient :

Scaling and fouling, corrosion, and organic growth on condenser tubes reduces the ability
of heat transfer between Steam and cooling water. Ingrace of ambient of air in to the condenser,
which blankets the tube surface. Air has very low thermal conductivity and it causes drop in
Heat Transfer coefficient.
To minimize the problems of scaling, it is extremely necessary that cooling water softness
be maintained. Calcium and Magnesium salt precipitates stick to the metal surface forming
hard and difficult to remove scales. These salts have very poor thermal conductivity. Commonly
encountered scales are
i. Calcium Carbonate
ii. Calcium Sulphate
iii. Silicate Scales
iv. Calcium Orthophosphate
v. Magnesium salts
vi. Iron salts
Fouling is caused by deposition of suspended matter, insoluble in water. Foulants are
Mud and silt, Natural Organics, Microorganisms, Air borne Dust, Vegetation etc.
Preventive Measures : The concentration of salts takes place because of evaporation of

water in the cooling towers. Even if softened water is used, concentration of these salts
increases in closed circulation system. One of the ways to reduce the concentration is taking
fresh water in to the cooling pond to make up for the evaporated water. But by this method,
huge quantity of make up water is required. Another way is to softening. But soft water has
greater tendency for corrosion. Maintaining pH of water between 6.0 to 8.0 by feeding acid in
the system. But there are many disadvantages such as control of pH, safety in handling huge
quantity of acid etc. On line circulation of sponge balls through condenser tubes, and occasional
acid cleaning of the condenser tubes are other ways to prevent scaling.
Microbial Growth : Microorganisms enter cooling towers through air, make up water and
dust. The major problems are Algae, Fungi and Bacteria. Chlorine is usually adequate to
prevent the growth. But, it is effective only if pH is 8.3 or below. Free chlorine of 0.2 to 0.5
ppm is sufficient. Beyond 8.3 pH Chlorination does not satisfactory results.
509
Temperature of feed water at Economizer inlet :
Feed water temperature is another factor, which decides the efficiency of Rankine Cycle,
as is evident from expression 1 above. Tm1 decreases if temperature of feed water at Boiler
outlet is low. High availability of feed water heating system and also its optimum performance
are important factors. Reasons for poor performance of feed heaters are :
1. Scaling of the tubes
2. Inadequate venting of Feed waters before cutting those in service
3. Passing and leaking heater bypass valves
4. Heater getting bypassed frequently due to High water level of because of inefficient
heater level control instrumentation
Boiler Losses and efficiency :

Boilers are designed to operate at certain efficiency. Typical figures of the losses in the
Boiler (designed values) are :
Loss taking place % loss
Dry Flue Gas loss 4.64

H2O and H2 in fuel 5.60
H2O in air 0.18
Unburnt Carbon 0.60

Radiation 0.19
Unaccounted 0.40
Manufacturers Margin 0.50

Total Losses 12.11
Efficiency 87.9
Controllable losses are 1) Dry Flue Gas loss and 2) Unburnt Carbon. Losses due to
Moisture in fuel and air are uncontrollable. Ambient air, when introduced in the boiler, also
carries with it water vapors. Hydrogen in Coal reacts with Oxygen in air and forms moisture.
Along with flue gas, water vapors also receive heat energy produced from combustion of fuel.
This energy is lost to atmosphere through Chimney.
Flue gas loss and Unburnt Carbon loss are the controllable losses. Effect of deviation of some
of the parameters on Heat rate :
year, at 80% PLF
Excess Oxygen 3.5 % 4.0% 3.467 0.001 1600 Tons
Unburnt Carbon 1.0% 1.5 % 3.782 0.0011 1700 Tons
Flue Gas Temp 135 145 18.67 0.00533 7853 Tons
Moisture in coal 9% 11% 2.75 .00078 1156 Tons
Flue Gas Loss :

Combustion of fuel produces flue gas. Its major constituents are
1. Carbon Di Oxide produced by Carbon & Oxygen reaction,
510
2. Nitrogen from air,
3. Fly ash,
4. Oxygen,
5. Water Vapours.
Temperature of flue gas leaving air pre heaters is maintained at 135 to 140° C. Total
Heat content in the flue gas is =
(Volume of flue gas in m³/sec x Sp. Heat of the flue gas x Specific Weight x Flue gas temperature)
• Specific Heat of the flues gas is 30.6 kJ / Kg /° C.
• Specific weight of the flue gas is 0.796 Kg/ m³.
When boiler is operated with Optimum air supply and temperature of flue gas at APH
outlet must is maintained within the design limits, flue gas loss is at its minimum. Primary Air
+ Secondary air is the total Combustion air supplied to Boiler. Depending on the Coal Analysis
and required velocity of air + coal mixture through coal pipes, manufacturers specify P.A.
Flow through coal mill in relation to Coal Feeding.
Combustion Air requirement for the Boiler : Requirement of air for combustion of coal
varies as per the constituents of coal being fired. If it is less than required, incomplete
combustion takes place leading to high unburnt carbon loss. If it is more than required,
combustion can be complete but Flue gas quantity increase leading to higher flue gas losses.
For Pulverized coal fired Boilers, 20% Excess air supplied under specific conditions, ensure
complete combustion. By maintaining 3.5 % Oxygen in flue gas (On dry flue gas basis) at
Economizer outlet ensures, that the Boiler if being fed with 20% excess air. It needs to be
emphasized that “Specific Conditions” must be met to ensure minimum losses. These
conditions are:
1. Fuel particle size must confirm to specified dimensions.
2. All the coal nozzles must admit equal mass of fuel in furnace and hence , primary air
velocity through pipes must be equal and as P.A. flow to mill should be proportional to
mill loading as specified by the manufacturer
3. Coal / Air mixture temperature at Pulveriser outlet must be 77° C.
4. Secondary air must enter combustion chamber from pre determined places only.
5. Secondary air must enter the furnace at predetermined velocity from all elevations.
6. Diffusers on the coal nozzles must be in proper condition to ensure that the jet of air/
coal mixture, emanating from nozzle, is well distributed.
7. Furnace must be air tight to eliminate possibility of entry of ambient air.
When all these conditions are satisfied, then only efficient combustion in the furnace,
supplied with 20 % excess air is ensured. Fuel admission and combustion system has following
equipment to ensure these conditions.
1. Oxygen Analyzers : In situ, Zirconia probe Oxygen Analyzers, installed on Economiser
outlet ducts, continuously monitor Oxygen in flue gas. Automatic air flow control loop
regulates F.D. Fan Inlet Guide Vanes in such a way that 3.5% Oxygen in flue gas is
maintained through out the operation of Boiler.
2. Fuel air dampers (named after the coal elevations i.e. A, B, C, D etc) on all the Four
Corners should be open only for the elevations that are in service. Position of these
dampers must be equal for all the corners. Regulation of these dampers is as per the
quantity of coal feeding measured as Coal Feeder speed. Dampers of the elevations AA.
511
FF, BC and DE should open equally for all Four Corners. These dampers are regulated to
maintain Furnace – Windbox D.P. to the value specified by the manufacturer. Dampers
AB, CD and EF are regulated as per Fuel Oil pressure for Oil elevation in service. For the
oil elevation not in service, dampers regulate as per the Furnace – Windbox D.P.
3. Orifice plates in Coal Pipes : To ensure that all burners (nozzles) at all coal elevations
admit equal mass per sec in the furnace, two requirements should be fulfilled. Primary
air flow velocity in each of the pipe must be equal and fuel/ air ratio in all pipes should
be the same. Inserting the Orifice plates, thus equalizing the hydraulic resistance of all
the pipes equalizes pipe velocity. Cold air flow tests are conducted on coal mills at
regular intervals. Results from these tests give valuable information of condition of Orifice
plates and partially or fully choked up pipes. If coal mill is operated with Primary air flow
rate less than that specified, velocity of coal air mixture drops below 20 mtr/sec, causing
separation of coal particles from stream and consequent settlement in pipes, resulting
partial choke up. If the temperature of coal / air mixture at coal mill outlet drops below
60° C, there is a possibility of condensation of water vapor which also result in separation
of coal particles and its settlement.
4. Mill air flow control dampers : For ensuring the coal / air ratio equal, P.A. flow rate to mill
should be as per mill loading and hence regulated by feeder speed. Coal mill manufactures
give the P.A. Flow rate and mill loading characteristics.
5. Mill temperature control system: By ensuring coal air mixture at 77° C, adequate dryness
of coal is ensured, which is one of the important requirements for proper and efficient
combustion.
6. Furnace – Windbox DP Control system : Velocity at which secondary air enters the
furnace is determined by Furnace – Wind box differential pressure. For every boiler,
value of Furnace – Wind box differential pressure is specified for different loading
conditions. By sticking to the specified values, it is ensured that velocity of secondary air
is as per the combustion reaction requirement. For this purpose, opening of Secondary
Air dampers of the wind box is controlled by automatic control loop for Furnace – Windbox
DP. Set point for this loop is generated as per the boiler load as indicated in the enclosed
Fig.1.
7. Corner Firing : For achieving efficient and sustained combustion at desired rate,
Oxygen in Air must reach the Coal particles at that rate. Oxygen molecule reach burning
coal particles by a process called Diffusion. Ratio of Concentration of Oxygen at particle
surface to that in surrounding gas mixture decides rate of diffusion. This rate is highest
when Coal particle is surrounded by air which contains 21 % Oxygen. Furnace atmosphere
is made of mixture of Coal, Air, Flue Gases and Ash particles. To ensure that coal particles
will always remain surrounded by air, place of air admission, velocity at which air is
admitted and turbulence in the furnace are of prime importance. First two requirements
are fulfilled as discussed above. Tangential firing fulfills requirement of turbulence.
8. Air tight Furnace: Furnace pressure is always maintained at 4 – 5 mm W.C. below
atmosphere. If furnace is not air tight, ambient air will enter furnace. But, the velocity of
this air is very low. This air can not mix with the jets of Secondary air and Primary air /
Fuel mixture admitted at very high velocities and hence does not take part in combustion.
But, it travels with flue gas, and distorts the Oxygen reading, thus replacing the Secondary
air. It is therefore extremely important that tramp air entry be prevented.
9. Pulverization of coal for design particle size : The above discussions deal with the
importance of Fuel firing equipment and air supply to boiler. Role of particle size is as
512
important as that of proper supply and distribution of air in the furnace. As explained,
care is taken that coal particles will always be surrounded by air in the furnace. In
furnace, very small size air “Packets” are interspersed in the homogeneous mixture of
gases. Total oxygen required for complete combustion of the individual particle depends
on mass of particle, which in turn depends on the size to which particle is pulverized.
Smaller is the size of particle, smaller the quantity of Oxygen required for its complete
combustion. Hence, by ensuring that 70% of Coal passes through 200 Mesh, it will
always remain surrounded by air “packet” which will contain enough Oxygen. But, it is
also important that size distribution of balance 30 % coal should be:
Passing through 100 mesh; 85% and above

Retained by 50 Mesh: Less than 0.5%
Resident time of particles in the furnace is generally 1 to 2 seconds. Bigger particles will
not burn completely due to lack of Oxygen, within this time and leave the furnace as unburnt
Carbon, thus increasing losses. Coarser particles also lead to increase in slagging.
Optimization of Combustion Process : Supplying 20% excess air ensures that combustion
will be complete. How ever, there is always a possibility that in certain type of Coal and
combustion conditions, Excess Oxygen requirements can even go below 20%. It may also be
possible that in some conditions, excess Oxygen requirements may be more than 20%. In
power plants, where coal from different mines is fired regularly, such conditions may arise
very frequently. To ensure that combustion remain efficient in varying condition and Optimum
air is supplied to Boiler in all conditions, Carbon Mono Oxide monitoring in flue gas is done. If
combustion is not complete, concentration of CO in flue gases increases. Complete combustion
is indicated by 100 ppm Co in flue gas at Economizer outlet. If combustion is incomplete due
to insufficient air, Co level shot up immediately to very concentration values. Fig. 2 shows the
variations in Co with ref to Air supplied to Boiler.
Other Factors : Following factors also cause deterioration of plant performance, thus increasing
heat rate. Many times, these factors are not measurable directly by plant’s instrumentation.
But, their effect can be known from regular tests.
Low efficiency of H.P. Turbines, I.P. Turbine and L.P. Turbine: Turbine cylinder isentropic
efficiency is the measure of how efficiently turbine has converted input heat energy in to
mechanical work. Isentropic efficiency of Turbine Cylinder is given by :
Actual Enthalpy of steam at Inlet – Actual Enthalpy of steam at exhaust

Efficiency = ———————————————————————————————————————
Actual Enthalpy of steam at Inlet – Ideal Enthalpy of steam at exhaust
Actual Enthalpy is known from steam parameters at Inlet and Exhaust. If steam expands
in turbine without change of Entropy, then it is called ideal expansion. By finding out Temperature
for Actual exhaust pressure and actual entropy of steam at Turbine inlet, value of ideal enthalpy
is known. Turbine manufacturers give the expected Efficiencies. Any subsequent deviation
from expected values indicate deterioration of Turbine and can be corrected in the planned
outages.
513
Air Heater leakage : In Trisector Airheaters, air leakage, through seals, in to flue gas takes
place. Due to rotating rotor, the air side and flue gas side sectors are sealed by radial as well
as axial seal plates. Deterioration of sealing arrangement increases air leakage increasing
I.D. Fans loading. Leakage of ambient air in to flue gas through damaged ducts and through
E.S.P. Hoppers is another reason of increased loading fo the I.D. Fans. The extent of both the
leakages can be so high that I.D. Fan loading reaches its maximum, leading to either restriction
on Generation or in worst case, purposeful reduction of Secondary air. By measuring Oxygen
at Air Heater outlet and ESP outlet monitoring of extent of air leakage is possible.
Make up water consumption : Consumption of make up water is because of following reasons:

1. Soot blowing
2. Steam ejectors
3. Opening of C.B.D.
4. Passing of drain valves
5. Leakages of steam or feed water.
6. Steam used for Oil heating and steam tracing of oil lines.
7. Operation of auto drain traps to remove condensate from steam pipelines.
To certain extent, steam consumed for Soot Blowing, Oil heating and Ejectors and
Water lost through C.B.D. can be calculated. If this data is monitored regularly, extent of
leakage from system can be guessed. Any leakage from system indicates heat lost and lead
to increased heat rate.
Sprey Water Flow rate for Steam temperature Control : There is no direct effect of
attempartion flow in heat rate deviation. But increased sprey flow rate indicates deterioration
of Boiler Conditions.
Auxiliary Consumption : Increased Auxiliary Consumption indicates more energy consumed

by auxiliaries. It also makes less energy available for distribution to consumers. Closely
monitoring these values helps in monitoring of health of the auxiliary. Regular energy audit
gives valuable information on repairs to be carried out and planned maintenance.
Conclusions : From above discussions, it can be concluded that, operation of the Thermal
Power Plant at optimum conditions reduces Gross Unit heat rate. The factors that affect heat
rate are:
1) Parameters of steam at HPT, IPT inlets,
2) Condenser Performance
3) Cooling Tower Performance,
4) Combustion of fuel in Boiler with Optimum air supply, thus reducing Dry Flue Gas loss
and Unburnt Carbon loss.
5) Auxiliary Consumption
6) Air heater leakage
7) Duct Leakage
8) Ingrace of tramp air in Boiler
9) Make up water consumption
10) Turbine Cylinder Efficiency
11) Feed Water temperature at Economizer Inlet.
514
Fig. 1, Variation in Furnace Windbox DP control ckt. set point with load
140 mm Wcl.
Furnace –
Windbox DP
40 mm Wcl.
40 % 70 %
Boiler Load
Fig. 2, Change in CO in flue gas with combustion air supply
CO in flue gas
In ppm
Deficient air supply
100 ppm
Optimum Air Supply Air supply to Boiler
✦✦✦
515
UNIT PERFORMANCE AND OPTIMISATION
I. BOILER PERFORMANCE
A) Optimizing Total air supplies :

Supplying correct air quantity for combustion is vital for optimization of boiler operation.
Too little air will cause unburnt losses and too much air will increase the dry flue gas losses.
Carbon mono-oxide monitor can be effectively used for enabling supply of correct air
quantity of air for combustion. Flue gasses in a pulverized fuel boiler will normally have a
residual quantity of carbon mono-oxide in the vicinity of 100 ppm.
If the amount of excess air supplied to the furnace is greater than the design excess air value,
then the flue gas flow rate and the amount of heat lost to the atmosphere will increase,
causing a decrease in energy efficiency. This situation can occur if the plant control system is
defective or there is incorrect plant operation.
B) Combustible materials in ash :

The amount of unburnt in ash is a measure of effectiveness of combustion process and
milling plant. Normally about 1.5% carbon in dust is regarded as optimum. Values higher
than this are indicative of the following.
1. Poor grinding.
2. Incorrect combustion air supplies.
3. In correct p.f. classifier setting or mills in need of adjustments.
Apart from the milling plant the actual combustion process can lead to high carbon in
ash. If the air supplies are badly adjusted, even though grinding is proper, unburnt losses can
occur. For the best control of flame all mills should ideally produce the same size of product,
and also all mills should be equally loaded as this spreads the fire evenly. Unequal grading
produce flames, which have different characteristic and so are insensitive to secondary air
adjustments. The air temperature is also important because of influence of the rate of ignition
and flame length. The primary air to secondary air ratio is also an important norm, which
should not be allowed to deviate too much from the recommended value.
C) Air heater gas outlet temperature :

Optimum air heater gas outlet temperature recommended by manufacturer should be
adhered to.
The temperature of the flue gas leaving the air heater (which is the final heat exchange
element in the boiler) has a direct influence on the station efficiency. For example, a 22OC
increase in this temperature above optimum could result in a 1% decrease in station efficiency.
There are many causes of an increase in this temperature, all to do with reductions in energy
absorbed from the hot gas in or after the furnace. The most usual problems are :
1. Ineffective air heater soot blowers
2. Holed & torn elements, a particular problem at the cold end plates because of corrosion.
3. Fouling, corrosion/erosion and blocking of air heater elements.
4. Deposits on the external heat transfer surfaces of the furnace, super heaters, re-heaters
and economisers - many of these surfaces have to be regularly cleaned using “soot
blowing” for increase in efficiency resulting from cleaner heat transfer surfaces.
5. Fouling of the internal heat transfer surfaces of the furnace, super heaters, re-heaters
and economisers caused mainly by incorrect chemistry of the water and steam in these
tubes; or by incorrect material selection of the tubes; or by the tube material overheating;
or combinations of these
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6. Defective or non-availability of Soot Blowers.
7. High Excess Air (This will increase the gas weight and also elevate the temperature,
however if excess air is very high, dilution effect may predominate and the flue gas
temperature will fall).
8. Low feed water inlet temperature at Economiser inlet.
9. Defective baffles in gas paths.
10. Poor milling and poor combustion resulting in long burn off times and result in higher
outlet gas temperature in addition to fouling.
11. Use of higher rows of burners at lower loads.
12. Air leakage before combustion chamber.
II. TURBINE PERFORMANCE

A) Internal Losses :
Nozzle Friction, Blade friction, disc friction, diaphragm gland and blade tip leakage,
partial admission, wetness and exhaust.
B) External Losses : Shaft gland leakages.
The common cause of cylinder efficiency deterioration include,
1. Damage to blades caused by debris getting past the steam strainers.
2. Damage to tip seals and inter stage glands.
3. Deposition on blades, normally start at last few I.P. stages and carry on to the first few
L.P. stages.
4. Increased roughness of blade surface.
III. FEED WATER HEATER PERFORMANCE

Deterioration of feed water heater performance occurs for the following causes.
1. Air accumulation
2. Steam side fouling
3. Water side fouling.
4. Drainage defects.
Once air accumulation occurs it is manifested in the following.
a) Reduced heater drain water temperature
b) Increased T.T.D. (Terminal Temperature Difference)
c) Possible elevation of steam to Heater temperature.
d) Reduced temperature rise of feed water or condensate.
Steam side fouling : The effect of steam side fouling can be observed by the following
a) Progressive increase of T.T.D.
b) Drain Temp unaffected
c) Reduced feed water temperature rise.
Water side fouling : Common cause of waterside fouling is oil.
Thermal magnification of the trouble are similar to steam side fouling except that the on-set
of increasing T.T.D. is usually sudden and rate of deterioration is rapid.
Drainage defects : Apart from passing of valves, the usual troubles are,
a) Damaged flash box internals.
b) Reduced orifice openings.
c) Enlarged orifice openings.
d) Drip pumps defective.
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Effect of heater fouling : Fouling always causes increase in T.T.D. resulting from lower feed
water outlet temperature. Therefore when feed enters the next heater it will be colder than
normal and so increases the steam consumption at that heater. Increased steam flow will
cause increased velocity and mass flow, which may cause mechanical damage.
As a general guide, the turbine generator heat rate will be affected by 0.07% for 10C change
in T.T.D. of HP Heaters.
It is recommended that feed heater TTD be monitored every day.
IV. CONDENSER PERFORMANCE :

It is an accepted fact that less than half the heat in fuel is converted into electrical
energy and losses in condenser account for more heat than does the electrical output. In
other words, at any time in the operation of the unit, more MW is going out through the
condenser than which is coming through the generator.
Even very small worsening of backpressure is very expensive in terms of extra heat required
for a given output. In fact condenser performance is the most important operating parameter
on a unit. In fact the condenser performance is the most important operating parameter on a
unit, so the factors which worsen condenser back pressure must be clearly recognized so that
effective remedial measures can be taken.
The factors affecting performance of condenser are :
1. Variation of C.W inlet temperature.
2. Variation of CW Quality
3. Interference with heat transfer.
Condenser T.T.D is a measure of interference with heat transfer. A high TTD means a
worsened condition.
The temperature gradient, which is the main driving force for the heat transfer, is expressed
as log mean temp. difference. (LMTD).
The main factors affecting the heat transfer in a condenser are

1. Effect of air blanketing on steam side of tubes. The effect of air ingress is the main factor
causing poor performance of condensers. Air ingress can be measured by use of orifice
plates provided at the ejector outlets.
2. Deposition of oil or oxides of copper or iron on the steam side (Copper Oxide etc.)
surface affecting the heat transfer adversely.
3. Deposition on the insides of the tubes due to scale, slime, mud or dirt.
OPTIMISATION OF UNIT PERFORMANCE

Monitoring just a few parameters, it is possible to get a good idea whether plant is
working in optimized condition or not.
These parameters are :
1. Condenser Vacuum.
2. Main steam pressure at turbine inlet.
3. Main steam Temperature inlet at turbine inlet.
4. Reheat temperature at turbine inlet.
5. Final feed water temperature after heater block.
6. Boiler excess air.
7. Unburnt / combustible material in ash.
8. Air heater gas outlet temperature.
9. Make up water consumption.
If each of these conditions is at optimum value there is a good chance that the unit is
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being operated at or near the optimum performance limits. Therefore it is a good practice to
record the above parameters regularly, say once per shift and take action on any deviations
that are significant.
The significance of each of these parameters in optimization of unit is discussed here as
under.
1. CONDENSER VACUUM :
This is the most important parameter that is required to be monitored. The significance
of it can be understood from the fact that a vacuum drop equivalent to 10 mm of Hg would
cause a loss of approx. Rs. 415/- hour in terms of fuel cost when running the unit at full load.
(The figures are based on performance calculations done at Chandrapur in 1996.)
It is therefore necessary that in every shift back pressure should be analysed for deviations
from optimum. One of the reasons for the drop in back pressure is the air ingress in the
condenser. Checks should be carried out to see if air ingress is excessive.
For checking the air ingress, help of Helium leak detector may be taken to identify and
/ or quantify the air ingress points. The best way to do this is to note the air suction depression.
This is a method by which presence of air is determined by measuring temperature of contents
of air suction pipe to air ejectors / vacuum pumps. When there is only a little air present, the
temperature is very little below the saturated steam temperature say within 4.50C. as more
and more air is present the temperature falls – the more air the greater depression of air
suction compared to saturated steam temperature. Preferable the thermometers are to in
direct contact with the contents of air suction pipe.
Alternately at regular intervals, say once a week confirm how long it takes for the back
pressure to detoriate by a set amount when the air pump suction valves are shut. Comparison
with the time taken when condenser was known to be in good condition will indicate the
degree of air leakage.
2. MAIN STEAM PRESSURE AT TURBINE INLET :

A change in turbine stop valve pressure will result in corresponding change in output.
Hence it is the most important that when the unit is on full load, the turbine stop valve
pressure is kept at correct value. In general the effects of change in Turbine Stop Valve
pressure are :
a) Steam flow will change.
b) Changed flow will cause the pressure through the turbine to change, including bleed
steam pressure.
c) Because of (b) the feed heater outlet water temperature will change.
d) Total Heat of TSV steam, R/H steam and final feed water flow will change.
e) Boiler feed pump output will change to cope-up with changed flow.
f) Because the flow through turbine has altered so the volumetric flow to condenser will
change.
Thus it is seen that a simple change in TSV pressure reflects throughout the cycle.
It can be seen from the calculation that 5 Kg/cm2 pressure drop at turbine inlet would result
in a loss of Rs 185/- per hour approximately. Based on calculations done in 1996.
3. MAIN STEAM TEMPERATURE AT TURBINE INLET :

Variations in the TSV steam temperature result in variations in the specific volume of the
steam and this results in a change of steam flow.
Other results are :
a) Change of total heat to TSV Steam.
b) Change of total heat to HP cylinder exhaust steam.
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c) The change of flow will alter the pressure throughout the turbine and this will change the
bleed steam flow to heaters.
Calculations indicate that a 50C drop in the main steam temperature could result in a
loss of around Rs. 100/- per hour at full load.
4. REHEAT OUTLET STEAM TEMPERATURE :

Variations in the Reheat Outlet Steam temperature will cause:
a) Change in total heat of the steam.
b) Change of steam flows to the condenser for a given loading.
50C drop in the Reheat Outlet Steam temperature would result in a loss around
Rs. 154/- per hour at full load.
5. FINAL FEED WATER TEMPERATURE AFTER HEATER BLOCK :

The final feed water temperature should be measured after the HP Heater block bypass
has joined the feed line and deviations from optimum should be investigated. Water flows
through the bypass will cause the final feed heater outlet temperature to be higher than final
feed. Variations of feed flow from optimum will cause changes of output and heat rate.
In addition there can be deviations from optimum at individual heaters. Whatever is the
trouble at a heater it must affect one or more of these parameters.
a) Heater Terminal Temperature Difference.
b) Drain outlet terminal temperature difference.
c) Bleed steam pipe pressure drop.
d) Steam temperature at heater inlet.
6. BOILER EXCESS AIR :

Boiler combustion efficiency is largely dependent upon supplying correct quantity of
excess air at right place. Supplying too much of excess air will increase dry flue gas losses.
This is because the quantity of gas will increase and so will the heat content as excess air will
absorb heat more readily than the heat exchange surface, thus increasing the Air heater gas
outlet temperature.
7. COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS IN ASH :

The permitted values for the carbon in ash are 0.8 % in fly ash and 4.8% in bottom ash
as per the design. Values greater than above are indicative of:
a) Poor grinding
b) Incorrect combustion air supplies.
c) Incorrect pulveriser fineness classifier settings.
It is calculated that 1.5% carbon in ash is equivalent of about 0.5% boiler losses amounting
to around Rs. 236/- per hour approximately at full load.
8. AIR HEATER GAS OUTLET TEMPERATURE :

The causes of high air heater gas outlet temperature are :
a) Ineffective A/H soot blowing.
b) Holed and torn elements.
c) Deposits on boiler heat transfer surface.
d) Defective soot blowers resulting in reduced heat transfer in discrete location and result
will be as in (c).
e) High excess air increases the gas weight and also elevates the temperature. However if
the excess air is very high dilution effect may predominate and the gas temperature will
fall.
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f) Low final feed water temperature has to be remedied by extra firing in the boiler and this
will result in high exit gas temperature.
g) Poor milling and poor combustion results in long burn off times and result in high gas
temperature at furnace exit in addition to fouling.
h) Using upper rows of burners on low loads.
Generally speaking a final gas temperature of about 200C above optimum will result in
boiler efficiency loss of about 1%, which amounts to a loss of Rs. 472/- per hour at full load.
9. MAKE UP WATER CONSUMPTION :

Makeup water is replacing water and steam, which has been lost from system and contains
considerable quantities of heat.
There are four usual sources of loss:
a) Passing of valves / leaks.
b) Boiler blow downs.
c) Drains going to waste
d) Soot blowing.
Of the above four sources of loss, the first three can be controlled by good house keeping.
As regards the soot blowing losses if it is carried out too often heat is wasted whereas if it is
not carried out often enough the heat transfer may become heavily coated and heat transfer
will be reduced and thus the final gas temperature will rise. Hence there must be optimum
interval between soot blowing, but just that may be difficult to determine. The basic problem
is that soot blowing affects boiler efficiency and boiler availability.
An expression for heat loss due to carrying of soot blowing is :
Heat loss to soot blowing steam
Loss =
Heat given to TSV Steam + Heat given to RH steam
Qs (h1-h5)
Loss = 0.25Qs +
(h2 – h5) + QR (h4 – h3)
Where Qs = Soot blowing steam as a percent of TSV steam flow.
QR = Reheat steam flow as fraction of TSV steam flow.
h1 = Total heat of steam at A/H gas outlet temperature & pressure.
h2 = Total Heat of Steam at TSV conditions.
h3 = Total Heat of Steam before Re-heater.
h4 = Total Heat of Steam after air heater.
h5 = Heat in final feed water.
The term 0.25 Qs is the approximate loss due to raising the temperature of the cold
make up water to final feed water temperature.
For operational purposes it is convenient to determine some reference temperature (say
gas temperature leaving primary super heater) and commence soot blowing when it reaches
a certain value, allowance being made for boiler loading. The alternative of blowing out at
preset times (say once per shift) has little to commend except convenience. One of the main
parameters that determine the frequency of soot blowing is the ash content of coal.
The above explanations are given to bring home the importance of maintaining the few
vital parameters to their optimum values for bringing down the operating losses. If each of
the above conditions is maintained at the optimum it can be assured that the unit will be
running at minimum losses and maximum efficiency and consequently the coal rate per HWH
generation will also come down appreciably.
✦✦✦
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TURBINE PERFORMANCE
Turbine performance plays a major role in Turbine Cycle Heat rate. Isentropic Efficiency
of turbine is the important parameter that indicates performance of the Turbine. In impulse
stages of the turbine, steam expands thorough nozzles, causing increase in its kinetic energy.
The high velocity steam jet is then made to impinge on the moving blades fixed on the rotor,
causing blade and rotor to move. Thus the heat energy is converted to mechanical work. As a
result of the conversion, steam temperature and pressure drop over the stages of turbine.
Amount of heat energy converted to work, by applying first law of thermodynamics,

= (Heat Energy contained by steam at admission – Heat Energy contained by steam at exhaust.)
= (Enthalpy of steam at Admission – Enthalpy of steam at exhaust)
If the expansion of steam had taken place ideally, the isentropic efficiency of the Turbine
cylinder would have been 100%. In such case Entropy of steam at exhaust and at admission
should have remained the same. But, due to the irreversibility in the process of expansion, all
the heat energy is not available for conversion to work.
Isentropic efficiency of turbine is thus expressed as a ratio of Actual change in Enthalpy
across the turbine, compared to Theoretical change (At constant entropy) expressed as
percentage.
Method of Calculation : The method of calculating the efficiency is demonstrated for HPT as
follows.
Isentropic efficiency of HP Turbine =
(Enthalpy of steam at HPT Inlet – Actual Enthalpy of steam at HPT Exhaust)
(Enthalpy of steam at HPT Inlet – Ideal Enthalpy of steam at HPT Exhaust)
Enthalpy of steam at HPT Inlet : This is known from the steam tables for steam admission
pressure and temperature.
Actual Enthalpy of steam at HPT Exhaust : This is known from the steam tables for exhaust
steam pressure and temperature.
Ideal Enthalpy of steam at HPT Exhaust : This is known by first finding out the ideal
temperature of exhaust steam at actual exhaust steam pressure and entropy of steam at
admission. Then ideal enthalpy is known from steam tables, by considering actual exhaust
pressure and ideal exhaust steam temperature.
Similarly isentropic efficiencies of IPT and LPT are calculated by considering appropriate
steam parameters for these turbines.
Effect of Turbine Efficiency on heat rate for 210 MW plant : (Unit heat rate of 2500 Kcal/kWh)
One percent improvement in Efficiency of % Effect on Turbine Cycle heat rate Effect on Unit Heat Rate
HP Turbine 0.2 % Heat rate - 5 Kcal / kWh
IP Turbine 0.2 % Heat rate - 5 Kcal / kWh
LP Turbine 0.5 % Heat rate -12. 5 Kcal / kWh
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In addition to the irreversibility of the expansion of steam in turbines, following losses
contribute to reduced efficiency :
1) Fluid Friction : This is the biggest cause for losses in the turbines. Fluid friction loss can
amount for 10% of the total energy available to turbine. By proper design velocities,
these losses are minimized but can not be completely eliminated. Friction losses are
present due to
i) Friction in steam nozzles
ii) Blade friction, which can be minimized by reduction in velocity of steam by compounding
etc.
iii) Turbulence at blades when blade shape does not posses proper angle of entrance for
steam at loads other than design load.
iv) Friction between steam and rotor disc on which blades are mounted.
v) Rotating blades and rotor produces centrifugal action on steam. Due to which some part
of steam flows radially to casing, which gets dragged along the moving blade.
vi) Churning of steam in moving blades, especially when the turbine is on part load operation.
This loss takes occurs in impulse stages.
2) Leakage loss : Steam leakage can occur within and outside the turbine and amount to
1% loss of the total energy supplied to the turbine. The leaking steam gets throttled and
represents unavailable energy. Causes of leakage are as follows.
i) Steam leakage takes place along the blade tips and casing when there is a pressure drop
across the blades as in the case of reaction turbines. The loss is greater in high-pressure
turbines. Also ratio of blade height to clearance (between the blade tip and casing) also
affect this loss. Greater being the ratio, greater is the loss.
ii) In pressure compounded turbines, leakage of steam leaks along the shaft at diaphragms
on which nozzles are mounted.
iii) Some steam also leaks out side the turbine from the shaft glands.
3) Moisture Loss : Some part of steam converts to moisture in the turbine. The droplets
are generally move at a low speed. Some droplets strike the moving blades at off-design
angles and reduce the mechanical work of the rotor. Other droplets are accelerated to
velocity of steam and thus momentum exchange takes place reducing the energy in
steam. Usually, the moisture content is limited to 12% at exit steam.
4) Leaving loss : The residual steam velocity at the last row of rotating blades in a turbine
is quite high because of decrease in pressure and increase in specific volume. The
corresponding kinetic energy represents a loss from the turbine. Magnitude of the leaving
velocity is kept to the minimum by proper combination of height of last blades, speed
and area of the exhaust duct to the condenser. In large turbines, velocity of steam at
exhaust is in the range of 270 to 300 m/s. Provision of double flow paths in IP and LP
Turbines, gradually increasing the exhaust duct also reduces the leaving velocity. This
loss is to an extent of 2 to 3% in modern turbines.
Hence, if the Turbine Performance deviates from the design value, it presents an
insight in to the condition of turbine internals, and hence it is monitored in the power
plants.
✦✦✦
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COST ACCOUNTING, COST CONTROL
AND COST REDUCTION
Financial Accounting is mainly used for an instrument to record transactions of the

business to satisfy the requirements imposed by fiduciary relationship between the business
and its owners as well as third parties connected with business such as creditors, financial
institutes etc. Basic function is limited to recording, classifying & summerising the business
transactions of only financial character through Trial Balance, Income Statement and Balance
Sheet.
Management Accounting covers (i) Financial Accounting, (ii) Cost Accounting (iii)
Revaluation Accounting, (iv) Budgetary Control, (v) Inventory Control, (vi) Statistical Methods
(vii) Interim Reporting, (viii) Taxation, (ix) office Services (MIS- Management Information
Services) and (x) Internal audit system
Cost Accounting is the process of accounting for costs. It embraces the accounting
procedures relating to recording of all incomes and expenditures and the preparation of
periodical statements and reports with the object of ascertaining and controlling the costs. It
is, thus, the formal mechanism by means of which the cost of products or services are
ascertained and controlled.
Objectives of Cost Accounting :

Main objectives of cost accounting can be summerised as follows :
1) Determining Selling price : Cost accounting collects costs related to individual product &
services connected to such product, which plays main role in deciding selling price.
2) Determining & controlling efficiency : Cost accounting : Cost accounting involves a study
of various operations used in manufacturing a product or providing a service. It facilitates
measuring of efficiency of organisation, station, unit and section as well as means of
increasing efficiency.
3) Facilitating preparation of financial & other statements : The third objective of cost
accounting is to produce statements at such short intervals as the management may
require. Financial Accounts are prepared only once at the year end and it shall be of no
use for current decision-makings by the management.
4) Providing basis for operating efficiency : Cost accounting helps the management in
formulating operating policies. These policies may relate to any of following matters
i) Determination of cost-volume-profit relationship
ii) Shutting down or operating at a loss
iii) Making or buying from outside suppliers
iv) Continuing with the existing plant and machinery or replacing them by improved &
economic ones.
Elements of Cost
There are three broad elements of cost : Material (Direct material or Indirect material),
Labour (Direct Labour or Indirect Labour and expenses (Direct expenses or Indirect expenses)
Direct Material comprises of all materials which becomes an integral part of the finished
product and which can be conveniently assigned to specific physical units. Similarly Direct
Labour comprises of all labours, which takes active and direct part in the production of
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particular commodity. Direct Expenses are those, which can be directly allocated to specific
cost centers or cost units.
The term OVERHEAD includes indirect material, indirect labour and indirect expenses.
Thus all indirect costs are overheads.
A manufacturing organisation can be broadly divided into three divisions: (i) Factory or
Works where production is done, (ii) Office and administration, where routine as well as policy
matters are decided and (iii) Selling and Distribution where product is finally sold & distributed
to customer.
Components of total cost are :
Prime Cost : It consists of costs of direct material, direct labour and direct expenses.
Factory Cost = Prime Cost + Factory Overhead
(It is also known as Works cost, production or manufacturing Cost)
Cost of Production = Works Cost + office & administrative Overheads
Cost of Sales = Cost of production + Selling & distribution Overheads
COST SHEETS
The cost sheets are prepared for historical cost data or for estimated cost data.
Ascertainment of future costs and making comparisons with the past records help the
management in fixing up the selling prices of the products. Several important decisions can also
be taken by the management regarding profit planning, production and marketing strategy, etc.
The preparation of Cost sheets call for special knowledge of cost accounting and well
trained personnel for giving appropriate treatment to computation of profit, raw material
stock and also to stock of work in progress while preparing statement of total production cost.
CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS
Fixed, variable and semi-variable costs
The cost which varies directly in proportion to every increase or decrease in the volume
of output or production is known as variable cost. The cost, which does not vary but remains
constant within given period of time and range of activities in spite of the fluctuations in
production, is known as fixed cost. The cost, which does not vary proportionately but
simultaneously cannot remain stationary at all times is known as semi-variable cost.
Product costs and period costs : Costs, which become part of the cost of the product, are
called “Product Costs” and costs, which are not associated with production, are called “Period
costs”.
Direct Costs and Indirect costs : Already explained above.
Decision driven costs : Some costs are specifically attributed to particular decision. The
decision may lead to either profit or loss. It may result into comparatively better or worst
outcomes than those predicted. Abnormal loss or abnormal profit can be associated with
specific decision. For example, Koradi TPS has purchase a powder to mix with coal in anticipation
to improve heat rate. But after actual use, there is no improvement in heat rate. It is decision
driven cost/ loss.
Relevant costs and irrelevant costs : Relevant Costs are those, which would be changed
by the managerial decision. While irrelevant costs are those, which would not be affected by
the decision.
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Shut down costs and sunk costs : Due to some temporary difficulties like shortage of raw
material, non-availability of labour etc, sometimes operations may have to be suspended for
a period. During this period although no work is done, yet certain fixed costs, such as, rents,
electricity, insurance, depreciation, maintenance etc for the entire plant will have to be incurred.
Such costs are known as shut down costs.
Sunk costs are historical costs or past costs. These are the costs, which have been
created by a decision made in the past that cannot be changed by any decision that will be
made in future. These cost are irrelevant for decision-making.
Example : Koradi TPS purchased a machine for Rs. 30,000. The machine has an operating life
of 5 years without any scrap value. Soon after making purchase the management of Koradi
TPS feels that the machine should not have been purchased since it cannot yield the operating
advantage originally contemplated. Of course, it is now expected to result in saving in operating
costs of Rs. 18,000 over the period of 5 years. The machine can be sold immediately for Rs.
22,000.
In taking the decision whether machine should be sold or be used, relevant amounts to
be compared are Rs. 18,000 in a cost saving over 5 years and Rs. 22,000 that can be realized
by selling the machine. Rs 30,000 invested in machine is not relevant & is a sunk cost.
Opportunity Costs : The Opportunity cost refers to the advantage, which has been foregone
on account of not using the facilities in a manner originally planned.
Example : If Koradi TPS is to decide whether to provide certain amount of steam at offered
cost for some other operations instead of generation of electricity. Then in such decision, the
revenue which could fetch by generating electricity by such steam is the opportunity cost
which, should be taken into account for evaluating the profitability of using such steam for
other purpose.
COST REDUCTION AND COST CONTROL

Cost Reduction and Cost Control are two different concepts. Cost Control has achieving
the cost target as its objective while cost reduction is directed to explore the possibilities of
improving the targets themselves. Thus cost control ends when targets are achieved while
cost reduction has no visible end. It is a continuous process.
AREAS OF IMMEDIATE ATTENTION

1. Daily Declared OLC for Unit and Station
2. Economics of Unscheduled Interchanges
3. Fixed Cost/ Variable Cost/ Consideration
4. Asset / Reliability Concept/ Availability Monitoring
5. Daily Cost of sectional works, processes/ services
FOCUS ON LONG RANGE PLANNING

• Flexible Budgeting, Inventory, Purchase policy
• Contract Monitoring/ Outsourcing
• Pricing Strategy/ Transfer Pricing Concepts
• Merit Order Stack Monitoring/ On Line Bidding
• Monitoring External Environment & Changes in Internal Environment through SWOT
analysis & Strategic Planning
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COST REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
The following are some important cost reduction techniques.
1. Costing & Value Chain Analysis
2. Standardisation, simplification & Quality Control
3. Job study, work study and Motion study
4. Budgetary Control
5. Inventory Control
6. Value Engineering & Learning curve effect
7. Job evaluation and Merit Rating
• Costing & Value Chain Analysis

The first step is to establish Cost Accounting System and standardize the basic routine
functions of cost collection, cost analysis & cost reporting.
The Costing System as being practiced in Generating Stations in MAHAGENCO recognizes
division of power generation activities in any station into different process centers and service
centers. Each process center, which is either unit wise or stage wise, is further divided into
sub process centers (SPC). Every SPC has number of systems and area wise locations on
which different operation & maintenance activities are done. The data of cost of manpower
(direct, indirect & idle), material (Raw Materials, Spares & consumables) and contracts deployed
on each of these activities based on defect card raised by Operating staff is collected through
entries in PPMS (Power Plant Monitoring System) software in Works Planning System. PPMS is
designed to give cost statements of every activity and also to arrange the cost components
incurred on every cost centers on daily basis.
Broad Divisions into Cost Centers & Service Centers.

PROCESS CENTRE SERVICE CENTRE
0110 Coal Handling Plant 0001 Boiler Maintenance
0210 Raw Water Intake System 0002 Turbine Maintenance
0310 Pre Treatment Plant 0003 CHP (Mech. Maint.)
0410 Soften Water Plant 0004 CHP (Elect. Maint.)
0510 D.M. Plant 0005 Vehicle Maint
0610 Hydrogen Generating Plant 0006 Elect. Maint. (Main Plant)
0710 Milling Plant 0007 Testing
0810 Boiler And Auxiliaries 0008 Instrumentation Control
0910 Fuel Oil Handling Plant 0009 Civil Maintenance
1010 Turbine & Generator 0011 Water Treatment Plant (M)
1110 CW System
1210 Ash Handling Plant
1310 Common Technical Services
1410 Township
1510 Administration
The reports in three standard formats from each power station are sent to Head Office to
compile & compare for inter power station analysis. The above Costing System, which is being
practiced in a premature stage, is now to re-mould in expert style for utilisation in competitive
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environment to deal with continuously changing business conditions. A sound management
Information System is the basic need for such re-orientation of Costing System.
It is utmost necessary now to re-examine the Costing System freshly at strategic level
and then for attempts to re-establish the basic process of daily cost accumulations in the
power plant as a main stream of administrative process. The plan for such implementation
needs to be strategically approved by topmost management in MAHAGENCO and responsibility
needs to be assigned to such specially constituted team with cost-benefit impacts of such
implementation as a special project. Following target steps can be considered for such attempts.
1. Preparation of Flow chart for every process & its SPC. Identifying assets in such process
centers and standard systems in each SPC. Calculation of asset for each process center
& service center.
2. Covering all activities through job/ defect card system. Establishing daily routines in all
operation sections for proper defect card entries & daily monitoring of permits issued &
cleared.
3. Establishing of daily routines of work Plan, Job Completion Sheets and Sectional daily
Cost analysis.
4. Establishing entries of important machines running, standby, under permit timings through
PPMS.
5. Establishing Centralised Purchase/ Work Order on line monitoring process through
centralised dispatch information & bills receipt system.
6. Establishing on line inventory/ stores with on line issues against defect cards.
7. Establishing Contract monitoring through daily contract work allotments & on line
monitoring of RA Bills through PPMS.
8. Establishing on line time management system & salary linking to costing tasks.
9. Establishment of On Line daily & periodic Costing System and value chain of primary &
support activities.
10. Making available full Management Information System for decision making at all levels
of management in MAHAGENCO.
• Standardisation, simplification & Quality Control :

Technical Parameters : Generation, Availability Factor, PLF, Heat Rate, Specific Fuel
Consumption, Auxiliary Consumption, Annual/ Capital Overhaul outages.
Elements of Cost of Generation : Fixed Cost & Variable cost Contribution, Cost contribution
by Process centers & Service centers, Variance analysis, Standard cost deviations
Station as a Profit Center : Return on asset, Merit Order Stack Position, ABT performance,
Technical performance, Liquidity Performance
Contribution of Responsibility Centers in Value Chain of Profit Center :
• Job study, work study and Motion study
Defining all jobs through Work Instructions : Creating environment for scientific analysis
of job, Time bound review till satisfactory yield is ensured from job methods.
Continuous Process of Job enrichment : Identifying frequency of failures, Minimising repeat

works, improving work methods, definining jobs with respect to processes/ individual
responsibilities.
528
• Budgetary Control
Resource gap analysis & Capital Budgeting exercise : Identifying resource requirement,
resource allocation & measures to bridge resource gap at sub section/ section level, Comparative
study of in-house means & outsourcing avenues.
Fixed v. Flexible Budgets : Continuous review of budget in changing environmental aspects,

linking with Long Range Planning.
Scientific Decision Techniques : Use of statistical models, standardizing decision-making

process, Study of impact of decision.
Budget Control Organisation : Establishment of continuous budget monitoring exercise

and internal audit features.
• Inventory Control
Establishing On Line Purchases, Inventory & Audit trail : Complete on line & totally
computerized system of purchase activities, works measurement process and receipt & issue
pricing strategies.
Scientific evaluation of Inventory Management Quality : The stores at sectional level to

be manned by trained staff with internal auditing arrangements, Establishing standard stores
practices.
• Value Engineering & Learning curve effect
Devising means to enrich the value of services & operating practices: Establishing
quality control with periodic review at highest level to ensure fruitful results, comparing with
standard practices adopted by market leaders and competitors.
Considering use of Learning Curve Effects: Planning effective means of on job training,
devising means of cashing the effect of learning curve.
• Job evaluation, Merit Rating & Performance Monitoring
Benchmarking Performance : Establishing organisation for proper benchmarking of

performance (There is a separate chapter covering Benchmarking, quality & Reliability aspects).
✦✦✦
529
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
OF BOILER FEED PUMP
General :
The high-pressure boiler feed pump is a very expensive machine, which can comply
with the stated requirements, only with a careful and skilled maintenance. The safety in
operation and efficiency of the feed pump does not only depend on the correct design and
careful manufacturing in the works, but also on the reliable operation and maintenance.
Therefore, it is important that the operating and maintenance staffs are acquainted
with these instructions properly in time. They should know perfectly the operation of the boiler
feed pump to be able to find out the cause of defect. The causes of any adverse running of
the feed pump found in the beginning may be easily removed without endangering the operation
of the power plant and also without the expensive dismantling. Any damage resulting due to
the ignorance of the operating instructions will not be the responsibility of the manufacturer
even if it occurs during the guarantee period.
1.0 Description of the feed pump :

The high pressure feed pumps of barrel type satisfy in all respects the latest developments
achieved for the design and operation of the feed pumps. It consists of the pump barrel, into
which is mounted the inside stator together with the rotor. The high-pressure cover along with
the balancing device closes the hydraulic part. The suction side of the barrel and the space in
the high-pressure cover behind the balancing device are closed along with the balancing
device and with the stuffing box casings. The bracket of the radial bearing of the suction side
and the bracket of the radial and thrust bearings of the discharge side are fixed to the low-
pressure covers. The entire pump is mounted on a foundation frame. The hydraulic coupling
and two couplings with coupling guards are also delivered along with the pump. The water-
cooling and oil lubricating connections are provided with their accessories. All the instruments
necessary for observing the performance of the feed pump are mounted on the pump, on local
panel and on the piping.
1.01 Rotor :
The rotor of boiler feed pump consists of the shaft, impellers, distance bushes, throttle
bush, balancing disc, supporting rings, stuffing box bushes, nuts for holding the stuffing box
bushes, the disc of axial bearing with the lock nut, nuts for securing the coupling, shaft keys
and lubricating rings. For obtaining shrunk fitting of the impellers on the shaft, the impellers are
first heated and then assembled. For this purpose, stepped diameters are provided on the
shaft. On each stepped diameter two impellers are mounted.
The axial thrust of the rotor is taken up by the balancing disc, which is keyed, to the
shaft. The axial expansion of the rotor part is limited to the extent of dilation gap that exists
between the throttle bush and the supporting ring. This dilation gap should be within the limit
of 0.2 to 0.3 mm. The maximum run out of the assembled rotor, at the sealing impeller
diameters, the throttle bush and stuffing box bushings is up to 0.06 mm. The impellers are
statically balanced and the rotor as a whole is dynamically balanced within the permissible
253
unbalance according to the standards of the works. Prior to dynamic balancing of the rotor,
the deflection of the rotor due to its self weight is also measured. The deflection of the rotor
due to self weight moves in the limits of 0.04 to 0.12 mm.
All the measurements carried out on the rotor including the actual clearances at the
sealing rings are entered in passports delivered with every feed pump. The rotor is supported
on two part bearing shells. The brackets are connected to the low pressure covers. The
necessary centering of rotor is done with the perfect concentricity of the stuffing box gland
bush with the bore of the stuffing box casing and for obtaining the concentricity of the
throttle bush in the throttle space, a suitable change is made on the set of shims below the
centering keys of the low pressure cover. In order to maintain the concentricity of the centering
diameter on the keys, shims are replaced from the centering keys, which are diagonally
opposite to each other, by removing from one place and positioning at the other.
1.01 Inside stator :

The inside stator consists of stage bodies, the diffusers and rotor. The diffusers are
centrally mounted in the stage bodies. They are secured against rotation, by locating pins.
Stage bodies are fitted with wearing rings at the place where it is likely to come into contact
with the wearing rings of impeller, and the wearing rings are secured to the stage bodies with
the help of screws. The entire inside stator is connected to the barrel. The nuts at the ends of
these bolts are tightened in order to pre stress the bolts to suit the working pressure and they
are secured with the help of locking washers.
During the operation of the pump and especially while putting the pump into operation,
shocks are developed in the pump which effect the connecting bolts and the connecting bolts
being subjected to torsion, the inside stator is secured from the suction side as well as
discharge side. On the suction side, a key fitted and screwed on to the inlet stage a key is
provided which is fitted by a screw. This key will slide along the key way in barrel. On the
discharge side also, the outlet stage is supported on the barrel by key and keyway arrangement
on the supporting block welded to the barrel.
The centering of the inside stator is carried out by aligning the inlet stage to the
suction side of the barrel and by aligning the high pressure cover to the end diffuser. While the
pump is in operation, the inside stator will get heated earlier than the pump barrel together
with the high pressure cover. This means that the expansion of the inside stator owing to
temperature will be more that the expansion of the barrel and of the high pressure cover. A
dilation gap of 6 mm is therefore maintained between the end diffuser an the high pressure
cover.
The sealing surfaces of the individual stages are accurately lapped using a fixture, and
they seal metal. Therefore it is important that the sealing surfaces should not be damaged
especially while dismantling the pump. If they are damaged, they must be relapped in order to
obtain the perfect mating surfaces.
1.02 Mechanical seal :

The design of the feed pump incorporates Mechanical seal. The mechanical seal eliminates
the losses of feed water in stuffing box. Working ability of the feed pump increases. With the
mechanical seal, cooling of stuffing box space should be perfect.
254
Cooling is carried out by the circulation of water by means of a pumping ring through a
cooler.
Cooling of the stuffing box space is different from the seal cooler.
Even after stopping of the pump stuffing box cooling should be continued.
Coolers are designed to keep the stuffing box space temp. below 800C.
Pump need not be removed from base frame to replace mechanical seal.
To replace mechanical seal on discharge side, dissemble thrust bearing, and bearing
brackets along with bearing shells.
To replace mechanical seal on the suction side, dissemble the coupling along with
intermediate piece and bearing brackets along with the shells.
Follow the seal disassembly and assembly instructions strictly.
2.0 Function of the feed pump :

The water with the given operating temperature should flow continuously to the pump
under a required head. It passes through the suction branch into the intake spiral and from
there it is directed into the first impeller. After leaving the impeller it passes through the
diffusing passages of the diffuser, where the kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.
Afterwards if flows over to the guide vanes to the inlet of the next impeller eye. This procedure
repeats from one stage to the other till it passes through the last impeller and the end diffuser.
Thus the feed water at the outlet of the last stage attains the required discharge head. A
small part of the feed water, i.e. about 5% which is not calculated to the guaranteed delivery
capacity, is taken off from the space behind the last impeller for the operation of the automatic
balancing device to balance the hydraulic axial thrust of the pump rotor.
The feed water passes through the balancing device and comes into the space behind
the balancing disc. Feed water is taken from this space to the feed water tank. It is evident
from the function of the balancing disc, as it disturbs the hydraulic equilibrium. Therefore the
equalizing piping must have sufficient flow capacity. For a safe operation of the balancing
device the pressure difference between the suction and balancing leak off should not exceed
more than 5 atmospheres.
3.0 Balancing device :

Balancing system of the pump takes up the entire axial thrust of the rotor, by means of
the balancing disc.
Balancing device is an important aspect of the pump as far as the design and material
selection is concerned.
Balancing device consists of balancing disc, secured to the shaft and bearing disc
fitted to the high pressure cover by mans of the tightening flange and bolts with nuts which
are locked by washers.
Axial sealing gap is formed between the bearing disc and the balancing disc.
Contact surfaces of bearing disc and balancing disc are mutually lapped against each
other.
Sealing of the individual parts is metal to metal.
Full pressure developed by the last impeller is not carried on to the balancing device
but throttled by means of the taper bush mounted on the shaft before the balancing disc.
255
The feed water passes through the taper bush, through the axial sealing gap.
The axial sealing gap is approximately 0.10 mm.
Balancing disc can be dismantled without extensive dismantling of the pump in case of
damage to the balancing device.
2.0 Lubrication system :

The feed pump consists of two radial sleeve bearings and one thrust bearing. All the
bearings are force lubricated by the main oil pump or the auxiliary oil pump or the hydraulic
coupling. The thrust bearing is located at the free end of the pump.
The feed pump drive motor consists of two sleeve radial bearings.
The hydraulic coupling consists of four radial bearings and two tilting pad thrust bearings.
Before the start of the pump main motor, lubrication to the various bearings is supplied
through the auxiliary oil pump. Once the main motor attains a particular speed after start, the
main oil pump of the hydraulic coupling takes over and the auxiliary oil pump is tripped
automatically. The details of the switching ‘ON’ and switching ‘OFF’ of the oil pumps are dealt
in the hydraulic coupling operating instructions and to be followed strictly.
Two coolers are provided in the oil system. One for the working oil and the other for
lubricating oil. The pressure of oil before the radial bearing should be a minimum of 0.8 atg to
1.0 atg and for the thrust bearing 0.5 atg.
Before putting the lubrication system into operation all the oil lines and bearings should
be clean. The following instructions should be followed for flushing of the oil system.
2.01 Flusing of oil system :

1) The oil pipes are cleaned thoroughly by means of wire brush.
2) After mechanical cleaning the pipes are steam washed with steam of pressure 8 atg and
2500C
3) A coating of lubricating oil is given to the pipes after steam washed with steam washing
against corrosion.
4) After cleaning, the pipes are assembled in position.
5) Fill Servo Fluid - 10" oil upto the mark indicated, through a 50 micron filter.
6) Remove the top halves of the bearings, tilt the bottom half bearings, such that the oil
hole in the bearing housing will allow free flow of oil through the system and protect the
journal by covering with cloth and thin sheet of metal.
7) Oil filter and bearings housings are to be cleaned.
8) Mount all the instruments in the oil system.
9) Heating of the oil during flushing is done by inserting steam coil or by heating elements.
The oil flushing can be started by switching on the auxiliary oil pump. After the first 4
hrs of flushing the filters should be checked and put back. The choking of filters in the initial
stages will be more and it should be cleaned from time to time and put back. The oil temperature
during flushing is maintained at about 50-600. After ensuring that filters are not getting choked
oil flushing is stopped.
After flushing is completed, the oil tank and coolers are drained cleaned and fresh oil is
filled.
256
2.02 Thrust bearing of feed pump :
1) Quantity of oil required for each radial bearing – 7.5 lts/min
2) Quantity of oil required for thrust bearing – 42 lts/min. For kingsbury thrust bearing.
12 lts/min. for Mitchell thrust bearing.
✦✦✦
257
CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP
GENERAL :
The WKT centrifugal pump is a hydrodynamic machine. It is characterized by the fact
that pressure is generated by a continuous flow of fluid through the pump. Mechanical work is
imparted to the fluid by a rotating impeller (109) : The impeller, diffuser and stage casing (104)
together form one stage of the pump. The suction created by the fluid discharged from the
impeller causes an equal volume of fresh fluid to flow into the suction casing (102 b) of the
pump.
The vertical barrel-type centrifugal pump consists of the pump casing, the motor
stool and the barrel. Depending on the suction head available, one column pipe is provided in
addition, if required. The pump rotor assembly and the intermediate shafts are guided in metal
bearings of bronze, liquid-lubricated, and in case of higher temperatures, in bearings of special
carbon. Under temperature conditions exceeding 1000C (2120F) the distribution header is fitted
with a thermal barrier.
IMPELLERS, DIFFUSERS, STAGE CASING :

The impellers are designed with a neck at the entry and discharge ends. Sealing is
effected at both ends by means of renewable wear rings (122), which are press-fitted into the
stage casing (104) and into the diffuser respectively. The first stage (i.e. suction) impeller
(202a) is specially designed to prevent cavitation, and the results in a lower NPSH requirement
of the pump. The wear ring at the suction end of the first stage impeller is pressed into the
suction casing.
The backplates of the impellers are drilled to obtain a balanced pressure on both sides
of the impeller, and the residual axial thrust of the rotating assembly is consequently very
small. This residual thrust is bsorbed by an anti-friction bearing in the drive frame. The casings
are sealed by O-rings on the standard pump models, but on high temperature and pressure
pumps (cast steel casings), the sealing is effected by metal-to-metal contact of the precision
ground mating faces of the casing flanges.
SHAFT SEALING :
A pacing – type stuffing box is used as a shaft seal. During the operation of the pump
it reduces the leakage flow at the gap between the shaft and the casing. In case of a suction
pressure < than 1 atm. Abs., the ingress of air during standstill of the pump will be prevented
by admitting sealing liquid. Under higher temperature conditions, the stuffing box will be cooled
The suction and discharge piping have to be laid in such a fashion that no external
stresses are transmitted to the pump. Any sudden or abrupt change of direction or cross-
section has to be avoided. Flat gaskets should not protrude inside the pipe. Where welded
pipe lines are used, all sharp edges, welding beads and scale are to be removed before
commissioning. The suction piping and vessels have to be thoroughly clean out and flushed
through before commissioning. The suction piping and vessels have to be thoroughly cleaned
out and flushed through before commissioning of te plant. Experience shows that welding
beads, scale and other impurities often become detached from the pipe walls only after a
258
considerable period of operation, especially when the liquied pumped is hot, it is necessary,
therefore, to incorporate a strainer in the suction line to retain this foreign matter.
This strainer is to have a free flow area equal at least to 3 to 4 times the pipe cross-
section area, in order to prevent too great a pressure drop when it becomes partially clogged
with foreign matter. Cone-shaped strainers as illustrated in fig.2 have proved themselves well
in service, they should be made of corrosion-resistant material. The suction pressure is to be
carefully watched during operation. If there is a drop in pressure, the strainer is to be removed
and cleaned. After several weeks of operation, when the presence of foreign matter is no
longer anticipated, the strainer can be removed.
The vent line connects the suction compartment of the distribution header with the
apex of the suction vessel. The connection for this line, on the distribution header, is arranged
in such a fashion that any vapour or gas tending to form in the header, and which might cause
the pump to splutter, will escape through the vent line to the suction vessel.
COOLING WATER :
According to the temperature prevailing, i.e. when he liquid being pumped has a high
temperature, the drive frame is cooled. The flow of cooling water is approx. 0.5-1 m3/h. It is
useful to have throttling means in the supply line. The discharge is to be provided to the open,
to facilitate observation of the rate of flow.
In some designs of these pumps, the bearing bracket or the packing-type stuffing-box
259
in the drive frame are cooled. The system is similar to that for the frame itself.
Max. cooling water inlet emperature: approx. 200C (680F). A temperature difference of
10 C (500F) between the inlet and the outlet temperature of the cooling water is allowable.
0
SEALING WATER :
To prevent air from entering the system when the pump is not working, the stuffing-
box is supplied with sealing liquid. It is recommended that his be drawn from the discharge side
of the main condensate pumps.
The sealing water piping is to be fitted with a check-valve to prevent the pump from
discharging into this piping during its operation.
LEAKAGE LIQUID :
There is a tapped connection provided on the motor stool to drain off any leakage. Any
leaks should be allowed to drain off freely.
FOUNDATION :
A foundation support frame consisting of steel sections is the most appropriate foundation
for the pumping set. The foundation support frame which has a machined contact face will be
leveled up to a true horizontal position, then grouted in. if this is done, the pump itself will not
require leveling up. The concrete should be allowed to set and dry out completely before the
pump is placed on its foundation. We can supply exact measurements for the foundation
support frame on request.
ERECTION OF THE PUMP :

The WKT pump is usually delivered assembled as a unit. It can be placed immediately
on to the foundation and bolted down. Then, the true position of the pupmping set is to be
verified again.
If the barrel is mounted separately from the pump, care is to be taken to ensure a
proper sealing between the barrel and the drive frame (O-ring, 542). If the set is supplied
completely assembled, the rotating assembly of the pump need only be re-aligned after previous
dismantling .
CAUTION 1 :
When delivered, the pumps have no oil in the bearing bracket. After the test run at our
works, the bearings are drained of oil washed, as there is no means of knowing when the pump
will be commissioned, and the oil might oxidize if left in the bearings too long para 1.82 gives
indications about lubricants.
PACKING OF THE STUFFING – BOX :

The pup are delivered without packing in the stuffing-box. The straight lengths of the
packing rings cut off smoothly by means of a jig (see fig3) are to be of such a length that,
when fitted round the shaft sleeve, the sectional areas are in slight tough. Before insertion in
the packing area, the packing must be thoroughly soaked in oil. Together with the stuffing-box
gland, the first packing ring is inserted in the packing area and pushed to the bottom. The butt
260
joints are to be taken to observe the proper sequence of packing rings and seal cage ring/
lantern ring.
The nuts of the stuffing-box bolts are slightly tightened by hand. A newlyh packed
stuffing-box is to leak appreciably at first. If this leakage does not cese of its own accord
after some time. The nuts are to be tightened slowely ad evenly during operation, until the
stuffing-box only drips slightly; this indicates that the packing is functioning correctly slightly
again. Every newly packed stuffing-box needs a certain running-in period and it is to be kept
under frequent observation during this period. After settling down, it needs only to be checked
occasionally. If the existing packing has been compressed by approx. the width of one packing
ring, the packing is to be renewed. Check also the condition of the shaft sleeve on this
occasion. It is to be replace if its surface shows signs of grooving or roughness.
STARTING UP AND :
Always check the following points before starting up the pump for the first time and
later on. After a prolonged shutdown:
a) The bearing and stuffing-box housings must be filled with oil and the soft packing fitted
in the stuffing-box respectively.
b) Close the pump discharge valve: open the suction valve.
c) Make sure that the pump is completely primed with the liquied pumped.
d) Vent the pump (see para 1.42)
e) If applicable, turn on the cooling water and check the free flow of the cooling water.
f) Switch on the driver and check direction of rotation (anti-clockwise, when viewed from
above, looking down onto the pump).
g) Slowly, open the discharge valve.
Do not exceed the current intensity (Amps) on the motor rating plate.
SHUTTING DOWN THE PUMP :

The following operations should be carried out when shutting down the pump:
a) Close discharge valve.
b) Switch off driver and check that the pump runs down to a standstill smoothly and
evenly.
c) Turn off cooling water, if applicable.
d) Leave suction valve open.
261
LUBRICATION OF THE PUMP :
The pump bearings and the column pipe bearings are lubricated by the product pumped
and require no supervision.
On no account let the pump run dry 1
The top shaft (bearing shaft) is guided within the bearing bracket. For the lubrication
of the anti-function bearings incorporated, please. If the set is fitted with oil-lubricated self-
aligning bearings or with a segmental thrust bearing. The appropriated special directions must
be followed.
The pump, the shaft and the riser piping required no attention if there are normal
working conditions. The stuffing box must leak slightly whilst the pump is running.
The drive must be maintained in accordance with the special instructions given on this subject.
LUBRICATION :
The top shaft (bearing shaft) is guided within the motor stolol. A good-quality well-
refined mineral oil should be used only to lubricate the grooved ball bearings. As a lube oil we
recommend a brand oil having the following specification:
Flash point : 200-2200C (390-4300F)
Pour point : below – 150C (+50F)

Viscosity : 4-60E at 500C (30-45 c St. at 1220F)
Ash contents : below 0.05%
Spec. gravity : 0.9 kp/dma (56 Ibs/cuft)
The oil should be changed approximately once every 2000 operating hours: in any
event however, at least once a year. The oil quantities required for one initial oil fill of the
bearing bracket (including the constant-level oiler and the fill piping) are given in table below :
Bearing size no. 6311 6312 6315 6317
Oil fill, in dm3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Fluid ounces in brackets (100) (13.5) (17) (20)
✦✦✦
262
H.P. – L.P. BY PASS SYSTEM
I) INTRODUCTION :
a) For matching of live steam and turbine metal temperatures for a quick start up,
bypass stations have been provided, which dump the steam to the condenser
through pressure reducing station and desuperheaters, during the period, steam
parameters at the boiler are being raised. These stations in additions to the quick
start of turbine and low noise level, also economises the consumption of D.M.
water.
With the use of turbine by pass station, it is possible to build up the matching
steam parameters at the boiler outlet during any regime of starting, independent of
the steam flow through turbine. The steam generated by boiler, and not utilised by
the turbine during start up or shutdown, is conserved within the power cycle and
thus losses of steam into the atmosphere is cut down to the barest minimum. By
pass system enables to shorten the start-up time.
b) HP/LP bypass system can be broadly classified in the two groups :

1) HP bypass stations : This is utilised for the following tasks.
i) To establish flow at the outlet of superheater (SH) for raising boiler parameters
during start-up.
ii) To maintain or control steam pressure at pre-set value in main steam line during
start-up.
iii) To warm up the steam lines.
iv) To control steam temperature down stream of HP bypass at the preset value.
v) To dump steam from boiler into condenser, in case the generator circuit breaker
opens.
2) LP bypass station : The same is utilised for the following tasks.

i) Control of steam pressure after reheater.
ii) Establish flow of steam from reheat lines to condenser by its opening, proportional
to the opening of HP bypass valves.
iii) Release of steam entrapped in HPT and reheater circuit in case generator circuit
breaker opens.
The interconnections of the above stations with the turbine power cycle are as under:
Description Upstream steam Connection Down stream Connection
HP bypass Main steam lines Cold reheat line.
Station. Ahead of MSV
LP bypass Hot reheat lines Steam throw off device
Station. Ahead of IV built in condenser.
263
c) Feed water is used as cooling water for H.P. bypass station and condensate from
condensate extraction pump is used as cooling water for LP bypass station.
II. H. P. BYPASS STATION

a) The main elements of HP bypass station are as follows,
i) 2 Nos. 127 x 160 mm. size combined pressure reducing and desuperheating
valves complete with valve mounted electro hydraulic actuator. Each valve has
been sized to pass 100 T/hr steam at 140 ata and 5400 C on upstream side.
ii) 2 Nos. Throttling device One number after each HP bypass valve.
iii) 1 Nos. – 70 mm size spray water pressure control valve complete with valve
mounted electrohydraulic actuator.
iv) 2 Nos. – 34 mm size spray water temperature control valve complete with valve
mounted electrohydraulic actuator.
v) 1 No. – Automatic pressure control loop consisting of the following elements.
1 No. Pressure master controller with proportional integrated (PI) characteristics.
2 No. Positioning loops for bypass valves.
1 No. Common set point setter.
vi) 2 Nos. – Automatic temperature control loops consisting of the elements.
2 Nos. PI controllers and positioning loops for spray water temperature control.
1 No. PI controller for spray water pressure reducing valve .
1 No. Common set point setter.
b) GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The control components are located in a control cabinet in unit control board
(UCB). Each positioning loop may be controlled separately from the central control
desk. For supervision of the control loops, the position and Control deviation are
indicated on mosaic insert of the control desk.
c) OIL SUPPLY UNIT

The oil supply units for the high – pressure bypass and the low – pressure bypass
are connected in parallel. Manostats control the oil pressure in the accumulators
and signal alarm “PRESSURE TOO HIGH” or “PRESSURE TOO LOW” appears in UCB if
the pressure is not in order. If the oil pressure should fall below the minimum in both
accumulators, positioning actuators will be blocked, and thereon the signal
“ACTUATOR BLOCKED” shall appear in UCB which simultaneously changes the operation
of each positioning loops from automatic to manual.
d) STARTUP PROCEDURE & SLIDING PRESSURE OPERATION.

With the start-up of the boiler, the pressure set point has to be adjusted manually.
If too large a deviation between the measured pressure and the set point shall
occur, the alarms will be given. The deviation will be given for a positive as well as
a negative difference.
264
The HP bypass station controls and maintains the upstream pressure at the desired
preset value when in operation. As soon as the entire steam available from the SH
outlet is swallowed by HP turbine, the HP bypass station shall get closed under
automatic controller action. The HP bypass, once closed, shall cut in under pressured
impulse only if the generator circuit breaker opens.
e) TEMPERATURE CONTROL :
By injecting water into the HP – bypass valves, the steam is cooled to the temperature
in accordance with the preset value. To over-bridge the measuring delay of the
thermoelements, the spray temperature control valve controller is supplied with an
opening impulse at the moment when the HP - bypass valve starts to open.
To achieve favorable conditions for the bypass injection, the spray – water pressure
is reduced and adjusted to a constant value before the spray water temperature
control valves. In addition spray water pressure reducing valve remains closed
under interlock action when the HP – bypass valves are closed.
f) PRESSURE MEASUREMENT :
The pressure signal of HP bypass system will be taken from the main steam line.
g) PRESSURE SET POINT VALUE :

With sliding pressure operation, the desired pressure value has to be adjusted
manually to the actual pressure value (main steam pressure before turbine), by
adhering to a certain threshold, 5 to 8% on higher side. This follow up is effected in
such a way that the gradient of the desired pressure value is limited to the maximum
permissible pressure gradients on the boiler side. This set point can be varied from
the desk by the push button.
h) PRESSURE MASTER – CONTROLLER :

In accordance with the pressure control deviation the master controller works with
PI – behaviour and forms the positioning signal which is given to the slave –
positioners of the bypass valves. If the deviation between the actual pressure
signal and the set point value exceeds either a positive or a negative limit, the
monitors produce alarms. For a positive deviation alarm “AL 1” and for a negative
one alarm “AL 2” appears. These alarms do not influence the controllers, but they
will appear visually and audibly in the unit control room. With the appearing of the
those alarms, the operator has to correct the pressure set point.
The changeover from “MANUAL” to “AUTOMATIC” mode of the pressure master –
controller is linked up with the adequate changeover of the HP bypass positioning
circuits. If both of these slave positioners are in “MANUAL” mode, the master –
controller’s output is switched on to the larger opening (feedback) signal from one
of the bypass systems.
This maximum selection will be performed by the MIN/MAX – selector. Furthermore,
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it’s output signal gives the basic condition for the bumpless transfer if one of the
slaves will by switched into “AUTOMATIC” mode.
i) HP BYPASS – VALVE POSITIONER :

With the positioners the HP – bypass valves are operated in accordance with the
output signal of the pressure master controller.
Individual control of each HP – bypass valve is possible with the push button.
The monitor transmits a continuous closing – signal to the positioner if the stroke of
valve is smaller than 2% and if the positioner is in “MANUAL” mode. In this way the
valve remains definitely closed.
j) SPRAY WATER TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE CONTROLLER :

The control positioners for the bypass spray temperature valves are designed in the
same way as those for the HP – bypass valves. In addition, PI – controllers are also
connected up to the control positioners. The temperature-measuring signal from
transmitter is compared at the input of the PI controller with the common set point
signal. According to the particular control deviation, the PI controller forms a rated
signal for the control positioner of the associated spray temperature valve.
Due to the hydraulic drive it is possible to attain also for the spray temperature
valves or short positioning time. This is necessary to allow the temperature control
to intervene fast enough in the event of any fast – opening of the HP – bypass
valves.
To offset the time delays of the temperature measurement and to achieve favourable
conditions when switching on the spray water cooling system (rapid adjustment to
temperature set – point), a positive reference voltage is given to the proportional
input of the injection – valve controller, by the associated bypass – valves positioning
monitor. In this way independent of the temperature-measuring signal a certain
amount of water is simultaneously injected at the opening of the bypass valve.
Manual operation of the bypass spray water temperature valve is effected by
means of the push button. The valve position and the control deviation are indicated
on the desk with indicators. With the combined PI – control positioner which influences
the pressure control valves, the spray water pressure is regulated at a preset value
before the spray water temperature control valves.
The manual control of the pressure control valve is effected with the push button.
Valve is kept closed by an interlock if the HP – bypass valves are closed.
Additionally, if the positioning loop was in “MANUAL” operation – mode, it will be
brought into “AUTOMATIC” – state, if any one of the HP – bypass valves opens.
k) SPRAY WATER PRESSURE CONTROLLER :

The spray water pressure before the spray water temperature valves, will be
measured by the transmitter.
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Normally the valve is closed and the positioner is in “AUTOMATIC” mode. If one or
both bypass – valves open, the “CLOSE” interlock disappears and the positioner will
be brought into “AUTOMATIC” mode regardless of which mode dominated before.
However, this loop can be operated by the push button at the mosaic – desk insert.
The actual position and the control – deviation are shown by the instrument at the
mosaic – desk insert.
III) INTERLOCKS :
a) The HP bypass system are influenced by the following interlocks.
i) Generator circuit – breaker.
ii) Condenser vacuum too low
iii) HP – valve – position a < 2% / b > 2%
iv) Temperature too high at down stream of LP bypass station.
Following interlocks are produced by the bypass system and given to the other
positioning loops.
v) HP valve position more than 2%.
vi) “Close” – signal for spray water pressure control valve.
b) GENERATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER :

The HP bypass station shall come into operation at the moment the logic signal
“GENERATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER CLOSED” disappears. However this does not imply
that the HP bypass station shall be out of service if the logic signal “GENERATOR
CIRCUIT BREAKER CLOSED”. appears.
c) CONDENSER VACUUM TOO LOW:

The HP bypass station shall close immediately in case of too low condenser vacuum
(500 mm Hg-Col). This interlock holds a first priority for the controller.
d) HP BYPASS VALVE POSITION LESS THAN 2% :

i) When turbine is running or not running and the control of HP bypass valve is on
manual, the memory will get closing signal through AND logic, if the valve position
is less than 2%.
ii) When turbine is running and control of HP bypass valve is on auto, the memory
will get closing signal through AND logic, if valve position is less than 2%
iii) When turbine is not running and control of HP bypass valves are on auto, there
is no closing signal to memory whatever is the position of the valve and thus
pressure control loop will actuate the valve.
e) TEMPERATURE TOO HIGH :

If the temperature after the outlet of the HP or LP bypass station becomes “TOO
HIGH”, the closing signal to HP bypass Valves is forwarded and simultaneously
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positioning loops change from automatic to manual mode. The interlock for this
case will be provided by the temperature supervising monitor respectively.
f) HP BYPASS VALVE POSITION MORE THAN 2%

If any of the HP bypass valves are opened more than 2% (which is initiated by a
part of voltage monitor) or if the position demand signal is equivalent to more than
2%, valve opening (which is initiated by a voltage monitor), a signal is available
through OR logic to indicate the valve is open and the same signal is used to
change the control of valves BPE and BD from manual to auto if their control was on
manual.
g) CLOSING INTERLOCK FOR SPRAY WATER PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE

CONTROLLER :
To ensure the tight closure of spray water pressure valve so that the spray water
temperature valve are not subjected to high water pressure, during the period they
are not in operation, a tight closure signal is initiated to the valve, when HP bypass
valve opening is less than 2%
IV) L. P. BYPASS STATION :

a) Functionally the LP bypass control system can be divided into two parts.
1) Pressure control.
2) Temperature control.
b) The main elements of LP bypass stations are as follows.

i) 2 Nos. 367x370 mm size pressure control valves complete with electrohydraulic
actuator. Each valve has been sized to pass 112 Ton/hr. steam at 6 ata. and
5400C.
ii) 2 Nos. LP desuperheaters.
iii) 2 Nos. 44 mm. size spray water temperature control valves complete with
electrohydraulic actuator.
iv) 2 Nos. Automatic temperature control loop each comprising one number PI
controller and one number-positioning loop with common set point setter for
spray water temperature control valve.
v) Automatic pressure control loop with a sliding, load dependent set point formation,
along with one number PI controller and two number slave positioner.
vi) Automatic valve position control loop with a master signal formed as on average
HP bypass valve position with “proportional” function.
vii) A selector unit to select any one of loop under (e) & (f) mentioned above.
c) GENERAL DESCRIPTION :
The control components are located in a control cabinet in UCB. Each positioning
loop may be controlled separately from the central control desk. For supervision of
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the control loops, the position and control deviations are indicated on mosaic insert
of the control desk.
d) OPERATING METHOD :
The system enables generally the manual selection of two operational modes with
the selector station.
• Pressure control with a sliding, load – dependent set point formation with ‘PI’
function.
• Valve position control with a master signal formed as an average HP bypass
valve position with proportional ‘P’ function.
During the pressure control the selector relay is energized by means of selector
station and analogue memory and the contact turns-over into position marked “R”.
In this case the master pressure controller controls the valves in accordance with
the formed sliding set-point The set-point formation is load dependent and is derived
from the steam pressure after regulating stage of the turbine, measured by
transmitter. The intensity of the signal measured by this transmitter is reduced to
approx 30% of its value by the summing amplifier. A limitation to a minimum value is
realized by means of the maximum selector and motorized set-point setter.
For selecting the LP bypass valves operation, proportional to the average actual
position of HP bypass valves, the selector relay is made de-energised with the help
of push button. Thus the contact of this relay stays in the position marked ‘S’. The
manual operation of LP by pass valve is possible from UCB with the help of push
button modules.
For achieving bumpless transfer of operation of LP bypass valves from proportional
to pressure mode of control, a signal UM is always fed to PI controller, to keep the
controller always charged. In addition to this, for achieving bumpless transfer during
pressure mode of operation, from ‘manual’ to ‘auto’ mode, the position of LP bypass
valve is fed to PI controller, through a max. selector unit. Thus the output of PI
controller is switched over to the higher valve-opening signal of any of the LP
bypass system.
e) TEMPERATURE CONTROL & OPERATING METHOD :

The task of the loop is to control the steam temperature after the LP bypass valves
and before the condenser. The controlled variable is the steam temperature after
the LP bypass valves, the manipulated variable is the spray water flow.
The system receives the actual steam temperature signal from transmitter compares
it with the set-point and controls the position of the spray water valves in accordance
with the control deviation.
A feed-forward signal (actual LP bypass valve position) is introduced to the second,
P-action channel of the controller to improve the control results similar to HP
bypass system.
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To safeguard the condenser from high temperature steam, if the actual temperature
after any of the LP bypass system exceeds the permissible limit i.e. 5% above the
set value, an alarm is given through voltage monitor. Simultaneously the same
signal is fed to the slave positioners of HP bypass valves and LP bypass valves for
closing of HP/LP bypass station, and at the same time control of positioning loops of
HP/LP bypass valves change from ‘auto’ to ‘manual’ operation.
III. OPERATION OF HP/LP BYPASS STATIONS :

Before HP/LP bypass stations are brought into operation check the following.
a) ESVS & IVS are closed.
b) Oil system of the by pass station is put into operation by switching on its motor.
c) Vacuum in the condenser is more than 540 mm of HgC.
d) Condensate flow to steam throw off devices in the condenser is established by
opening motor operated valves MC-39 & MC-57.
e) Interlocks for NRVS in cold reheat lines at HP turbine exhaust. When HP by pass is
opened CR1 & CR2 remain closed for 60 sec. and then will be ready to open position
closing in by power cylinder through solenoid operation.
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TG LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM
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VARIOUS TYPES OF VALVES
1.0 Introduction :
Valves are used for different purposes. Mainly as follows:
i) To stop or allow the flow of fluid in a pipe line
ii) To act as a safety device.
a) To prevent excess pressure generation in a pipeline or vessel (safety valve,
Pressure Relief valve)
b) To prevent back flow of fluid into up stream side of equipment which might get
damaged due to the back flow (non-return valve, flap valve)
iii) To regulate the quantity or pressure of the flowing fluid.
iv) Special valves for specific service conditions like Christmas tree valve for oil well,
quick operating blow down valves for boiler blow down lines.
2.0 Classification of Valves :

Valves can be broadly classified into following two types based on the relative motion of
the closing element with the direction of fluid flow or pressure.
i) The closing element moves in the same axis in which the fluid flows.
(eg. Globe valve, Safety valve non return valve etc.)
ii) The closing element moves in the perpendicular direction in which the fluid flows. In
other words the closing element cut across the flow of the fluid.
(eg. Gate valves, cocks, ball valves etc.)
3.0 Construction of the valves :

The valves are fabricated from different materials such as cast iron, steel, gun metal,
stainless steel etc. in order to suit the fluid they carry. The valves are classified according
to pressure class as per the relevant BSS, ASA, DIN or ISI specification. Similar type of
valves have different types of ends connection i.e. flanged, welded, socket, screwed
etc for connecting them with the pipe lines.
Valves components can be grouped mainly as.
i) Body
ii) Yoke, bonnet and cover.
iii) Disk, wedge
iv) Stem
v) Gland
vi) Other parts.
i) Body :
The body of the valve serves the following functions.
a) The inlet and outlet connections are accommodated.
b) Fluid flow passage is provided in the body.
c) One part of the sealing seat is accommodated.
d) Connection to other valve parts and gasket are provided in the third flange.
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e) Wherever necessary bypass arrangement is provided on the body.
ii) Yoke Bonnet and Cover :

a) The function is to connect with the body of the third flange.
b) Houses gland and stem nut.
c) Vent plug for deaeration is located in the yoke.
d) In case of motor operated valves the motors are mounted on the yoke.
iii) Disk Wedge :

This is a moving part inside the body operated by the stem and this is the control
element to stop or regulate the flow of the medium. This contains
i) The control element seat which mates with the body seat.
ii) The body which can isolate the fluid from upstream to downstream side.
iii) Connection to the stem.
iv) Stem :
This is also a moving part and most important part as it is subjected to high
stresses and different conditions of temperature, contact media etc. the following
functions are performed by the stem.
i) It connects with the disk or wedge.
ii) It slides against the gland packing.
iii) It has operating screw threads, which converts the torque applied at the hand
wheel to vertical thrust with the stem nut.
v) Glands:
The glands consist of the gland packings one piece or two pieces, gland cover,
gland tightening bolts and nuts. The gland tightening bolts are supported on the
yoke or bonnet. The main function of this gland is to provide sealing around the
stem and smooth sliding operation to the stem. The gland packings are generally of
knitted asbestos yarn with some solid lubricants like graphite or mica flakes.
When the gland covers are tightened they should be able to create sufficient
pressure on the stem to prevent leakage.
vi) Other parts:

Other parts are the fasteners, used for body bonnet connection, hand wheel,
gasket etc. fasteners are made from high carbon steel and hand wheels are made
from Cast steel.
4.0 Comparison between Globe and Gate valves:

i) In a globe valve full flow area around the periphery is obtained by a lift of d/4 where
‘d’ is the nominal bore of the valve. Where as in gate valve the gate has to
completely travel across the bore of the valve and hence the valve must have a lift
of slightly more than ‘d’ which is about 4-times that of a globe valve. Hence the
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total height headroom required, time required to complete opening and weight of a
gate valve are comparatively more than a globe valve.
ii) The manufacture and maintenance of a gate valve is more difficult compared to
globe valve as the two tapered seats in the wedge have to perfectly match with
that of the seats in the body.
iii) In the globe valve the disc has to function against the full medium pressure and
hence the stem load is quite high compared to a gate valve.
iv) Due to the flow directional changes and possible turbulence in a globe valve the
flow loss is more than a gate valve in which flow is straight and with least turbulence.
5.0 Operation of Valve :

Valves can be chosen with manual hand wheel operation. In case the valves are located
away from the floor level, apart from the manual operation pneumatic, hydraulic or
electric motor operation can also be chosen.
6.0 Valve Actuators (Electrical) :

Valve actuators are of two types:
a) Rotary actuator b) Linear actuator
Rotary actuators are available in different torque capacities and different output speed.
These actuators can be fitted on gate and globe valve.
Linear actuators have a reciprocating movement and therefore have a restriction in the
operating stroke or lift of the valve. These are used in gate valve & globe valve of smaller
size.
The hand wheel is normally used for opening & closing of valve. The size of the hand
wheel is such a way selected that the torque required is sufficient to open or close the
valve.
Valves which require greater force for opening and closing and can not be provided with
larger size hand wheel, due to space limitations, are provided with actuator with a worm
drive, with chain pulley block type. In some cases electrically motor operated gear train
is mounted on the valve with reversible motor for opening and closing of valve Enclosed
figures show the various types of valves used in power station.
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CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF
AIR PRE HEATER
The air pre heater is unique among boiler auxiliaries with the principle purpose of
saving energy. It can have significant impact on plant capacity and heat rate.
It provides heated air for drying and carrying pulverized coal. It increase Boiler efficiency
by 8-12% and is an income producing Asset. For every 220C increase in combustion air temp.
there is an improvement in over all boiler efficiency of 1% on fired boilers.
The air pre heaters are operating at conditions vastly different from those for which
they were designed. Much efforts has been put in to predicting and controlling the mechanisms
of cold end erosion, fouling and plugging, acid or moisture condensation.
Types of Airheater :
Corrosion resistant materials like certain ‘A’ (Imported) introduced. There are two
types of combustion air preheater (1) Recuperative and (2) Regenerative.
1) Recouperasive designs include tubular, plate and heat pipe.
2) Regenerative designs include the rotative matrix. (L Jung strom type)
Oil burners are used during low lead and during precommissioning causer lamp black
deposits, if cleaning is not proper man cause fire hazards.
Ammonium bisulfate deposition cause adverse effect on unit availability.
A.H. elements basket to be reversed when :
1) Rotor periphery elements eroded in height by 50 mm
2) Heating element thickness eroded by 1/3 of its original thickness.
Future trends :
1. A.H. sectors are being increased to make AH more effective and to decrease seal leakage.
2. Seal setting automatic by clearance sensing devices being introduced in future.
3. A.H. speed is reduced from 4 to 6 rpm to 1 to 1.5 rpm to reduce leakages.
Every effort should be made to check all accessible parts of the air preheater.
• Examine rotors for signs of erosion and corrosion, especially on air heater that operate at
high air to gas differential pressures or are frequently cycled or operate at low loads.
• Inspect all critical welds including the hot and cold end post diaphragm area, stay plate
and grating welds, shell welds, and circumferential or bypass seals structure welds. If the
rotor has a history of past diaphragm area cracking, it should receive NDT inspection.
• Check other A.H. structures such as connecting plates, center sections, housing and support
pedestalls, which can be effected by erosion, corrosion, and weld cracking.
• Inspect all seals and sealing surfaces for wear and general condition and settings.
• Check the general condition of al cleaning equipment drives, nozzles and support structures.
• Thorough by inspect bearings and drives, oil samples taken from bearings, gear boxes
should be examined for metal particles.
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• Pin rack welds should be examined.
• Inspect the heat – transfer element, heat of the rotary regenerative air preheater at both
the hot & cold ends inboard and outboard, check for erosive wear, corrosion, plugging and
looseness.
• Check unvisual noise or vibrations, draft loss, oil leaks.
• Hot end elements are 26 BG 0.5 mm alloys.
• Cold end elements are 22 BG 0.8 mm alloys.
Routine maintenance for Recuperative Air Preheaters :

Maintenance practices for tubular air heaters are focused at maintaining performance
within acceptable limits and minimizing corrosion and leakage. This means keeping the cleaning
equipment, temperature control equipment, steam preheat coils and any cold end temperature
control equipment in good working order, and regularly monitoring performance. Persistent
fouling of tubes may require an outage to mechanically or to high-pressure water wash the
unit, and may indicate that cold end temperature controls need readjustment or repair.
Tubular air heater suppliers have special tools needed to install sleeves inside the cold end
tubes as a method of repairing damage caused by corrosion or erosion7. Repairs of this nature
can postpone a cold end replacement for several years. The sleeves will increase draft losses,
and will have an insulating effect, thereby lowering tube metal temperature. Without changing
the unit’s operation to raise cold end metal temperatures, the fouling, corrosion and leakage
will return.
Tubular air heaters have been preferentially but not exclusively selected for boiler
applications with high air to gas pressure differentials such as on cyclone boilers and fluidized
bed boilers, and frequently for primary air preheat on pulverized coal boilers. These are static
equipment and do not require any energy for running or heat transfer.
Rotary regenerative air preheaters have been successfully applied to over 2000MW of Fluidized
bed boilers world over the ten years.
Regenerative design :
Regenerative design of the installed base of regenerative air preheaters, the vast majority
is of the rotating matrix design. Consequently, the following discussion refers to the rotating
matrix design as shown in Figure.
The major component of the rotary regenerative air preheater is a cylindrical rotor
structure. The rotor is made up of a central rotor post, radial plates called diaphragms extending
out from the post and the rotor shell which forms the outer cylindrical surface of the rotor. The
pie shaped compartments formed by these components can be subdivided further to enable
the rotor to accept the basked heat transfer surface.
The rotor assembly is rotated using a pin rack mounted on the outside surface of the
rotor shell. The rotor is supported by bearings which are mounted to the hot and cold end
center sections of the stationary air preheater structure . The center sections combined with
the duct corners make up the hot end and cold end connecting plates.
Ductwork is attached to the connecting plates to supply air and flue gas flows to and
away from the air preheater. The hot end connecting plate is attached to the cold end connecting
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plate by housing panel and engages the pin rack through the use of a pinion gear. The air
preheater is equipped with sealing systems which are mounted on the center sections,
connecting plates and housing panels, and are designed to minimize and control leakage from
the air stream to the gas stream. The air preheater can also be equipped with water washing
pipes and one or more cleaning devices (soot-blowers).
The combination of the regenerative principal and a true counterflow arrangement
enables very high levels of heat transfer efficiency to be achieved with a very short straight
flow path. The short, straight flow path facilitates cleanability, and allows for more compact
and thermally efficient heat transfer surface configurations. Consequently, the rotating matrix
design is the most compact arrangement for any capacity and performance requirement.
One of the greatest advantages of the regenerative design air preheater is the ease
and flexibility to adapt the performance characteristics to accommodate changes in boiler
operation, fuel or the addition of environmental control equipment. This flexibility comes from
the inherent ability to easily change or upgrade the heat transfer surface within the air preheater.
Another important advantage of the rotating matrix design is the ability to sweep the entire
frontal area of the rotor with a single cleaning device by slowly moving a single nozzle soot
blower from the post to the shell in coordination with the rotor rotation. A multi-nozzle device
with a reduced stroke or a stationary water wash pipe arrangement is also frequently utilized.
The fundamental and most important purpose of the air preheater is to recover energy from
the flue gas and to deliver that recovered energy in the form of preheated combustion or mill
air. The challenge for the designer is to meet the required level of thermal performance while
maintaining acceptable levels of pressure drops leakage, cleanability and operating life. The
proper selection and arrangement of heat transfer surface is the key to meeting this challenge.
Heat transfer surface :

Heat transfer surface, also known as heating element, is the compact arrangement of
specially formed metal plates contained in retaining baskets, which are installed in the rotor
compartments.
There are normally two to four layers of heating element in the rotor. At the cold end,
where the cold air enters and the cooled flue gas exits, metal temperatures are lowest and
corrosion, fouling and plugging potential are the highest. In each consecutive layer toward
the hot end, metal temperatures increase, corrosion potential decreases and temperature
related fouling and plugging potential decreases.
Performance :
The function of the heating element is to absorb heat from the flue gas and release
heat to the combustion air. The heating element in any particular layer within the air preheater
is selected to optimize the rate of local heat transfer while minimizing the possibility of fouling,
plugging and corrosion.
Corrosion and fouling potential is a strong function of the fuel being fired. With natural
gas firing, corrosion and fouling concerns are minimal. With oil firing, corrosion and fouling
concerns increase with fuel sulfur and ash content. With most coals, corrosion is less.
Pressure water washing. The new device, termed a “Jetblower” by the manufacturer,
incorporates provisions for steam or air soot blowing on line and low-pressure water washing
and high-pressure water jetting off line.
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Leakage :
Air to gas leakage occurs within the regenerative air preheater. Direct leakage is the
air that escapes past the seals into the gas stream. Direct leakage is driven by the air to gas
pressure differential and is generally proportional to the area of open gaps between the air
and gas streams and to the square root of the pressure differential. Entired leakage is the air,
which is trapped in the rotor volume as it, rotates from the airside into the gas side. Entire
leakage is proportional to the rotor void volume and the speed of rotation. Generally, direct
leakage represents 85-90% of the total.
The sealing system :

A sealing system designed to limit and control the amount of direct leakage is
incorporated between the housing and rotor structure. Refer to Figure for the locations of
sealing system components. Stationary sealing surfaces (sector plates) are positioned in a
parallel plane with the rotor inlet and outlet faces and between the air and gas passages.
Rigid leaf type seals are attached to the hot and cold ends of the redial diaphragm plates, and
adjusted to pass in close proximity to the sector plates during operation. A fixed sealing
surface (T-bar) is attached at the hot and cold ends of the rotor perimeter, concentric with the
rotor, and in a plane parallel to the rotor face.
Bypass seals are connected to the housing structure at the hot and cold ends and are
positioned to maintain a minimum gap with the T-bars during operation. Rotor post seals are
positioned to minimum the gap between the rotor post and a complementary fixed surface in
the center section. Additional stationary sealing surfaces (axial seal plates) are positioned
outside and in close proximity to the rotor shell at the air to gas adjusted to minimize the
operating gap to the curved axial seal plates.
Thermal effects on the rotor structure :

The continuous process of heat exchange between the hot flue gas and cold air results
in a significant steady state metal temperature gradient from the hot to the cold end of the
rotor structure. This temperature gradient is predictable and results in a well-understood
thermal deformation of the rotor structure. The entire rotor structure grows in length from the
cold end to the hot end. In addition, radial growth at the hot end and exceeds the radial
growth at the cold end, thus resulting in a convex shape at the hot end and a concave shape
at the cold end.
This deformation is known as rotor turndown, and somewhat complicates the process
of setting seals. Figure shows portrays a rotor cross section with the cold condition on the left
and the thermally deformed hot condition on the right. Axial seals and could end radial seals
can be set in the could condition to close or minimize leakage gaps in the hot condition. Hot
end redial seals are set to zero clearance in the cold condition, but due to rotor turndown, a
hot end radial seal gap opens up during operation.
Summary and conclusions :

Combustion air preheaters are income producing assets for their owners. Over half of
the fleet of utility boiler air preheaters in the United States are operating beyond their design
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life or under conditions far different from the original design. Fuel changers, load changes and
environmental cleanup equipment all impose different requirements on the air preheaters.
Tubular air preheaters require close attention to cold end tube temperatures to avoid
persistent fouling, corrosion and leakage. Daily performance monitoring and effective cleaning
of gas side tube sheets is a prerequisite to avoiding plugging problems on coal fired applications.
Owners of rotary regenerative air preheaters should perform routine inspections and
maintenance of the bearings, rotor drive and sealing systems and the heat transfer surfaces.
Significant attributes of the rotary design include it’s high efficiency and compact arrangement,
adaptability to changing operating conditions, and ease of cleaning. Methodical condition
assessment techniques for rotary regenerative air preheaters, can determine the suitability of
the air preheater to current and future operations, and identify potential improvement
opportunities to better meet future operational goals of the utility owner.
Recent innovations with rotary regenerative designs include improvements in heat
transfer surface performance, heat transfer surface cleanability, heat transface surface cleaning
equipment, leakage reduction and tolerance to ABS deposition from SCR and SNCR Nox controls.
The benefits to be derived from maintenance opportunities associated with combustion air
preheaters include, incremental fuel savings, lower emissions, improved availability, lower
maintenance costs and increased generating capacity.
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BAG FILTER SYSTEM AT
KORADI THERMAL POWER PLANT
INTRODUCTION
“It is prohibited to the industrial establishments, commercial or administrative to emit
either smoke or soot or dust particles or toxic or corrosive gases susceptible to inconvenience
the surroundings or to pollute the atmosphere or to spoil the health or the public security,
agricultural production, good preservation of National Monuments or beauty of the surrounding
landscape.”
The above rule from the Act of 20th April 1932, called ‘MORIZET’ law was sanctioned in
France regarding regulation of suppression of industrial dust emissions. Such more rules and
regulations were imposed by different countries time by time as the world ‘think tank’ realized
the adverse effects of these dust particles, soot, smoke, corrosive gases to individuals along
with the atmosphere surrounding us.
Considering the adverse effect of dust, the dust exhausting firms are allowed to emit
not more than 300 gm per hour, also it is advised to install separate dust collecting equipment’s,
such as Electro-static precipitators, Mechanical type dedusters (Gravity, Inertia &Centrifugal
Type), Porous Beds, Hydraulic Dedusters, Spray Type Dedusters, Bag Filters etc. The evolution
to find out new techniques of dedusting which tend to be economical is going on.
The fly ash disposition is becoming a major problem for industries like power plant,
steel integrated iron & steel industry, foundry, chemical industry etc. This problem is solved
up to some extent, by using this fly ash for other useful purposes. Fly ash can be effectively
used for making high strength bricks, in cement industries, tale Industries. In some places
alumina extraction plants are established to extract the alumina from the fly ash. Also some
precious metals can be reproduced from this low value fly ash.
In the following chapter we shall study the effective fly ash collection by using bag
filter technology. This technology is effectively usedin India for the first time in Unit 6 of
Koradi Thermal Power Station.
Generally coal fired boilers produces large amount of ash after complete burning of
coal. The coal, which is used in our thermal plant contains more than 30% ash constituent.
This ash is of little importance as compared to the cost. But it acts as prime constituent in
terms of pollution. The ash when exposed to atmosphere will pollute the surrounding area.
They may cause or favor the causing of lung diseases, either by their physical or chemical
action or carrier medium for germs, bacteria or virus. The ash may cause the poor visibility,
may reduce the intensity of daylight, they may get deposited layer by layer on surface of land
surrounding the power plant and may affect the fertility of soil. Hence ash disposition is
essential considering the above aspects. The ash is mainly distinguished in two categories
viz. bottom ash and fly ash. The incombustible part of coal is known as ash and some part of
it gets settle down due to gravity and is collected in bottom ash hopper, the remaining ash,
being lighter gets carried away along with flue gas and hence named fly ash. Generally 15%
of total ash is the bottom ash and remaining 85% is fly ash. The fly ash is separated from flue
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gas in filter bags and after mixing with water, this slurry is disposed to ash bund, some few
kilometers away from the thermal power station.
Different Methods of Ash Separation

There are different methods of fly ash separation and they are discussed in brief below.
1) Mechanical Dedusters :
This is subdivided into three categories.
a) Gravity type dedusters : These are mainly constituted into sedimentation

chambers of increasing cross section. This increased cross section reduces the
velocity of flue gas. This reduction in velocity leads to sufficient time for ash particles
to settle down due to gravity at the bottom of the chambers.
b) Inertia type or shock type dedusters : This method uses combine effect of
principal of gravity type dedusters and change in direction of flow of gas.
c) Centrifugal type separators : These are generally of cyclone type or multicyclone

type. The flue gases are axially or tangentially subjected to the turbulence and get
exhausted axially in such a way that dust particles are subjected to centrifugal
force and gets deposited on the walls of separator from where they drop due to
gravity.
2) Dedusters with Porous Bed :

In this method the flue gas is allowed to pass through an porous bed, such as cloth,
paper, etc. which retain the dust trapped on one side and from other side flue gas without fly
ash is exhausted. This method uses bag’s of special material, the method is termed as ‘Bag
Filter’.
3) Hydraulic Dedusters or Dust Washers :

In this type the flue gas is allowed to pass over fluid bed such that impurities (fly ash)
may get suspended in fluid and settles down and this slurry of fly ash is then drained through
drains. This method can be divided into 2 types
• Leaking type dedusters.
• Spray type dedusters.
4) Electric Dedusters :
In this type of deduster fly ash is subjected to pass through a passage in which high
electrostatic charge of the order of 60 to 70 Kilo Volts exists. This highly electrostatically
charged atmosphere ionises the ash particles and such electrically charged ash particles are
attracted towards the positive electrodes of the system where they loose the electrical charge
and fall down into the collecting hoppers placed below the collecting electrodes.This system is
known as Electrostatic precipitator (ESP). Now a days ESP is commonly used in thermal power
plant for fly ash separation.
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Need for Bag filter’s as Dust Precipitator
Previously ESP’s were designed considering the different parameters regarding coal
and flue gas properties. ESP’s were designed for 25% ash content in coal. But now a days
thermal power plant use coal of lower qualities. Also the present ESP’s can not meet the
pollution standards. Emissions through ESP’s reached to a value of 600 – 800 gm/Nm3.
To improve the performance of ESP some additional methods were introduced. These
include the use of extra dummy fields, retrofitting, injecting steam and NH3 in inlet ducts.
With the failure of these attempts it is necessary to augment ESP to meet the desired pollution
standard of emission below 150 mg/Nm3.
‘Fabric Filter’ finds its application to replace these existing ESP’s. As Fabric Filter’s uses
bag for dust precipitation hence named ‘Bag Filters’. These bag filters are in use in Unit 6
K.T.P.S. Koradi in two pass along with ESP’s in remaining two pass. Either ESP or Bag filter
system i. e. only one system at a time is in service.
Initially we were having 4 passes with 20 fields. Now pass A and D are used for bag
filters and B and C passes are used for ESP’s.
The most important factor in determining the type of fly ash collection technology to
be used is the permissible particulate outlet emission concentration in mg/Nm3. If an invisible
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plume is required, then this would require an outlet emission of typically 50 mg/Nm3 or less.
For a high ash coal, the inlet burden to the flue gas cleaning plant could be as high as 3O
gm/Nm3. The collection efficiency of a plant to give an invisible outlet plume would therefore
be
(Ein - Eout)
Efficiency = —————— X 100
Ein
where Ein = inlet dust concentration = 30 gm/Nm3

Eout = outlet dust concentration = 0.05 gm/Nm3
Therefore: Required Efficiency =(30 - 0.05) x 100 = 99.83%
30
ESP is designed for Ash Content =25% Max
Coal Quality Design Actual

Carbon 37.3% 23%
V.M. 27.60% 20.8%
Ash 25% 45%
CV 5000 kcal/kg 3000 kcal/kg
Rate of Emission with ESP (Average) >600 mg/NM3
Economy of dust precipitators :

The flue gas volumetric flow rate, the flue gas temperature and fly ash constituents are
taken into consideration while designing the precipitator. Thus depending on the required
efficiency we can go for the estimation of whole life, cost of available technologies and also
minimum cost of technology with optimum efficiency. Low emission requirement can increase
the capital cost of ESP’s. While comparing capital cost, operating cost and maintenance cost
it is observed that bag filter technology is more beneficial.
Different types of Fabric Filters are in use in different industries and operating on
different advanced principles, MSEB is using Pulse-Jet type fabric filters. The Reverse Air
Collector and shaker collectors type fabric filters are also popular among different industries.
Factors To Be Considered while Designing Fabric Filters :

The key factors in designing fabric filters are enlisted below
1) Gas to cloth ratio (G/C ratio).
2) Conveying gas composition.
3) Operating temperature.
4) Acid and water due points.
5) Material being handled.
6) Space limitations.
7) Operating pattern.
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8) Availability for maintenance.
9) Time available for installation.
The single most important parameter in designing fabric filter is G/C ratio. The total
volumetric flow rate of flue gas divided by the total fabric area and is usually expressed by the
G/C ratio. The selection of gas to cloth ratio directly affects the sise and therefore cost of the
plant. This G/C ratio reduces with increasing dust loading, G/C ratio reduces with reducing
particle sizing and increasing temperature.
The another factor governing the design of fabric is bag life. It depends on the cleaning
frequency and temperature. Also sulfur content in flue gas restricts the manufacture to design
such a composition of bag filter which may used for optimum temperature. The different
fabric materials were developed and tested and recognized for different temperature.
Type Temperature
Cotton 900C
Wool 1000C
Acrylic 1250C
Glass fiber (Not suitable for P.J.C.) 2500C
RYTON (PPS) 1800C
Bag Filters with the bags made of synthetic Ryton fulfills the operating condition of our
present working conditions. The data regarding this bag filter is given below.
PARTICULARS DETAILS
Material of filter bag Poly Phenyl Sulphide (RYTON)
Flue gas temp. inlet to fabric filter. 1480C
Fabric filter D.P. 130 mmwc
Changeover from fabric filter to ESP.
i) Flue gas temp. 1750C
ii) Bag filter D.P. 200 mmwc
iii) M.W. rating. <120 mw
Short term rise in temp. 1900C
Bag life 3 years/ 24000 Hrs.
Presently bag filter outlet SPM. 25.35 mg/Nm3
Constructional features of Bag filters :

To meet the pollution standard requirements, fabric filters should be designed. The
number of bags and bag size also increases the chances of entrapment of dust particles. It is
convenient to replace the components inside casing of ESP by the assembly of fabric filters.
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BAG
Different vendors provide the polyphenyl sulfide (PPS) or Ryton bags. The bags
dimensions are 7.2 m in length and 129 mm in diameter. These bags are closed at bottom
side where as opened at topside and are fitted into cage. The flue gas flows through the bags
and relieve the dust particles on the outer side of bag and clear/ clean flue gas is exhausted
to the atmosphere.
SPEACIFICATION OF FABRIC FILTER

Material of bag filter - Ryton, (PPS).
Diameter of wire of bag cages - 4 mm.
Gas flow at inlet of bag filter - 187 m3/ sec.
Collection of ash in each hopper - 33.4 T/hr
Fabric Filter cooling water set point - 1480C
Attemparating air set point - 1550C
No. of bags per pass - 4124.
Fabric Filter inlet temp. high alarm - 1600C
Automatic change over to ESP - 1750C
Fabric Filter inlet temp. near trip alarm - 1800C
High temp. trip set point - 1900C
Emergency cooling water spray set point - 1900C
Fabric Filter temp. low alarm - 1200C
Pulse tank air supply pressure - 400Kpa
Pulse tank minimum pressure to set pulse point - 350Kpa
Fabric Filter slow clean time - 120 sec
Implosion damper set point - 270 mmwc
Fabric filter differential pressure high alarm - 170 mmwc
Fabric filter change over to ESP set point - 200 mmwc
Velocity of flue gas before fabric filter - 12 m/sec.
Velocity of flue gas in bag filter - 0.01 m/sec.
Velocity of flue gas in top plenum - 16 m/sec.
Weight of the bag - 600 gm/m2.
Inlet dust concentration - 78 gm/ Nm3.
Outlet dust concentration - 80 mg/Nm3.
Maximum auxiliary consumption
(ID + compressor + other)
Flue gas moisture - 2138 kw
Sulphur content in flue gas is limited to 0.5% - less than 7%
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CAGE
A cage is provided for bag to keep the bag in position. This cage provides the required
tightness. The cage is divided into 3 parts. The bottom plate is also provided at bottom of the
bottom piece of cage. The bottom plate is provided to protect the bag from bottom lining.
CASING
The initial casing of ESP can be used as casing for fabric filters. The casing is divided
into 3 parts as shown in fig. The first stage is having less number of bags i.e. 10 rows as
compared to the remaining stages. The last stage comprise of 18 rows.
HOPPERS
The same hoppers are useful for fabric filters as used for ESP fields
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Working of Fabric filters
As described earlier the perforated fabric filter arrests the dust in flue gas. The flow
path of flue gas is shown in fig. The flue gas come to the dust precipitator with an average
velocity of 18 m/sec. The increased cross sectional area reduces this velocity to allow sufficient
time for ash to be precipitated. The flue gas flows through the outer surface of bag filter
generally known as dirty portion, and the dust particles get trapped on outer side of bag. The
dust particle size may be in the range of 5 – 10 m. thus clear flue gas enters in the top
plenum and considerably invisible plume gets exhausted to the atmosphere. The particulate
matter at exhaust side is very less up to 50 gm/Nm3.
The accumulation of dust on outer side of bag goes on increasing and a instance may
come that there is building up of differential pressure between dirty portion and clean portion.
If this pressure crosses the designed value the signal is send to the pulse jet system through
sensors. The pulse jet generally comprise of compressed air provided by pulse air compressor
with discharge pressure about 5.4 kg/cm2. The compressor having capacity to deliver air is
about 15 m3/min. this pulse air is stored in the pulse tanks provided at the top floor, which are
5 in number for each row (20 Nos.). The pulse air pressure at discharge to nozzle is 3.6 to 3.8
kg/cm2. There are pulse valves provided with solenoid operated plunger valve (170 per raw).
This system discharges the pulse air after receiving signal of DP from sensors. This
high velocity pulse air removes the deposited dust particles on the bag surface. These ash
particles thus get dropped into the hopper.
There are certain parameters, which may affect the performance of bag filters. These
factors are namely high temperature of flue gas at the entry of casing and differential pressure
in dirty portion and at suction side of ID fan.
The maximum temperature at which fabric filter can work safely is 1350C for the proposed
material of bag. Hence some attemparation provisions are provided to protect the bag from
any hazards.
These attemparation systems are

• Evaporated cooling system
• Implosion damper.
• Attemparating Air.
If the temperature of flue gas is more than 1300C, some times it is up to 1600C, then
small quantity of cold air is injected in the duct after the APH. These provision of damper
lowers the temperature of flue gas from 150/ 1600C to 1300C.
If the differential pressure between the suction of ID fan and dirty portion of bag
crosses the permissible value i.e. 200 mm wc then implosion damper gets operated. Otherwise
due to suction pressure on higher side bag may get shrink. The implosion damper operated by
hydraulic arrangement. The atmospheric air is allowed to enter through this implosion damper
to compensate this pressure difference. As soon as this implosion damper opens it sends
signal for boiler tripping. This implosion damper having rubber diaphragm with 2050 mm OD.
Evaporating cooling is achieved by automising water and spraying inside duct through
42 nozzles. The water droplet size is kept to 50 m with differential pressure 1 kg/ cm2. Water
flow variation takes place as per the temperature variation at bag filter inlet.
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There are four compressors used for evaporative cooling. Out of which two are running and
two are standby. The compressors are having capacity to handle 24 m3/ min of air with 8 kg/
cm2 pressure at outlet. The required air pressure at valve station is 7 kg/cm2. For evaporative
cooling 2 water pumps are also used out of which one is running and other is stand by. Water
pressure at pump outlet is kept at 9.5 kg/cm2. Raw water flow is 384 LPM. The required water
pressure at valve station is kept at 7 kg/ cm2. the combine spray of water droplets along with
compressed air the evaporating effect is used to bring down the flue gas temperature to
1300C before fabric filter.
The water is automised by the compressed air. The 4 RTDS are provided to sense the
flue gas temperature after APH. If this temperature is more then signal is send to the control
valves of water and air and it sprays the corresponding amount of water + air mixture to bring
down the gas stream temperature to 1350C.
PULSE-JET BAGHOUSE SKETCH
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Also there are 24 RTDS provided after valve station of evaporative cooling. The average
of three highest temperatures is taken and accordingly the control valves get opened. The
droplet size of water is controlled by using filters. There is one standby filter, which comes in
service when DP across running filter crosses the 0.3 kg/ cm2 set point.Temperature is measured
downstream of the water sprays, with water flow controlled to maintain the set point. The
temperature set point is adjustable from the PLC, nominally 148 oC. The set point for the
attemperating air system is set 7 oC higher than the water spray system, so that it will only
operate if the water spray system cannot maintain the set point temperature. If the
attemperating air system operates, an alarm is given, “fabric filter inlet temperature high”.
If the temperature Tmax reaches 160 oC an alarm is given “fabric filter temperature very high”.
If the temperature Tmax reaches 175 oC automatic changeover from fabric filter to ESP is
initiated.
If the temperature Tmax reaches 180 oC an alarm is given “fabric filter temperature near
trip set point “.
If the temperature Tmax reaches 190 oC the emergency water spray system is activated
and a trip signal is sent to the boiler control system.
The emergency water spray system will automatically shut down when the inlet
temperature drops below 190 oC. If the temperature Tmin drops to 120 oC, an alarm “Fabric
Filter Inlet Temperature Low” will be given. If the temperature Tmin drops to 110 oC, an alarm
“Water Spray System Shut Down, Spray System Fault” will be given, and the water supply to
the spray system will shutdown. To change back to Water Spray operation it is recommended
that manual control be used to open the water control valves until the temperature set point
is reached. The plant can then be changed over to automatic operation.In additional to the
temperature trips and alarms provision has also been made to initiate an automatic changeover
to ESP mode if the air heater rotation slow or stops. The emergency water spray system has
been modified by the addition of a non-return valve in the water supply to the sprays after the
solenoid valve. This allows the negative pressure in the duct to draw air in from outside,
through the nozzles, keeping them clean.
The plant contains 436 Optipow pulse control valves. Each gas path has 2 rows of
valves, each row consisting of 109 valves. The 109 valves are mounted in 5 pulse tanks. The
cleaning sequence is such that odd numbered valves are pulsed first, 1 in each tank in sequence,
followed by even numbered valves. When the valve is fired, a pulse of compressed air is
directed down each row of bags, dislodging accumulated ash from the outside of the bag.
When the DP reaches the DP set-point, nominally 130 mm WG, adjustable in the PLC, one row
of filter bags (2 pulse valves, 1 in each row of tanks) is pulsed. Pulsing is dependant on the
pressure in the pulse tank being above 350 kPa. If the tank is not above the set point, the
valves are fired after 7 seconds, and the system steps on to the next valve in the sequence.
When the DP drops below the set-point pulsing stops. If the DP does not rise above the
setpoint within 120 seconds, the next valve in the sequence is fired. This means that regardless
of low DP all bags will be cleaned once every 218 minutes. In addition to the normal automatic
cleaning, a fast clean function is available in the PLC. When manually initiated, every bag in
the gas path will be cleaned once, with the time only limited by the supply of compressed
air.An alarm system has been provided to monitor pulse valve operation. The system checks
that the pressure in the pulse tank drops after a signal has been given to fire. If the pressure
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in the tank fails to rise above the setpoint by the time the next valve in the tank is due to be
fired, a fail to rise “R” alarm is given in the PLC. To test that all pulse valves are operating, the
following procedure is used:
• Go to BF Pulsing Pass A or D screen
• Change “F to Fall Mode Sw” to “On”.
• Reset the “Pulse on Time” from 10 to 100 milliseconds
• With these settings, if the pressure fails to drop when a signal is sent for a valve to fire, a
fail to fall (f) alarm is given in the PLC in the location of the valve.
• It is recommended that this procedure be carried out for one complete cleaning cycle on
each gas path in turn, on a once a month basis.
• After testing all valves in one gas path the “F to Fall Mode Sw” should be changed back to
“Off” and the “Pulse on Time” back to 10 milliseconds.
The air supply pressure is also monitored in the PLC. Should the filter bag plate DP rise
to 170 mm WG, an alarm “Fabric Filter DP High” is given. Should the filter bag plate DP rise to
200 mm WG, an automatic changeover to ESP operation is initiated. The pulse valves have
been upgraded to the latest design using an upgrade kit. This was done to overcome problems
with the mounting of the solenoid valves.
Orifice plates have been installed at the inlet to each pulse tank. This has the following
benefits :
• System pressure is not completely lost if a valve fails to close.
• Pressure in tanks is not significantly affected when another pulse tank fires, assisting the
operation of the pulse alarm system.
Bag Filter Maintenance :

Clean compressed air supply filters as required (alarm of high DP in PLC). Monitor
emissions using opacity monitor and/or visual observation of stack daily.Inspect clean gas
chambers through viewing windows weekly. Replace or cap leaking bags when detected.Monitor
bag plate DP. Check all pulse tanks for leaks monthly (max 50 kPa pressure loss in 60 s when
isolated at 350 kPa). Check operation of sonic horns weekly.
Routine Maintenance :
Monitor cleaning frequency at full load weekly and reset DP set-point if necessary.
Maintain record of all failed bags :
Location service hours failure type cause
Maintain air compressors and dryers. Clean viewing windows (weekly).

Repair or replace faulty RTD’s as faults occur.
Inspection to be carried out at the time of boiler shut down.

Inspect clean gas plenums both gas paths internally. Clean and replace faulty bags as
required.
Inspect inlet ducts internally.
• Wear on spray erosion protection,
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• wear on gas flow guide vanes
• test correct operation of both control and emergency spray lances
• inspect and replace work nozzle caps
• check RTD’s for erosion damage
• Leak test all pulse tanks. Recalibrate all DP transmitters and switches during major boiler
outages.
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• Pulse tank leaks can be caused by :
• tank drain valve not properly closed
• valve plunger stuck open due to grit.
• valve plunger worn or damaged
• valve diaphragm worn or damaged
• hose to solenoid leaking
• faulty O rings
• faulty or loose solenoid
• worn or corroded valve seat
• Recalibrate all DP transmitters and switches during major boiler outages.
Troubleshooting
• High emissions can be caused by excessive bag cleaning, by damaged bags, or by leakage
through the ESP isolation dampers.
• In the case of high emissions the opacity monitors will indicate which gas path is at fault.
Inspection through the clean gas compartment will then enable the area of the fault to be
determined.
• Internal inspection will then be required to locate the faulty bag. This is normally found by
a build-up of ash around the bag.Because of this the compartment should be cleaned
when a faulty bag is capped or replaced.
• Excessive cleaning is normally due to mal-operation of the DP transmitters, or the DP
Cleaning Set-Point being set too low.
• The DP transmitter and associated tapping points should be checked.
• If the DP transmitter is OK, the DP Set-Point should be raised to give a cleaning cycle of no
less than 12 minutes when operating at full load.
• High DP is normally caused by mal-operation of the DP Transmitter or the bag cleaning
system, but can also be caused by excessive boiler gas flow, boiler tube leaks, operation
at very low temperatures, and gradual aging (blinding) of the filter bags.
• First check the pressure of the air supply to the pulse tanks in the PLC.
• Check pulse air compressors running.
• Then check for faulty pulse valve operation in PLC.
• Inspect pulse tanks. One tank lower pressure than others indicates a leaking valve.
• Isolate faulty tank and check that supply pressure rises.
• Check tank pressure falls by 150 kPa minimum when pulsed. Done by closing isolation
valve before pulsing.
• Check DP transmitter and boiler operation.
✦✦✦
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DESCRIPTION AND WORKING OF
ASH HANDLING PLANT AND PRINCIPLE OF E.S.P.
Fly ash equipment’s of ESP :

Introduction :
In Thermal Power Plant, flue gases are formed as a Product of combustion some minute
ash particles are also carried out with flue gases. These ash particles are referred as “Fly Ash”.
Steam generators burning pulverized coal with furnaces. Fly ash remains in fine suspension
approximately 85% of the ash contained in coal burnt are carried alongwith flue gases. This
fly ash particle if, emitted to atmosphere pollutes the environment. They may cause lung, skin
diseases. Besides that fly ash particles have harmful effect such as,
1. They may cause poor visibility.
2. They may reduce intensity of duration of daylight.
3. They may settle down and get precipitated on earth’s surface
4. They may get deposited on fields causing harm to vegetation and buildings.
Therefore it becomes necessary to eliminate this ash particles before emission of the
gases through chimney for this purpose fly ash collecting equipment’s are installed in thermal
Power Station.
Classification of fly ash collecting equipment :

All fly ash collecting equipment have a common principle that a force is applied to the
fly ash particles traversing through duct in such a manner that, the applied force is in the
direction of gas path and particles falls directly on collector from where they are evacuated or
falls on depositing surfaces from where they are removed. According to types of force applied
on particle distinguish fly ash equipment into two categories.
1. Mechanical equipment.
2. Electrical equipment
Methods for removal of fly ash particles from flue gas :

1. Gravity settling.
2. Internal apposition
3. Diffusion
4. ESP
5. Internal precipitation
Electrostatic Precipitator :
In this types of arrangement, force acting on dust particles is of electrical ionization.
ESP is situated in the path of flue gases in between Air heaters and ID fans.
Electrostatic Precipitation’s utilizes the force acting on electrically charged particles in
the presence of an electric field to effect the separation of solid or liquid particles from a gas
of stream in the Precipitation process. Dust suspended in the gas is electrically charged and
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passed through an electric field. Electrical forces cause the particles to migrate towards the
collection surfaces. The dust separated from gas by retention on the collection electrode and
subsequently removed from the Precipitator.
Working principle of operation of Electrostatic Precipitator

Purpose :
Electrostatic precipitators are used for separation of solids from the mixture of solids
and gas. In Pulverized coal fired Boilers, 85 to 90% ash particles are of very small size,
typically between 5 microns to 75 micron. These particles are generated by combustion of
Pulverized Coal (of the particle size of 75 micron) in the furnace. Being Very light in weight,
these particles travel with Flue Gas and form a mixture of Solid Particles and Combustion
Gases. Before discharging the flue gas in to atmosphere through Chimney, these solid ash
particles need to be separated from Flue gas stream. This is necessary to keep the environment
clean and healthy for the Human beings as well as Flora and fauna around the Thermal Power
Station. The environmental acts and regulations specify that Suspended Particulate matter in
the atmosphere shall not exceed 150 mg/ cubic meter.
To achieve these objectives Electrostatic precipitators are installed in all Boilers.
Principle of Operation :
Removal of Ash Particles from the stream of mixture of Flue gas and ash particles is the
primary function of ESP. Separation of ash particles from the stream is achieved in four steps.
Step 1 : Ionization of gas and electrical charging of dust particles.
Step 2 : Migration of charged dust particles to collecting electrodes
Step 3 : Deposition of charged particles on the collecting electrode’s surface
Step 4 : Dislodging of particles from the surface and depositing the same in hoppers.
Principle of working :
Ionisation and Charging : Main components of the ESP are two sets of electrodes. The first
set consists of collecting electrodes, formed by rows of Parallel Plates, grounded electrically.
The other set consists of negatively charged emitting electrode wires, located centrally between
the two collecting electrodes. High voltage DC (30 to 100 kV magnitudes) is applied to wire
electrodes (i.e. emitting electrodes) from external source. Please refer to the Figure 1 showing
two sets of Collecting Electrodes and one set of emitting electrodes. High DC voltage generates
a non-uniform Electric Field, having highest magnitude near the emitting electrodes. When
DC voltage is high enough, corona (a blue luminous glow) is crated at emitting wire electrodes.
The corona is an indication of ionization of gas around the wires and causing generation of
Negatively charged Gas ions, which travel towards the grounded Collecting electrodes, due to
the presence of strong electric field. The process of ionization occurs because the free electrons
present in the gas accelerate due the electrical forces of corona discharge, which in turn,
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ionize the gas molecules, forming additional electrons and positive gas ions, thus setting an
avalanche.
The positive gas ions migrate towards negatively charged wire (emitting) electrodes.
The electrons follow the electric field and migrate towards grounded collecting electrodes.
Velocity of electrons goes on decreasing as those move away from corona region.
Negative ions migrating along the electric- field’s lines of force, collide with particulate
matter in the gas and charge them with negative potential. After acquiring sufficient charge,
the charged particles then migrate towards the grounded electrodes. The force that causes
migration is proportional to the charge on the particle and strength of electric field.
The force that causes movement of dust particles is proportional to (Charge acquired
by the particle * electric field strength.)
Velocity with which the particles move towards the collecting electrode is called migration
velocity.
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Migration velocity depends on
• Force
• Dielectric constant of particle
• Size of particle (higher the size, greater the velocity).
2.95 ´10 -12

´ p ´ (E/s)2 ´ d
Vm =
Gas viscosity
Where
Vm: migration velocity in mtrs/sec
p : function of dielectric constant (between 1.5 and 2.40), average is 2.0
E; applied voltage, Volts
s : distance between electrodes, meters
d: particle diameter, meters
Migration velocity is therefore directly proportional to

• Particle diameter
• Square of the applied voltage
And inversely proportional to

• Gas viscosity , (gas viscosity increases with gas temperature)
• Distance between electrodes
Collection of particles and retention on plates :

When negatively charged particles collect on the oppositely charged electrode, they
are supposed to loose electrical charge and fall down in the stream. However this does not
happen because the electrical resistivity of ash is very high. Particle looses some of its charge,
not all. The retained charge results in the force of attraction of opposite charges holding the
particles to electrode.
If the particle resistivity is very high, they retain most of the charge, causing very high
force of attraction, which may become difficult to dislodge the collected particles when required.
Conversely, if resistivity is too low, particle may loose whole of charge, and thus the force of
attraction becoming insufficient to hold the particle to electrode. This leads to the reentrainment
of particles by gas stream. Increasing the Power input and decreasing flue gas velocity can
improve the collection. High carbon content in ash is one of the reasons for low resistivity.
The maximum particle resistivity is known to occur at a temperature of 148 C.
Dislodging and rapping :

Particles collected on the plates form the layers. Due to force of opposite charges,
compacting of layer occurs. Such compacted layers of ash are allowed to grow to reasonable
thickness. For dislodging the collected ash, rapping is used. Rapping consists of a vertical
plunger that strikes on the Collecting electrode support system and thus delivers the necessary
shock wave and returns back to its position for next strike. The shock wave causes dislodges
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the compact layer from electrode and ash falls in the form of loosely bound cake in the
hoppers arranged at the bottom of the ESP. Compacted cake of ash prevents reentrainment by
flue gas stream. Once the particles are deposited in the hopper, reentrainment is not possible
and ash remains in the hopper. Hoppers have the capacity to hold the ash formed during 8
Hours of Boiler Full load operation and are emptied periodically.
The frequency and force of rapping has to be carefully selected. Properly controlled
and times removal is critical for the performance of the precipitator. The intensity and frequency
changes for the electrodes arranged at the inlet to outlet. Maximum Quantity is collected by
the first set of electrodes at Inlet and goes on diminishing, minimum being collected at the
electrodes arranged last in the path.
Length of the path of gas flow in one set of electrodes depends on velocity of gas
stream and migration velocity. Gas velocity should be less than the migration velocity so that
the particles remain under the electric filed for the time required for their migration to the
collecting electrodes.
Length of path L in meters > = s (Vg/ Vm)
Where
s = distance between collecting and emitting electrodes, mtrs
Vg = Gas velocity in m/s
Vm = Migration Velocity in m/s.
It is easier to collect the large particles in SEP than smaller particles. Generally, the particle
size of less than 20 microns pose a problem.
Collection Efficiency :
Concentration of all particles retained by collector

Overall Efficiency =
Concentration of all particles entering the collector
Fractional Collection Efficiency or also called Graded Efficiency =
Concentration of particles of a given size retained by collector

=
Concentration of all particles of that size entering the collector
Fractional Collection Efficiency = 1 - e -(Avm/Q)
Where A = area of collector electrodes, in m2

Vm = migration velocity, m/s
Q = flue gas volume flow rate for each plate, m3/sec.
The above expression is called Deutch Expression.
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Advantages of ESP:
• Low pressure drop typically of the order of 40 to 50 mm water col.
• Can handle large gas volumes
• High efficiency for collection of small particle size
• Relative ease with which the particles can be removed and disposed off
Constructional features of electrostatic precipitator :

The electrostatic precipitator may be divided into two major groups viz., electrical
parts and mechanical parts. The electrical parts comprise high voltage rectifiers, main and
auxiliary controls, switches, heaters and interlocks. The mechanical parts constitute the
precipitator proper, which consists of the casing and functional parts forming internals of the
precipitator.
CASING : This is made up of wall panels, hoppers, roof panels and supporting members. The
casing rests on roller bearings, which are fixed to the supporter structures. These bearings
allow for thermal expansion of the casing. The roof panels support the weights of internals
and rectifiers, disconnecting switches, insulator housings etc. mounted on it. These weights
are transferred through the columns of wall panels to the supporting structures. The hoppers
are delivered to the site in pre-fabricated units of suitable size. The upper portion of two
adjacent hoppers is a reinforced rigid to support the hoppers across the width.
The bottom portions of hoppers are equipped with electrical heating elements to facilitate free
flow of dust into the ash disposal system. In order to prevent untreated gas from leaking
below the collecting electrode, each hopper is provided with two sets of baffle plates suspended
from the bottom beams of the precipitator casing.
Internals:
Gas Distribution Screen : For optimum performance of the precipitator, it is essential that
for gas entering the precipitator is evenly distributed over its entire cross sectional area. For
this purpose, two sets of gas distributed plates with perforations are located at the inlet of the
casing. Final adjustment of the distribution prior to commissioning of the precipitator will be
carried out by installation of deflection plates or throttling perforations with screen plates.
Emitting electrodes system : The most essential part of the precipitator is the discharge
(emitting) Electrode system. The discharge electrode system consists of a rigid box like
framework, which is suspended from four insulators from roof of the precipitator. The insulators
are housed in double walled insulator housing. In order to keep the insulators above the dew
point of the gas, each single insulator compartment is equipped with electrical heating element
of rating approximately 1KW and double insulator compartment with heating elements of
2KW rating. A thermostat controls the operation of the heating element. The emitting electrodes
are hard drawn spiral stainless steel wires of diameter 2.5 mm. These are delivered at site in
the from of coils, to the ends of which are attached at site, these coils are stretched out
between top an bottom holders in each tier of the discharge electrode frame work.
Collecting electrode system: The collecting plates are made of steel sheets and shaped in
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one piece by roll forming. Special bends at the edges of the collecting plate lend mechanical
rigidity to it and also limit re-entrainment of collected dust during rapping. The collecting
plates are provided with hooks at the top edges from which hang. The hooks engage slots in
the parallel supporting members which are in turn welded to the roof beams.
Rappers for discharge electrodes : During electrostatic precipitation, a fraction of the dust
will be collected on the discharge electrodes. This suppresses the Corona, which is the source
of ionization. It is, therefore, necessary to tap clean the discharge electrodes occasionally.
Which is done with a rapping system employing tumbling hammers, which are mounted on a
horizontal shaft in a staggered fashion. These hammers hit the specially designed shock
beams to which the intermediate part of the discharge frame of each duct is attached. In this
manner, the vibrations generated by the hammers are transmitted to the discharge electrodes.
The rapping mechanism is connected via an insulator shaft fixed to output shaft of the geared
motor mounted on the outer side of wall panel. The operation of the geared motor is controlled
by a programmer which is housed in the auxiliary control panel.
Rappers for collecting electrodes : Each collecting plate has a shock receiving plate at its
lower end. The collecting plates in one row are connected to one another by means of the
shock receiving plates located in slots in the shock bar, maintaining the required spacing. The
shock bars are kept in alignment by means of guides located at front and rear of each shock
bar. Each collecting plate is hung on eccentric to ensure that the shock receiving plate of the
collecting electrodes is constantly resting against its shock bar. In this manner, the highest
possible energy is transferred to the collecting plate when the tumbling hammer hits the
corresponding shock bar. The tumbling hammers are mounted on horizontal shaft in staggered
fashion, with one hammer for each shock bar. As the shaft rotates singly, each of the hammers
in turn even balances and tumbles, this its associated shock bar. The shock bar transmits the
blow simultaneously to all of the collecting plates in one row because of their direct contract
with shock bar. The shaft is connected to a geared motor mounted outside the casing on to the
wall panel. The frequency of rapping is adjusted by controlling the operation of geared motor
by means of programmer and time relays mounted in the auxiliary control panel.
Interlocks : Electrostatic precipitator is a high voltage equipment. Safety of the operating

personnel and protection of the equipment are ensured by an interlocking system. These
interlocks are provided for the inspection doors on hoppers, wall panels and insulator, housing.
The interlocking system is designed such that access into the internals of the precipitator can
be gained only after switching off the power supply to the precipitator and grounding the
relevant fields.
Electrical system : It comprises of,

1. High voltage direct current 60 KV current system: It supplies Corona favor on ESP, The
system currents of high voltage rectifier volts. High voltage transformers and control
panels, The transformer rectifier.
2. Auxiliary power & controls system: The system provides power to auxiliary items line
neutral switches, Relays etc. Auxiliary control panels now programmed and timer to control
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the sequence. Periods and frequencies for individual rapping mechanize.
The rapping resonance and timing is adjustable by programmers. The motor circuit is
also provided with overload servicing and tripping provisions.
Features of Electrostatic Precipitators : To 210 MW Boilers :

For treating of flue gases emanating from each boiler, two precipitators type 2FA –(36)
4x36-9590-2 are supplied. Each precipitators has two parallel gas passes separated by a
common partition wall inside the precipitator. Thus, there are four parallel gas passes for each
boiler served by two precipitators.
Each gas pass is designed to have five independent electrical fields or system in series
in the direction of gas flow. Initially the first field will be dummy without internals. This
provisions is made were upgrading the performance of the precipitator in future, in case of
necessity, by filling it with necessary internals to make this also the operating field. Thus to
start with, only the subsequent five field each pass will be in operation. Hence functional parts
internals and electrical accessories are being supplied only for twenty fields for all the four
gas passes connected to each boiler.
In each field there are thirty-eight (38) gas ducts. A gas duct is formed by two
consecutive rows of collecting electrodes with a row of emitting electrodes mid way between
them. Thus there are thirty-nine (39) rows of collected electrodes and thirty eight- (38) row
of emitting electrodes. Each row of collecting electrodes is 9 meters high and 36 meters long
formed by nine strips of elements of the electrode plate.
Each field is independently operated with its own power pack and main control. However,
the common auxiliary control panel regulates the operation of all rapping motors and electric
heating elements in all fields in one gas pass.
Thus there are four auxiliary control panels to regulate all the rapping motors and
heaters provided on the precipitators supplied for one boiler. This arrangement facilitates
isolation of any one-gas pass for repair and maintenance purpose.
Explanation for the designation of the size and type of Electrostatic Precipitator :
Both the precipitators supplied to one 210 MW boilers are identical. Each of the
precipitator is designated as:-
2/1 FAA /(2) - (36) 4 / (3) (4) x (36)/(3) - 95/(5) (90)/(6) -2/(7)
Explanation :
1) Numbers of gas passes in the precipitator.
2) Horizontal precipitator with steel casing.
3) Size of the field in terms of its length in diameter.
4) Number of field in each pass.
Note : The figure within brackets signifies the dummy field at the inlet and its sizes.
5) Nominal width of each pass in diameter.
6) Nominal height of collecting plates in diameter.
7) Code number for type of collection hoppers. (Pyramidal in this case).
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144
145
✦✦✦
146
EARTHING, EARTHING TRANSFORMER AND
NEUTRAL GROUNDING TRANSFORMER
a. Earthing :
Type of Earthing : (a) solid earthing (b) Resistance earthing (c) Reactance earthing.
Equipment earthing is most essential to provide the safety to the personnel working on system.
During any fault, the potential of earthed body does not reach to dangerously high value.
Earth fault current flows through earthing and it causes operation of fuse or relay.
b. Earthing Transformer :
To limit the earth fault current, the neutral of star winding are grounded with the help
of resistor or reactance. The reactance connected between neutral and earth provides a
lagging current which neutralizes the capacitive current. For a transformer of given rated
output and given ratio of neutral current and line current, solid earthing may be adopted upto
higher line voltages with increasing value of earth resistance. Earthing transformer is a core
type transformer. It has three limbs, which is built up in same manner as that of power
transformer. Each limb accommodates two equally spaced winding. Current flowing through
winding is in opposite direction on each limb. Impedance of earthing transformer is quite low
and hence magnitude of fault current will be high, hence current resistance is added in series.
Earthing Transformer are used for if neutral point is not available in case of delta connection,
if neutral point is desired on bus bar or for distribution purpose, if required three phase four
wire system.
Earthing transformer are designed for carrying maximum fault current for upto 30 seconds.
The rating of earthing transformer is different from rating of power transformer. Power transformer
are designed to carry its total load continuously, while earthing transformer are supplied with
iron losses, copper losses due to short circuit occurs for a fraction of minute. When system is
normal only current flowing through earthing transformer is required to provide necessary
magnetisation and to supply iron loss.
c. Neutral Grounding Transformer :

The subject of grounding covers the problems relating to the conduction of electric
current to the earth and through the ground. The earth rarely serves as a part of the return
circuit, being used mainly for fixing the potential of circuit neutrals. The ground connection
improves service continuity and protects lives and equipment. The electrical conductivity of
the materials constituting the earth’s surface is very low compared with the high conductivity
of metals, since the main constituents of the earth, silicon dioxide and aluminum oxide, are
excellent insulators. The conductivity of the ground is due largely to salts and moisture. Even
such a semiconductor may carry a considerable amount of current if the cross-section is large
enough. The resistivity of the soil depends on its type and dryness and varies with distance as
well as depth. Because of the high resistivity all currents flowing through the ground suffer a
considerable voltage drop.
Two types of grounding transformer are in general use: (1) The wye-delta transformer,
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and (2) the zigzag transformer. The neutral of either type may be grounded directly or through
current limiting impedance. It is assumed here that neither load nor a source of generation is
connected to the delta winding of the wye-delta transformer, and that the zigzag transformer
does not have another winding connected to load or generation; should either type have such
connections, it would be treated as an ordinary power transformer.
Generally the winding of transformer shall be connected delta connection on primary
side and star connection on secondary side. The neutral of LT. winding shall be brought out to
a separate terminal. In three phases balanced load system, the generator neutral that is
connected to ground, usually does not vary any voltage. To restrict earth current flow,
Generator neutral is earthed through resistances. This offers an inductive load and restricts
flow of current during short circuit on the system.
Advantages of Neutral Grounding Transformer are:

(a) Arcing rounds are reduced or eliminated.
(b) The neutral grounding stabilises the neutral point.
(c) By employing resistance or reactance in earth connection, the earth fault current can be
controlled.
(d) The over voltage surge due to lightening are discharged to earth hence less damages to
the equipment. Useful amount of earth fault current is required to operate earth fault
relay.
(e) Improved service reliability due to limitation of arcing ground and prevention of unnecessary
tripping of circuit breakers.
(f) Life of eqipment, machines and installation is improved due to limitation of voltages.
(g) Greater safety to personnel and equipment due to operation of fuses or relay on earth
fault and limitation of voltages. Hence it is economical to ground neutral point.
✦✦✦
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TYPICAL ELECTRICAL SUPPLY SYSTEM
1. INTRODUCTION :
Most of the industrial units are characterised by their installed capacities. Electrical
Power-generating Stations fall into this category. In respect of newly proposed power stations,
capacity of each new Unit of power station is decided based on:
• Planned growth of energy consumption and power demand.
• Stiffness of the Grid, etc.
Extent of consumption of electrical energy (auxiliary power requirements) in the power

station depends on
1. the type of Station i.e. Nuclear or Thermal (oil coal or gas fired)
2. steam parameters, capacity and number of auxiliary equipment.
Number of these auxiliary equipment in each of the process system is decided based on.
i) the need to ensure specified reliability
ii) conformity of one equipment to develop the required throughput capacity.
The auxiliary power requirement varies from 8 to 12% of the Generating capacity of the
power station i.e. single unit or multiple unit.
Fans and Pumps are the main auxiliary equipment, which consume substantial quantum
of electric energy at power station. Selection of fans and pumps is carried out in a sequential
manner in consideration to :
a) Required flow rate (throughput capacity) and Head are determined.
b) Suitable type, size and required number of machines are decided.
c) Type and Power of the drive,
d) Voltage of power supply,
e) Methods of control and protection selected.
Most critical pumps in power station are Boiler Feed Pumps, Condensate pumps, Circulating
water pumps. Boilers feed pumps are the largest of the pumps in TPS.
The fans/ pumps- both larger and of medium size are of conventional design and mostly
have electric drives. Hence need for a Station Service Power Supply System or Auxiliary Power
Supply System arises to provide power supply to the drives of the auxiliaries.
Electrical Power System in respect of a Power Station consists of Main Plant Power
output system and auxiliary power supply system. The main power output system transfers
power produced by the Turbine/ Generator to the State/ Regional EHV/ HV Electricity Grid.
The System includes:

Steam Turbine Generators (with all their accessories), Generator Breaker, Isolated Phase
Bus duct, Generator Transformer, Unit transformer, Station (Startup) Transformer.
A single line diagram pertaining to 200/500 MW power station as enclosed (Diagram No 1)
explains in general the power output schemes and station auxiliary power distribution system
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to supply power to various process system and instrumentation load with the plant.
Division 1 and Division 2, supply the system of the plant dedicated to normal power production
and plant safety related loads. (Diagram No 2).
2. ASPECTS TO BE COVERED ON PLANT AUXILIARY POWER SYSTEM :

a) Availability
1. Estimation and compilation of auxiliary loads
2. Selection of Auxiliary system voltages.
3. Determination of number and sizes of Unit Transformers, station (Startup) Transformers
and Auxiliary Transformers.
4. Determinations of one-line diagram of auxiliary power supply system including number
and rating of Switchgear, Bus, and schemes of interconnection.
5. Selection of Optimum impedance value, type and range of tap changing gear for
Transformers.
6. Determination of short circuit levels, switchgear duties and short circuit rating of
cables.
7. Determination of voltage dip at the motor terminals during starting of the largest
capacity motor (e.g. at 6.6 kV level Boiler feed pump: 4000 kW).
8. Different areas of Power Plant and the H.T./ L.T. Auxiliaries/ Equipment related/ used in
that area.
b) Reliability
1. Schemes for manual & automatic transfer of Auxiliary loads at Auxiliary High Voltage
(6.6 kV/ 11 kV as case may be) level.
2. Selection of type of system earthing for 6.6 KV (H.V. Voltage) and 415 volts (Low
voltage).
3. Selection of Protection Schemes for 6.6 KV and 415 volts levels.
4. Selection of Metering Schemes for 6.6 KV level.
c) Design Approaches :
Objectives to be attained in deriving the power supply for the auxiliary power systems are:
Station Status/ Condition Requirements

i) During a Unit Startup Availability of reliable off-site startup power to
facilitate commissioning of auxiliary systems required
for Unit Startup.
ii) During Normal Provision of two independent sources of power

Operation of Unit supply to feed two independent auxiliary systems.
• The two power supply sources to be independent
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of each other as far as possible to minimise
simultaneous outage of both.
• Each supply source should be rated for 100% duty.
iii) Unit Shutdown Smooth operation of auxiliaries should be possible

during unit shutdown.
3. AUXILIARY POWER DEMAND STATISTICS

Total demand for power in respect of auxiliary systems is estimated at 8% to 12%
under Load Schedules and capacities of various equipment.
a) Major electrical equipments of the power plant :

1. Main Generator 2. Generator Transformer 3. Station Startup Transformer
4. Unit Transformer 5. Auxiliary Transformer 6. Diesel Generators
7. UPS/ MG Sets (Power) 8. Batteries (Power) 9. Batteries (Control)
Ratings of Unit auxiliary transformers and Station Startup transformers are arrived at in
accordance with load requirements under various stipulated modes of operation. The above
two sources are connected at 6.6 KV level in such a way that in case of loss of power from
any of these two sources, an automatic fast bus transfer (FBT) scheme is initiated to derive
the power supply from the other source.
b) Categories of Supply voltage levels :

Voltage levels to be operated, Controlled,regulated and protected through switchgears
are categorized as :
i) Low Volts supply i.e. Voltage level upto 650 Volts.
ii) Medium Volts supply i.e. Voltage level above 650 Volts upto 1000 Volts.
iii) High Volt Supply i.e. Voltage level above 1000 Volts upto 33000 Volts.
iv) Extra High Volt Supply i.e. All Voltage above 33000 Volts.
c) Classification of Power Supplies :

i) Class I Category ii) Class II Category iii) Class III Category iv) Class IV Category
d) Class IV Category Supply System (HT/LT) :

This derives the power supply from the grid substation, or from its own A.C. Generator
when it is on load. This has two voltage levels supplying power at :
1) 6.6 KV 3 Phase A.C. for motors for rating of 200 KW and above (as per clause 7.1.1 of
IS : 325-1978)
2) 415 V, 3 Phase, A.C. for motors below 200 KW rating.
Major loads connected to 6.6 KV system are :

I. D. Fan, F. D. Fan, P. A. Fan; Coal Mills, Boiler Feed Pumps, Condensate Extraction
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Pumps; G. S. Water Pumps; Condenser Cooling Water Pumps; River Water Pumps, etc., 415
Volts Class IV Systems.
These consists of 2; 4; 6 Nos of buses supplied through associated 11 KV/ 415 V or 6.6
kV / 415 V. transformers of capacity, 2000 KVA; 1600 KVA; 1000 KVA etc. To maintain
continuity of supply with minimum time of interruption when any of the servicing transformer
fails, a hot stand by transformer is provided to supply the load of the affected bus, which will
be switched in manually.
e) Class III Category Supply System :

This derives the power supply from the Class IV, Supply Switch Board. It is also assisted
by the power from its own standby generator i.e. individual station M.G.Set or D.G.Set. Thus
Class III Power Supply can be resumed from its own M.G. Set/D.G. Set on putting it in service
under total grid supply failure.
This system supplies power loads to auxiliaries/eqipments, which can tolerate interruption
of supply say, upto 1 minute. (This is design intent, but, actually power supply is made
available in 10-15 seconds).
f) Class II Category Supply System :

This system provides uninterrupted A. C. Power to the loads connected to this system.
It is divided into 2 divisions as.
i) Class II 415 Volts, AC 3 Phase 3-wire power supply system.
ii) Class II 240 Volts, AC 1 Phase 2-wire control supply system.
System has one M. G. Set / Inverter. This receives power from 2 sources i.e.
i) From Class I power supply system through motor Generator/ inverter under normal operating
conditions.
ii) From 415 V Class III power system directly.
Class II control supply system is designed on similar lines as the class II power supply
system. It has its own inverter and receives supply from 2 sources.
g) Class I Supply System :

These systems supply uninterrupted DC power to the loads, on this system. 220 V DC
Class I power supply system derives its power from 6.6 KV Class III power system through
power Automatic Constant Voltage Rectifiers (ACVRs). In addition to feeding various loads. It
also supply trickling/ equalizing/ floating current to the control batteries in its division.
Similarly 220 V DC Class I control supply gets its power from 415 Volts AC Class III Power
System through control ACVRs. In addition to feeding the control loads, it also supplies trickle/
equalizing/ floating current to the control batteries in its division.
4.0 Different Areas of Thermal Power Plant:

There are thermal power plants, where there may be only one generating unit or may
be more than one generating units.
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a) Recognition of different areas in the power plant :
1) Turbine Area. 2) Generator Area. 3) Boiler area.
4) Oil Handling plant Area. 5) Coal Handling plant 6) Water Treatment plant
7) River Water pumps Area. 8) Cooling Tower Area. 9) Ash Handling plant
10) General Auxiliaries Area. etc.
b) Recognition of LT/HT Auxiliaries :

In each area as above there are the auxiliaries and equipments, power to these auxiliaries
and equipments is fed from L.V./H.V.Supply Board. Auxiliaries/equipments running at L.V. and
H.V. Supply are called L.T. auxiliaries & H.T. auxiliaries respectively.
c) Recognition of Main Supply Boards :

Usually there are two main Boards and are called as,
1) Station supply board. HV/LV. & 2) Unit supply board. HV.
H.V. Station Supply Board is fed from station transformer having its secondary voltage
level 6.6 KV and H.V. Unit Board supply is fed from unit transformer having its secondary
voltage of 6.6 KV. Unit transformer can only be put in service when the units own generator of
the unit is on load. In absence of availability of supply from unit transformer, H.V. Unit Board
gets the supply from H. V. Station Board.
d) Auxiliaries fed from HV Station Board :

H.V. Station Board extends the supply to the H.V. Boards of different areas to feed HT
auxiliaries lying in that area, which are common to the whole plant e.g.
1) River Water Pump Board for auxiliaries in RWP area.
2) W. T. Plant transformer/ D. M. Plant transformer for auxiliaries in WTP area
3) Ash handling plant board for auxiliaries in AHP area.
4) Coal handling plant board for auxiliaries in CHP area.
5) Fire fighting board transformer for auxiliaries on Fire fighting board.
6) Station lighting/welding supply board transformer for auxiliaries on lighting / welding
supply Board.
7) Oil handling plant transformer for auxiliaries on OHP Board.
8) Station service board transformer for auxiliaries LT Station service board.
e) Auxiliaries fed from HV Unit Board :

H.V.Unit Board extends the power supply to H.V.Auxiliaries/equipment and transformers,
which are made only for a particular unit e.g.
1) I. D. Fans 2) F. D. Fans
3) P. A. Fans 4) Coal Mills
318
5) C. W. Pumps 6) Boiler feed pumps
7) Starting oil pump. 8) Condensate Extraction Pumps
9) Unit lighting transformer. 10) Boiler board transformer
11) Turbine Board transformer. 12) Ash handling transformer.
13) G. S. Pumps 14) Emergency transformer
15) E.S.P transformer. etc.
e) Auxiliaries fed from different HV Board : e.g.

H.V. River Water Pump Board
1) R. W. P Motors 2) R. W. P, L. T. Board transformer
H.V. AHP Board

1) AHP H. V. Pumps 2) AHP L. T. Board transformer & 3) Clearwater Pumps.
H.V. CHP Board.

1) CHP H.V. Coal rusher motor & 2) CHP Auxiliary transformer.
5.0 415 V LT switchgear distribution Boards and their Supply
a) Nomenclature of L.T. Boards

L.T.Boards are generally nominclated based on the name of area in which the various
L.T.auxiliaries are installed and are fed from the respective switchgear Board.e.g.
i) Turbine board extends the supply to the auxiliaries located in turbine Area.
ii) Boiler Board extends the supply to the auxiliaries located in boiler area.
iii) D.M.Board/ W.T.Board extend the supply to the auxiliaries located in D.M.Plant/ W.T.Plant.
iv) Station Service Board extends the supply to the auxiliaries mainly meant for the station
irrespective of the specific unit.
v) E.S.P. Board extends the supply to the auxiliaries in ESP area.
N.B. This is a general concept to locate the supply of any auxiliary from a respective board.
However the concept may change from station to station & place to place. It is therefore of
utmost important to get confirmed the location and supply point of any auxiliary and supply
interconnections etc to eliminate any chance of accident.
b) L.T.Boards Supply Scheme :
The general scheme of supply to L.T.Auxiliary boards is as below.

• Station Service Board :
Two bus sections of station service feeder Board are fed from station board through
two X’mers of 6600/ 415 V. These bus sections are connected through the switchgear called
bus coupler.
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• Standby Board :
Two sections of standby board are fed from station board feeders through two X’mers
of 6600/ 415 V.
• Boiler Board :
Two sections of Boiler Board are fed from unit board feeder through 6600/415 V
transformers and standby board respectively.
Other LT boards are supplied with power more or less as below :
• Fuel oil handling board

It is fed from Station Service Board through two feeders.
• Turbine Board
It is fed from Station Service Board and Boiler Board.
• Emergency Board
It is fed from Station Service Board or from Unit Board through an emergency transformer
of 6600/ 415 on Unit Board. In total AC failure, this emergency board is fed/charged
from 415 V, sufficient kW capacity Diesel Generator Set.
• DM Plant Board
It is fed from Station Board feeder through 6600/ 415 V X’mer. It can also be fed
through Standby Board.
• Coal Handling board

It is fed from 6.6 kV – CHP Board through two number of 6600/ 415 V X’mers.
• Ash Handling Plant Board

It is fed from 6.6 kV AHP Board through two numbers of 6600/ 415 V X’mers.
• Electrostatic precipitator Board

It is fed from Unit Board feeder through 6600/ 415 V, X’mer. It can also be charged
from Standby board.
• Main lighting Board

It is charged from two feeders on Station Board through two X’mers, of 6600/ 415 V.
• Main welding Board

It is charged from two feeders on Station Board through two transformers of
6600 / 415 V.
6.0 L.T. Auxiliaries / Equipments ingeneral fed from different L.T. switchgear Board :
a) Turbine Board
1. Dewatering pump. Fire fighting House. 2. Booster pump to Hydrogen cooler.
320
3. Gen. Transformer oil pumps 4. Centrifugal oil pump for turbine
5. G. S. Hot water transfer pump (stationary).
6. Drip pump 7. Unit auxiliary transformer cooling fans.
8. Dewatering pump C. W. Suction pit 9. Dewatering pump. G. S. Pump House
10. DM/ GS cooling pump 11. Hydrogen dryer fan
12. Oil vapour fan 13. Motor space heater transformer.
14. Hydrazine injector pump (L.P. dosing no.1) 15. Control P. T.
16. D. C. supervision module 17. Control P. T. station.
b) Emergency Board
1. Emergency lighting 2. Seal oil pump
3. Air heater lub, oil pump motor 4. Igniter air fan motor
5. Barring gear motor 6. I. D. Fan lub oil pump
7. Hydrogen exhaust fan. 8. Battery charger.
9. F. D. Fan lub oil pump 10. B. F. P. lub, oil pump
11. Air heater main drive motor 12. Supply for D. G. control
13. Excitation cubicle. 14. Air heater lub, oil pump
15. Scanner air fan motor 16. Standby lub, oil pump motor
17. Alarm cubicle 18. Motor space heater
19. Emergency service cubicle 20. Bus P. T. cubicle
21. Control transformer 22. Incoming 1 from station service board
23. Incoming 2 from Diesel generator board 24. Seal air fan
25. Jacking oil pump. 26. Excitation supply (Field flashing)
27. Stator water cooling pump 28. P. A. fan lub, oil pump motor
29. Spare fan seal air fan 30. Oil unit motor for auxiliary PRDS 1.
31. Oil unit motor for HP/ LP bypass.
c) M. C. C. For ash handling plant

1. Lighting 2. Spare clinker grinder motor
3. Clinker grinder Motor 4. Reserve
5. Spare 6. H. P. pump motor
7. Rotary feeder motor 8. Slurry pump motor
9. Spare slurry pump motor 10. Motor space heater P. T.
11. Control P. T. 12. Raw water transfer pump motor
13. Bus P. T. 14. Incomer
15. Incomer control circuit 16. Bus coupler
17. Bus coupler control circuit 18. Incomer 2.
d) Boiler Board
1. Temperature probe motor 2. Supply to soot blower pannel
3. P. A. fan lub, oil pump 4. Phosphate dosing pump.
5. Unit drain pump 6. B. F. P. oil pump
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7. Raw coal feeder variation 8. Feeder inst. Control supply
9. Oil unit motor for HP/ LP bypass station 10. F. D. Fan lub, oil pump
11. I. D. Fan lub, oil pump 12. Motor space heater module
13. Roof extraction fan panel 14. 24 V supply cubicle
15. Bus P. T. cubicle 1. 16. Control transformer.
17. Incoming supply 18. Bus coupler
19. Outgoing to turbine
e) Fuel oil handling board (control & schematics)

1. Heavy fuel oil pump 2. Unloading pump feeder
3. Recovery pump motor feeder 4. Unloading pump feeder
5. Ventilation fan 6. Unloading pump house sump pump
7. HSD pump 8. Dewatering pump No. 2.
9. Fuel oil pump No. 2
f) Electro-static precipitator (ESP) board

1. H. V. rectifier Unit 2. Auxiliary control panel No. 1
3. Incomer A from ESP X’mer 4. Bus coupler
5. Incomer B. from standby board
g) Station service board

1. Fire fighting pump 2. Supply to Boiler & Turbine basement
3. Station air compressor 4. Dewatering pump
5. Control supply for station compressor 6. E. O. T. crane
7. Workshop feeder 8. Ventilation
9. Turbine Board 10. Instrument compressor
11. F. O. H. plant 12. Standby board.
13. A. C. alarm control 14. D. C. alarm control
15. Standby supply to emergency Board 16. Elevator
17. A. C- supply
h) D. M. Plant board
1. Caustic soda mixer 2. Alkali transfer pump
3. Degasser air blower 4. Acid transfer pump
5. Brine transfer pump 6. M. B. air blower
7. Degassed water pump (CWP-A) 8. Cooling water pump
9. Effluent water pump 10. C. T. fan
11. CWP 12. Lime mixer
13. Degasser air blower
i) Standby board
1. D. M. Plant board 2. Boiler Board
3. E. S. P. Board 4. Station service board supply
5. D. C. control and alarm supply
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j) RWP L/T board auxiliaries
1. Lub. Water pump 2. Cooling water pump
3. Raw water pump 4. Grease pump
5. C. W. Pump 6. Oil pump
7. Canal water pump 8. Lighting supply feeder.
k) C.H.P. Supply board

1. Belt F. D. R. 2. Belt F. D. R.
3. Conveyor 4. A. C. T. R. Flap gate
5. Control panel for tunnel ventilation 6. Magnetic pulley
system for conveyor 7. Actuator for flap gate
8. Coal sampling unit 9. Magnetic separator
10. Control panel for dust extraction 11. Primary screen
system for primary crusher. 12. Primary crusher
13. Sump pump 14. Vibrating feeder control panel
15. Metal detector 16. Belt weigher
17. Tripper conveyor 18. Telescopic Chute, panel
19. Tripled M. C. C. 20. Vibrating feeder control panel
21. Bunker level annunciation panel 22. Telescopic chute panel
23. Secondary screen. 24. Control panel for dust extraction system
25. Motor Space heater 415/ 240 V 5 kVA for Junction Tower
transformer SPH-1 26. Bus P. T.
27. 415/ 240 V 5 kVA, control transformer-1 28. Incomer No. I
29. Bus coupler 30. Incomer No. II
31. Bus P. T. 32. Control panel for D. E. S. (dust
33. Control panel for tunnel ventilation extraction system) for Bunker
system for conveyor 11. 34. Supply for belt weigher
35. Mimic control panel
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Operational Strategies which lead to approach to
Design Capacity and other parameters of switchgear
324
Schematic Diagram of Electrical System
325
Class II 415 V System A.C.
Class I 220 V System D.C. (Power)
Class I 220 V System D.C. (Control)
Diagram - 5
326
Class III 6.6 KV and 415 V A.C. System
Diagram - 3
Class IV 6.6 KV and 415 V System
Diagram - 4
✦✦✦
327
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER (CTs – PTs)
High Capacity Electrical Motors, Generators, Switchgear etc are installed and used in
Power Systems and Power plants. Normal Working voltages are in the range of 3.3 kV to
400 kV. Capacities of individual Electrical Equipment range from 500 kW to 10 MW for the
motors used in Power Plants. Generator capacities range between 120 MW to 500 MW. In all
circuits where we have either high voltage or heavy currents, it is not practicable to connect
the measuring and indicating instruments or protective relays directly in the circuits carrying
heavy currents or working at High Voltages.
Instrument transformers are used to scale down primary currents and voltages to low
and safe level producing little hazards to a person and lot of saving in the cost. Current and
voltage transformer is thus input device for measuring instruments and protective relays.
Voltage transformer
Protective PT : A P.T. intended to supply protective devices viz. Relays or trip coils.
Measuring P.T. : A P.T. intended to supply indicating instruments, integrating meters and
other measuring apparatus.
Dual purpose P.T. : Often the same P.T. can be usued for both the purposes either is has one
secondary winding or two separate secondary windings or same different ratio to be used for
metering and protection circuits separately.
A voltage transformer is similar to a power transformer, the primary being excited by

nearly constant voltage. A P.T. is rated in terms of maximum burden (VA output) it will deliver
without exceeding specified limits of error, where as a power transformer is rated by the
secondary output it will deliver without exceeding specified temperature rise. The construction
of P.T. differs from a power transformer, as different emphasis is placed on cooling insulation
and mechanical problem.
a) The output of P.T. is maximum few hundred VA, so heat generated is not a problem.
b) As number of turns and insulation is proportional to primary voltage, size of the P.T. is
determined by system voltage.
c) Insulation presents special problem because of small conductor size, ventilation and
space restrictions, when it is to be accommodated in switchgear. Generally for system
upto 11 KV, P.T.s encapsulated in synthetic resin are used.
Technical and constructional details of PT :

The potential transformers (from 22KV to 220KV) are generally of single phase and are
oil immersed and self cooled. The design and construction of PTs is sufficient to withstand the
thermal and mechanical stress resulting from the rated normal and overvoltage.
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The potential transformers consists of –
i) Bushing
ii) Metal cap with terminal connector
iii) Core
iv) Primary and secondary windings.
Bushing : The bushing is provided for insulation between the H.V. terminal and the tank on
which it rests. It is made of homogeneous vitreous porcelain of high mechanical and dielectric
strength, any joints or coupling in between. The bushing is glazed to have uniform brown or
dark brown smooth surface arranged to shed away rain water.
Solid porcelain bushings are used upto 36KV class service. For services of 72.5 KV and
above oil filled condenser type bushing are used. The bushing are also fitted with a suitable oil
level gauge to indicate the level of oil inside the bushing. These oil filled bushing are hermetically
sealed to prevent ingress of moisture. The height of bushing of the PTs should be adequate to
avoid bird faults.
Metal Cap : The metal cap at the top, above the bushing is of high strength, hot dip galvanised
malleable iron.
Core : The core of a P.T. is housed inside the bushing and is made up of high grade non
electrical silicon laminated steel of low hysterics loss and high permeability to ensure high
accuracy.
Primary Winding : The primary winding wound on the core inside the bushing and has suitable
number of sections. It is insulated having good mechanical strength, high electrical withstand
properties and good aging qualities. The primary winding is connected between phase and
neutral with the neutral point solidly earthed.
Secondary Windings: The PTs are generally provided with at least two separate secondary
windings, which are connected in star and open delta respectively. The star connected
secondary winding is used for metering and relaying (e.g. distance relays, directional overcurrent
relays etc.) and has accuracy specified for particularly application. The rated burden of this
winding is typically 200VA. The open delta connected winding is used for polarizing directional
earth fault relays or driving a neutral displacement relay for detection of earth fault in non-
effectively earthed systems. The rated burden of the open delta winding is typically 100VA.
Suitable HRC fuses protect both these windings.
Terminal Connectors : P.T. Secondary terminals are brought out on a separate Bakelite board
with flexible lugged copper connection between these terminals (on the back side) and the
outgoing terminals from the P.T. chamber. These secondary terminals are housed in a terminal
box, which is moisture and insect proof. Polarity markings are available both on primary and
secondary sides. The primary terminal has standard size of 30 mm dia x 80 mm length for all
PTs upto 220KV. This terminal is made of copper and heavily plated with silver or nickel. This
terminal is rigidly fixed on the side of the metal cap at the top. The potential transformers are
329
hermetically sealed to eliminate breathing and to prevent air and moisture from entering the
tanks. Oil level gauge and pressure relieving device capable of releasing abnormal internal
pressures are provided. The grounding terminals, filling and draining plugs are also provided to
the PTs.
Voltage Error (Ratio error) & Phase Displacement Error of a PT

Ideally a PT should produce a secondary voltage which is exactly proportional to the
primary voltage and exactly opposite in phase. But this can never be achieved in practice.
Voltage drops in primary and secondary windings due to largely the magnitude and power
factor of the secondary burden results in ratio and phase angle errors.
Kn Vs – Vp x 100
% of Ratio Erros = —————————
Vp
Where Kn = rated transformation ratio

Vs = actual secondary voltage, under conditions of measurements.
Vp = Actual primary voltage.
If the error is +ve, secondary voltage exceeds nominal value.

IF the error is –ve, secondary voltage is less than nominal value.
Phase angle error = The difference of phase between the primary and reverse secondary
voltage vectors.
Error is +ve when reverse secondary Voltage (-Vs) vector leads the primary voltage
vector vice-versa.
It is usually expressed in minute (Phase angle error is of importance, when the transformer
is used with wattmeter and similar instruments where indication depends on voltage and phase
angle between voltage and line current).
Burden
The admittance of the secondary circuit expressed in Mho and P.F. (lagging or leading).
(The burden is usually expressed as apparent power in VA absorbed at the stated P.F. and at
the rated secondary voltage). In case of residual voltage transformer the burden is the valve
of the load connected across the appropriate secondary terminals expressed in VA at the rate
secondary voltage.
Rated Burden
A burden in VA assigned by the manufacturer as the burden at which a transformer will
comply with the specified limits of accuracy at the rated secondary voltage.
Accuracy Class
A classification assigned to PT, the errors of which remains within specified limits, under
prescribed conditions of use.
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Highest System Voltage
The highest r.m.s. Line to line voltage, which can be sustained under normal operations
at any time at any point on the system. It excludes temporary voltage variations due to fault
conditions and sudden disconnection of large loads.
Rated Voltage Factor

The M.F. to be applied to the rated primary voltage to determine the elevated voltage
which the transformer shall comply with the relevant requirements for a specified time and
with relevant accuracy requirements.
Rated Voltage Factor for 3 phase P.T.

The M.F. assigned to the transformer and to be applied to the rated primary line to
neutral voltage (either for all 3 phase windings or in the case of earthed transformers for any
2 out of the 3 windings), at which a transformer shall comply with the relevant thermal
requirements for a specified time and with the relevant accuracy requirements.
Recommended Voltage Factors
Rated Voltage Factor Rated Time System Earthing

1.2 Continuous 30 sec. Effective earthed system
1.5
1.2 Continuous 30 Sec. Non-effectively earthed system
1.9 (with automatic earth fault tripping)
1.2 30 seconds 8 Hours Isolated Neutral or Resonant Earthed System
19. (without automatic earth fault tripping)
Limits of temperature rise of winding

Class Of Insulation Temperature rise in 0C
All classes immersed in oil 55
All classes immersed in oil bituminous compound 45
Classes not immersed in oil or bituminous compound Y - 40
A - 55
E - 70
B - 80
F - 105
H - 130
(The reference ambient temp. for the purpose of temp. rise shall be 400C)
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Accuracy Classes (Selection of Measurement P.T.) as per I.S. 3156 (Part II)
Measuring P.T. (Limits of error I.S.-3156)
Class % voltage Phase displacement Remarks

ratio error (Minutes)
0.1 +0.1 +5 These values correspond to any
0.2 +0.2 +10 voltage between 80% to 120%
0.5 +0.5 +20 of rated voltage, with connected
1.0 +1.0 +40 burden between 25-100% at p.f.
3.0 +3.0 0.8 lag and rated frequency
1.6 Protective P.T. (Limits of Error I.S. 3156 – Part III)

(Rated out-put – 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 500 VA)
Residual output for residual P.T. – 25, 50. 100VA
Accuracy Ratio Error Phase displacement Remarks

Class (%) (Minutes)
3.0 +3 +120 1) Value are for a P.T. without

residual voltage winding.
5.0 +5 +300 2) Correspond to voltage– 5 to 110%
of rated voltage.Burden 25 to 100%
of rated burden at 0.8 lag p.f.
Limits of Error for Residual P.T.

Class Ratio Error Phase Displacement
5.0 +5% +200 minutes
10.0 +10% +600 minutes
Where a protective voltage transformer is used for measurement it shall comply with
the requirements corresponding to accuracy class 0.5 & 1.0.
Protection of Voltage - Transformer
a) H.V. Side Protection : On designs upto 60KV, fuses are provided on HV side, either
within the tank or separately mounted. For higher voltages a gas-actuated relay is used
as the current is very small and there are mechanical limitations to the size of the fuse
element.
b) L.V. Protection : As two windings of a transformer are conductors separated by an

insulation which constitutes a dielectric, they form a capacitor. It is possible for line to
ground voltage to feed through this capacitor and charge the terminals. This voltage will
332
be built up between the terminals and may cause arcing to ground, which would damage
the equipments. These voltages may exceed 1000 V to ground and would be very harmful
to any one touching either the terminals o0r any wires connected to them.
If one side of the secondary circuit is connected directly to ground this voltage cannot
build up. A very small amount of current flows through the capacitor directly to the ground
which does not harm. PTs are usually grounded directly at the transformer or at the marshalling
box. The ground lead must never be used. The so-called hot lead should be provided with fuse
to protect the transformer from being overloaded if a short circuit develops in the control
cable or a relay circuit. The short circuit also causes a temperature rise, which may rapidly
reach a dangerous value.
Choice of Connections of 3 phase P.T.

When metering or protection relays are used on circuits they must be supplied with 3 Ø
(usually 110 V between phase to phase). The secondary voltage must be in phase with and
proportional to primary voltages.
a) V Connection : Two single-phase transformers are connected in ‘V’ both on the primary
and secondary sides (e.g. one across R-Y phases and the other across Y-B phases). As
there is no neutral on the primary winding, the zero sequence voltage cannot be obtained.
This connection is generally used for 3 phase 3 wire meters, which do not require phase-
neutral voltage. (This PT cannot be used where it is required to have zero sequence
voltage for protection or indication).
b) Star-Star Connection : Most common connection used in metering and relaying schemes,
when e3 phase 3 limb voltage transformers are used the zero sequence voltage will not
be transformed. The scheme requires 3 phase P.T. or 3x single phase P.Ts. with both
primary and secondary connected in start, with neutrals solidly grounded (Typical limb
voltage rating 11 KV/”3/110/”3 volts).
c) Star Broken Delta Connection: (Residual Connection)

The connection is used when zero sequence voltage is required for earth fault relaying
scheme. The residual voltage is 3 times the zero sequence voltage i.e. 3 V). So long as
there is no residual voltage in the three phase system to which the transformer is
connected, there will be no displacement of the system neutral potential from earth and
hence the voltage in the open delta will be zero. This connection is therefore used in
neutral displacement schemes and for supplying the voltage circuit of directional earth
fault relays.
The core of such a transformer must be capable of carrying the residual flux brought
about by the imposed residual voltage. This residual flux cannot be contained within a normal
3-limbed core, hence either the phase of each primary winding must be on separate cores or
alternatively a 5-limbed core must be used. Such a P.T. is called as Residual Voltage Transformer
(RTV).
333
Auxiliary P.T.
Small auxiliary PTs may be used where the main PT ratio and the instrument do not
match. When it is necessary to eliminate a direct metallic connection between two circuits, an
isolating transformer is used (e.g. when phase to phase voltage is used for synchronising. Here
the voltage source must not be grounded, but one side of the synchroscope must be grounded.
The isolating transformer permits operation of synchroscope without connecting the source
directly to ground).
Phase Shifting Transformer

In certain metering equipment (viz. Trivectometer) it is necessary to have one pair of
voltage lagging another pair or voltages by 90° for recording reactive power or energy. The 3-
phase voltage of the main PTs is applied to 2 small auto-transformers (2-4 & 2-6) as shown.
Tap No. 1 : is marked to select 86.6% of full wdg. Between 2&6
Tap No. 2 : is similar to above (between 2&5)
Tap No. 5&7 : are centres taps of full windings 2-6 & 2-4
If the voltage is applied between 1&2 = 110 V, then voltage between 6&2 will be 127.
(If 86.6% windings is 110 V then 100% winding = 127 V0.
In the triangle, side 6-7 = 127 x Sin 60°
= 110 V
and Side 7-2 = 127 x COS 60°
= 63.5 V
Thus voltage V-4-5 = V1-2 & V4-5 lags by 90°
V-6-7 = V3-2 & V6-7 lags by 90°
Capacitive Voltage transformer

A Capacitor presents a certain opposition to the flow of alternating current. This is
called Capacitive reactance.
1
Xc = ———— (Xc is in ohms, C-capacity in farads, f-cycles/second)
2Πfc
If two capacitors are connected in series and an alternating voltage is applied across
the two, the voltage will divide according to the capacitive reactance of the two capacitors.
If capacitive reactance of C1 is twice the capacitive reactance of C2, the voltage drop
across C1 will be twice that of across C2. The electromagnetic voltage transformer is highly
efficient and reliable equipment, however the cost rises steeply as the system voltage increases.
A more economic means of obtaining an accurate voltage reference is C.V.T., which is fairly
common on systems above 132 KV.
CVT is a transformer comprising a capacitor divider unit and an electromagnetic unit,
so designed and interconnected that secondary voltage of the electromagnetic unit is
substantially proportional to and in phase with the primary voltage applied to the capacitor
divider unit.
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Capacitor Divider Unit
It is a three terminal capacitive device having one terminal at earth potential
second at a H.V.(to be measured) and third at intermediate voltage.
Electromagnetic Unit
It is the component CVT connected between the intermediate terminal and theearth
terminal of the capacitor divider supplying the secondary voltage.The reactor coil is connected
in series with small electromagnetic P.T. The spark-gap(protective device) protects the built in
transformer. A sudden surge causes a break down of the gap. The voltage across the arc is
very low, so that the high voltage is never applied to the transformer. In commercial designs
the reactor and interposing transformer are combined into one unit and housed in a tank on
which is mounted HV capacitor divider. The capacitor divider may either be in the form of a
separately mounted capacitor or advantage may be taken of the condenser bushing of the
switchgear or Power transformer, by bringing out connection from one of its intermediate foils
(usually the earth based) rated output - 25, 50, 75, 100, 200 & 500VA.Standared accuracy
class –0.5, 1.0, 3.0, 5.0 & 10 (class 10 applies to only CVT with residual winding.
The same device may be used to inject high a low frequency signal into the power line
for communication, telemetering, teleprotection etc. This signal in 100 to 175 Kilo Cycles
range is transmitted through the power line and is received by another capacitor device at the
other end of the line. The losses on account of secondary burden give rise to ratio and phase
angle errors which are some what larger than electromagnetic PT and variable with system
frequency and further more the load rating is also very much inferior.
Technical Specification
The technical specification for 220Kv and 132 PT are reproduced below as an example.
No. Particulars 220 KV PT 132 KV PT
1) Nominal System voltage KV 220 KV 132 KV
2) Highest system voltage KV 245 KV 145 KV
3) Frequency 50 C/S 50 C/S
4) Earthing Effective Effective
5) No. of secondary windings 2 2
i) Rating of primary KV -220 / !3 KV 132 / !3 KV
ii) Rating of Sec. Winding II 110 / !3 V 132 / !3 V
iii) Rating of Sec. Winding I 110 / !3 V 110 / !3 V
6) i) Rated burden winding I 1000 VA 500 VA
Not less than
ii) Rates burden winding I 100 VA 100 VA
Not less than
7) i) Accuracy class winding I 0.5 0.5
ii) Accuracy class winding II 3 3
8) Basic insulation level KV 1050 KV 650 KV
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Current Transformer
A.C.T. is an instrument transformer in which the secondary current in normal conditions
of use, is substantially proportional to the primary current and differs in phase from it by an
angle which is approximately zero, for an appropriate direction of the connections.
The primary winding is connected in series with the load and carries the load current to
be measured. The secondary winding is connected to the measuring instrument or relay, which
together with the winding impedance of the transformer and the load resistance constitutes
the burden of the transformer.
Primary current Contains 2 Components

i) The secondary current which is transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns ratio.
ii) Exciting current, which supplies the eddy and hysterics losses and magnetizes the
core. This current is not transformed and therefor is a cause of error.
(Kn. Is – Ip)
Current Error = ————————
Ip
Kn = Rated transformer Ratio
Is = Actual secondary current when Ip is flowing
Ip = Actual primary current
Phase Displacement
The difference in phase between the primary and secondary current vectors, the
direction of vectors being so chosen that the angle is zero for perfect transformer. The phase
displacement is said to be positive when secondary current leads the primary current vector
and vise versa.
The amount of exciting current drawn by current transformer depends material and the
amount of flux which must be deveploed in the core to satisfy the burden requirements of the
C.T. This is obtained from the excitation characteristics of the C.T. as secondary emf and
therefor flux developed is proportional to the product of secondary current and burden impedance.
The requirements of a protective CT differ radically from those for a measuring CT. A
measuring unit has to be accurate within the specified working range of rated current. Accuracy
is not required at high over currents. A Protective CT on the other hand, is not usually required
to be accurate below rated current, but it has to be accurate within the approximate limit at
all higher values of current up to the rated accuracy limit of primary current.
The question of using a single CT for the dual purpose of protection and measurement
an be decided by considering all relevant factors, such as design, cost, space and capability
of the instrument of withstanding high currents.
High permeability core material with a low saturation level (e.g. nickel-iron alloys) is
most suitable for measuring CT. Principle requirement of protective CT is high saturation level
(Grain oriented steel are used because they offer the advantage of very much higher knee
point flux density).
Knee Point
On the excitation characteristic is defined as the point at which a 10% increase in
secondary Emf; produces 50% increase in exciting current.
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Knee point voltage is defined as – (I.S. 4201-1967) that sinusoidal voltage of rated
frequency applied to the secondary terminals of the transformer all other winding being open
circuited which when increase by 10% causes the exciting current to increase by 50%. (This
is a practical limit beyond which a specific ratio may not be maintained). Beyond knee point
the CT is said to enter saturation. In this region almost all the primary current is unlisted to
maintain the core flux and since the shunt admittance is non liner both the exciting and
secondary current depart from a sine wave.
Guide Lines for construction :

i) Core : Rectangular form built up of L shape punching. Windings are placed on one of the
shorter limbs with primary usually wound over secondary the advantage being there is
ample space for insulation space for insulation so that this form is suitable for HV work.
(a) Shell form : It gives considerable protection to winding as windings are placed on
center limb. But this form is difficult to built than other forms.
(b) Ring form : It is very commonly used when primary current is large. The secondary
winding is uniformly distributed round the ring and primary is a single bar. This is a very
robust construction and has a further advantage of a joint-less core(Giving low reluctance)
and of very small leakage reactance.
ii) Windings : Windings should be closed together in order to produce the secondary
leakage reactance, as this increase the ratio error. The windings must be designed with a
view to withstanding without damage, the very large forces which are developed
when hort circuit occurs in the system.(Primary ring core construction is most satisfactory
from this point of view).
iii) Insulation : The windings are separately wound and are insulated by tape and varnish
for lower line voltage. For 7KV and above CTs oil immersed or compound filled. The
compound introduces difficulty cooling is poor.
iv) Turn compensation : It is used in most CTs in order to obtain transformation ratio more
nearly equal to the nominal ratio. Usually the best number of secondary turns is on or
two less than that number, which would be making equal the nominal ratio of CT (e.g.1000/
5A bar primary, number of secondary turns would be 199 or 198 instead of 200) Phase
angle error is very little effected due to this.
Protective CTs and Measuring CTs (Common Terms)

a) Rated Primary Current: Ranges from 0.5 to 10,000 A (Unless otherwise specified, the
rated continues thermal current)
b) Thermal Rating : A rated short time thermal current (1th) for a rated time. The time
values will be 0.5,1.,2 and 3 seconds.
c) Dynamic Rating: The peak value of dynamic current (Idyn)shall not be less than 2.5
times the rated short time thermal current 1th
337
d) Rated Secondary Current: The value of the rated secondary current shall be 5A. The
secondary current rating of 2A & 1A may also be used in some cases when –
• No. of secondary term is so low that the ratio can not be adjusted within the requisite
limits by addition or removal of one turn OR
• If the length of secondary connecting lead is such that the burden due to them at the
higher secondary current would be excessive.
Relay burden = 10 VA Lead Resistance = 0.1 ohm

CT Secondary current = 5A
Total VA burden = 10+12R
= 10+(5)2 x 0.1
= 12.5
If CT secondary is 1A, then

Total VA burden = 10+(1)2 x 0.1 = 10.1
(Auxiliary CTs are some times used to reduce the current in high resistance leads but
aux. CT itself imposes an additional burden of several VA on main CT and may some times
defeat the vary purpose).
e) Rated Output : The values of rated output shall be 2.5,5,7.5,10,15 and 30 VA.
Since the performance of the C.T. depends to some extent on the connected burden, it
should not be less than 25% of the rated VA as otherwise, accuracy will be effected. It
is desirable that the rated output should be as near to in value, but not less than the
actual output at which the transformer is to operate A.C.T. with a rated output considerably
in excess of the required output may result in increased error under operating conditions.
The burden comprises of individual connected load, for measuring C.T. (Ammeters –
3VA;current coils of watt meters, p.f. meter – 5VA).
As against this the determination of the rating of a protective CT depends on its

application, rated burden, Rated accuracy limit factor and accuracy class.
f) Rated Burden :
The burden on the protective CT is comprised of the individual burdens of the associated
trip coils and relays, the connecting leads. When the individual burden are expressed in
ohmic values, the total burden may be computed by addition. This total ohmic burden
should then be converted to a VA burden at the rated secondary current.
If the individual burdens are expressed in VA, it is essential to refer the VA burdens to a
common base (i.e. rated secondary current of a C.T.) before total burden may be computed
by addition.
Normally the standard VA rating nearest to the burden computed should be used, but
special attention should be given to a device having impedance characteristics varying –
i) Constant impedance regardless of current setting (untapped relay coils).
ii) Impedance change with the current setting (Relays with tapped coils)
338
iii) Impedance decreases when current passing through the coil exceeds the current setting
iv) Impedance changes with the change position of the armature of the relay or trip coil.
For (1) & (ii) above

Effective VA burden=(Ohmic burden of device )x(Rated Sec. Current of CT)2
The burden is always expressed per core of the CT depending upon requirements, CT
selected may have 2,3 or even 5 cores for EHV.
Typical Core Allocation for a 5 Core C.T.
No. of core Purpose Class of Accuracy

Core1 Metering 0.5
2 Backup Protection 5P
3 Main Protection PS
4 Bus Differential PS
5 Bus differential (check) Zone PS
g) Rated Accuracy Limit Factor

It is the ratio of highest primary current at which the CT will comply with the appropriate
limits of composite error under specified condition to the rated primary current. The
capabilities of a protective CT are determined by primary Amp. Turns, the core dimensions
and material and they are roughly proportional to the product of the rated burden and
the rated accuracy limit factor (with present day materials and normal dimensions this
product has a maximum value of 150).
h) Effect of Internal Burden

In determining the rated accuracy of the limit factor, the effect of internal burden, which
is mainly resistive should not be overlooked, particularly when the connected burden is
low, say less than 3 VA.
i) Co-relation of burden and accuracy limit factor

A.L.F. higher than 10 and rated burden higher than 15 VA are not recommended for
general purpose use. When product of these two exceeds 150, the resulting C.T. may be
uneconomical or of unduly large dimension of both. It is important to not that for a given
protective C.T. the accuracy limit factor and the burden as interrelated, that is the
decrease in the burden will automatically increase its accuracy limit factor and vise-
versa.
e.g. 15 VA, class 5P 10 CT means,
Error will be within prescribed limits, up to 10 times primary rated current when secondary
burden is 15 VA. If accuracy is required for 20 times primary current VA burden should be
7.5 VA only.
339
j) Accuracy Class
The accuracy class required for a protective transformer is depends upon particular
application. The accuracy class shall be designated by the highest permissible % composite
error at the rate accuracy limit primary current, prescribed for the accuracy class
concerned followed by letter P (means protection) (I.S. 2705 Part III-1964) e.g. 5P,10P,15P.
Limits of Errors (Protective CT)

Accuracy Current Error at Phase displacement at Composite error at
Class rated primary current rated primary current rated accuracy limit
5P +1% +60 Min 5%
10P +3% — 10%
15P +5% — 15%
Marking : Protective CTs are designated by accuracy class followed by accuracy limit factor
30/5 P 10 Meters 30 VA. Class 5P, A.L.F. 10.
Measuring CT (Limits of Error) :

The current error and the phase displacement at rated frequency shall not exceed the
values given below, when secondary burden is any value from 25% to 100% of rated burden.
Class % Current error at % of Phase displacement in min at % of

rated current rated current
0.1 10 20 100% 10 20 100%
120 120
+ 0.25 + 0.20 + 0.10 + 10 +8 +5
0.2 + 0.50 + 0.35 + 0.20 + 20 + 15 + 10
0.5 + 1.00 + 0.75 + 0.50 + 60 + 45 + 30
1.0 + 2.00 + 1.50 + 1.00 + 120 + 90 + 60
For class 3&5 for secondary burden from 50% to 100% of rated burden.
Class Percentage current error at % of rated current

3 50 120
+3 +3
5 +5 +5
340
Measuring CT-application Class
1) Precision (Laboratory CT) 0.1
2) Substandard for testing of industrial CT 0.2
3) Precision industrial metering 0.5
4) Commercial & Industrial metering 0.5 or 1
5) Indicating & graphic watt meters & ammeters 1 or 3
6) Purpose where ratio is of less importance 3 or 5
(in ammeters where approx. values are required)
Factors affecting Choice of protective C.T.

1) CT saturation may cause harmonics, which may increase the time of operation of IDMTL
relays. So where fault current is adequate, A.L.F. may be chosen 20. Alternatively a
relay with low VA burden or a CT with higher ratio may be chosen.
2) If CTs with higher A.L.F. & VA output than required is selected, under fault condition CTs
may be able to produce higher secondary current, resulting in heating of relay coil. This
factor is important, when current operated relays with time delay are used, as the relay
coil may burn before the fault is cleared.
3) For distance protection if CTs are not of adequate knee point voltage, it may result in
producing higher operating time. To allow for transient saturation, a transient saturation
factor (X/R) of primary system should be considered. While calculating knee point voltage.
4) For balanced protective system (e.g. differential and restricted E.F protection), it should
be confirmed that under external faults, CT saturation and mismatch does not produce
imbalance in the relay operating circuit. At the same time under internal faults, CTs
should produce adequate output to ensure that operating time of the relay is not exceeded.
5) CTs should not consume excessive magnetising current. If this is high, it may result in
higher primary fault settings in case of current operated relays and may cause under
reaching in case of distance relays. However, a very low value of magnetising current
should not be specified which may result in larger and costly C.T.
Over Current Rating of a C.T.

The mechanical stresses produced in a CT under o/c conditions depend upon maximum
peak value of the o/c, the number of turns in the primary winding and configuration of the coil
structure. For minimum stress, other things being equal the primary winding of the transformer
should have the minimum number of turns and minimum mean perimeter. The lower the product
of rated A.I.F. and rated burden, the stronger can the transformer be made mechanically and
higher may be its O.C.F. (over current factor). In general, CT may have an O.C.F. of 50 to 100
based on the rated time of 0.5 second. CTs may be designed of OCF 200 to 400 (bar primary is
a must). The value of the over current should preferably be determined by short circuit study
of a system, in which the CT is to be installed. Alternatively the O/C rating of CT should be
determined from a consideration of the breaking capacity of the ci4cuit breaker with which it is
associated. Failure to observe these precautions may lead to destruction of CT under short
circuit conditions.
341
e.g. CTR-50/5, 11 KV, Circuit Breaking cap. Of C.B. – 150,000 KVA
150,000
RMS Value of short current = = 7900 A
11 x 3
7900
O.C.B. = = 158
50
The transformer should be also capable of with standing peak value of current equal to 2.5 x
ay also correspond to –
Duration of short circuit Permissible O/C r.m.s. in amps.

0.5 sec. 7900 A
1.0 5600
2.0 4000
5.0 2500
CTs – 3 phase circuits : Secondary may be connected in star of delta.

The secondary may be connected in star or delta. In case of star connection, there is
no neutral current under balanced load condition. The neutral current appears only in the
event of an earth fault. Delta connected C.T.s are primarily used in case of differential protection
for shunting zero sequence currents on grounded star windings of transformers.
Auxiliary CTs: The use of auxiliary CTs may be made in watt meters and relay circuits. It is
recorded that auxiliary CTs be used to step up currents from main CTs (Burden on the main CTs
in table may be excessive).
✦✦✦
342
ENERGY BALANCE OF THERMAL POWER PLANT
Energy balance of thermal power plant deals with the accounting of Heat Energy input
to the power plant cycle and its conversion to electrical energy. Heat energy released by
combustion of fuel in boiler is input energy to the plant. This heat energy is transformed to
electrical energy by the plant operating in a Vapor cycle called Rankine cycle. The transformation
of energy takes place in various processes and heat energy converts to different forms before
finally getting transformed in to electrical energy in Generator. However, all the energy input
is not converted in to the electrical energy due to the losses taking place in various processes
of the plant. The losses are inherent and can not be eliminated due to the constraints of the
processes as well as working fluids. In this write up, the analysis of the causes of losses and
quantification of theses losses is discussed.
Typical Losses from Plant :
Net electrical output = 36.2% of Heat energy input from fuel

860
Net Unit Heat Rate = ———— = 2375 Kcal/ kWh
0.362
Boiler Losses :
Loss Percent Reason
of Input
Dry Flue Gas 5.0% Flue gas temperature at APH outlet is 140° C.
Unburnt fuel 1.0% Incomplete combustion of all the coal
Radiation 0.5%
Unaccounted l 0.5% Heat lost through hot ash, Blow down, Soot
Blowing etc
Hydrogen in Fuel 3.7% Due to moisture formed from combustion of
Hydrogen in fuel
Moisture in Coal and air 1.2% Heat energy lost due to hot water vapors leaving
the Boiler
Total Losses 11%
62
Typical Cycle losses :
Loss Percent of energy
input from fuel
Heat rejected with perfect cycle and Theoretical working fluid 32.8 %
Heat rejected due to imperfections in working fluid 7.7 %
Losses due to “P and “T in feed water cycle 2.2 %
Losses due to “P and “T in condensing system 1.6 %
Loss due to “P in Reheater 0.4 %
Total Cycle Losses 44.7 %
Heat rejected with perfect cycle and theoretical working fluid:

In Ideal Rankine cycle, turbine exhaust vapor is at very low temperature and pressure.
But it still contains the heat energy, which is unavailable for conversion to mechanical work.
The exhaust vapor therefore is cooled and condensed, thus the heat of condensation is rejected
to the atmosphere, causing this loss to take place.
Heat rejected due to imperfections in working fluid:

In actual Rankine cycle, working fluid is water and steam. When the working fluid
flows through various processes of the cycle, fluid friction takes place, giving rise to this loss.
Losses due to “P and “T in feed water cycle, in condensing system and in Reheaters:
Feed water heaters are tube and shell type heat exchangers, in which Feed Water
receives heat energy from extraction steam bled from Turbine. Super heaters, Reheaters and
Economiser in Boiler are tube type heat exchangers in which energy from flue gas is transferred
to Water/ steam. Condenser is again a tube and shell type of heat exchanger where, steam
passes over the tube surface and cooling water passes through tubes. In heat exchangers, the
fluid receiving heat energy is always at a temperature lower than the temperature of fluid giving
away its heat energy. Hence the heat energy transfer is not 100% efficient. Also fluid encounters
friction with tubes causing drop in its pressure. Both these reasons give rise to these losses.
Turbine Generator Losses:

Loss Percent of energy
input from fuel
Nozzle and bucket aerodynamic loss 3.7%
Exhaust loss 1.3%
Turbine pressure drops 0.2%
Bearing and windage 0.2%
Leakages 0.3%
Generator Electrical losses 0.4%
Total Losses 6.1%
Unit’s Auxiliary Consumption 2.0%
63
Nozzle and bucket aerodynamic loss: This loss takes place within the turbine cylinder.
Irreversible expansion of Steam, while passing through the nozzles of the fixed blades, and
friction of steam with the rotating blades are the reasons for these losses.
Exhaust loss: Steam velocity at exhaust of the turbine is very high, leading to loss of kinetic
energy.
Turbine pressure drops: Inter stage steam leakage is the main reason for this loss.
Bearing and windage: Friction of the shaft in Bearings and windage of shaft with air in
atmosphere and rotating blades with steam are the causes of these losses.
Leakages: Some of the steam entering the turbine cylinder leaks out through glands. Hence
the heat energy in the leak steam remains unutilized, causing this loss.
Generator Electrical losses: Copper losses in Stator and Rotor winding, Iron losses in the
Stator core, windage loss due to rotor friction with Hydrogen, Friction Losses in Bearings are
the main reasons for these losses.
Unit’s Auxiliary Consumption: Boiler Feed Pumps, ID, FD, PA Fans, Condenser Cooling
water Pumps, Coal Mills, Condensate Extraction Pumps, Ash and Coal Handling plant, Water
Treatment plant, Air conditioning and Lighting etc use electrical energy and are the main
sources of auxiliary consumption.
It should be borne in mind that the losses discussed above are expected design losses
when unit is operating at / near the Maximum Continuos rating. Maintaining and operating
the unit in such a way that actual losses are close to expected losses, is most economical way
of generating power. In such conditions the Unit heat rate of 2375 Kcal / kWh is achievable.
The detailed explanation on these losses and performance optimisation techniques for
the unit are explained in the relevant handouts.
✦✦✦
64
PLANT LAYOUT OF
LARGE THERMAL POWER STATION
PLANT LAYOUT
Objectives: 1) Safety
2) Reliability
3) Efficiency
4) Ease of coal
5) Good working conditions
6) Economy
These objectives clash with economy. However, note that economy is listed as last
item. Long term economy (rather than initial economy) is automatically ensured, when first
five items are given due attention.
Main interconnection should be short but above objectives must be kept in mind.
1) C.W. mains. 2) Main steam & Feed piping 3) Coal conveyors.
4) Flues (Ducts) 5) Electrical Connections
COST ALONE DOES NOT GOVERN THE LAY-OUT.
SET (T.G.) ARRANGEMENT :

With large units (500 MW), the length of T.G. Set exceeds the boiler pitch. In a
longitudinal layout, therefore, the distance between boilers has to be increased. The available
space can be used for some auxiliaries like coal mills, ash handling equipment etc.
In transverse layout, boiler pitch need not be increased. Energy flow from boiler to
turbine generator and transformer is in a straight line. Number of bends and hence loss of
energy is reduced.
Diagonal layouts have also been tried, special crane drive is necessary during generator
rotor withdrawal and insertion.
WIDTH OF TURBINE HOUSE:

a) Longitudinal layout: Space is required for condenser tubes replacement, feed heaters
and to set down casing halves, rotors etc. during overhaul. For axial condensers (not
used in MSEB so far) extra space for condenser tubes replacement is not needed. In
general, width is minimum for a longitudinal layout.
b) Transverse Layout: Space is necessary for machine length and generator rotor
withdrawal. On boiler side wall, sufficient space must be available so that the overhead
crane lifts the bearing cap of governor end.
The feed heaters are placed between the sets and short and almost vertical run of feed
piping is possible.
HEIGHT OF TURBINE HOUSE :

The overhead crane must be able to lift a STATOR clear above running machines. If HP
heaters are also in crane-bay, then it must be possible to lift the HP heater tube bundle.
65
CRANES:
Generally two cranes are provided. Light duty crane is instantly available for unloading
bay. The heavy-duty crane is for lifting the stator. It is mainly for erection work and for
subsequent overhauls.
Three medium duty cranes are best. Any two can be used for heaviest loads by slinging
a lifting beam from their hooks. This reduces the cost of turbine-house structure because the
load is then spread over tow bays. When there are four or more units, three cranes are most
useful for routine maintenance. Crane availability to individual unit increases.
In transverse layout, when width of the turbine house becomes uneconomical for a
single span crane, two separate cranes are provided by dividing the width in two spans.
Separate cranes are sometimes provided for HP heaters and feed pumps when these
can not be serviced by the main-crane.
PLANT CONTROL :
PCR is generally in turbine house towards boiler. Atmosphere is cleaner. High ambient
temp. is avoided. Length of cables (instrumentation) is minimum. In emergency, quick access
to turbine hall or firing floor is possible.
HIGH PRESSURE PIPING :

As unit size and pressures increase, larger and thicker pipes are needed. Due to their
rigidity, large bend must be provided in the lay-out to avoid thrust on Turbine and boiler.
Relative position of turbine and boiler is often decided with this consideration.
BOILER HOUSE ARRANGEMENT :

Wherever possible, turbine basement and boiler basement levels and turbine floor and
firing floor levels are kept same. Maximum activity occurs at these levels. Distance between
two boilers is kept minimum. However, adequate space for auxiliaries and their (O&M) is
necessary. Also, it must be possible to extract the longest soot blower.
Flue gas ducts should be straight and as short as possible. When ESP width is more
than boiler width, distance between boilers has to be increased.
All around the boiler, adequate space is necessary for ease for operation and
maintenance. Ventilation is also an important aspect. Forced draft fans’ suction is sometimes
taken from top of boiler house. It gives hotter inlet air and assists ventilation.
Coal bunkers should stock coal for about 12 to 16 hours feeding at full load. Location
of mills is very important. Recent trend is to keep the mills on ESP side. Lengths of conveyors
and air ducts is reduced. Dust nuisance is less. Length of steam pipes is also reduced. Noise
level is also reduced.
AUXILIARY SWITHCHGEAR :
Traditionally the switchgear is located between the boiler and turbine house. This is
the centre of gravity of load. However, the switchgear must be protected from any plant,
which may cause trouble. Also plant needs protection from switchgear faults.
In power plant location of switchgear and transformers for turbine auxiliaries is adjacent
to turbine house and at the rear of boiler house for boiler auxiliaries.
66
COAL HANDLING PLANT :
Number of railway lines.
1) Incoming
2) Outgoing – to take away empties.
3) Wagon tippler lines.
4) Standby lines – for keeping empties.
Shunting etc
Coal stock space : Earlier, it was usual to stock about 30 days stock. With better movement
of wagons even 10 days stock is enough. It should be noted that huge amount of working
capital gets blocked in coal stocks. In any case, storage space for about 10-30 days stock is
generally provided. Frequently, wagons have to be manually unloaded along the track and
provision for this must be there. Coal consumption is generally 0.55-0.70 kg/KWH.
OIL HANDLING PLANT :

As F.O., LSHS and LDO is generally received by tan-wagons, the OHP is located close to
the CHP. Oil unloading tracks are separately provided. The OHP is generally at one end of the
power station, near the 1st unit because OHP is needed from very first unit and must be ready
in time. Fuel pipe lengths for other units increase but it is inevitable. If OHP is located at the
middle of all the units, their will be construction problems.
CEA recommendation – Oil consumption 15 ml/KWH.
Clearance from Explosives Inspector needed for OHP layout.
W.T. PLANT & COOLING TOWERS :

Dust free atmosphere is helpful. These must be located away from CHP & AHP. This
may not be always possible. Special precautions are necessary for bulk storage of acids and
alkalis. Hydrochloric acid is highly fuming and therefore the storage tanks should be away
from main plant to avoid excessive corrosion due to HCL fumes.
Neutralising pits layout along with channels must be planned carefully.
Consumption of Chemicals –
1) HCL
2) NaOH
3) NaCl
4) Hydrazene
5) Na3PO4
6) Anion Resin
7) Cation Resin
Huge quantities of NaCl have to be handled for regeneration of softeners. (Base

exchangers for C.W. water) Salt lagoons rare provided where incoming salt trucks can directly
unload the salt bags.
✦✦✦
67
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF
LARGE THERMAL POWER STATIONS
Concept of Modern Power Station

The small power plants in early stages of development were located close to load
centers. The temperature and pressures were low due to restrictions imposed by available
materials. As requirements of fuels (oil & coal), water were low, no special equipment was
needed. Ash disposal was not a problem and evacuation of power was at lower voltages like
11 KV, 33 KV etc.
Rapid rise in demand and economy of scale dictated larger units. Efficiency levels also
rose as higher temperature and pressures were possible due to development in metallurgy.
The modern power stations then evolved with special techniques and processes. Due to its
effect on environment, the modern plant had to move away from load centers. Higher
transmissions voltages then became necessary.
As different from the old power stations, a modern power station is associated with the
following :
1) UNIT SIZE :
Higher steam pressures mean high density. Unit size increased to maintain reasonable blade
heights in 1st row. Economy of scale also caused increase in unit size. In India unit sizes
increased progressively from 30 MW to 62.5, 120/140, 210 to 500 MW.
2) BOILER :
High pressures increased the height of boilers to obtain proper natural circulation. At & above
supercritical pressures even forced circulation has been adopted. With increase in the boiler
size, the volume increased faster than the surface. Extra heat transfer surfaces were introduced
in the form of partial dividing wall and water platens. High temperature operation caused
slagging and hence, extensive soot blowers were introduced.
3) TURBINES :
Regenerative feed heating and Reheat cycles.
4) HYDROGEN & WATER COOLING OF GENERATORS :

As unit size increased, the Generator size could not be increased in the same proportion.
Superior cooling methods were developed to enable the use of high current densities and the
heat generated due to them. Hydrogen cooling was adequate upto 62.5 MW and 120 MW
units. For 200 MW units, stator water cooling is a must.
5) DM & SOFTENING PLANT :

Large units operating at high temperature and pressure need purest water. So water
treatment became an integral part. From early days of Lime-Soda softeners we have progressed
to very sophisticated D.M. Plants.
68
As cooling water requirement increased, closed C.W. system had to be adopted. Base
exchange plant (softeners) also became a part of large power plant.
6) E.H.V. SWITCH YARD :

With the rise in unit size, voltage was increased to keep I2R losses as low as possible.
Thus the modern plant is associated with EHV switch yard with large transformers, EHV circuit
breakers, lightening arrestors etc.
C.H.P. & A.H.P. : At high rates of coal consumption a highly mechanised, remote controlled
coal handling plant became a necessity. To-day, we see high capacity wagon tipplers, crushers,
high speed belts, stackers reclaimers in C.H.P.
Some plants also have a merry-go-round of coal rakes. The wagons have a bottom opening.
Wagon tippler is not needed. Coupling and decoupling of wagons is also not necessary. Rope
ways are also being used.
Large units produce tremendous amounts of ash. A 1000 MW unit may produce about
200 MT ash/Hour. Special ash handling systems have been developed to cope up with this
problem.
7) E.S.P. :
Large unit size and P.F. Firing, produces fly ash in large quantities. Mechanical dust
collectors (like cyclones, fabric filters) soon proved inadquate. High voltage E.S.P.S. were
developed to trap upto 99.7% of fly ash and now, the E.S.P. is also an integral part of large
power station.
8) VERY TALL CHIMNEY :

As amounts of polluting gases increased, chimney height were increased progressively
upto 250 meters for wider and better dispersion of pollutents.
9) INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL :

For safe operation involving high rates of heat and mass transfer, very sophisticated
controls had to be developed. From electronic auto-controls we have now moved on to computer
controlled systems.
BASE LOAD & PEAKING STATIONS :

The ideal load curve (daily) would be flat as shown in the figure. All unit in the system
then could run at constant load throughout the day. The actual daily load curve is however
somewhat as shown by dotted lines. The shaded area shows the base load region. It shows
that only about 60% of installed capacity is needed for all the 24 hours.
The cross-hatched area shows that additional (above 6 to 15% capacity is needed for about
16 hours. Thus higher capacity are needed for less time. The peak demand exists or for a very
short period.
To meet such a variable load demand, a proper mix of Thermal, Atomic, Hydro and gas
turbine plants is necessary. Thermal & Atomic plants are not suitable for frequent load changes
and are used as base load stations. Then come the hydro-electric plants where load variations
69
can be obtained very quickly without much loss of efficiency. Hydro electric plants therefore
meet most of the demand above the base load. Large Hydro electric plants can of course run
as base load plants.
The peak demand is generally met by gas turbine units, which can be started and
stopped quickly. The idling losses are minimum. Installation period is much less than Thermal
or Hydro units. The cost of generation is high.
Pumped storage units are also being used to flatten the load curve and generate power
during peak load. They also improve the load factor of the system.
✦✦✦
70
VARIOUS HEATING ELEMENTS USED IN
BOILER, FUEL USED AND HEAT TRANSFER
Fuel is a basically source of heat. This process of heat generation from the fuel is called
burning or combustion. During this combustion chemical energy is converted in heat. 40% of
total demand of coals used for thermal power station.
Heat
Heat
Fuel Heat
Heat Burned
Air Air
Boiler design depends mainly on the type of fuel to be burned.

Fuel dependents :
1. Furnace size
2. Fuel preparation and burning equipment
3. Area of heating surfaces, their arrangements and location
4. Choice of heat recovery equipment’s
5. Design of air pollution control devices
According to the nature of existence fuel can be classified as :
Solid : Coal
Liquid : Petroleum
Gaseous : Natural gas
Fuel resources in world and India
Energy source World India %of world resources

Coal (750*109 )T (109*109 )T 1.65%
Lignite (2000*106 )T (206*106 )T 0.15%
Oil (256000*106 )T (140*106 )T 0.06%
Natural Gas (15000*109) M3 (636*109 ) M3 0.40%
71
SOLID FUEL:
World resources of coal
USA : 43%
UK : 35%
USSR : 20%
Germany : 4.5%
China : 21%
India : 01%
Coal is the most versatile of all the fossil fuels used for the steam generation. It is
widely available throughout the world and the quantity & quality of coal reserves are better
known than those of other fuels.
In India maximum amount of coal reserves are found in Bihar, which has about 45% of
the total coal reserves in India. Maximum amount of Lignite reserves are found in Tamilnadu,
which has about 91% of the total Lignite reserves in India.
There is no satisfactory definition of coal. It is a mixture of Organic chemicals and
Mineral materials produced by the natural process of growth and decay. Accumulation of
debris both vegetables and minerals with some sorting and stratification, accomplished by
chemical, biological, bacteriological and metamorphic action. The organic chemical produces
a heat when burned and the mineral materials remain as residue called ash. It means
Coal is a mixture of Organic and Inorganic compounds. It is mixture of complex compounds of
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulphur, in addition to this it also contains mineral
matters like Silica, Alumina, Iron, Calcium and other constituents in small quantities.
The factors affecting the Composition of Coal are:-

1. The mode of accumulation and burial of the plant debris forming the deposit.
2. The age of the deposits and their geographical distribution.
3. The structure of the Coal forming the plants.
4. The chemical composition of the coal forming plants and their resistance to decay.
5. The nature and the intensity of the plant decaying agencies.
Coal mining is the process of excavation of coal from the earth crust. Depending on
the nature of coal formation the mining may be either surface mining or underground
mining. The surface mining is also called strip mining.
The coal excavated from the mine is called run_of_mine coal. They cannot be used directly
since they contain many impurities. To produce coal with certain desired properties, it is
necessary to go in for coal preparation. The main process that are carried out in coal preparation.
1. Separation of types of coal : Higher heating value coal is separated from lower heating
value of coal.
2. Screening into different sizes : To classify coal into different groups like large coal, graded
coal and small coal.
3. Cleaning : The large size by hand picking and small size by mechanical means.
72
The advantages of coal preparation are:
1. The efficiency of combustion can be increased.
2. The concentration of combustible by separating a major portion of the incombustible matter.
3. Cost of handling and disposal of ash decreases due to reduction in volume of ash.
4. Frequency of cleaning decrease.
5. Formation of clinker can be reduced.
6. Sulfur and Phosphorous can be removed partially.
The efficiency of combustion mainly depends on quality of fuel fired which in turn
depends on so many variables. Coal sample test can be carried out and anything falling away
from standards can be detected and steps can be taken to restore effiency.
The main objective of coal sampling is:

1. To meet the requirements of coal specification.
2. To ensure economic and efficient operation of the plant.
3. For adjustment and control of efficiency and operation of equipment.
The proximate analysis is the analysis of the coal for determining the % of the
constituents like moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon.
The ultimate analysis gives the element of which the coal substance is composed.
They include Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulfur and Oxygen. The ultimate analysis is very
useful in computing air requirement for combustion and weight of products of combustion.
When the combustible material is burned, heat is produced. The quantity of heat liberated is
proportional to the weight of material burned. The calorific value of any substance is measure
of heat that is obtained by burning that substance and it is defined as heat released in
kilocalories when unit weight of one kilogram of the substance is burned completely.
The heating value or the calorific value of the fuel is expressed in kilocalories per
kilogram of fuel on as received moisture free or moisture and ash free basis.
In practice the whole of the calorific value of the fuel cannot be used completely as
some heat is lost as heat carried in the chimney along with the flue gas and another small part
as radiation loss.
Accordingly two calorific values can be quoted for a fuel. They are gross or higher
calorific value which include the heat given up by the condensation of any water present in
the product of combustion, and the Net or lower calorific value, which obtained by deducting
from the higher calorific value.
For bituminous coal the difference between the gross and net calorific value is not very
large being about 280 Kcal/Kg. For high moisture and high hydrogen fuels such lignite the
difference is greater.
The variation in calorific value of coal determine the number of mills of to be kept in
service, and loading on each mill for the same out put of the Boiler. For any fuel the most
important property is calorific value and other properties moister contribute to adding or
reducing the same. Total moisture is the sum of surface and inherent moisture. Volatile matter
73
is the loss in weight minus the air-dried coal is heated out of the contact with air to 900(+/-
150c) under specified condition.
The volatile matter consist of :

1. Water is not originally present as free or inherent moister but derived from the chemical
composition of coal.
2. A complex mixture of combustible cases including Hydrogen, Methane, Ethane, Benzene
etc.
3. Tar, a complex mixture of hydro carbon and other organic compounds.
When volatile content is more than 35% coal is called high volatile coal, and when it is
less than 20% it is called low volatile coal. When volatile content is in between 20-30% the
coal is called medium volatile coal. High volatile coal has lower calorific value than low volatile
coal.
Mineral matter is that part of coal sample from which the ash is chiefly derived. It is
not equal in weight to the ash owing to changes. That is the loss of combined moisture of
carbondioxide from carbonator etc.
All coal contains mineral matter like Silica, Allmina, Ferric oxide Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide and many other compounds in small quantity. The mineral matter may be
present during the formation of coal and exist as an integral parts of its structure, This is
known as inherent ash and is probably @ 4-5 %.of coal.
Fixed carbon is the figure obtained by subtraction the sum of % of moisture , volatile
matter and ash from 100%. The fixed carbon in a coal is not the same as the total carbon of
the coal but is generally less, as the volatile matter contains carbon in combination with H2
and O2, as hydrocarbons, Phenols, Oxides of carbon etc.
The effect of fixed carbon on other fuel properties is higher the fixed carbon, lower the
volatile matter and higher the calorific value. The grindability of coal plays major role in
determining the mill capacity. The rank of coal is its stages of coalification.
Peat Lignite Subbituminous coal Bituminous coal Anthracite
Indian coals are bituminous or subbituminous or lignitic in nature.

Properties which determine the fusibility of ash :
Base - Acid ratio
Iron - Calcium ratio
Silica - Allumina ratio
Viscosity - Temperature relationship
LIQUID FUEL:
In coal fired boiler fuel oil is needed for starting , supporting and stabilizing the coal
flame. This fuel oil is obtained as a fraction of crude petroleum.
The crude oil reserves of the major countries in the world.
U.S.A. —6.4% Libya —4.8% Kuwait -–11% Iran — 11.4%
USSR 12.6% Saudi Arabia –21% India –0.06%
74
Oil resources in India
Gujrat, Asam, Rajstan, Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Uttar pradesh and off-shore areas
along the eastewrn and western coasts. The maximum oil reserves in Gujrat and Asam that is
@ 80% of the of the total reserves in India.
Petroleum is flammable liquid composed principally of hydrocarbons. It occurs in

reservoir rocks which are between the cap rock and bottom rock. These reservoir rocks are
porous and permeable by nature. Most reservoir rock are sedimentary rock. Consisting of
course grained materials like Sand, Sand stone, Grit, Lime stone, Delimit etc. For the sake of
convenience four phases of petroleum Genesis are recognized.
1. Embodiment of organic matter in source beds
2. Conversion of source material into a fluid
3. Migration of oil into reservoir rocks
4. Secondary transformation of oil in reservoir
The analysis of petroleum shows that:-

Carbon - 83.87%
Hydrogen - 11-14%
Oxygen - 2-3%
Nitrogen - 0.1%
Sulfur - 0.5-3%
Ash - 0.1%
Ash contains mainly elements like Silica, Allumina, Iron, Calcium, Vanadium, Nickel
etc. The Sp. Gravity varies between 0.82 – 0.95
Distillation is the process of separating crude into a no of fraction according to their
boiling point. First stage of the distillation is crude oil from the storage tank is pumped to the
fractionating column through the heater. The crude separates into a number of fraction, Light
Naphtha whose boiling temp. is @ 150 oc is collected at the top of the tower and the residual
oil whose boiling temp. is above 540 oc is collected at the bottom of the tower. Other fraction
whose boiling temp. is in-between 150 oc & 540 oc are collected in between these two fraction.
The medium fuel oil & heavy fuel oil are obtained by further fractionating the residual fuel oil
in the second stage of the distillation process.
75
Important fractions and their Boiling temperature :
Fraction of petroleum Approximate Boiling temperature

1. Light Naphtha 1. 150 oc
2. Heavy Naphtha 2. 150 oc - 205 oc
3. Kerosene 3. 205 oc – 250 oc
4. Light gas oil 4. 205 oc - 315 oc
5. Heavy gas oil 5. 315 oc – 430 oc
6. Vacuum gas oil 6. 430 oc - 540 oc
7. Residual oil 7. Above 540 oc
Properties of fuel oil used in Boiler :

1. Calorific value : It varies between 10,000 to 12,500 Kcal/Kg. It is nearly twice that of
coal. This is due to the fact that fuel oil contains more hydrocarbons which contribute directly
to the heating value .The Net calorific value of fuel oil less than that of Gross calorific value (@
620-720 Kcal/Kg).
The calorific value of heavy fuel oil is 10270 Kcal/Kg.
The calorific value of High speed diesel is 10720 Kcal/Kg.
The specific gravity of the fuel is related to calorific value of fuel as follows.
Cg = 12400 –2100 d2
Gross Calorific Value Sp Gravity

Kcal/Kg at 15.560 C
2. Viscosity: i ) Dynamic viscosity

ii) Kinematic viscosity
Unit for viscosity Dynamic viscosity - Poise

Kinematic viscosity – Centi stokes
Centi poise = 1/100 Poise
Centi stokes =1/100 stokes
• Temperature Viscosity
• Temperature Density Viscosity
3. Flash point & Fire point : The flash point is defined as the minimum temperature at
which the given oil evolves just sufficient vapour to form a flammable mixture with air.
76
The fire point is the minimum temperature at which the oil vapour will continue to burn
instead of just flashing.
Product Flash point
Gasoline < 23 oc
Kerosene 23 – 66 oc
Fuel oil 66 oc
4. Pour point : It is the temperature 2.8 oc higher than that at which the oil ceases to flow
when cooled and tested according to prescribed conditions. Heavy fuel oil has a high pour
point and heating facility are used to ensure satisfactory flow of oil. High-speed diesel ceases
to flow when temperature falls below 6 oc.
5. The Carbon residue formation : When oil is heated both evaporation and cracking takes
place. The heavier complex compounds form on decomposition some carbonaceous deposits
known as carbon residue.
The property of fuel oil is also influenced by the sulfur content. The % of sulfur in the
crude is from 0.1 to 6 % by weight. If the sulfur content increases with increase in the boiling
range of the product. It has been found that the presence of every 1% of sulfur in fuel oil
lowers the calorific value of the fuel oil by 83 Kcal per Kg.
The solubility of water in oil is quite low i.e. from .005 - .05 %. The % of water in fuel
oil results in Loss of heat, flame going out (fluctuating), sparking and flashback. The presence
ash in the oil is 0 – 0.1 % by weight or less. Ash is usually present in the form of metallic salt,
in addition to this the ash contains traces of Iron, calcium & Nickel in small quantity. The presence
of ash in the oil results in excessive soot & corrosion of tubes. Presence of ash in oil is < 0.15%.
Properties of Indian crude
Properties Gujrat state Assam
Sp.gravity 0.8636 0.8547
Water contents 2.6 % 0.06 %
Sulphur contents 0.13 % 0.17 %
Kinematic viscosity at 37.8 c 0
35.6 CS 4.91 CS
Calorific value 10,800 Kcal/Kg 10,000 Kcal/Kg
Pour point 35 0c 30.32 0c
Flash point HSD 38 0c LDO 66 0c

Kinematic viscosity HSD 2.0 – 7.5 CS LDO 2.5 – 15.7
Sulfur by mass HSD 1.0 % LDO !.8 %
Water contents HSD 0.05 % LDO 0.25 %
Gaseous Fuel :
1. Natural Natural gas, Liquefied petroleum gas
2. Manufactured Refinery gas, Cock oven gas, Blast furnace gas, Producer gas, Water
gas, Carburated water gas and coal gas.
77
Natural gas reserves in India are estimated to be 943 Million Meter of which the reserves
from the Gujrat.and Assam are 823 Million Meter which are about 86% of the total reserves in
India. The heating value of gases fuel is generally expressed in Kcal/NM3
Heat Transfer :
The process of getting the heat from the fire to the water and steam is called “heat
transfer”. Heat transfer through a boiler tube wall involves the flow of heat from a high
temperature area to low temperature area. Heat transfer can occur in of three ways.
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
In conduction heat is travel by thermal motion of the molecules. Convection is defined

as the transmission of heat by the circulation of a liquid or gas. Convection is closely related
to conduction, in that the actual heat transfer takes place when the gas or liquid molecules
contacts a substance and transfer heat to it. Heat transfer by radiation requires no physical
medium to travel through since radiant heat is transmitted by electromagnetic waves, similar
to the way light is transmitted.
All three types of heat transfer are at work in operating boiler heat flows by convection
from the very hot gases produced in a boiler to the tube banks in their path.
The incandescent gas produced by the burning of fossil fuels imparts heat to the
furnace wall tubes by radiation.
Conduction plays a lesser role in a boiler than convection and radiation as regards heat
pick up from the burning of fuel.
Heat pick in Boiler :
Convection
&
Radiation
conduction
In a boiler firing coal or oil the temp in the centre of the furnace can be as high as 1600
o
C. The temp of the water inside a boiler waterwall tube at 148Kg/Cm 2 will be @345 o C. It is
important to realize that the rate of heat transfer depends mainly on this difference in
temperature between the hot fire and fluid temperature inside the tube. Hence highest rate of
heat transfer occur in the boiler parts closest to the fire ball. In 210 MW boiler flue gas temp.
around the tube @ 1600 o C. Right next to the tube wall there is a thin film of gas which tends
to act as insulator, the outside tube wall temp. is 400 o C.
78
Because steel is an excellent conductor of heat, heat flows steadily through it, and
there is only a 45o C difference between the “inside and outside surface” of the tube wall. The
inside metal temp is 355 o C. On the inside of the tube, there is also a film this time, of water
and we have a10 o C, drip in temp across it, until we reach the inside bulk fluid temp of 345 o
C. There is a total drop in temp from the outside surface of the tube to the inside fluid
temperature, a fall of 55 o C. This temperature difference is depend on several things, but one
of the most important is the rate of heat flow. That means, with a constant fluid temperature
inside the tube, the higher the rate of heat flow. We can imagine that this will impose restriction
on the rate of heat transfer through a given tube. If the heat transfer rate is too high, the
metal temperature of the tube will become too great, and the tube will overheat and fail.
Insulating materials are used extensively in modern boilers. They help to retain heat
within a boiler and cut down costly heat loss to the outside. We find in practical that impure
water will cause internal deposits to form inside boiler tubes. These deposits act as insulators
and disturb the heat transfer from the fire to the water or steam in side the boiler tube. Hence
the material is selected for the different temperature ranges in the separate sections, such as
water walls, superheater and reheater of 210 MW boiler.
✦✦✦
79
COAL SAMPLING PROCEDURE
AND ANALYSIS OF COAL
COAL : Non renewable fossil solid fuel formed by a series of natural geochemical process
from the plant remains accumulated together with other sediments. Coal is analyzed in two
ways, called Ultimate analysis and Proximate Analysis, to understand its quality as fuel.
COAL SAMPLING & SAMPLE PREPARATION :

The BIS specification No. 1S-436 (Part-I, Section-I) 1964 and IS:436 (Part-II) 1965
describes the method of sampling and sub sampling of the coal/coke so as to achieve a
representative sample as homogenous as possible for laboratory in 212 micron size.
COAL SAMPLING :
Indian standard Institute has laid down some specific sampling procedure which is
obligatory to both the supplier and consumer otherwise both the parties may mutually adopt
some methods on the basis of the ISI specification of sampling.
For each consignment of 250 tonne one sample is recommended. After receipt of coal
rack in TPS, placement report is filled in which wagon numbers and name of the colliery is
mentioned.
(2) The standard practice is to collect about 350kg samples for 250 tonnes of coal received
in increments.
(3) 25% of total wagons received should be selected from coal sampling Random Table.
RANDOM TABLE
81 74 67 95 70 56 51 54 50 53
61 37 42 62 93 96 34 18 22 89
52 07 16 29 39 04 71 14 76 78
43 08 77 25 72 49 86 03 83 45
65 32 27 40 63 57 97 84 82 87
21 58 11 23 80 10 30 01 100 44
31 90 55 88 13 36 24 91 19 64
73 98 20 05 68 46 69 85 94 59
33 15 35 26 79 92 38 12 41 17
75 66 99 09 06 47 48 60 28 02
(4) About 5 Kg of sample are collected each from four corners and centre from every selected
wagon by digging 0.5 Mtr. Depth.
(5) The bulk of 350 Kg sample so collected are well mixed and reduced either by mechanical
sample dividers or by hand methods using shovel by coning and quartering etc.
(6) The gross sample is reduced to 50 Kg in stages. The 50 Kg mass is crushed to [!” size
80
and again reduced by coming and quartering in stages to get a final sample of about 2
Kg. This sample is further reduced by coning and quartering till 1 Kg of sample is obtained.
(7) 1 Kg of sample is finally powdered (72 mesh) in Raymond will for analysis.
(8) Out of 1 Kg, pulverized fine powdered sample (72 mesh). Two packets of 250 gm samples
are prepared one is referee sample and other is for analysis.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS :
Proximate analysis which comprises determination of moisture, ash, volatile matter
and fixed carbon expressed in terms of weight percentage. This gives quick and valuable
information regarding commercial classification and determination of suitability for a particular
Industrial use.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

A) Determination of moisture on air dried basis :
1) Take about 1.5 gms. Of air dried sample in a weighing dish and spread the coal in a
uniformly thin layer.
2) Put the weighing dish in hot air oven.
3) Heat at temp. of 1080 C -+ 20 C until there is no further loss in mass. This normally takes
about 1.5 to 3 hrs.
4) Express the loss in mass as a % of the total moisture of sample.
100 (M2 – M3)

5) M % (Air dried basis) = —————————
(M2 – M1)
M1 = Mass in gms. Of empty weighing dish plus lid.

M2 = Mass in gms. Of weighing dish with lid plus coal.
M3 = Mass in gms. Of weighing dish with lid plus dry coal.
B) Determination of ash on air dried basis :

1) Weigh a clean dry empty crucible and lid.
2) Weigh accurately about 1.0 gm. Of laboratory sample and spread the coal uniformly in
the crucible.
3) Insert the uncovered crucible into the muffle furnace at room temperature.
4) Raise the temp. to 5000 C in 30 minutes and 8150 + 100 C in further 30 to 60 minutes
and maintain at this temp. for 60 minutes. Cover the crucible with lid and remove from
the muffle furnace and allow to cool for 10 minutes and finally take in a Desicator.
Weigh the mass of ash by difference.
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100 (M3 – M1)
5) Ash % = —————————
(On Air dried basis) (M2 – M1)
M1 = Mass in gms. of empty weighing crucible plus lid.

M2 = Mass in gms. of weighing crucible with lid plus coal.
M3 = Mass in gms. of weighing crucible with lid plus Ash.
UHV Kcal/Kg = 8900 – 138 (M% + Ash %)
C) % Volatile matter (Vm) :

Weigh silica crucible ± 1 gm sample with lid heated at 9100 C in furnace for 7 Minutes.
Then calculate,
% Vm as loss in difference calculated in % - Moisture% = % Volatile matter.
D) Determination of Moisture on Equilibrated Basis :

(At 400 C & 600 C R.H.)
1) Take 4 to 5 gms. coal sample in a clean conical flask/beaker 100 ml. Cap.
2) Pour 20 ml D.M. Water.
3) Heat this mixture on heating pad/Electrical heater, gently Boil it 10 to 15 minutes.
4) Cool the mixture 10 to 15 minutes & filter all the material in next conical flask and
pressing the contain in between filter papers.
5) Take about 1.5 gms. of wet coal in dish and spread it uniform layer.
6) Prepare the H2 SO4 acid having Sp. Gr. 1.280 and transfer it in desiccator. The quantity
of H2 SO4 (Sp. Gr. 1.280) may be 300 ml. to 400 ml. in one desiccator.
7) Put the above petridesh without cover in the desiccator.
8) Close the desiccator & put this desiccator in a humidity oven at 400 C for 72 hrs.
9) Very next day break up the coal lumps & make fine powder & again put in the above
stated oven. Total timing for keeping the desiccator is 72 Hrs. Or till the change in mass
does not exceed the 0.001 gms.
E) After 72 Hrs. analyze the moisture percentage by as usual procedure as stated in air
dry basis & Calculate into percentage.
NOTE : Only Moisture is actually tested on equilibrated basis. All other air dried
values are then converted into equilibrated basis, by calculations as follows :
100 – M2(Eq. M%)

Equilibrated Ash % = ————————————— X A% of air dry basis.
100 – M1 (Air dried M%)
82
100 – M2(Eq. M%)
Equilibrated V.M.% = —————————————— X VM% of air dry basis.
100 – M1 (Air dried M%)
Equilibrated F.C.% = 100 - [Total of M% + Ash% + VM%]
Equilibrated UHV Kcal/kg = 8900 – 138 (M% + ash%)
COMMERCIAL GRADES OF COAL FOR BILLING CALCULATED ON

THE BASIS OF UHV (USEFUL HEAT VALUE)
Equilibrated UHV Kcal/kg = 8900 – 138 (M% + Ash %)
GRADE UHV (Kcal/Kg) Ash % + Moisture %

A > = 6200 19.57
B 5601 - 6200 19.57 – 23.91
C 4941 - 5600 23.92 – 28.69
D 4201 – 4940 28.70 – 34.05
E 3361 – 4200 34.06 – 40.14
F 2401 – 3360 40.15 – 47.10
G 1301 – 2400 47.11 – 55.01
Un / Graded < 1300 55.01
✦✦✦
83
GENERAL CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF AC MOTORS
1.0 The constructional features of some of the main components and assemblies of medium
and large size A.C. induction motors are briefly described here. These have an inherent
interplay with the electrical parameters, environment, application and also specific requirements,
if any. Needless to add that although the Induction Motor is regarded as an electrical machine,
proper attention and care in design of mechanical features are of equal importance to achieve
required performance and greater reliability.
One of the latest concepts in the manufacture of motor is the UNIT TYPE construction.
In this type of construction, the motor is made up of standard modules (units) viz. stator
frame, stator core pack, rotor, cooling unit etc. These units are processed as independent
lines and are finally put together in the assembly stage. This allows for higher degree of
standardization and for reducing the overall manufacturing cycle. The concept is illustrated in
fig. 1.
2.0 STATOR
It consists of stator frame, laminated core and stator winding.
2.1 Frame :
The stator frame is made up of either fabricated MS or of cast iron. It is robust
structure capable of preventing deformation due to large electromagnetic forces that may
occur due to short circuit, internal fault and very high vibrations etc. It is meant to house the
wound stator core, and for fitting the terminal boxes, motor feet, accessories etc. The
fabricated stator frames are machined to high accuracy.
2.2 Core :
The stator core is built from high permeability Low loss high grade pre-coated electro-
technical silicon steel sheet laminations (0.5 or 0.65 mm thick) carefully notched and ground
to remove burrs. These laminations are insulated on both sides to minimize the losses due to
eddy currents. The laminations are built on cylindrical mandrel, which ensures a uniform and
smooth bore for achieving the critical requirement of uniform air gap. The built-up laminations
are held under pressure, pressed hydraulically between two end-pressing plates to form a
compact homogeneous laminated core. It is held in position by steel ribs welded by CO2 gas
welding. The laminated core along with the winding is pressed into the stator frame and locked
against the rotation and axial displacement. In the case of radialy ventilated motors, the
stator core is made up of number of packets separated by radial ducts.
2.3 Winding :
The stator winding of the motors is provided with usually Class-F insulation system
employing Vacuum Pressure Impregnation (VPI) technology. Usually it is a chorded double layer
winding. The insulated coil conductor strip strands consist of high conductivity electrolytic
copper and taped with epoxy mica paper/ fiber-glass tape having high dielectric strength to
provide inter-turn insulation. Completely taped and insulated coils are inserted in the open
374
slots of laminated stator core. The slots are normally closed by nonmagnetic wedges / putty.
The joints between coil to coil and between group, connections are resistances brazed. The
overhang portion of the stator winding are rigidly and adequately braced to the insulated steel
bracing rings fitted to the stator frame by providing string-tied blocks, bandage rings, overhang
packers and nose-blocks, which are impregnated along with winding insulation. The tape used
for bracing have a superior mechanical strength and on curing lends rigidity to the coil overhangs.
For additional sturdity, coils are spaced using padded epoxy spacers and polyester-felt pieces,
inserted between adjacent coils. This ensures a very high rigidity of end winding which has
high resistance to electromagnetic forces, caused by switching surges and short-circuits. For
VPI stators, the bracing ring is in the form of epoxy impregnated glass tapes.
,
3.0 ROTOR
3.1 Shaft :
The rotor consists of rigid shaft, made out of ultrasonically tested steel forging. Shafts
are of high-grade steel (EN8 or other suitable grade) wherein fitting surfaces such as bearing
seals etc, are precision grounds. Strict quality assurance (QA) tests are carried out to ensure
bars are free of faults (such as sub-surface flaws etc.). The shafts are designed and
manufactured to ensure minimum deflections and stress concentrations. The shafts are either
round or ribbed depending upon the size and loading on the machine.
3.2 Core :
The core is built up by using high permeability Silicon Steel, varnish insulated laminations
/ pre-coated Silicon Steel sheet stampings. The rotor core is shrunk fitted directly on shaft or
on the spider arms of steel plates welded to the shaft. While building the cores, cooling ducts
are built by radial spacers for radial ventilated machines. The core is keyed to the machined
shaft. Built-up laminations are hydraulically pressed and are held in position by end plate and
shrink fit collar.
3.3 Winding :
In case of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors, the cage the rotor winding consists of
sectional bars of high conductivity copper or its alloys. The geometry of the cage bars is
designed to suit specific performance requirements. The bars are inductively brazed by means
of Silver Alloy brazing to the short circuiting rings. These bars are firmly seated in the slots of
the rotor core using steel liners. Their tightness in the slots is ensured for long uninterrupted
running of the motor.
For slip ring rotor, winding comprises of insulated bars which are inserted in the rotor
core. The end connections are made using coil clips, which are TIG brazed. Following taping of
end connections and brazing of rotor cable leads, rotor winding overhang is braced. Bracing is
done using resin-rich glass tapes which on curing, prevents flairing of the rotor winding
overhang due to centrifugal forces arising during operation.
4.0 Sliprlng and Brushgear Assembly

In case of wound (slipring) rotor, the sliprings are required to establish the connection
between the rotating rotor winding and the external resistance to be incorporated in the rotor
375
circuit. This is achieved through the stationary brushes in the brush-gear assembly mounted
on the sliprings.
Three numbers of centrifugal cast rings of bronze/cupro-nickel are moulded with epoxy
resin on cast iron bush. The rings are widely spaced to facilitate cleaning and to prevent any
flashovers.
The slipring and brushes used are continuously rated. However, motors with brush-
lifting and short-circuiting arrangement can also be constructed. The brush gears are either
with adjustable or with constant-pressure brush springs. As the name indicates, constant-
pressure type springs do not require any adjustments of pressure. The grade of the carbon
brush is specially selected to obtain trouble free performance.
The slipring and brushgear assembly are enclosed in an enclosure which can be opened
for inspection and maintenance purposes. Normally, the sliprings are of external type (i.e.
mounted outside the ODE endshield). However, motors can be provided with Internal sliprings
like in the case of motors requiring double shaft extension.
5.0 BALANCING :
Rotors are sensitive to residual unbalance, which is a major source of vibration. All
rotors are dynamically balanced at rated speed. The dynamic balancing is done in two stages.
The first stage involves balancing without cooling fans. Subsequently, balancing is done with
cooling fans fitted. In certain cases, particularly for large high speed motors, dynamic balancing
is done in an increased number of stages for achieving lesser residual unbalance and thus
ensuring smooth running of motor during operation with low levels of vibration. Permissible
residual unbalance is ensured as per grade “G 2.5 “of ISO 1940.
6.0 VENTILATION SYSTEM :

The heat energy generated in the windings and core during the operation of the motor
is required to be dissipated effectively to restrict the temperatures within the permissible
limits. This is achieved by efficiently designing the ventilation system in the motor. Generally,
the ventilation systems are of two basic types.
a) Axial Ventilation
b) Radial Ventilation
In some designs, particularly for high speed motors, the ventilation system is a
combination of the above two types.
6.1 Axial Ventilation :

The cooling air is made to traverse the length of the core in air paths parallel to the
shaft axis (Ref Fig.2, 8,10). Ventilation holes running along the length of the core are provided
in both the stator and the rotor cores. For axial ventilation systems, the internal air circulation
is by means of a shaft-mounted fan. Further in this type of cooling, the core pack is continuous.
6.2 Radial Ventilation :

In the case of radial ventilation, the cooling air flows in radial paths created by radial
ducts. The core comprises smaller core packets, each separated by radial spacers (Ref
Fig. 3, 9). The ventilation ducts of both the stator and the rotor are required to match to
376
achieve optimum heat dissipation. Furthermore, to maintain the internal air circuit, the shaft is
designed specially to provide the required axial passages for the cooling air. This is achieved by
means of spider construction of the shaft. Radial ventilation system requires two shaft-
mounted fans, one at either end of the rotor, for internal air circulation.
7.0 ENCLOSURE :
The type of enclosure and the corresponding degree of protection is determined by the
kind of environment and the location of the motor.
The various types of enclosures and their corresponding cooling arrangements are briefly
illustrated below.
7.1 Screen Protected Drip Proof (SPDP) :

The stator frame is either of cast iron or fabricated steel. In axial ventilation system,
atmospheric air is sucked through wire mesh screen from one end by means of a shaft mounted
fan and traverses along the axial cooling vents of the stator and the rotor cores and is finally
expelled at the opposite end. In the case of radial ventilation, air is sucked in through the wire
mesh screens from both ends. (DE & ODE), by means of shaft mounted fans at each end and
after traversing through axial passage through the spider shaft and radial passages through
the core ducts is finally expelled out at right angle to the entry (Ref. Fig 3).
7.2 Screen & Filters (S&F) :

As this is used mainly on larger ratings only, the stator frame is of fabricated type. The
construction involves use of HDPE (high-density Polly ethylene) filters at air inlet and fine wire
mesh screen at the point of air exit (Ref. Fig. 4). The use of the same yields a higher degree of
protection against atmospheric dust particles. Basically, this is similar to SPDP, type with
upgradation, by use of the filters.
7.3 Screen & Filters with Blowers (S&FB) :

This construction is adopted for very large slow speed motors only, for e.g. 4000 kW,
10 P. The arrangement is similar to S&F type as regards inlet and exit of cooling air. However,
to enhance the volume of the cooling air, blower/blowers are mounted in the ventilation box,
which enhances the air quantities sucked into the motor (Ref. Fig. 5). The blowers are required
to be energized by separate motors.
7.4 Double Pipe Ventilated (DPV) :

In this, the stator frame is of cast iron or fabricated type. The difference from SDDP
type is that the cooling air enters and exits via ducts, which are firmly bolted to the flanged
duct openings provided on the motor endshields (Ref. Fig. 6). Generally, air is sucked from
relatively clean environment through filters thus assisting in achieving a good degree of
protection. To account for pressure-drops in the ducts, generally, external blowers are used
at air inlet points thereby ensuring requisite air quantities to the motor.
7.5 Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) :

Generally, the stator frame is of cast iron, though in some cases it may be of fabricated
377
type. External air is sucked in by a shaft-mounted fan through wire mesh and blown over the
stator fins for effecting heat transfer. Thus external air does not enter the enclosure (Ref.
Fig. 7).
7.6 Closed Air Circuit Air Cooled (CACA) :

This is generally of fabricated/cast stator frame. It involves two independent cooling
air circuits and an air-to-air heat exchanger mounted on the motor. Shaft-mounted fans
create both the internal and external air circuits. The external fan (i.e. for external cooling air)
sucks air through a wire mesh screen and forces it through the steel tubes of the heat
exchanger. The internal air flows inside the heat exchanger around the tubes, whereby the
heat transfer takes place through the wall of the tubes. (Ref. Fig. 8,9). The heat exchanger
has a number of passes to increase the area of contact of the internal cooling air to effect
better heat transfer. This also ensures a cross flow with respect to the external air circuit.
7.7 Closed Air Circuit Water Cooled (CACW) :

CACW motor is with fabricated/cast stator frames. Heat transfer is through an air-to-
water heat exchanger, which is mounted on the motor. The heat exchanger consists of a bank
of cooling water tubes through which cooling water flows. The internal air is circulated with
the help of a shaft mounted internal fan. (Ref. Fig. 10). In this enclosure, the internal air is not
contaminated’ by the surrounding air.
7.8 Totally Enclosed Tube Ventilated (TETV) :

Conceptually, this type of cooling Is same as In CACA. However, the difference is in the
construction. The cooler tubes, wherein heat transfer takes place between the internal and
external air, form part of the fabricated stator frame. The tubes are arranged around the frame
in concentric circles. External air is sucked by shaft mounted fan through wire mesh screen.
7.9 Coolers :
Depending on the type of the enclosure or cooling, the cooler may be in the form of an
Air-to-air heat exchanger. Air-to-water heat exchanger, ventilator / filter boxes etc.
7.10 Enclosures for Hazardous Areas :

Amongst the special requirements for motors for operation in hazardous areas, from
constructional aspects, a significant difference is in flameproof motors. This is on account of
the basic principle on which the use of electrical equipment such as Induction Motor is
permitted in hazardous areas.
The principle is that the hazardous atmosphere surrounding the motor is not excluded
from entering the motor and that further, an explosion may occur in the motor. However, the
construction is such that the enclosure (stator frame, endshields etc.) is capable of withstanding
the pressure due to an explosion inside and also prevents the effect of the internal ignition
from passing out to the hazardous atmosphere outside. For achieving this, specific clearances
and lengths in joints have to be maintained (termed as flame paths). The joints are primarily
those in bearing covers, frame to endshields, frame to terminal box, terminal box to covers etc.
Further, depending on the classification of hazardous areas, the lengths of flame path and the
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diametrical clearances are stipulated as per IS 2148.
The basic construction of flameproof motors is similar to TEFC motors wherein the
stator is with cooling fins over which cooling air is blown by the shaft mounted fan. For larger
ratings, TETV,enclosures etc. can be used.
On the other types of construction, viz., type “n” and type “e”, the basic construction
is similar to TEFC, CACA or TETV type (depending on the rating) with additional special
requirements as per relevant IS. Significant amongst these is positive locking arrangement in
the terminals of mains supply and heaters and the clearances between moving and stationary
parts apart from temperature rise restriction.
7.11 Cooling Designation :

Method of cooling is associated with type of ventilation and also with the type of motor
enclosure. IS:6362 lists the different types of cooling and designation of cooling methods.
The designation of cooling for various enclosures mentioned is as given below.
Sr.No. Type of Enclosure Designation for Cooling as per IS 6362

1. SPDP IIC 01
2. DPV (With Blower) IC 37
3. TEFC IC 0141
4. CACA IC 0161
5. TETV IC 0151
6. CACW ICW37A81
8.0 END SHIELDS :

The end shields support the rotor on bearings and protect the winding and other
internal parts of the machine. The end shields of DE & NDE side bearings are in the form of flat
discs and are suitably designed to accommodate bearing capsules for the particular type of
construction.
These are either of fabricated MS or of cast iron.
9.0 BEARINGS :
9.1 Horizontal Motors :
Depending upon the type of machine and the operating conditions, the bearings are
either grease-lubricated rolling bearings or sleeve type journal bearings with or without forced
oil lubrication. In rotating machines, the bearings are used for proper special location of the
rotating shafts. The bearing type and its arrangement is selected and designed to ensure
minimum vibration, deflection and to ensure adequate bearing life. Generally, all bearing
arrangements utilize rigid cast iron or machine weldable steel supports (termed as bearing
housing) for mounting the bearings. These bearing housings are secured/located in the motor
assembly for yielding proper bearing alignment and uniform stator to rotor air gap.
The bearings used are of two types. Rolling type and Plain type / Sleeve type. Depending
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upon rating and speed of motor application, type of coupling, external loads, availability, cost
etc, suitable type of bearings and arrangements are selected for the motor.
In case of machines with antifrictional bearings, most commonly, a deep groove ball
bearing is paired with the cylindrical roller bearing and fitted at one end, preferably nondriving
end, to provide location to the shaft and Roller bearings is fitted on the drivingend side of the
horizontal foot mounted motors. The rolling bearings are fitted with V -type rotating axial shaft
seals. This seal prevents the penetration of dust and water, and extends the life of the bearing
as well as the regreasing intervals.
Generally, vertical flanged mounted motors have Roller bearings on drive-end side and
angular contact ball bearing on non drive-end side. These bearing arrangements are for ‘NO
EXTERNAL THRUST” from driven equipment on the motor. Special bearing arrangements are
provided on ODE side when external thrust is required to be taken by the motor. The Roller
type bearings are lubricated with grease and/or oil. In case, of grease lubricated system. Grease
Relief Valve arrangement is provided as standard on all motors, which allows ‘on-line’ greasing.
9.2 Sleeve Bearings/ Plain bearings :

The sleeve bearings become necessary for applications beyond the capability of
anti-friction bearings, that is, for higher speed loads and other operating conditions. When
correctly maintained, sleeve bearings have practically unlimited service life. Proper monitoring
is essential for observing the lubrication and the specified intervals for oil changing.
Sleeve bearings are normally of floating type. These bearings are housed either in the
endshields or on separate pedestals and are also filled with lubricating oil rings to ensure that
the machine coasts safely to standstill when the bearing oil supply fails. These plain bearings
are used for large rating 2 pole motors, very large motors and in some instances for large
vertical motors required to absorb high magnitude of external thrust. All plain bearings are oil
lubricated. The lubrication system may be of either self or forced lubricated type.
10.0 VERTICAL MOTORS :

The vertical AC motors are provided with either of the following combinations:-
10.1 Top Thrust Bearing :
Rolling bearings : Grease or oil lubricated angular contact ball hearing at the lop and deep
groove ball bearing at the bottom. These bearings are generally suitable for rotor weight only.
Pad type bearings : Oil lubricated pad type thrust and guide bearing at the top and guide
bearing at the bottom. Oil is cooled by water coolers housed in the sump. These bearings are
suitable for taking external downward thrust in addition to the rotor weight of the motor. Pad
type thrust bearings, suitable for both direction of rotation, can also be provided on request.
Top Bracket for Vertical Motors : Top bracket is a steel fabricated construction for pad type
bearings, and houses thrust bearings, oil coolers and oil sump. In case of roller bearings, it
houses the capsule in which angular contact ball bearing is mounted. Top bracket is designed
to keep the deflection to a very low value.
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Bottom Bracket for Vertical Motors : The bottom bracket is also a steel fabricated
construction. It accommodates oil lubricated pad type guide bearing or greased lubricated
rolling bearing.
INSULATION OF BEARINGS :
In rotating electrical machines, inevitably, some magnitude of voltage is induced in
rotor shaft due to the basic phenomenon of cutting of magnetic flux. This inturn, causes flow
of current to earth, the current path being from shaft to bearing, to frame and finally to earth.
In case where induced shaft voltage is high, the relatively higher value of induced current can
cause damages to the bearings by pitting.
Insulating the bearing(s) in motors where induced shaft voltages are high prevents this
phenomenon of bearing damage. From the experiences, motors in which induced shaft voltages
are above 250 millivolts need incorporation of bearing insulation. As an observation it may be
noted that insulated bearing is generally required to be provided for large 2 pole motors and for
higher rating motors using segmental stampings (above 2500 KW). More recently, larger rating
motors for operation with static slip power recovery system are also provided with insulated
bearing. Care therefore should be taken while reassembling the motor after periodic maintenance
to ensure that the bearing insulation is effective.
11 TERMINAL BOX :
Connections from the windings are brought out to the terminal box. For the containment
of high-energy faults in the motor supply terminal boxes itself, a special type of terminal box
termed as PHASE SEGREGATED TERMINAL BOX (PSTB) which has been standardized, is used.
This design minimizes the possibility of a fault and ensures that a line to line fault cannot
develop. The PSTB developed is suitable for fault level of 250 MVA at 3.3 KV, 500 MVA at 6.6
KV and 750 MVA at 11 KV for duration of 250 millisecs / 0.25 sec.. For Flameproof, Increased
Safety and Non-sparking motors, suitable type terminal boxes with special hardwares are
used.
Main terminal box can be provided with suitable gland or glands for entry of one or more
single or multiple core cables in accordance with the specific needs.
It is a usual practice to have star connection for stator winding and take out all the six leads.
This facilitates fault detection and also, incorporation of additional equipment like Current
Transformers for Differential Protection on neutral side, if needed.
Separate Terminal boxes for space healers and Temperature Detectors- for winding as well as
bearings are also provided as per the requirements.
Motors are provided with following types of Terminal Boxes :

11.1 Main Terminal Box :
H.T.A.C.motors generally provided with Phase Segregated terminal box (PSTB), which
has been standardized.
The design minimizes possibility of a fault and ensures that a line to line fault cannot
develop. Cable leads coming from the Stator windings and the intermediate cable leads/supply
cable cores are joined inside the phase separators. Phase separators are made of GRP (Glass
reinforced plastic) / melamine dehydle powder, enclosures located in three separate Steel
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Compartments of the PSTB. The supply cable is connected to the intermediate leads after
separating its individual cores in a Trifurcating box forming part of PSTB. Cable entry normally
possible from the bottom or top.
11.2 Phase Separated Type Terminal box :

Individual cores of the supply cable is taken directly up to Phase Separators and joined
with the cable leads from stator windings
• Filling of compound is not necessary
• This box is suitable for: e.g.
(a) Fault Level : 400 MVA for 0.2 seconds at 6 K V
750 MVA for 0.2 seconds at 11 K V
(b) Supply Voltage : upto 13.8 KV
(c) Cable Size : Above 290-sq. mm.
11.3 Elastimold Connectors :

These are provided when, the fault level capacity specified is 750 MVA for 1 sec.
These connectors are suitable [or supply upto 13.8 kv.]
11.4 Neutral Terminal Box :

This may be PSTB or Non-PSTB as per customer’s requirement. Three leads of stator
winding are brought out and shorted on a bushing to form a neutral point. When Non-PSTB is
used, CTS for differential protection can be housed inside the Terminal box.
11.5 Auxiliary Terminal boxes :

Terminal box for RTD’s in stator winding.
Provided for terminating RTD leads from the stator winding.
Space heater Terminal Box.

Provided for space heaters (anti-condensation) installed inside the motor.
Ternlinal box for RTD’s in bearings.

Provided for terminating the RTD’s leads from the bearing.
12.0 ACCESSORIES / MONITORING DEVICES :

The following monitoring devices are provided to suit the specific customer requirements.
As the term implies, these are the components that can be provided in the motor, if required.
However, incorporation of accessories has following advantages.
• Easier and better monitoring of motor conditions.
• Effective warning system for malfunctioning of vital parts of the motor such as windings
and bearings.
• Facilitates incorporation of interlocks in the system design to prevent misuse.
• Provide feedback mechanism for corrective action and control.
In Induction motors, generally the following accessories are provided when required.
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12.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) :
These are used for measurement of temperature of the following.
• Stator winding, wherein RTD is located between coil sides or between the top coil and the
wedge.
• Core, wherein RTD is located at bottom of the stator slots.
• Bearing, wherein RTD is located in the bearing housing.
• Internal or External Air (in CACA type) wherein RTD is located in the air path.
• Internal or External Water (in CACW type) wherein RTD is located in the water path.
In practice, RTDs are wired to controllers or scanners which give continuous read-out
of temperature and also provide ‘Alarm’ and ‘Trip’ control.
12.2 Positive Temperature Co-efficient Thermistor (PTC Thermistors) :

Thermistors are used as temperature switches that can trigger either ‘alarm’ or ‘trip’
signal at set temperatures. However, temperature read-out is not possible. These Thermistors
are generally used on LT Motors.
Thermistors are used only for protection of windings and are fitted on winding overhangs.
These are required to be used in conjunction with Thermistor controllers.
12.3 Dial Type Thermometers (DTT) :

These are used for monitoring and local indication of temperatures. Commonly mercury-
in-steel type DTTs are used for the measurement of bearing temperature and also of internal /
external air / water, in case of CACA / CACW motors. DTTs are mounted on the motor only and
hence limited to local indication only.
12.4 Tachogenerator (TG) or Speed switch :

These are speed sensitive devices. A TG is either an AC or a DC generator with output
directly proportional to speed. They can be thus used to monitor speed and be incorporated
either as part of feedback corrective system or control mechanism. The TGs are coupled to
the motor shaft on ODE side, when required. Speed switch is used for monitoring the speed
and for providing a locked rotor protection.
12.5 Flowmeter and indicators :

Flowmeters are used to indicate the water / oil flow quantity and indicators are used to
indicate the water / oil flow direction.
Leak Detectors :
These are used to detect the water leakage from the water cooler.
12.6 Earthing:
The stator frame is provided with two earthing terminals/pads. In addition to above,
one more earthing terminal is provided inside the terminal box / cable dividing box, if required.
12.7 Anti-Condensation Heaters :

Heaters of adequate capacity are provided in all motors and terminals are brought out
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to a separate terminal box. The heaters are rated to operate on single phase 230 Volts AC
supply. The heaters should be switched on when the motor is to remain idle for a long period of
time to avoid any condensation of moisture inside the motor.
12.8 Low Noise :

To achieve low noise, following features are normally incorporated: -
• Magnetic Slot Wedges.
• Skewed rotor slots.
• Optimum design of fan and cooling air passages
Sound absorbers / silencers / mufflers at inlet outlet / housing inner surface, are also
employed for further noise reduction.
13.0 INSULATION SYSTEMS USED IN H.T. A.C. MOTORS

13.1 General :
Insulation system is the heart of any electrical machine and as such the operational
reliability of the electrical machine is very much dependent on this aspect. Needless to say
that if the insulation is inferior, the quality of the machine cannot be guaranteed / ensured.
The rate of growth or industrialization imparts an additional emphasis to the need for high
quality insulation for increased reliability of motors. Hence there has been a constant development
in the insulation system of H.T. A.C. motors in respect of introduction of improved materials,
technology and processes.
13.2 Insulation Systems for High Voltage Stator Windings :

In mid sixties motors were designed and manufactured with conventional class B insulation
system based on Thermoplastic Materials using Bitumen/Shellac bonded mica tapes/foliums.
This system served well for many years, but it had some inherent limitations. Some of the
limitations/problems faced in this system are mentioned below:
• Poor slot utilization.
• Undue swelling of the insulation resulting in hollowness.
• Slippage of conductors in stacks, resulting’ in inter turn short and poor dimensional stability.
• Inconsistency in profile.
• Higher failure rate in during manufacturing and testing.
• Excessive body insulation thickness.
• Tendency of moisture oils and water absorption.
• Poor heat dissipation.
• Poor resistance to nuclear radiation.
• With the advancement and development in material science and technology to overcome
the limitations of the above bituminous insulation system. Class “F” insulation system,
based on epoxy was established in mid seventies.
H.T. A.C. MOTORS are usually provided with Class” F” Resin Poor Insulation System employing
VPI process.
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13.3 Salient features of VPI insulation System
! The insulation has better compactness and absence or voids due to complete removal of
air and volatile matters during vacuum regime and complete penetration or resin in the
complete matrix of insulation.
! This system is a highly proven system and has been supported by excellent operational
experiences of the machines.
! This system has better short term as well as long term behavior and reliable operating life.
13.4 Advantages of the Resin Poor Insulation System:

! High withstands capability for switching surges.
! High dielectric and mechanical strength and better heat transfer
! High resistance to moisture and chemically aggressive atmosphere. High Radiation withstands
capability for use in nuclear power station.
! Withstands extremely low temperatures.
! High reliability and long life.
! Suitable for use with vacuum circuit breakers.
14.0 INFORMATION TO BE GIVEN AT THE STAGE OF ENQUIRY AND PLACING ORDER (AS
PER IS – 325)
When inquiring for and ordering an electric motor to comply with this standard following
particulars should be supplied by the purchaser :
1) Site and operating conditions;
2) Reference to this standard, that is, ‘Ref ISS;
3) The degree of protection provided by enclosure; namely IP 54, IP 23 ….
4) Type of duty;
5) Method of cooling;
6) Type of construction and mountings;
7) Frequency in Hz;
8) Number of phases;
9) Mechanical output in K W;
10) Rated voltage and permitted variation;
11) Class of insulation;
12) Speed in revolutions per minute, approximate, at the rated output;
13) Direction of rotation, viewing from the driving ends;
14) Unidirectional or bi-directional of rotation required;
15) The maximum temperature of the cooling air and water in the place in which the motor is
intended to work;
16) Maximum permissible temperature-rise of motor required, if different from this standard;
17) The attitude of the place in which the motor is intended to work if it exceeds 1 (xx) m;
18) If a motor is required to operate between various limits of voltage, current, frequency or
speed,the corresponding values of the voltage, current, frequency and speed, respectively;
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19) System of earthing, if any, to be adopted;
20) Particulars of tests and the place where these are to be carried out;
21) Particulars as to whether voltage-limiting devices will be employed;
22) External Downward thrust; (For vertical motors)
23) Rotor, whether squirrel cage or slip-ring;
24) Details of shaft extension required;
25) Load Details;
GD2 of the load referred to motor speed.
Speed / torque curve of the load.
26) Method of starting to be employed;
27) Breakaway torque in terms of the rated load torque and the corresponding breakaway
starting current which may be drawn from the supply with the starting apparatus in
circuit;
28) Nature of load and any information regarding the driven machine which has a bearing
upon the torque required during the accelerating period;
29) For high voltage motors, fault capacity and duration of the fault to design a suitable
terminal box;
30) Method of drive and type of coupling; and
31) Any specific requirement.
CONCEPT OF UNIT CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 1
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SCREEN PROTECTED DRIP PROOF MOTOR (Axial Ventilation)
Fig. 2
SCREEN PROTECTED DRIP PROOF MOTOR (Radial Ventilation)

Fig. 3
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SCREEN AND FILTER PROTECTED MOTOR
Fig. 4
SCREEN AND FILTER WITH BLOWER MOTOR

Fig. 5
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DOUBLE PIPE VENTILATED MOTOR
Fig. 6
TOTALLY ENCLOSED FAN COOLED MOTOR

Fig. 7
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CLOSED AIR CIRCUIT AIR COOLED MOTOR (Axial Ventilation)
Fig. 8
CLOSED AIR CIRCUIT AIR COOLED MOTOR (Radial Ventilation) (Low Noise)
Fig. 9
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CLOSED AIR CIRCUIT WATER COOLED MOTOR (Axial Ventilation)
Fig. 10
✦✦✦
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PROTECTION OF AC HT / L T & DC MOTORS
1. Protection of A.C. Induction Motor :
The basic philosophy of the Protection System is to protect the equipment/ system
against the different kinds of faults, which can develop externally as well as internally.
The internal faults can occur in the motor due to the break down of the insulation under
overload or short- circuit condition or on account of bearing failure. On the other hand the
external faults generally occur due to single phasing, unbalanced voltage conditions, mechanical
overloading and jamming. It is therefore, of primary importance to have a co-ordinated protective
device to take care of the motors against all these faults and have minimum outage of the
plant.
Various types of motor protection relays incorporating developed over the years. Most
of the protective devices are current dependent type whereas some solid state devices are of
temperature dependant.
a) In general contactors can be used where current to be interrupted is limited to about six
times rated current. The rated current is a little higher than the full load current of the
motor.
b) Direct acting overload trip devices such as thermal overload relay can be incorporated with
the contactor starter. HRC Fuses provide the protection against short circuits. The fuse
selection depends upon starting current. The fuse should blow at currents more than
those, which can be interrupted by the contactor. [Ref. Fig. ( 2 )]
Large motors are provided with various relaying schemes and a circuit breaker. The
circuit breaker is air-break type or oil-break type, vacuum type or SF6 type, Air-break type
circuit-breakers are more popular. The closing mechanisms are manually operated or solenoids
operated or spring closing type. Solenoid closing is suitable for remote controlled motors and
larger motors. Generally overload trip devices operating direct on the tripping mechanisms form
an integral part of the circuit breaker.
HRC Fuses usually protect motors rated upto 1000 V. Motors rated between 660 V and
2200 V are protected by direct acting overcurrent trip device associated with circuit breaker.
Differential protection is applied to motors rated above 3.3 kV, 1500 h.p.
Different kinds of relays and their applications are highlighted below :

1. Instantaneous short circuit relay
2. Thermal overload bimetal relay
3. Earth fault relay
4. Single phasing preventor
5. Thermistor protection relay
i) PTC (Positive temperature co-efficient)
ii) NTC (Negative temperature co-efficient)
6. Differential over current relays
7. Bearing temperature detector
8. Under Voltage Release / Relay
The relay forms the heart of the motor protection circuit. The various factors, which
contribute to a great extent for the proper function of relay, need careful consideration at the
time of design.
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1. Time-current characteristics
2. Effect of ambient temperature
3. Breaking capacity of a relay contact
2.0 Time Current Characteristics

The relationship between the time current characteristics of the relay and the motor is
shown in fig.(1). The relay characteristics must be below the motor characteristics whereas
the fuse characteristics must be above the motor characteristics. The ideal condition is to fix
the characteristic under hot condition. Since it is difficult to set these parameters under hot
conditions as the same being uncertain, it is mostly fix.ed in cold condition. The time
characteristics vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. The various standards have only tied
one end of these characteristics and left the other end free. In accordance with IS 8544 some
relays will operate within 2 hours where as other relays will not act during this time and will trip
only after 2 hours. Therefore the relay selection must ensure that the delay by the relay under
the starting condition is adequate to take care of the starting currents. For correct functioning
the relays must be compensated for ambient temperature. Relays are available with both
compensated as well as uncompensated forms. In locations where the relays are mounted in
the same environment, as motors uncompensated relays would be suitable, since both motors
and relays would go through the same vagaries of temperature.
For remote locations where ambient temperature fluctuates the compensated relays
would be the ideal choice.
The breaking capacity of the relay contact should be so designed that will be able to
break any motor current encountered. This necessarily means that it must be capable to break
all current right upto the blocked motor current. The relay has to be properly co-ordinated
with contactor or circuit breaker for making and breaking the operational current.
3.0 Abnormal Operating Conditions and Causes of Failures in A.C. Induction Motors.
3.1 Three phase induction motors are very widely used for industrial services. The abnormal
conditions can be classified as follows :
1) Mechanical overloads
• sustained overloads
• prolonged starting or locked rotor
• stalling
2) Abnormal supply conditions

• loss of supply voltage
• unbalanced supply voltage
• phase sequence reversal of supply voltage
• overvoltage/ undervoltage
• under frequency
3) Faults in starting supply/ circuit

• interruptions in phases
• blowing of fuse/ single phasing
• short circuit in supply cable
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4) Internal Faults in Motor Itself (Caused by 1, 2, 3 above)
• phase to phase faults
• phase to earth faults
• failure of phase (open circuit)
• mechanical failure.
3.2 The abnormal conditions are summarized below.

Prolonged overloading : It is caused by mechanical loading, short time cyclic overloading.
Overloading results in temperature rise of winding’ and deterioration of insulation resulting in
winding fault. Hence motor should be provided with overload protection.
Single phasing : One of the supply lines gets disconnected due to rupturing of a fuse or open
circuit in one of the three supply connections. In such cases the motor continues to run on a
single phase supply. If the motor is loaded to its rated full load, it will draw excessive currents
on single phasing. The windings get overheated and damage is caused. The single phasing
causes unbalanced load resulting in excessive heating of rotor due to negative sequence
component or unbalanced current. Static single phasing relays are becoming very popular.
Stalling. If the motor does not start due to excessive load, it draws heavy current. It should
be immediately disconnected from supply.
Stator earth faults : Faults in motor winding are mainly caused by failure of insulation due to
temperature rise.
Phase-to-ohase faults : These are relatively rare due to enough insulation between phases.
Earth faults are relatively more likely.
Inter-turn faults : These grow into earth faults. No separate protection is generally provided
against inter-turn faults.
Rotor faults : These are likely to occur in wound rotor motors, due to insulation failure.
Failure of bearing : This causes locking up of rotor. The motor should be disconnected.
Unbalanced suoplv voltage : This causes heating up of rotor due to negative sequence
currents in stator winding.
Supply undervoltage : The undervoltage supply causes increase in motor current for the
same load.
Fault in starter or associated circuit : The choice of protection for a motor depends upon
the size of the motor, its importance in the plant, nature of load.
(Table 1.0 ) gives an idea about the motor protection practice.
4.0 Protection of Low Voltage Induction Motor. (Below 1000 V A.C.)

4.1 Scheme of Starting Circuit
These are most widely used in industrial motors. [Ref. Fig. (3)].
The motor (8) is connected to three-phase supply via the main circuit (shown dark)
comprising (1) Fuse; (2) Isolating switch; (3) thermal relay; (4) Contactor. The auxiliary
control circuit (shown thin) (which carries only control current) comprises (5) control coil, (6)
ON push button usually green normally off (7) OFF push button usually red and normally
closed.
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The operation is as follows :
When push button (6) is pressed by the operator, control coil (5) gets voltage from supply.
The coil current flows through contacts of (6) and (7). The energized coil lifts contactor
(4) and closes Main contacts (R Y B) and auxiliary contact ( C ) . The ON push button (6) is
then shunted by auxiliary contact ( C ). Motor starts.
If motor is to be stopped, OFF button (7) is pressed. The control coil is de-energized.
The contactor opens by spring action and gravity. Motor stops. . If supply voltage
fails, control coil is de-energized and contactor opens.
During overloads, the thermal relay (3) operates and thereby control circuit is internally
disconnected. HRC fuses (1) provide very rapid short circuit protection. Current is cut-off by
HRC fuse even before it reaches prospective peak.
The selection of thermal relay (3) is such that for normal starting conditions, the relay
does not operate. A setting range is provided for adjustment for different variations in load
conditions. It is wrong to go on increasing the setting if the motor trips during starting. The
starter should be selected properly.
Table: 1.0 Protection Chart for Induction Motors

Abnormal Alternate forms of protections Remarks
condition from which choice is made
Overloads - Overload release - Overload protection given for almost all
- Thermal overload relays motors
- Inverse overcurrent relay - Should starting not trip during currents.
- Miniature circuit-breaker with
built in trip coils
Phase faults - HRC fuses - Differential protection becomes
and earth - High-set instantaneous over economical for motors above about
faults current relays 1200 h.p. Below this high set
- Differential protection instantaneous protection is preferred.
Undervoltage - Under voltage release - Under voltage release in corporated
with every starter
- Under voltage relays - Under voltage relay used in certain
applications.
Unbalanced - Negative phase sequence relays - Only in special applications
voltaqe
Reverse phase - Phase reversal protection - Generally at supply point
sequence - Prevents reversal of running.
Single phasing - Usual thermal overload relays - Recently developed static single
phasing devices becoming popular.
- Special sinqle phase preventer - Unbalance protection
Staling - Thermal relays - Instantaneous
- Instantaneous O.C. Relays - trip
Rotor faults - Instaneous overcurrent relays - Only for wound rotor motors
Switching - RC surge modifiers - 100 ohm, 0.1 F connected between
surqes phase and qround
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4.2 Short Circuit Protection by HRC Fuses :
Short circuit protection of motor, connecting feeder and starter requires careful study.
The over load protective device (OLPD) and short circuit protective devices (SCPD) employed
for motor protection shall be well co-ordinated. The range of current between 1.5 to 10 times
rated current is generally termed as overload range. The motor switching device for AC-3 duty
can successfully make and break over-load currents in this range. Fault currents exceeding 10
times the rated current can be considered as short circuit currents and these should be covered
by short circuit protecting devices (SCPD). The SCPD may be in one of the following forms :
• HRC Fuse
• Short circuit release opening the circuit-breaker
• Instantaneous high set overcurrent relay, which trips the circuit-breaker.
By proper selection of short circuit protective devices, it is possible to prevent undue

damage to the motor stator in the event of a short circuit. The back-up protection of circuit
breakers through HRC fuses is now an accepted practice. It enables the use of economical
circuit breakers of low breaking capacity.
The protection of high voltage motor of higher capacity against short circuit in the
stator winding must be ensured quickly. A fast response differential protection is used. The
differential protection relay is connected to current transformers, which are fitted in the
circuit of the main terminals and the star point terminals.
Differential protection compares the currents at the starts and ends of the windings.
On account of short circuit in the winding the currents differ, the resulting differential currents
causes the relay to operate and trips the motor immediately.
4.3 Protection against overloads :

The motor is normally designed to carry the rated full load current for a specific
temperature rise. During the normal operation if the current exceeds the rated current the
temperature exceeds the specified value and damages the insulation. Further unbalance voltage
in the supply causes the temperature rise in the winding and if this state continues for longer
duration the insulation value deteriorate at a faster space. The situation becomes critical
when unbalance voltage is accompanied with negative phase sequence voltage. Under such
condition the negative sequence is almost 6 times that of positive sequence current. Hence
protection system must normally act when the motor exceeds the rated current under sustained
overload condition.
Thermal bimetal overload relays are used to protect the motor against overloads.
Bimetal overloads are normally fitted with contactor or the circuit breaker as built in units. It
can also be separately mounted.
For overload protection Thermistor protection device, are used. Thermistors are of
solid state devices and based on temperature sensing principle.
There are two types of Thermistor.
1) P.T.c. - Positive temperature coefficient.
2) N.T.c. - Negative temperature coefficient.
With rise in temperature in the winding resistance of P.T.C. increases while for N.T.C.
resistance decreases sharply. When the temperature rise exceeds the permissible limits, the
variation of resistance values in PTC/ NTC thermistors would initiate signal to tripping switch
unit, which in turn trips the motor.
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4.4 Bimetal Overload Devices
These are very popular. In case of 3-phase motors triple pole bimetal relays are generally
employed. Bending of one or more bimetal strips causes movement of a common level, which in
turn operates the trip contact in case of, overloads. The bimetal strips are either heated
directly by current flowing through them or by special heater coil through which motor current
flows. In case of bigger motors, they are connected in the secondary circuit of CT’s. Bimetal
relays can usually be set in a certain range. Most of them are provided with additional bimetal
strip to enable ambient temperature compensation. Further, bimetal strips can be self-setting
type or hand resetting type. In the latter, the trip mechanism locks itself in operated condition
until reset mechanically.
While selecting the bimetal-overload devices for motor protection, the following aspects should
be considered.
• Characteristic of relay, characteristic of motor
• Nature of loading
• Type of starting, starting current Protection against overloads Protection against single
phasing.
The overload orotective devices can be arouoed as :

Those which resoond to motor current, e.g. bimetal relays, Eutectic alloy relays,
electromagnetic relays, static relays. These relays open the control circuit of the main contactor
or close the trip of circuit breaker.
Those that resoond to winding temoerature, e;Q” resistor devices embedded in slots,
thermostats, Thermistor etc. Such devices are embedded in slots and serve to supervise the
winding temperature and trip the switching device.
The current sensing overload protecting devices can sense the following abnormal conditions:
1) Overloads undervoltage.
2) Single phasing.
3) Locked rotor, stalling.
4) Heavy starting.
5) Continuous overloads.
6) Heavy breaking.
However, the following conditions can be sensed only by embedded thermal devices :
1) Temperature rise due to higher ambient temperature.
2) Temperature rise due to failure of cooling.
3) Temperature rise due to other causes.
The details about Thermal Overload protection are described below :
The purpose of thermal overload protection is to protect the motor insulation from
excessive thermal stresses. During full load, the temperature of motor winding reaches almost
maximum permissible unit (dependent on insulation class). During abnormal condition, the
temperature exceeds the safe limit and the life of insulation is reduced.
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The temperature of stator winding rises exponentially with time under moderate overloads.
The rate of temperature rise is determined by losses and thermal time constant of the
stator. The heat loss form motor to surrounding air depends upon ambient temperature,
ventilation and design aspects.
The time taken to reach limit of temperature rise and the shape of current time versus
time curve depend on load on the machine. For any machine, the thermal withstand curves
can be drawn for ‘cold’ condition and ‘warm’ condition. The ‘replica type’ thermal relay operates
with a thermal facsimile of motor i.e., the characteristic of such relay is an approximate replica
of motor heating curve.
The relay is compensated for ambient temperature variation so that it can protect
the motor for both cold start and hot start conditions.
The characteristic of replica relay and motor heating curve is plotted on the same
current versus time curve. The relay trips at point where the motor heating curve the relay
characteristic. [Ref. Fig.(4)].
In practice, motor heating curves are not readily available. The thermal time constant
or the motors can very widely (15 minutes to 1 hour). Hence the relay characteristic should be
selected and set suits the protection requirement of particular motor.
The operating conditions resulting in temperature rise should also be considered. If
motor is required for frequent starting, its temperature rise is more rapid.
Referring to Fig.(4), curve A indicates characteristic of motor heating to reach maximum
permissible temperature in 15 minutes for moderate overload (1.3 time full load current.) The
relay will trip according to characteristic B, e.g. for overload of 200%, the relay will trip in less
the 4 seconds. Motor can withstand 200% overload for 4 minutes.
5.0 Protection Against Unbalance

The voltage supplied to three-phase induction motor can be unbalanced due to any of
the following reasons :
• single phase loads on distribution service line
• blown out fuse in power factor correcting plant
• short circuit within or outside the motor the motor
• phase failure by blown fuse. (Single phasing)
The unbalanced voltage itself may not be harmful but the negative sequence currents
caused by unbalanced voltage results in rotating magnetic field revolving in opposite direction.
This filed induces double frequency induced currents in the rotor body and conductors giving
rise to heat due to copper losses. The rotor gets heated and the temperature of motor winding
may reach above safe limit.
The unbalance protection provided to a motor should prevent prolonged unbalanced
condition, but should not disconnect the motor for permissible unbalance of short duration.
The permissible loading depends upon the percentage unbalance and the ratio of positive
sequence impedance to negative sequence impedance.
If unbalance protection is not provided, the motor should be derated to 40 to 60% of
its rated fu II load capacity.
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The unbalance voltage protection can be based upon the following methods :
1. Bimetallic relays arranged to trip faster for unbalanced currents.
2. Single-phase relays sensing overcurrent inn heavily loaded phases.
3. Phase unbalance relays.
6.0 Phase to Phase Fault Protection

The phase to phase fault short-circuit in stator winding causes burn-out of coils and
stampings. Hence the motor should be disconnected from supply very quickly. Fast overcurrent
relays are provided for phase to phase short-circuit protection.
The relays giving short-circuit protection to the motor should not act during starting currents.
The setting of instantaneous overcurrent relays for phase faults should not be below the
starting characteristic of the motor.
Therefore, the short-circuit protection characteristic is set just above the maximum
starting current of the motor.
While switching on the motor, starting current has d.c. Transient and a.c. component.
The overcurrent relay set for short-circuit protection should not operate due to d.c. Component.
To avoid to high setting, it is a usual practice to provide definite time lag of 2 to 4 cycles for
overcurrent protection against phase faults. Thereby, the relay does not operate for initial
high value of D.c. Component. After three / four cycles, value of D.c. Component in starting
current reduces and the relay does not pick-up due to the same. [Ref. Fig.:(6)]
6.1 Limitation of overcurrent Relays :

With higher setting of overcurrent relays starting characteristic, (say above 5to 7times
full load current), the fault current may be less then the pickup value of relay. this can for
happen for phase to phase faults near the neutral point of the star connected motor. Although
the probability such a fault is lass, fault can cause extensive damage as it will not be cleared
instantaneously.
The most sensitive and quiche protection for all phase faults in the motor is possible by
Circulating Current differential Protection the biased differential protection prevents mal operation
due to d.c. Component and CT errors.
Slip Ring Induction Motors : The starting current of slip ring induction motor is limited to
about 1.25 time full load current by means of resistance in rotor circuit. Hence overcurrent relays
set to about 1.4 to 1.6 times full load current provide factory protection against phase faults.
7.0 Overload and Phase Fault Protection of Large Motor :

The characteristics of IDMT relays (inverse definite minimum time) for motor protection
should be matched with the motor heating curve. Thermal protections usually give adequate
protection at light and medium long time overloads but is usually not enough for very heavy
overloads. High-set instantaneous over-load relay do not give adequate protection against
overloads. Hence the schemes of overcurrent protection of large motors include various
combinations of
• Thermal overcurrent relay
• Inverse long time relay
• Instantaneous overcurrent relays (Fig. 7)
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8.0 Overcurrent Protection for Motors*
(Earth fault Relays Considered Separately)
Scheme Relays applied Action (Note 4) Typical Settings
1. 2 thermal over-current Trip or alarm 100% Ir (Note 1)
1 long time ind. over-current Trip or alarm 300-350% Ir (Note 2)
3 Instantaneous over-current Trip above max start I (Note 3)
300 - 350% Ir (Note 2)
2. 2 long time ind. over-current Trip
115-125% IR
1 long time ind. over-current Alarm
above max Ist (Note 3)
2 Instantaneous over-current Trip 125-150% IR (Note 2)
3. 2 long time ind. over-current Trip or alarm above max Ist (Note 3)
2 instantaneous over-current Trip 100% IR (Note 1)
2 thermal over-current Trip or alarm above max Ist (Note 3)
2 instantaneous over-current Trip
* IR is rated (full load) motor current. *Ist is starting current.
* Notes :
1. Replica type relay such as BL-I. Adjustment is change in contact setting. Normal setting
provides operation in 60 minutes at 125% IR. Can be set at 25 minutes at 125% current.
2. Time selected so that operation occurs on locked rotor current but not on motor starting
when starting time is less than locked rotor time. where data are not available, this setting
can be obtained by successive motor starts and advancing the time setting until relay
operation does not occur, then add around 1-5 sec to the relay operating time. Typical
setting might be 10 sec on locked rotor current magnitude. If the relays are used for alarm
only settings are reduced to 115% except where service factors or short time overload
rating exit.
3. It is difficult to determine as D.C. offset currents that may occur particularly when starting
large motors. Setting is best obtained by successive starts to determine the no operation
setting and then increasing pick-up approximately 10%. Typical settings might be required.
This may be 12 to 15 times rated motor current.
4. Decision to trip or alarm depends on emphasis placed on service continuity and motor
protection. For essential motors of powerhouse auxiliaries (where failure would cause
shunt-down of generating capacity) alarms are frequently used so that operator can take
corrective measures to avoid shutdown or transfer generation before shutdown.
5. Replica type relay attempts to duplicate on a small scale within the relay operating unit,
the heating characteristic of the motor. The current from CT secondary passes through
relay and its characteristic approximately parallel that of the machine as illustrated in
(Fig. 7). The BL-I relay has two spiral-wound bimetallic springs one is actuated by the
heat produced by the applied current while the other by the ambient temperature surrounding
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the relay. This provides ambient temperature compensation so that relay operates on the
time current curve approximately independent on the temperature of the air surrounding
the relay.
The BL-I relay is available with one or two thermal overload units with instantaneous trip
attachments for applications.
9.0 Protection against earth fault :

Continued earth fault leads to short circuit fault. Breaking or puncture of insulation in
the windings creates the earth fault, which gradually develop into short circuit and damages
the motor. Unless earth fault relay is provided in the motor circuit the earth fault will not be
detected and would continue to sustain-in the winding. A permissible leakage current should
be allowed. Beyond this value the relay should operate. The earth fault is detected by the
residual current in the three-CT Circuit and tripping signal is delayed by a time lag to take care
of the equal transformer inrush current on switching “ON”.
Earth-fault protection is set to disconnect the motor from supply as early as possible
so that the damage to windings and laminations are minimum.
Zero Sequence current Transformer (ZSCT) or core balance type protection is very
convenient method of protection of motors from earth-fault (Fig.8). This method is especially
suitable for system neutral earthed through resistance. In such systems, earth-fault currents
are so low (due to resistance earthing) that phase overcurrent relays cannot be set to pick-
up for earth faults.
Where the supply source is earthed, an inverse, very inverse, or instantaneous induction
type relay is connected in the current transformer neutral. These sources usually have neutral
impedance to limit the ground current so that sensitive ground relay settings are required.
Typical settings are 1/5 of the minimum fault current for a solid fault at the machine terminals.
Time dial setting around 1 are used which give operations of 4-5 cycles at 500% pick-up.
Occasionally the high in-rush current of direct on-line starting of large motor will cause
the ground relays to operate. This results from unequal saturation of the current transformers,
which causes a false residual current in the secondary or relay circuits. Two instead of three-
phase relay or different setting among the three phase relays tend to increase the effect.
As a thumb-rule, no trouble should occur if the phase burdens are limited so that the
voltage developed by the current transformer during starting is less than 75% of the 10 P
accuracy rating of the current transformer. A practical solution to prevent relay operation is to
increase the ground relay burden by using a lower tap. This forces all three transformers to
saturate more nearly together and effectively reduce the false residual current. An alternate
solution is to connect a resistor or reactor in series with the ground relay (earth-faults relay).
The trend in 3.3 to 11 kV sub-stations and industrial power systems is towards higher
neutral impedance and appreciably less ground fault current. This increases the problem of
obtaining a very sensitive relay setting that will not operate on the false residual current of
the starting inrush. This is best solved by using a window type current transformer, which has
a single secondary winding surrounding all three conductors. This eliminates the false residual
and permits applying a very sensitive instantaneous earth-fault relay. An alternative is to use
a directional overcurrent relay with the current of voltage polarizing coil connected in the
ground source neutral or across the neutral resistor.
10.0 Protection against Single Phasing (Phase failure)

It is a well-known fact that failure of motor due to Single Phasing is very common. This
401
happens when the protective system, such as fuses fails. For 3 phase motor, if one of the
fuses blows, the motor still operates and higher current flows in the healthy phases. Under
normal condition, the thermal bimetal relay should operate but sometimes it may happen that
these relays do not trip and due to the heavy current going in the phases, the motor burns.
There are several other causes for the occurrence of the Single Phasing :
i) Unbalanced voltage of the supply system
ii) The discontinuity in one line of the circuit breaker at the termination end or at one Pole of
a switch or contactor.
There are various current sensing and voltage sensing devices. Normally protectors
against overload conditions to be taken care of by relay or by using a differential slide relay.
Single Phasing can be best handled by P.T.C. Thermistor embedded in the motor winding.
A 3-phase induction motor continues to run even if one of the supply lines is
disconnected. The whole power is then supplied through the to tow windings and they are
likely to get overheated. the single phasing causes unbalanced stator currents. The negative
sequence component of unbalanced current causes heating of rotor and temperature rise. For
small motors, separate protection against single phasing is generally not necessary as the
thermal relays sense the increased current in healthy phases due to single phasing and
thereby offer adequate protection.
In case of large motors (say 50 HP and above) even a modest unbalance can cause
damage of motor winding due to overheating. Further, if motor is stalled due to loss of one
phase, severe damage to rotor is possible while starting. Therefore, a separate single phasing
protection is desirable.
Single phasing is extreme unbalanced condition for a three-phase motor. Such a condition
can be caused by blowing of fuse in the supply circuit or due to improper contact in a switch
or a contactor.
During single phasing, the current in healthy phases increases by v3 times. This increases
the heating in motor windings. The unbalanced stator currents have a negative sequence
component this component causes magnetic flux rotating in opposite direction to the main
flux. Thereby double frequency currents are induced in rotor body and rotor conductors. Rotor
heating caused by these currents is very high. This heating is not detected by replica type
thermal relays protecting the stator winding. Hence single phasing causes major damage to
motor rotor. The phase over current relays acts slowly. Hence it cannot give instantaneous
protection against single phasing.
In some applications like elevator motors, where it is dangerous to eliminate plugging,
inching and reversing, the motor should be disconnected instantaneously when single phasing
occurs. The phase unbalance relays are provided for large motors but they are with time lag
depending upon magnitude of unbalance.
Single phasing preventers are used for small motors. These are connected to secondary
of line CT’s. These contain a negative sequence filter. The output of the negative sequence
filter is fed to a level detector [Fig.(5)], which sends tripping command to the starter or
circuit breaker when the negative sequence current exceeds a pre-set limit.
11.0 Phase Reversal Relay

The direction of rotation of induction motor depends upon the phase sequence of the
supply voltage. Phase reversal occurs when the supply connections are changed after repairs.
Assuming after the repairs ( at local load point or supply sub-station) the phase sequence of
402
supply is reversed the motor will run in wrong direction. In some applications, phase reversal is
dangerous, e.g. elevators, cranes, hoists, trams etc. In such application phase reversal relays
should be provided. The phase reversal may be provided at main incoming substation of
industrial works.
The phase reversal relay based on electromagnetic principle comprises a disc motor
driven by magnetic system actuated by secondaries of two line CT’s or VT’s.
For correct phase sequence (RYB) the disc exerts torque in positive direction so as to
keep the auxiliary contacts closed. When phase reversal taken place, the torque reverses and
the disc rotates in opposite direction to open the contacts. Thereby the magnetic coil of
starter can be de-energized or circuit broker can be tripped. The solid-state phase reversal
relays and phase failure relay senses the phase reversal or phase failure. Under abnormal
condition it sends tripping command to output stage (which is a auxiliary relay or static device).
12.0 Protection against over voltages

During the switching on of the motor, over voltage is generated in the system due to
various conditions including the operation of the Switchgear. Switching over voltage generated
in the system due to interaction of the switching device, the load and network connected are:
a) Surges at making
i) due to natural transient
ii) due to irregular making of phase
iii) due to prestrikes
b) surges at breaking
i) due to current chopping
ii) due to multiple re-ignition
iii) due to virtual current chopping
The magnitudes of over voltages, on account of interrupter of starting current of

motors have been recorded exceedingly high valve. It is in the range of 7-times the rated
voltage, whereas normal value indicates 5 to 6 times. If this overvoltage occurs for a number
of switching operations, the insulation of the winding get damaged rapidly and motor ultimately
get failed. Therefore the motor should be protected against overvoltages by providing surge
absorbers of non-linear resisters connected across the motor terminal. The provision of surge
arrestors depends upon the rating of the motor and the voltage class.
13.0 Faults in rotor Winding

In slip-ring induction motor, rotor faults are possible. The increase in rotor current is
reflected on current and the stator over-current protection can thereby act. The setting of
stator overcurrent relay is generally of the order of 1.6 time full load current. This is enough to
detect the rotor faults.
Inter-turn Faults : Inter-turn faults are difficult to be, detected. The method adopted for
generator stator winding interterm faults can be adopted for motors. But it is too complex and
is not practicable.
403
Grounding or earthing : In low voltage circuits the neutral point of supply should be earthed.
In ungrounded systems a single to ground fault on one line causes increase in voltage
of healthy lines with respect to neutral by 3 times. This can damage motor insulation. To avoid
this, the neutral point of supply should be earthed at every voltage level. Cascade failure /
tripping of motors can occur if supply neutral is not earthed.
16.1 Protection for Armature Voltage :

D.C. Motor with thyristor drives is widely used for extended range of speed control
through the variation of armature voltage. Hence motor voltage is kept under control and is
not allowed to exceed the specified limits by adjusting the firing angle of the thyristors to its
minimum position. This in turn prevents the hunting of the motor. The armature overvoltage is
generally associated with speed control mechanics & may occur under the following conditions:
i. Loss of Control on the armature controller
ii. Loss of Control on the field controller when the motor operators at high speed in weakened
field condition.
The effect of the overvoltage is harmful to the commutator, since overvoltage causes
flashover and sparks in the Commutator segments.
In order to prevent this flash over, the D.C. voltage is compared with a set reference
and control action takes place once the reference value exceeds. The motor voltage monitors
the voltage controller to see that it keeps the motor voltage proportional to the speed.
16.2 Armature Current :

When the motor operates under rated conditions it draws the full load current. If there
is overload the motor draws higher current than the normal and speed of the motor drops down.
To prevent overloading of the motor, the thermal overload protection is equipped with
the contactor or circuit breaker. For sustained overload, which is generally 10 to 15% higher
than the full load, the overloading protection should operate.
16.3 Protection against overload :

The bimetal thermal overload relay protects the motor against thermal stress. In case
of overload the current exceeds the setting value of the relay and trips the circuit as per the
relay characteristics. C.T. operated relays are employed on A.C. side of the thyrister converter.
Current setting should be fixed after considering the multiplication factor 0.8 -16 for 3-phase
converter. The relay time-current characteristics can also be simulated through electronics.
16.4 Protection against instantaneous overcurrent :

During normal operation armature current remains within the set value. If short circuit
occurs due to internal or external faults the heavy current will take place. This will result the
retardation of firing pulses of thyristor consequently AC/DC side Switchgear is tripped. If
current exceeds the set value of 3 times the rated current of the motor, high response fuses
will blow.
The thermal overload protections on the line side have a time constant adapted to the
thyristor bridges. While that on the machine side has a time constant adapted to the motor.
The differential current protection indicates any deviation in the current in any of the four
bridges due to the blowing of a fuse of incorrect control.
404
16.5 Motor speed :
The protection against an over speeding of the motor is essential. The over speed of
the motor can occur under following conditions:
1. Loss of speed sensing.
2. Voltage feedback
3. Reduction of excitation in the field circuit particularly in the extended range for attaining
the maximum speed.
For overspeed protection the conventional method is to have a mechanical switch.
This works on the principle of centrifugal force and operates whenever the speed exceeds the
maximum limit and provides impulse to the trip circuit for switching off.
The recent method is to use electronic device. The tachogenerator picks up the signal
from the motor and compares with reference value and is fed to the armature which is cut off,
if overspeed is sensed. In case the signal is not available through tachogenerator or lost the
drive is either tripped or switched over to voltage feedback mode.
Further speed monitor which consists of an over speed protection. It checks the
voltage and frequency to see whether they correspond to one another while with the latter it
is feasible to detect any error in the feedback.
16.6 Locked Rotor or Stalled Rotor

The protection equipment should incorporate the provision against the stalled rotor
condition. When the load is too high the motor is unable to pick up the desired speed and stalls
for sometime till it completely halts. During this condition some segments of the commutator
continues to carry the current and are likely to get damaged. Overload relay will not act
instantly. Electronic circuitry has to be developed for the stalled condition, based on actual
speed j speed desired or armature current greater than zero. Under these conditions circuit
will offer a trip command to the system.
For locked rotor a high current flow will pass through the armature. This can be
protected by over current protection.
16.7 Bearing Protection

Bearing Protections are not normally provided for small motors, as it is difficult to
provide space for hearing temperature detectors. However, thermistors can be used for bearing
protection in similar manner as they are embedded in the motor windings for sensing the
temperature rise. Depending upon the type of thermistors, PTC or NTC resistance character of
these thermistors will vary.
The variation of resistance will provide signal, which if necessary will be amplified by
transistor and this offer command to the tripping switch for further action.
For large rating of DC motor the temperature detectors are employed which are also
provided with contacts for local and remote tripping.
16.8 Protection for forced cooling (Ventilation System)

For wide speed control the DC motors are normally provided with separate ventilation
system. These ventilators are either built-in type or separately mounted. In either case the
ventilator motor should be protected by starter with built-in protective device. Similarly for
separately excited DC motor care should be taken to ensure that field supply is not lost.
405
16.9 Protection of Thyristors / SCR
Thyristor converters are widely used to achieve a wide speed regulation for various
industrial loads. Hence to ensure the reliable operation of the thyristors protection system
must be incorporated alongwith DC motors. If for any reason the thyristors become inoperative
the whole process will be disrupted. The related parameters of thyristor j SCR devices need
the protections as below :
i) The hole storage protection : It is given by R-C network connected across the device.
For special application it is desired to have a special circuits to cope the problem.
ii) The heat sink temperature sensing : This equipment protects the device from excess
junction temperature. Since heat dissipation is the effective method of heat sink it is
better to use an airflow sensor when the thyristor is force cooled.
iii) The surge protection : It is achieved by providing a star connected R-L-C filter on the
a.c. input terminals of the thyristor converter. This can act as di/dt and dv/dt protection
for the devices.
iv) Single phasing protection : It generally occurs when one of the high response fuses
blow off. Similarly phase sequence reversal may also cause the same effect. Under such
circumstance. it is dangerous to keep the converter working specially when the auxiliary
system cannot work with the sequence reversed.
v) Earth fault protection : It can also be ensured through the use of high response fuses,
since their let through. It is very, low compared to same rating of HRC fuses. A shoot
through fault normally occurs in a drive when a missing pulse or drop in supply or on
account of dv / dt rates going down. This may result in, the damage of thyristors or
blowing of high response fuses. The fuse blowing can be prevented by using a high-speed
breaker. The precaution needed is that [2 t value of breaker must be kept lower than
that of high response fuse and the thyristor [2 t characteristics should be maintained
above the preaching characteristic of the fuse.
vi) Under voltage protection : The supply system has a voltage variation of :I: 10% on
the rated value. Undervoltage may result the non-satisfactory or malfunction of the
operation. Undervoltage relay can be incorporate in the system or an electronic comparator
with relay circuit, may solve the problem.
The satisfactory operation of the DC motor with thyristor depends to a great extent on
the behavior of load. Hence, the protection of the load in relation to its overspeed or load
sharing must be given due importance.
17.0 Summary
The protection of motor is normally provided along with stator or Switchgear. Contactor,
starters or circuit breakers are used for motor switching. Thermal relays are provided for
overload protection, single phasing protection. This protection is provided by fuses or
instantaneous relays. Protection against unbalanced supply voltage is provided by negative
phase sequence relays.
H.R.C. fuses are for short circuit protection of motor. They should be co-ordinated with
overload relays.
Abnormal condition in motor includes- faults, under voltage, single phasing, Unbalanced
voltages, overloads etc.
406
Fuse characteristic
TIME
Motor characteristic
Relay
characteristic
CURRENT Fig. (1)
Fig. (2) : The fuse provide S.C. protection thermal relay provide overload protection
407
Fig. (3) : Circuit of magnetic contactor starter, for low voltage induction motor.
MINUTES LOG SCALE
REPLICA RELAY
CHARACTERISTIC
15 MINUTE THERMAL
WITHSTAND CURVE OF LOAD
OPERATING TIME
Fig. (4) : Explaining characteristic of Induction Motor Heating and Replica Relay
408
Fig. (5) : Connections of single phasing preventer
Fig. (6) : Starting characteristic of squirrel cage induction motor co-ordinated

with over-current relay for phase faults.
409
Fig. (7) : Typical motor and relay characteristics
✦✦✦
Fig. (8) : Connections of core balance CT (Zero Sequence CT)

for earth-fault protection of motor
✦✦✦
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GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION DETAILS (210 MW)
1. Introduction :
An electrical generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy (or power) into
electrical energy (or power). Energy conversion is based on the principal of the production of
dynamically (or motionally) induced emf. Whenever conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically
induced emf is produced in it according to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction. This
emf causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are 1) A Magnetic field & 2)
A Conductor or Conductors (armature) which can so move as to cut the flux. Generators are
A.C. or D.C. the device in which electricity is generated by keeping the magnetic field stationary
and armature rotating is called D.C. generator and the device in which electricity is generated
by keeping the armature (conductor) stationary and magnetic field rotating is called A.C.
generator. In the case of A.C. generators standard construction consists of armature winding
mounted on stationary element called stator and field windings on a rotating element called
rotor. The details of construction are as elaborated ahead.
1) Stator : consists of Body/Frame, Core, Winding, Distillate Header, Terminal Bushing,
End shield, gas coolers etc.
2) Rotor : consists of shaft, winding, wedges, retaining ring, fans, field leads, slip ring &
bush gear.
2. STATOR
2.1 STATOR BODY :
The stator body with core and stator winding form the heaviest component of the
entire Turbogenerator. The active parts to be accommodated and the forces and torque
arising during operation call for a rigid and strong stator shell. Moreover, it is designed to
withstand high internal pressure, which may arise due to unlikely event of explosion of hydrogen
air mixture without any residual deformations.
Stator body is a totally enclosed gas tight fabricated structure made up of high quality
mild steel and austenitic steel. It is suitably ribbed with annular rings called inner walls to
ensure high rigidity and strength. The arrangement, location and shape of inner walls is
determined by the cooling circuit for the flow of gas and the required mechanical strength and
stiffness and side walls are suitably blanked to house four longitudinal hydrogen gas coolers in-
side the stator body.
PIPE CONNECTIONS :
The water connection to gas coolers is done by routing stainless steel pipes inside the
stator body which emanate from bottom and emerge out at side walls. These stainless steel
pipes serve as inlet and outlet for gas coolers. From side wall these are connected to gas
coolers by means of eight U-Tubes outside the stator body. For filling the generator with H2, a
perforated manifold is provided at the top inside the stator body. The feed and vent terminating
flanges for Hydrogen, carbon dioxide and air are provided at the bottom of stator body.
Manhole is provided at the bottom to inspect inside of the generator if required.
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TERMINAL BOX :
The beginnings and ends of three phases of stator winding are brought out to the slip
ring end of the stator body and brought out through 9 terminal bushings in the terminal box.
The terminal box is a welded construction of (non-magnetic) austenitic steel plates. The
material eliminates stray losses due to eddy currents. Which may result in excessive heating.
The terminal box is a welded construction of (non-magnetic) austenitic steel plates.
This material eliminates stray losses due to eddy currents, which may result in excessive
heating.
JACKING & DRAGGING PROVISION :

Suitable jacking points are provided on stator body. Provision is also made for dragging
the completely wound stator. The dragging provision is optional and achieved by welding a
cradle plate on the sole of stator body.
TESTING OF STATOR BODY :

On completion of manufacture of stator body, it is subjected to a hydraulic pressure of
8 kg/cm2 for 30 minutes for ensuring its withstanding capability to all explosion pressure that
might arise on account of hydrogen air mixture explosion.
Complete stator body is then subjected to gas tightness test by filling in compressed air.
2.2 STATOR CORE :

A rotating magnetic flux threads with the core. In order to minimize the magnetizing
and eddy current losses in the active portion of the stator, the entire core is built up of thin
laminations. Each lamination layer is made up of a number of individual segments. The segments
are stamped out from sheets of cold rolled high quality silicon steel. Before insulating with
varnish each segment is carefully deburred. The core is stacked with lamination segments in
individual layers. The segments are assembled in an interleaved manner from layer to layer so
that a monolithic core of high mechanical strength and uniform permeability to magnetic flux is
obtained. The stampings are held in position by twenty core bars having dovetail section.
Insulating paper pressboards are also put between the layer of stampings to provide additional
insulation and to localize short circuit that may occur due to failure of varnish insulation of
sheet stamping. To ensure tight monolithic core the stampings are hydraulically compressed
during the stacking procedure at different stages when a certain heights of stack are reached
forming different pockets. Between two packets one layer of ventilation segments is provided.
The steel spacers are spot welded on stamping. These spacers form ventilating ducts from
where the cold hydrogen from gas coolers enters the core radially inwards there-by taking
away the heat. The pressed core is held in pressed condition by means of two massive non-
magnetic steel castings of press ring. The pressure of press ring is transmitted to stator core
stampings through press fingers of non-magnetic steel and duralumin placed adjacent to press
rings. The non magnetic steel press fingers extend up to the tip of stamping teeth so as to
ensure the firm compression of the teeth part of the core portion too. The stepped arrangement
of the stampings towards the bore at the two ends provides an efficient support of tooth -
Portion and contributes to a reduction of eddy current losses and local heating in this range in
addition to the provision of more area of cross section for gas flow. To avoid heating of press
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rings due to end leakage flux two rings made of copper sheet are used as flux shield. To
monitor the formation of hot spots, resistance temperature detectors are placed along the
bottom of slots.
CORE SUSPENSION :
The revolving magnetic field exerts pull on core, resulting in a revolving and nearly
elliptical deformation of the core, which sets up a stator vibration at twice the system
frequency known as double frequency vibrations. Generator core, is spring mounted in the
stator frame to dampen the transmission of double frequency vibrations to the foundation.
The elastic suspension of core consists of, longitudinal bar type springs called core
bars. Twenty core bars are welded to inner walls of stator body with the help of brackets.
These core bars provide radial and tangential isolation from magnetic vibrations of stator core.
These are made up of spring steel having a rectangular cross section and dove tail cut at top.
Similar type of dovetail is also stamped on to stampings and fit into that of core bar dovetail,
thus offering a hold point for stampings. Core bars have longitudinal slits that act as inertial
slots and help in damping the vibrations. Apart from this uniform distribution of forces is also
achieved by putting a spring steel tape all around the core bars.
2.3 STATOR WINDING :

GENERAL :
The stator has a three phase, double layer, short pitched and bar type of windings
having two parallel paths. Each slot accommodates two bars. The slot lower bars and the slot
upper bars are displaced from each other by one winding pitch and connected at their ends so
as to form coil groups.
CONDUCTOR CONSTRUCTION :
Each bar consist of solid as well as hollow conductors with cooling water passing
through the latter. An alternate arrangement of hollow and solid conductors ensures an optimum
solution for increasing current and to reduce losses.
The conductors of small rectangular cross section are provided with glass lapped
strand insulation. These are arranged side by side in two layers. The individual layers are
insulated from each other by a separator in the straight slot portion the strands are transposed
by 3600 to reduce the eddy losses.
The transposition provides for a mutual neutralization of voltages induced in the individual
strands due to the slot cross field and end winding field and ensures that no circulating
currents will arise.
To ensure that strands are firmly bonded together and to give dimensional stability in
slot portion, a layer of glass tape is wrapped over the complete stack. After that the stack is
pressed and cured in steam heated hydraulic press.
Prior to applying the bar insulation, overhang on both ends of bar is formed as an
involute in hydraulic press. Coil lugs for electrical and water connections are brazed at both ends.
Bar insulation is done with epoxy mica thermosetting insulation. This insulation is void
free and possesses better mechanical properties.
The bar insulation is cured in a electrically heated press and thus epoxy resin fill all
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voids and eliminate air inclusions. The insulation is highly resistant to high temperatures and
temperature changes. The composition of the insulation and synthetic resin permits the machine
to be operated continuously under conditions corresponding to these for insulation class ‘B’.
CORONA PREVENTION :
To prevent corona discharges between insulation and the wall of the slot, the insulation
in slot portion is coated with semiconducting varnish. At the transition from slot to over hang
winding a stress grading varnish is coated to ensure a uniform control of the electric field and
to prevent the formation of creepage sparks during operation & during high voltage test.
In the course of manufacture the bar is subjected to a number of tests to ensure proper
quality. The various test which are performed are –
a) Inter turn insulation test on stack after consolidations to ensure absence of interturn
short.
b) Each bar is subjected to hydraulic test to ensure the strength of all joints.
c) Flow test is performed on each bar to ensure that there is no reduction in cross section
area of the ducts of the hollow conductor.
d) Leakage test by means of air pressure is performed to ensure gas tightness of all joints.
e) High voltage test to prove soundness of insulation.
f) Dielectric loss factor measurement to establish void free insulation.
LAYING OF STATOR WINDING :

The stator winding is placed in open rectangular slots of the stator core which are
uniformly distributed on the circumference. After laying top bar, slot wedges are inserted.
Below slot wedges, high strength glass textolite spacers are put to have proper tightness. In
between top and bottom bars, spacers are also put. These measures prevent vibrations that
may be set up by the bar currents.
2.4 END WINDING :

In the end winding, the bars are arranged close to each other. Lower layers of bars are
braced with terelyne cord with binding ring as well as with adjacent bars. Upper layer is also
braced in a similar manner. These are fixed with epoxy glass ring made in segment and flexible
spacer put in between the two layers. After laying, varnish is added on terelyne cord. After
that varnish is cured to have solid bracing.
Bus bars are connected to bring out the three phases & six neutrals. These bus bars
are connected with terminal bushings. Both are water cooled, connection is made by brazing
the two lugs properly.
2.5 ELECTRICAL & WATER CONNECTION :

Putting copper ferrule over the two limbs of coil lug makes electrical connection between
top and bottom bar. In between, copper wedges are inserted and then soldering is done. After
that joint is subjected to ultrasonic testing.
Water connection on Exciter side is done by simply connecting copper tube in two lugs.
On turbine side, each lug is connected through a teflon hose to inlet/outlet header. Bus bars
and the terminal bushings are also provided with water connections by copper tubes.
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2.6 DISTILLATE HEADER :
Ring type water headers, made of copper are provided separately for distillate inlet and
outlet in the stator on turbine side. The headers are supported on insulators and isolated from
stator body. The end connection of top and bottom bar is done by putting copper ferrule over
the two coil lugs and then soldered to have solid joint. Connecting a copper tube to the two
opening of lugs at exciter ends does the water connection. At turbine side, each individual bar
is connected with inlet/outlet headers by P.T.F.E. hoses.
Fibermoulded covers filled with putty insulate the bar heads.
The complete water path is subjected to rigorous hydraulic and pneumatic tests at
various stages to ensure water tightness and to detect blocking of the flow paths.
The vent pipe connections are provided at the top of both inlet and outlet header to
expel air during filling these headers with distillate. These vent pipes can be connected to gas
trap device if provided, to measure the extent of hydrogen leaking into water circuit.
2.7 TERMINAL BUSHING :

Three phases and six neutral terminals are brought out from the stator frame through
bushings, which are capable of withstanding high voltage, and provided with gastight joints.
The bushings are bolted to the bottom plate of the terminal box, with their mounting flanges.
The terminal box that is welded underneath the stator frame at exciter end is made of non-
magnetic steel to avoid admissible temperature rise.
The conductor of the bushing is made of high conductivity copper tube on which silver
plated terminal plates are brazed at both ends. A copper pipe is connected to circulate water
for cooling. The terminal bar conductor is housed in porcelain insulator which can be mounted
on the terminal box by means of ring.
The bushing is connected to terminal bus bar by means of flexible copper leads for
making the electrical connections conveniently.
2.8 END SHIELD :

To make the stator body gas tight at the two ends, two end shields are fitted with the
help of bolts. Gas tightness is achieved by putting a rubber sealing cord.
The end shields are made up in two halves for convenience during erection and
inspection. To avoid leakage of gas through the split surface rubber sealing is put between
two halves of end shields.
A chamber is provided near the internal diameter to collect oil which might enter from
shaft seal. This chamber is connected to liquid leakage Detector which gives an alarm for
presence of any liquid.
Aluminum alloy casting of fan shield is supported on end shields to direct the gas flow
from the propeller fan. Shaft seal and oil catcher are also mounted on end shields.All end
shields of Turbogenerators are tested hydraulically for checking the strength of weld seams.
3. ROTOR :
The rotor comprises of following components
1. Rotor shaft
2. Rotor winding
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3. Rotor wedges & other locating parts for winding
4. Retaining ring
5. Fans
6. Field lead connections
3.1 ROTOR SHAFT

The rotor shaft is long forging measuring more than 9 meters in length and slightly more
than one meter in diameter. The main constituents of the steel are chromium, molybdenum.
nickel, and vanadium. The shaft and body are forged integral to each other by drop forging
process. Following tests warrant adherence to the specified mechanical and magnetic properties
as well as a homogeneous forging.
1) Mechanical tests
2) Chemical Analysis
3) Magnetic permeability test
4) Micro structure analysis
5) Ultrasonic Examination
6) Boroscopic Examination
On 2/3 of its circumference approximately, the rotor body is provided with longitudinal
slots to accommodate field windings. The slots pitch is selected in such a way that two solid
poles displaced by 180 are obtained.
The rotor with all its sub assemblies mounted over it is dynamically balanced to a high
degree of accuracy and subjected to 20% over speeding for two minutes.
3.2 ROTOR WINDING :

The field winding consists of several coils inserted into the longitudinal slots of the
rotor body. The coils are wound around the poles so that one north magnetic pole and one
south magnetic pole are obtained on shaft.
COPPER CONDUCTOR :
The conductors are made of hard drawn silver bearing copper. Apart from low electrical
resistance this grade exhibits high creep resistance so that coil deformations due to thermal
cycling due to start and stop operation are minimum.
INSULATION :
Layer of glass laminates insulates the Individual turns from each other. This laminate is
built by glass prepeg strips on the turn of copper and baked under pressure and temperature
to give a monolithic interturn insulation. The coils are insulated from rotor body by U- shaped
glass laminate moulded slot troughs made from glass cloth impregnated with epoxy varnish. At
the bottom of slot D Shaped liners are put to provide a plane seating surface for conductors
and to facilitate easy flow of gas from one side to another.
The overhang windings are insulated from retaining ring by two layers of retaining ring
segments having L shape and made of glass cloth impregnated by epoxy resin.
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COOLING OF WINDING
The rotor winding are cooled by means of direct cooling method of gap pickup method.
In this machine there are zones which result in multijet flow of hydrogen exposing large
amount of rotor winding copper to the cooling medium thus creating very effective cooling and
enabling a very low ratio of maximum to average copper temperature.
The overhang portion of the winding is cooled by axial two-flow system and sectionalized
into small parallel paths to minimize the temperature rise. Cold gas enters the overhang from
under the retaining rings through special chamber in the end shields and ducts under the fan
hub and gets released into the air gap at the rotor barrel ends.
3.3 ROTOR WEDGES

The slot wedges are made from duralumin an alloy of copper Magnesium and Aluminum
having high good electrical conductivity and high mechanical strength. The slot wedges behave
as damper winding bars also under unbalanced operation of generator.
The end wedges are made from an alloy of chromium and copper having high electrical
conductivity. These wedges are connected with damper segments under the retaining ring for
short circuiting induced shaft current. The end wedges are insulated from retaining rings by
glass textolite liner.
The field lead wedges are used to protect the field lead bar against centrifugal forces.
Ventilation slot wedges are used to cover the ventilation canals in the rotor so that hydrogen
for over hang portion flows in a closed channel.
3.4 RETAINING RING

The overhang portion of field winding is held by retaining ring against centrifugal forces.
They are shrink fitted to the ends of the rotor body barrel at one end, while the other side of
the retaining ring does not make contact with the shaft thus ensuring an unobstructed shaft
deflection at the end winding and eliminating the chances of fretling corrosion.
The centering rings are shrinks fitted at the free end of the retaining ring that serves
to rein-force the retaining ring, securing end winding in axial direction at the same time. A
spring ring is used to prevent any relative movement between the retaining ring and centering ring.
The nut for retaining ring is screwed on the retaining ring at fixed end.
To reduce stray losses, the retaining rings are made of non magnetic, austenitic steel
and cold worked, resulting in high mechanical strength.
3.5 FANS
Two single stage axial flow propeller type fans circulate the generator cooling gas.
Fitted on either sides of rotor body. Fan hubs are made of alloy steel forging with three
peripheral grooves milled on it. Fan blades which are a precision casting with special alloy are
machine in the tail portion so that they fit into the groove of fan hub. To check the fan blades
from coming out of hub, ground tapered pins are used by reaming the two components
together. Split pins are used alongwith slotted nuts to prevent the pins coming out during
operation.
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3.6 FIELD LEAD CONNECTIONS
Slip Rings
The slip rings consist of helically grooved alloy steel rings shrunk on the rotor body
shaft and insulated from it. For convenience in assembly both the rings are mounted on a
single common steel bush which has an insulating jacket pre moulded on it. The complete bush
with slip rings is shrunk on the rotor shaft.
The slip rings are provided with inclined holes for self-ventilation. The helical grooves
cut on the outer surface of the slip rings improve brush performance.
Field Lead
The slip rings are connected to the field winding through semiflexible copper leads and
current carrying bolts placed radially in the shaft. Leads are made up insulated by glass cloth
impregnated with epoxy resin for low resistance and ease of assembly. Two semi-circular hard
copper bars insulated from each other and from rotor shaft are placed in central bore of rotor
joining two sets of current carrying bolts with special profiled precision conical threads.
The radial holes with current carrying bolts in the rotor shaft are effectively sealed to prevent
the escape of hydrogen. A field lead bar does the connection between current carrying bolt
and field winding.
3.7 BEARING :
The rotor shaft is supported on pedestal type of bearings which has spherical seating
to allow self alignment. On the top of bearings pedestal a vent pipe emerges connecting
bearing chamber to the atmosphere for venting out oil vapour or traces of Hydrogen. A current
collector located just above the rotor shaft and touching it is also mounted on the bearing
body to give, shaft voltage for rotor earth fault protection. To prevent the flow of shaft
currents slip ring and bearing and connecting pipes are insulated from earth.
For visual checking of oil flow check windows are provided in the drain oil pipe. The oil
is supplied through inlet pipe and flow is adjusted by means of proper selection of diaphragm
orifice.
The generator bearings are provided with a hydraulic shaft lifting device to reduce
bearing friction during start up and barring gear operation of the turboset. For this purpose, oil
at high pressure is forced between the bearing surface and the shaft journal, lifting the rotor
shaft to allow the formation of a lubricating oil film.
3.8 BRUSH GEAR

The rotor winding is solidly connected to the slip rings by means of field lead bars,
current carrying bolts, field lead core bar and flexible leads. The field current to the rotor
winding is provided through the Brush gear.
The current carrying brush gear assembly is rigidly fixed on the extended part of the
bearing pedestal on the exciter side. There are two brush gear stands, each made up of two
symmetrical silicon brass casting half rings. Which are bolted at the top to make one stand
assembly, kept vertically. These ring stands are designed as helical from one end to the other
to achieve uniform wear of slip rings as well as carbon brushes and smooth removal of carbon dusts
all along the width of slip rings. Provision is made on these ring stands for connecting cables.
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Three insulated straight pipes are rigidly placed horizontally in between the stand at
three different positions to avoid any axial displacements to increase vibration rigidity of ring
under normal running conditions. Brush holders are fixed on both sides of the brass rings and
provides regular staggering of carbon brushes along the width of slip rings. The brushes are
spring loaded to maintain required contact pressure of 0.2 kg/cm2 and the brush pressure can
be adjusted individually. The design of brush gear permits replacement of the brushes during
normal operating condition.
This complete brush gear stand assembly is rigidly fitted in position on brush gear
support, which as a whole unit is to be fixed on to the bearing pedestal. A glass textolite
packing is provided in between the brush gear support and stand to insulate the latter.
3.9 BRUSHES AND BRUSH HOLDERS :

Brushes have a low co-efficient of friction and are self lubricating. The brushes are
provided with double flexible copper leads. Before filling the brushes are rubbed with medium or
fine sand paper in the direction of rotation. This is to obtain the most favorable condition for
equal current distribution.
Moving the spring fulcrum either up or down on the brush holder adjusts the brush
pressure. Excessive pressure tends to induce chattering or bouncing of the brushes, insufficient
pressure tends to cause sparking.
3.10 SHAFT SEAL (RING TYPE)

The locations where the rotor shaft passes through the stator casing, are provided
with radial seal rings. The seal ring is guided in the seal body, which is bolted on to the end
shield and insulated to prevent the flow of shaft currents. The seal ring is lined with babbit on
the shaft journal side. The gap between the seal ring and the shaft is sealed with seal oil. The
seal oil is supplied to the sealing gap from the seal body via radial holes and an annular groove
in the seal ring.
To ensure effective sealing, the seal oil pressure in the annular gap is maintained at a
higher level than the gas pressure within the generator casing. The oil drained on the hydrogen
and air sides of the seal rings is returned to the seal oil system through drains in the seal body
and seal cover respectively. In the seal oil system, the oil is regenerated by a vacuum
treatment and then returned to the shaft seals.
On the air side, pressure oil also called ring relief oil is supplied laterally to the seal ring
via an annular groove. This ensues free movement of the seal ring in radial direction. Gas
coolers consist of cooling tubes made out of admiralty brass with coiled copper wire wound on
them to increase the surface area of cooling. Cooling water flows through the tubes while
hydrogen flowing across the cooler comes into contact with the external surface of the
cooling tubes. Water chambers are bolted to the tube plates on either end through rubber
gaskets. The out side flange of water chamber on slipring side is elastically fixed to the stator
body with the help of moulded rubber gasket to allow free expansion of cooler where as on the
Turbine side it is fixed rigidly to the stator. End covers of water chambers are removable
without purging the hydrogen from the generator. This enables cleaning of the tubes of coolers
while the generator is running at partial load. Four gas coolers mounted longitudinally inside
the generator stator body cool hot hydrogen.
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In order to remove air from gas coolers while filling them with water, vent pipes are
provided on slip ring side. For alignment of the coolers in the stator while insertion, the bolts
are provided at each end. The rollers in gas cooler facilitate easy insertion of cooler into the
stator frame.
3.11 VENTILATION CIRCUIT :

Two axial fans mounted on the rotor on both sides circulate the gas in two independent
and symmetrical closed circuits with respect to center line of the generator. The schemes of
stator core cooling divide itself into 3 paths.
FLOW PATH – 1
The cold gas after gas cooler enters chamber at the back of core and enters radially
the ventilation ducts and flows to air gap after removing heat of the core. To remove higher
losses in the end part, some of the cold gas is diverted towards press ring and press fingers.
FLOW PATH – 2
The direct cooling of rotor winding is accomplished by Gap Pick up method. The barrel
portion is divided into a number of inlet and outlet zones. The gas picked up by the wedge
scoops in the inlet zones due to the pressure created under the scoops by rotation, passes
inwards, pass the lateral ducts on one side of the rotor coil stack and joins the corresponding
duct on the other side and flows outwards and thrown into the gap in the outlet zones. Such
a multi jet flow of hydrogen exposes large amount of rotor winding copper to the cooling
medium thus creating very effective cooling and enabling a very low ratio of maximum to
average copper temperature.
FLOW PATH –3
The overhang portion of the winding is cooled by axial flow system and sectionalised
into small parallel paths to minimize the temperature rise. Cold gas enters the overhang from
under the retaining rings, through special chamber in the stator end shields and ducts under
the fan hub and gets released into the air gap at the rotor barrel ends.
4. TEMPERATURE MONITORING :
Temperature of various active parts of the generator are monitored and continuously
recorded. For this purpose, resistance temperature detectors are embedded inside the stator
slots for measurement of core iron and winding copper temperatures.
Apart from RTD, mercury in steel dial type thermometers are also locally mounted to indicate
hot and cold hydrogen, lub oil outlet from bearings, inlet and outlet water to generator gas
cooler temperatures.
Types of Resistance Temperature Detectors :

Depending upon the medium where temperature is to be measured the following types
are used:
CRT-01-Suitable for temperature measurement of air & Hydrogen.
CRT-02&04- Suitable for Temperature measurement of Liquid media.
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CRT-03- Suitable for temperature measurement of bearing and seal babbit metals.
CRT-05- For stator winding /core temperature.
For temperature measurement of various active parts in the generator, copper element
resistance thermometers are used.
The basic principle is the change in electrical resistance of a conductor due to

temperature. The resistance (Rt) at any temperature T is found by applying the equation.
Rt = Ro (1 + ∝T)
Where Ro = Reference resistance at 00C.

∝ = Temperature coefficient in Ohms per 0C.
T = Temperature in 0C.
The standard resistance of the copper resistance elements used is 53 Ohms at 00C.
The temperature coefficient amount to alfa (∝) equal to 0.00426 Ohms/0C.
Resistance characteristic for copper resistance thermometer with 53 ohms at 00C.
✦✦✦
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HYDRGEN COOLING OF GENERATOR
& D. M. WATER COOLING OF STATOR
In all A.C. machines heat is generated due to windage cu-loss and core-loss. The rise
in temperature must be controlled to protect the insulating material. The insulating materials
can withstand temperatures from 900C to 1300C depending upon their grade. In earlier, smaller
machines, air-cooling was sufficient. As the machine sizes increased, it was necessary to
develop better ways of cooling to restrict the maximum temperature.
In principle, Generators and motors are similar machines we are already familiar with
various methods adopted for motor cooling i.e. direct cooled, T.E.F.C. T.E.W.C. etc.
HYDROGEN COOLING :
The turbo generator runs at 3000 rpm. With available material, the rotor diameter is
limited to about 1.2 M. and length between bearings is restricted to 5 to 7 times diameter. As
the air gap must also be limited, the size of stator gets limited. Thus the size of a Generator
can not be increased in proportion to its size. Using higher current densities can only increase
capacity. As the heat generated goes up, superior cooling methods are necessary to restrict
the temperature rise.
For a 60 MW, AIR COOLED Generator the break up of losses is as below :
Total losses - 1320 KW
Windage loss 40% i.e. 528.0 KW
Rotor loss 12% i.e. 158.0 KW
Stator I2 R loss 12% i.e. 158.0 KW
Stator iron loss 26% i.e. 344.0 KW
Stray losses 10% i.e. 132.0 KW
The quantity of cooling air required is 133 tons/hr. the total weight of stator and rotor
is about 140 Tons.
It can be seen that windage loss is the biggest loss. With hydrogen at only 5 lb/in2 this
loss came down to 1/10th i.e.only 52.8 KW. This illustrates very dramatically, the advantages
of Hydrogen cooling.
TABLE – RELATIVE QUALITIES

HYDROGEN
AIR Pressure in Psi.
0.5 30 45
1 0.07 0.14 0.22
1 6.7 6.7 6.7
1 1.55 2.7 3.6
Density Thermal Conductivity Heat transfer co-eff.
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Above table shows the superiority of Hydrogen over air. Further, hydrogen is non-toxic,
and does not support combustion. In case of any internal fault (electrical), Hydrogen will not
react in any way. However, with Hydrogen, a reliable sealing system is necessary. Monitoring
of H2 purity is also essential as more than 20% oxygen can form an explosive mixture. Purity is
generally maintained above 98.5% to derive full benefit of Hydrogen cooling.
As the loss is reduced, generator loading and hence capacity is increased. It should be
noted that heat is produced in
1) Rotor slots - Cu-loss
2) Stator slots - Cu-loss
3) Stator core - Iron loss.
Hence, to effectively carry away this heat special construction features are adopted.
Ventilation ducts and passages are provided in stator core the hot gas is cooled by D.M. water
coolers, housed in the stator. Fans on the rotor circulate the gas to coolers and then stator
core to the air gap where it cools the rotor and travels towards the fans.
As generator capacities increased, may novel ways were developed to cool the conductors
directly by providing gas passes along and below the slots. Even hollow conductors are used
through which cooling gas is circulated.
However Hydrogen cooling also reached its limit and for 210 MW generators, it became
necessary to introduce cooling of stator conductors by water D.M. water has high resistivity
and it is a very good cooling medium. Hydrogen cooling reduced windage loss to 1/10th and
water cooling needs only 1/8th pumping power compared to fan power necessary for hydrogen
circulation for stator cooling. Resistivity of D.M. water should be around 200 Kn/cm.
Equipment for Hydrogen cooling :

1) H2 and CO2 cylinders.
2) H2 and CO2 manifolds and suitable piping, valves for filling and purfing out CO2.
3) H2 gas drier.
4) Purity meter for continuous monitoring of purity.
5) Shaft sealing arranement.
Shaft sealing arrangement :

To prevent escape of H2 from generator casing, two types of Hydrogen oil seals are
used -
1) Radial
2) Axial thrust type.
Generally in both cases, the oil used is same as turbine lub. Oil. In some cases, a
separate circuit is provided for seal oil and normally it does not mix with turbine oil. The axial
thrust type seal is found more reliable and is used on existing 210 MW BHEL machines.
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Stator water cooling :
The stator conductors are made up of small cross section conductors to minimize eddy
current losses. In a typical hollow bar construction, there are 14 hollow conductors sandwitched
between solid conductors. The hollow cross-section is very small and hence good filters are
provided in the circuit to avoid choking.
D.M. Cooling water is admitted to upper bar and it returns through lower bar of next
slot. The hot water then goes to expansion tank which is maintained under a vacuum of about
300 mm of Hg. This helps to remove gases from the water and thus corrosion is minimsed. From
expansion tank, water is pumped by primary stator water pumps through DM/DM Coolers,
filters back to stator conductors.
Flow meters, purity meters (conductivity) and magnetic filters are included in the
circuit. Water pressure must be kept below the hydrogen gas pressure in the casing. Cooling
water flow of 27 M3/Hr is necessary for 210 MW unit.
1) Stator Water :
Highest Water temp. - 60-700C
Cold water temp. – 400C
2) Gas Vs. Water cooling of hollow conductors.
Heat transfer is better in turbulent flow so velocity should be high and Reynold’s
number must be exceeded.
For gases, R.N. is high, so high velocities are necessary. As ducts are small, pressure
drop becomes high and too much fan power is needed.
Water has high density and low R.N. Also, its heat transfer coeff. is 50 times more than
hydrogen. Therefore, very low water velocities are needed for efficient cooling. Pumping
power becomes only 1/8th of fan power necessary for gas circulation to obtain the same
cooling effect.
TYPICAL PROBLEMS :
HYDROGEN COOLING SYSTEM :
1) Low H2 Purity : Even when all other things are normal, the purity meter shows a gradual
drop in purity. This is due to reduced flow through purity meter. The drier contains calcium
chloride which may block the flow after absorbing enough moisture. The CaCl2 should be
replaced.
2) Excessive H2 leakage that is not tracable. The leakage may be at slip rings or through
generator output leads. Shutdown is necessary for checking the leakage and attending
the same.
3) Breaking of Cu-connectors and damage to brass nuts. This can be prevented by using
flexible pipes suitably wirebraided.
STATOR WATER SYSTEM :

1) Inadequate flow of cooling water – even when filters are clean. This indicates blocking of
stator conductors. The reason may be inadequate cleaning of stator water system initially
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or after a maintenance job. Provision of back wash helps greatly. Cearing any debris stack
up in stator bars is very difficult and so enough care must be taken for proper cleaning initially.
2) Drop in purity of D.M. Water : One important source is the injector which maintains
vacuum in expansion tank.
3) If stator water pump has excessive gland leakage and a hose of raw-water is directed at
the gland, D.M. water will get contaminated. This is a common practice and operators
must be warned against this.
Quantities of Gases for Puging

CO2 :
To remove air 90 M3 (To get 98% CO2 in Air)
To remove H2 120 M3 (To get 98% CO2 in H2)
Hydrogen :
For initial filling 300 M3 (above 98% purity)
Average make up (daily) 15 M3
When air is admitted to purge out CO2, the CO2 percentage should come down below 5%
Temperature limits :
Operational Limit due to Temperatures and Temperature Measurement :
i) Stator winding copper - 750C
ii) Stator core iron - 950C
iii) Cold Hydrogen - 440C
iv) Hot Hydrogen - 750C
v) Distillate at inlet of stator winding - 450C
vi) Distillate of outlet of stator winding - 850C
vii) Bearing & seal babbit - 750C
viii) Rotor winding temperature - 1150C
HEAT ABSORPTIN CAPACITY OF COOLANTS :
COOLANT VELOCITY FT/SEC HEAT ABSORPTION

CAPACITY W/0C/SEC
AIR 100 3.5
HYDROGEN (0.5 PSIG) 130 4.5
HYDROGEN (30 PSIG) 130 13
OIL 6.5 360
WATER 6.5 840
✦✦✦
293
GENERATOR SEAL OIL SYSTEM FOR BHEL
210 MW UNITS (LMW Design)
In order to prevent the escape of Hydrogen from the generator casing along the rotor
shaft, shaft seals with oil under pressure are used. The shaft seals are radial thrust type and
are mounted between the end shield and the bearing at either end of the stator. The shaft
seal consists of seal liner, lined with babbit surface that contacts a collar of the rotor shaft.
The seal liner is enclosed in a sealed body. Sealing oil is fed through the seal body to form an
oil film between babbit and the shaft collar. The liner is kept pressed to the shaft collar due to
oil pressure in a chamber between the seal body and the liner and is free to move axially along
with the shaft inside the seal body.
Rubber sealing rings inserted between the seal body and the liner prevent oil leakage,
from the high pressure oil zones. The oil catcher mounted on the shaft does not permit
hydrogen side drain oil to go inside the machine. Drain oil in the air side is allowed to mix with
the bearing oil but cannot leak due to the sealing ring assembly mounted on the sealing body
fixed with the bearing.
The seal oil supply system consists of an oil injector, two seal oil pumps, one cooler,
two oil filters, differential pressure regulator, pressure oil regulator, damper tank, hydraulic
seal, visual window, oil check pipe etc. The schematic diagram gives the complete details of
the system.
1. SUPPLY OF OIL TO SHAFT SEAL :

The oil to the shaft seal is supplied from two different sources. During the operating
condition of the turbo-unit, the oil supply is taken from the governing system at 20 kg/cm2
and lubrication system at 1.5 kg/cm2. These two oils are diffused through the oil injector to
get the supply of oil to the design pressure of oil in the supply pipe line.
2. OIL PUMPS :
In case of failure of oil injector or during a standstill condition of the generator, the oil
is supplied to the seals by means of two 100% oil pumps – one as standby and the other as
emergency. The standby pump is driven by 415 Volts A.C. motor and the emergency by 220 V.
D.C. motor. The pumps are electrically interlocked.
The standby oil pump automatically starts in case the pressure at the supply pipeline,
detected by the electrical contact pressure gauge, drops by 1.5 kg/cm2 from the rated value.
3. OIL COOLER :
In order to cool the seal oil, one oil cooler, vertical type, is used. The quantity of
process water at 330C for cooling the seal oil is 95 M3/hr. at maximum 5 kg/cm2g.
4. OIL FILTERS :
Two 50% oil filters are provided in the pipeline for filtering the seal oil.
294
5. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE REGULATOR :
In order to maintain a constant pressure difference between oil and H2, a differential
pressure regulator is adopted. This differential pressure maintains the oil at a pressure higher
than the hydrogen pressure by 0.8 kg/cm2.
6. THRUST OIL REGULATOR :

One thrust oil regulator in the circuit provides for holding the shaft sealing ring against
a collar on the rotor. The outlet pressure of the regulator is regulated in the range 1 to 2.2 Kg/
cm2.
7. DAMPER TANK :
The oil after the differential pressure regulator enters the damper tank and then to the
shaft seals.
The damper tank, provided in the system, supplies the oil to the shaft seal during
transient conditions at changeover from injector supply to the pumps supply and vice-versa.
The damper tank is situated at a height of 6 metres from the centre line of the generator, in
order to keep the constant pressure difference between oil and hydrogen. To allow for constant
checks on the level of oil in this tank, magnetic float indicators are installed which give the
signals during low and emergency oil level in this tank.
A greater part of the oil is drained towards the air side into oil of generation bearing. A
small part of the oil is drained towards hydrogen side.
To limit the zone of hydrogen dissipation throughout the turbine oil system pipeline, one
300 mm oil pipeline has a U-shaped oil seal at its end connected to turbine oil tank.
8. HYDRAULIC SEAL TANK :

The oil discharged towards the hydrogen side is drained into the dydraulic seal. A 500
mm high loop in front of the hydraulic seal inlet is provided on the pipeline for oil discharge from
the seal at the exciter end. This U-shaped pipeline prevents the gas circulation through the
hydraulic seal, which is caused by the difference in the values of vacuum produced by the
fans at both the generator rotor sides. The hydraulic seal ensures oil drainage from the
hydrogen side of shaft seals and, at the same time, prevents escape of hydrogen from the
generator casing through oil drain pipeline.
The hydraulic seal has a level float regulator built into it for maintaining a set level of oil
in the tank. The gas separated out assemblies at the top of the hydraulic seal and this is
connected to the machine. Gas samples are also taken from the hydraulic seal for testing the
purity of H2. Warning signals for high and low oil level in the hydraulic seal are provided by
means of magnetic level indicator.
9. INSTRUMENTATION :
The following pressure gauges are provided in the oil supply system for visual checks.
• Pressure gauges at the inlet and outlet of oil injector and centrifugal pump system.
• Pressure gauges at the outlet of cooler.
• Pressure gauges at the inlet and outlet of the differential pressure regulator.
295
• Electrical contact pressure gauges at the oil supply header.
• Electrical contact pressure gauges at the inlet of seal oil to shaft seal.
• Electrical contact pressure gauges at the inlet of thrust oil to shaft seal.
• Pressure gauge at the outlet of thrust oil regulator.
In order to check the differential pressure between seal oil and H2, a differential
pressure recording and indicating instrument with two position contact devices, having scale
0-1 kg/cm2 is used. The differential pressure transducer is mounted near the pipe line and the
indicating and the recording instrument is mounted on the unit control board.
9. ANNUNCIATIONS PROVIDED :
The following annunciations are provided on the signalling panel.
1. Pressure of seal oil ... Low
2. Pressure of pressure oil ... Low
3. Oil level in Damper tank ... Low
4. Oil level in Damper tank ... Emergency
5. Oil level in Hydraulic seal ... Low
6. Oil level in Hydraulic seal ... High
7. Automatic switching on of AC standby oil pump
8. Automatic switching on of DC Emergency oil pump.
9. Differential pressure between oil and H2 ... Low
10. Differential pressure between oil and H2 ... High
10. TECHNICAL DATA :

1. Quantity of oil for both the shaft seals. ... 160 L/min.
2. Rated pressure of shaft seal oil 4.1 to 4.5 kg/cm2
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Generator seal oil system for BHEL 210 MW Units (Russian Design)
297
✦✦✦
298
CONSTRUCTION OF EXCITER
Introduction :
An electrical generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy (or power) into
electrical energy (or power). Energy conversion is based on the principal of the production of
dynamically induced emf. Whenever conductor cuts magnetic flux dynamically an induced emf
is produced in it according to Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction. This emf causes a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are 1) A Magnetic field & 2)
A Conductor or Conductors (armature) which can so move as to cut the flux. Generators are
A.C. or D.C. the device in which electricity is generated by keeping the magnetic field stationary
and armature rotating is called D.C. generator and the device in which electricity is generated
by keeping the armature (conductor) stationary and magnetic field rotating is called A.C.
generator. In the case of A.C. generators standard construction consists of armature winding
mounted on stationary element called stator and field windings on a rotating element called
rotor.
The stator has a balanced, distributed three phase windings. The rotor is a cylindrical
one and excited by the D. C source. The rotor winding is so arranged on rotor periphery that
the field excitation produce nearly sinusoidal distributed flux/ pole in the air gap. As the rotor
rotates, three phase emfs are produced in stator windings.
Natural choice for excitation source was a shaft driven D. C. Generator whose output
was supplied to the generator field through brushes and slip rings. Large capacity generators
require very high excitation currents limiting thereby use of directly coupled conventional D. C.
machines due to commutation and brushgear problem. Therefore mainly two types of excitation
systems are in service namely a) AC excitation system & b) Static excitation system
Excitation
to the Gen.
D.C.
Prime mover Generator Generator
as exciter
(A) AC excitation system : A typical AC excitation system contains shaft mounted main
exciter and pilot exciter and there is another AC excitation system known as Brushless excitation
system.
Description of typical excitation system that contains shaft mounted main exciter and
pilot exciter.
Main Exciter : Directly coupled higher frequency generators working at 400-500 Hz frequency
299
are also utilized as main exciter. The main exciter output is rectified through static silicon
rectifier unit and fed to the generator. The armature is designed for low voltage operation,
with comparatively high current levels. A permanent magnet type generator also known as
pilot exciter that provides the excitation required for the main exciter and is mounted on the
same shaft.
Pilot Exciter
Generator PMG
Field excitation Rectifier

to the Gen.
For 210 MW TG set maximum continuous ratings of the three phase main exciter are as
per the following :
1500/1350 KVA/KW, 360 volts, 2400 A, 500 Cycles/Second, 3000 RPM
The stator core and windings are air cooled, the ventilation circuit being formed by the
end cover and ducting in the stator casing. The main exciter has induction type generator in
which rotor has only empty slots on the surface of rotor without any windings inserted in
them. The main as well as excitation D. D. windings are mounted on stator.
Pilot Exciter : Pilot exciter is a permanent magnet type A. C. Generator having 400Hz frequency
which provides osurce of supply for the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) circuit of the T. G.
set. Stator has a frame of three phase winding which is brought out to the terminals at the
terminal box. Permanent magnets are mounted on the rotor supported on tow journal type
bearings.
Brushless Excitation : Brushless excitation system is alternative to the conventional slipring

excitation system and this system eliminates the need for brushgear maintenance and reduces
the overall unit size. This system is used in 5oo MW units of CSTPS. Revolving armature AC
exciter is the main component of this system. Revolving armature AC exciter is connected to
the rotating rectifier mounted on same shaft, which itself is directly coupled to the main
generator shaft. Field windings are on the rotor of the generator and they are directly connected
to the output of the rotating rectifier. Excitation to the main exciter is obtained from pilot
exciter. The three phase pilot exciter has a revolving field with permanent magnet poles. The
three phase ac generated by the permanent magnet pilot exciter is rectified and controlled by
the AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) to provide a variable DC current for exciting the main
exciter.
300
Generator
Pilot Exciter Main Exciter
Diode Wheel
AVR
(B) Static Excitation : As the technology is advanced static excitation is used for controlling
the AVR circuit. Static excitation system is used in most of the 210 MW units of the MSPGCL.
With large alternators in the power system, excitation control plays a vital role. With
ever growing size of alternators various characteristic parameters also change and the effect
of these on system performance has to be taken care of to a certain extent by the excitation
system. Today more stringent specifications are required than ever before.
In order to maintain system stability it is necessary to have very fast response excitation
systems for large synchronous machines operating with the grid. This means that the field
current of a synchronous machine must be matched extremely fast to changing operational
conditions. It is because of this reason that the static excitation system is preferred.
A high control speed is achieved by using an inertia free control and power electronic
system. Fully controlled thyristor bridges are used to feed the generator field for controlling
the generator output parameters. Any deviation in the generator terminal voltage is sensed by
an error detector and causes the firing angle of the thyristors, which in turn controls, the field
supply of the alternator.
For synchronous machines, normally only positive excitation current i.e. current in only
one direction in the rotor is required for the purpose of voltage control.
STATIC EXCITATION EQUIPMENT :

The static excitation equipment consists of the following main components or assemblies.
1. Rectifier transformer :
The power transformer gets input supply from the generator output terminals. The
secondary is connected to the thyristor bridge which delivers a variable DC output to the
generator field. The transformer is housed in a ventilated cubicle. Normally dry type transformer
is provided with protective devices.
2. Thyristor bridges :
The thyristor bridge is assembled in one or more number of cubicles depending on the
number of thyristor bridges connected in parallel. The number of bridges is so designed that in
case one bridge fails during operation, the remaining bridges will have adequate capacity to
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feed the generator field for full load output.In such (n-1) operation, where ‘n’ specifies the
total number of thyristor bridges, the converter is capable of delivering full power for field
forcing conditions. Fans mounted on the top of the cubicle cool the thyristor bridges. Adequate
protection and monitoring is provided for the thyristors and cooling fans.
3. Control electronics :
The control circuits contain various electronic sub-assemblies in modular form mounted
in various racks in regulation cubicle. The racks are mounted in a swing frame in the cubicle.
Other items pertaining to the control scheme like auxiliary transformer, relays, filters, MCBs
contactors, etc., are mounted in the cubicle on channels. Various features and working of the
control scheme is explained separately.
4. Field flashing unit :

Since it is not possible to start the excitation system with the residual voltage at
nominal speed, a field flashing circuit is provided to overcome this problem. Initially the station
auxiliary supply of 415V AC is stepped down by a small transformer, then rectified in a rectifier
bridge and supplied to the generator field through a breaker. As soon as the generator output
builds upto about 30%, the excitation system starts working smoothly and the field flashing
circuit is then cut off at 70% of the generator voltage.
Field flashing can also be done by feeding the generator field from station battery
supply. The battery will be required to deliver approximately 50% of the no load current for 30
secs. Blocking diodes are provided to prevent any back feed from the field to the battery when
the generator voltage rises under excitation control by thyristors. Field flashing cubicle contains
the field flashing contactor, diode bridge, dropping resistors, etc.
5. Field suppression :
For rapid de-excitation of the synchronous machine and complete isolation of the field
from the thyristor bridge a field breaker is provided. In case of severe internal faults or a three
phase short circuit at the generator terminals or a short circuit on the slip rings, the field
breaker provides protection by isolating the DC source from the field. The field energy is
dissipated through a field discharge resistance, which gets connected across the field under
such operation. Normally non-linear discharge resistance is provided for rapid action.
✦✦✦
302
GENERATOR EXCITATION SYSTEM
I THEORY :
The synchronous machine is the most important element of a power system. The
synchronous generator converts mechanical power into electrical form and feeds into the
power network. Normally, a synchronous generator operates in parallel with other generator
connected to an infinite bus. An infinite bus means a large system whose voltage and frequency
remain constant independent of the power exchange between the synchronous generator and
the bus, and independent of the excitation of the synchronous generator. The generator
excitation which is controllable determines the flow of VARs into or out of the generator.
The stator has a balanced, distributed three phase windings. The rotor is a cylindrical
one and excited by the D. C source. The rotor winding is so arranged on rotor periphery that
the field excitation produces nearly sinusoidal distributed flux/ pole (fr) in the air gap. As the
rotor rotates, three phase emfs are produced in stator windings.
On no load the voltage Ef induced in the reference phase a lags 900 behind fr which produces
it and is proportional to φf.
φf
Ef =Vf
Obviously the terminal voltage Vt = Ef. As balanced steady load is drawn from the
generator the stator currents produce synchronously rotating flux fa/pole. This flux, called
armature reaction flux, is stationary with respect to field flux ff because the direction of
armature flux is the direction of rotation of the rotor.
∴φ r = φf + φa
θ = power factor angle

δ = angle by which Ef leads vt called as load angle or torque angle.
Magnitude of Ef determines the VARs delivered by the generator. Because of the

assumed linearity of the magnetic circuit, voltage phasors Ef, Ea and Vt are proportional to flux
303
phasors f f, f a and f r respectively; further the voltage phasors lag 900 behind flux phasors.
Vt = Ef – j Ia x a
Xa is the synchronous reactance of the generator.
Ef = voltage induced by field flux f f alone.
= no load voltage.
The field induced emf Ef leads the terminal voltage by the torque angle d. This, in fact,
is the condition for active power to flow out of the generatro. The magnitude of power
delivered depends upon sin d.
The flow of reactive power and terminal voltage of a synchronous generator is mainly
controlled by means of its excitation. AVR [Auto Voltage Regulator] of the generator controls
the terminal voltage and reactive power flow of the generator.
From the above phasor diagram we can conclude.
 Ef  = Ia Xs
Sin (90+θ) Sinδ
∴Ia Cos θ = Ef Sin δ

Xs
∴P = EfVt Sin δ
Xs
i.e for Sin d = 900 maximum power can be drawn from the generator.
The power factor or flow of reactive power can be changed by the excitation system
by keeping active power constant.
From the above equation we can device that
Ef sin δ = Ia Xs cos φ
= PXs___
V+
= constant for constant delivery of power to the system.
304
Figure shows the phasor diagram for a generator delivering constant power to infinite
bus but with varying excitation. As |Ef | sin δ remains constant f the tip of phasor Ef moves
along a line parallel to V+ as excitation is varied. AVR does the job of controlling the excitation.
Objectives of excitation control :

Besides maintaining the field current and steady state operating point, the excitation
system is required to improve the natural damping behavior and to extend the stability limits.
The operating conditions to be taken into consideration are :

• Good response in Voltage and reactive power control.
• Satisfactory steady state stability i.e. sufficient damping of electromagnetic and
electromechanical transients.
• Transient stability for all stated conditions.
• Quick voltage recovery after fault clearance.
In steady state operation, voltage response is of secondary importance. It is stability,

i.e. damping behaviour of small oscillations which is more important. Under fault conditions the
transient stability i.e., ability to return to the normal operating point is the main objective and
voltage response again plays a secondary role.
Natural choice for excitation source was a shaft driven D. C. Generator whose output
was supplied to the generator field through brushes and slip rings. Large capacity generators
require very high excitation currents limiting thereby use of directly coupled conventional D. C.
machines due to commutation and brushgear problem. Therefore mainly two types of excitation
systems are in service namely a) AC excitation system & b) Static excitation system
(A) AC excitation system : A typical AC excitation system contains shaft mounted main
exciter and pilot exciter and there is another AC excitation system known as Brushless excitation
system. The details of this type of excitation system are covered in construction of exciter.
(B) Static excitation system :

With large alternators in the power system, excitation control plays a vital role. With
ever growing size of alternators various characteristic parameters also change and the effect
of these on system performance has to be taken care of to a certain extent y the excitation
system. Today it is required to meet more stringent specifications than ever before.
In order to maintain system stability it is necessary to have very fast response excitation
305
systems for large synchronous machines operating with the grid. This means that the field
current of a synchronous machine must be matched extremely fast to changing operational
conditions. It is because of this reason that the static excitation system is preferred.
A high control speed is achieved by using an inertia free control and power electronic
system. Fully controlled thyristor bridges are used to feed the generator field for controlling
the generator output parameters. Any deviation in the generator terminal voltage is sensed by
an error detector and causes the firing angle of the thyristors, which in turn controls the field
supply of the alternator.
For synchronous machines, normally only positive excitation current i.e. current in only
one direction in the rotor is required for the purpose of voltage control.
I. STATIC EXCITATION EQUIPMENT :

The static excitation equipment consists of the following main components or assemblies.
1. Rectifier transformer :
The power transformer gets input supply from the generator output terminals. The
secondary is connected to the thyristor bridge which delivers a variable DC output to the
generator field. The transformer is housed in a ventilated cubicle. Normally dry type transformer
is provided with protective devices.
2. Thyristor bridges :
The thyristor bridge is assembled in one or more number of cubicles depending on the
number of thyristor bridges connected in parallel. The number of bridges is so designed that in
case one bridge falls during operation, the remaining bridges will have adequate capacity to
feed the generator field for full load output, under such (n-1) operation, where ‘n’ specifies the
total number of thyristor bridges, the converter is capable of delivering full power for field
forcing conditions. The thyristor bridges are cooled by fans mounted on the top of the cubicle.
Adequate protection and monitoring is provided for the thyristors and cooling fans.
3. Control electronics :
The control circuits contain various electronic sub-assemblies in modular form mounted
in various racks in regulation cubicle. The racks are mounted in a swing frame in the cubicle.
Other items pertaining to the control scheme like auxiliary transformer, relays, filters, MCBs
contactors, etc., are mounted in the cubicle on channels. Various features and working of the
control scheme is explained separately.
4. Field flashing unit :

Since it is not possible to start the excitation system with the residual voltage at
nominal speed, a field flashing circuit is provided to overcome this problem. Initially the station
auxiliary supply of 415V AC is stepped down by a small transformer, then rectified in a rectifier
bridge and supplied to the generator field through a breaker. As soon as the generator output
builds upto about 30%, the excitation system starts working smoothly and the field flashing
circuit is then cut off at 70% of the generator voltage.
Field flashing can also be done by feeding the generator field from station battery
306
supply. The battery will be required to deliver approximately 50% of the no load current for 30
secs. Blocking diodes are provided to prevent any back feed from the field to the battery when
the generator voltage rises under excitation control by thyristors. Field flashing cubicle contains
the field flashing contactor, diode bridge, dropping resistors, etc.
5. Field suppression :
For rapid de-excitation of the synchronous machine and complete isolation of the field
from the thyristor bridge a field breaker is provided. In case of severe internal faults or a three
phase short circuit at the generator terminals or a short circuit on the slip rings, the field
breaker provides protection by isolating the DC source from the field. The field energy is
dissipated through a field discharge resistance, which gets connected across the field under
such operation. Normally non-linear discharge resistance is provided for rapid action.
Over voltage protection :

An additional over voltage protection circuit is provided across the field so that during
faults on the stator side, the induced over-voltages on rotor side are limited to remain below
the insulation level of the field winding.
Installation :
The static excitation equipment should be normally mounted in dust free atmosphere
on a floor free from vibration and heat source.
The scheme can be understood easily by referring to the block diagram.
II. DESCRIPTION :
1. Error detector and amplifier :
The generator terminal voltage is stepped down by a three phase P.T. and fed to the
Automatic Voltage Regulator (A.V.R.). The AC input thus obtained is rectified, filtered and
compared against a highly stabilized reference value and any difference is amplified in different
stages of amplification. The AVR is designed with highly stable elements so that variation in
ambient temperature does not cause any drift or change in the output level. For parallel
running of generators, compounding feature is provided. Three CTs sensing the current in the
generator terminals feed proportional current across variable resistors in the AVR. The voltage
thus obtained across the resistors can be added vectorially either for compounding purpose or
for transformer drop compensation. The percentage of compensation can be adjusted as the
resistors are of the variable type.
The AVR also has a built-in frequency dependent circuit so that when the machine is
running below the rated frequency fn the regulated voltage should be proportionally reduced
with frequency. With the help of a potentiometer provided in the AVR the circuit can be made
to respond proportionally to voltage above a certain frequency and proportionally to frequency
below a certain frequency. The range of adjustment of this cut off frequency lies between 40
and 60 Hz.
Various negative feed backs are provided to damp oscillations of the control variable
and thus make the amplifier stable.
307
2. Gate control unit :
The output of the AVR is fed to a gate control unit. It gets its synchronous AC
reference through a filter circuit and generates a row of pulses whose position depends on the
DC input from the AVR i.e., the pulse position varies continuously as a function of the control
voltage. The pulse limits for rectifier and inverter (de-excitation) operation can be adjusted
independent of each other by potentiometers provided on the front side of the module. Six
double pulses displaced by 600 from one another are generated at the output.
Two relays are provided, by exciting which, the pulses can be either blocked completely
or shifted to inverter mode of operation.
3. Pulse amplifier :
The pulse output of the gate control unit is amplified further at an intermediate stage
of amplification. This is also known as pulse coupling stage. The unit besides pulse amplification
of the preceding stage also enables direct parallel coupling of two fault independent pulse
output channels to excitation system. It also has a DC power supply unit which operates from
a three phase 380 V supply & delivers +15V, -15 V, +5V and a coarse stabilised voltage UL.
A built-in relay is provided which can be used for blocking the 6 pulse channels. In a
two channel system (like auto and hand) the changeover is effected by energizing/ de-
energizing the relay.
4. Pulse final stage :

This unit receives input pulses from the previous stage i.e. pulse amplifier (intermediate
state) and transmits them through pulse transformers to the gates of the thyristors. The
steep pulses at the output ensure simultaneous firing of several thyristors in parallel. A built-in
power supply provides the required DC supply (15 V, + 5V &UL) to the final amplifiers.
Each thyristor bridge has its own final pulse stage. Therefore, even if a thyristor bridge
fails with its final pulse stage, the remaining thyristor bridges can continue to provide full load
output and thereby ensure (n-1) operation.
Pulses can be blocked with an internal relay provided in this unit. Pulses are blocked in case
of :
• Failure of one or more thyristor fuses.
• Failure of the power supply of the final stage.
• Failure of the converter cooling fan.
5. Manual control channel :

A separate manual control channel is provided where the controlling DC voltage through
a motor operated potentiometer. The DC signal is fed to a separate grid control unit whose
output pulses, after being amplified at an intermediate stage, can be fed to the final pulse
stage. When one channel is working generating the required pulses, the other between ‘Auto’
and ‘Manual’ control is effected by blocking or releasing the pulses of the corresponding
intermediate stage.
A pulse supervision unit detects spurious pulses or loss of pulses on the pulses busbar
and transfers control from ‘ Automatic’ channel to ‘Manual’ channel. However during manual
308
channel operation the pulse supervision is locked. Hence no supervision exists for the manual
channel pulses.
6. Follow-up unit :
To ensure a smooth changeover form ‘Automatic’ to ‘Manual’ control it is necessary
that the position of the pulses in both channels should be identical. A pulse comparison unit
detects any difference in the position of the pulses and with the help of a follow-up unit,
actuates the motor operated potentiometer on the ‘manual’ channel to turn in a direction so
as to eliminate the difference.
However, while transfering control from ‘Manual’ to ‘Auto’ mode, any difference in the
two control levels can be visually checked on the balance meter provided on the swing frame
in regulation cubicle.
7. Limit controllers in excitation system :

When a generator is running in parallel with the power net-work, it is essential to
maintain its synchronism without exceeding the max. permissible load on the machine and also
without tripping by the protection system. The automatic voltage regulator alone cannot
ensure this.
It is necessary to influence the voltage regulator by suitable means to limit the over
excitation and under excitation. This not only improves the security of parallel operation but
makes operation of the system easier. However it must be made clear that the limiters do not
replace the protection system but only prevent the protection system from tripping unnecessarily
under extreme transient condition.
Following limiters are normally used in the static excitation system :

1. Stator current limiter in over excited and under excited operation.
2. Rotor current limiter
3. Rotor angle limiter
Rotor and stator current limiters reduce excitation in over excited operation while rotor
angle and stator current limiters increase excitation in under excited operation.
In the first case i.e., over-excited operation, the limiter intervenes only after a certain
time i.e., over-excitation only for a short time is made available to facilitate field forcing to
overcome short lived faults in the network. However, if the over-excitation persists, say, due
to a remote three phase short circuit, the rotor current or stator current limiter after a time
delay will be in action and protect the rotor current or stator current limiter after a time delay
will be in action and protect the field winding & exciter equipment against over heating.
In the second case i.e., under-excited operation, the rotor angle or stator current
intervenes immediately, thereby, increasing the excitation and prevent a further increase in
rotor angle which otherwise would cause the generator to fall out of step.
The rotor angle limiter becomes operative as the load becomes increasingly capacitive.
For instance, with long, lightly loaded high voltage lines capacitive load is found.
Also due to failure of the voltage regulator or mal-operation of the system or tap-
change in unit transformer the machine can become under excited.
309
7.1 Stator current limiter :
This module functions in conjunction with an integrator which provides the necessary
dead time and the gradient, that can be adjusted by potentiometers. The regulator consists
essentially of a measuring converter, two comparators, two PID regulators and DC powe pack.
A discriminator in the ckt. Differentiates between inductive & capacitive current. The positive
& negative signals processed by two separate amplifiers are brought to the output stage &
only that output which has to take care of the limitation is made effective.
7.2 Rotor current limiter :

The unit basically comprises an actual value converter, a limiter with adjustable PID
characteristics, a reference value, dv/dt sensor and a signalisation unit.
The field current is measured on AC input side of the thyristor converter and is converted
into a proportional DC voltage. The signal is compared with an adjustable reference value,
amplified, and with necessary time lapse fed to the voltage regulator output.
For operation DC power supply is given from a separate DC power supply unit.
7.3 Rotor angle limiter :

This unit limits the angle between the voltages or it limits the angle between generator
voltage and the rotor voltage. It comprises an actual value converter, a limiting amplifier with
adjustable PID characteristics and a reference value unit. The limiting regulator operates as
soon as the DC value exceeds the reference value. For its operation the unit is given separate
power supply from a DC power pack.
310
✦✦✦
311
H R D CONCEPTS
In the modern industrial system, rapid industrial development had changed the face of
the industrial world. In order to get maximum work done by the people, it is necessary to
direct, motivate, develop & manage their activities. The behavioural school of management
has realised the significance of human factor & behaviour in industry, & it has introduced the
concepts of Psychology, Sociology & other behavioural sciences to extend the managers
knowledge of human behaviour in the work environment.
Objectives of HRD :
i) Maximum individual development.
ii) Scientific selection.
iii) Team Spirit.
iv) Effective Communication.
v) High Morale.
vi) Fair reward
vii) Effective utilisation of human resource.
viii) Contribution of National Prosperity.
Goal setting :
Goal setting is planning one’s future Goal setting is an action plan. A life with out a
goal is like a ship with out a rudder. It goes no where. It will Sink or run around.
Your Goal must be :

A) Specific B) Realistic C) Time bound
D) Measurable E) Achievable F) Challenging
People don’t set goal? Why?

A) Negative attitude B) Fear of failure C) Lack of Ambition
D) Procrastination E) Low Self Esteem F) Ignorance on Goal Setting.
Time Management :
How to manage your time?

A) Planning of activities B) Goal Setting C) Decide Priorities
D) Control on time E) Learn to say No D) Delegation of Authority
E) Utilisation of available Time F) Get an early start G) Develop good habits
H) Monitor your TMA
1
Motivation
Motivation is an art of inducing people at work to better his performance for the interest
of the organisation.
It is the driving force that moves your life towards success.
Importance of Motivation :
i) Best Utilisation of resources possible
ii) Willingness to work hard
iii) Increase in Production & Productivity
iv) Improvement upon skill & Knowledge
v) Acceptance of organisational change
vi) Reduction in worker problem
vii) Better image of organisation.
What are the factor that Motivate you ?

A) Positive Attitude B) Goal Setting C) High Self Esteem D) Challenging work
E) Team work F) Training G) Healthy working condition.
How to Motivate ourselves everyday ?

i) Put you plans into writing
ii) Use a self monitoring system
iii) Positive attitude/ Thinking
iv) Get an early start
v) Decide Priorities
vi) Always Smile/ Cheerful
vii) Create healthy working condition.
TEAM BUILDING
A Team consists of People working towards a common goal.
Team building is the process of enabling People to reach their goal.
In its simplest terms, the stages involved in team building are :

i) To clarify the team goals
ii) To identify those issues which inhibit the team from reaching their goals.
iii) To address those issue, remove the inhibitors and enable the goals to be achieved.
Team building can also take a different form depending on the size and nature of the
team.
Characteristics of a Team Building

i) There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.
2
ii) There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute,
learn from and work with others.
iii) The member must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.
Communication :
Communication is the process of conveying the messages i.e. facts, ideas, attitude
and opinions from one person to another in a way to make them understand.
Objective of Communication :
i) Conveying the right message at right time
ii) Co-ordination
iii) Development of managerial skill
iv) Good industrial relation
v) Effectiveness of policies
Principle of Communication :
A) Principle of Clarity B) Principle of attention C) Principle of consistency
D) Principle of adequacy E) Principle of timeliness F) Principle of feedback
G) Principle of economy
The Four basic skill of Communication :

A) Listening B) Speaking C) Reading D) Writing
How to improve your Communication :

i) Seek to clarify your ideas before Communicating.
ii) Examine the true purpose of each Communication.
iii) Consider the total Physical & human setting whenever you Communicate.
iv) Consult with others where appropriate, in planning communication.
v) Be mindful, while you communication, of the overtones as well as the basic content of
your message.
vi) Take the opportunity when it arises to convey something of help or value to the receiver.
vii) Follow up your communication.
viii) Communicate for tomorrow as well as today.
ix) Be sure your action support communication.
x) Be a good listener.
LEADERSHIP
1) Concept :
Leadership is the Personal quality to an individual to influence others and organise the
efforts of the followers towards the achievement of a common goal.
3
2) Function of Leadership :
A) Function for Task needs
1) Defining the task 2) Making the plan
3) Allocating work & resource & 4) Controlling quality & Tempo of work
B) Function of Group needs :

i) Setting standard by personal example
ii) Maintaining discipline, correcting mistake
iii) Building team spirits
iv) Encouraging, motivating, giving a sense of purpose
v) Appointing sub leaders
vi) Ensuring communication with the group
vii) Training the group
C) Function for Individual needs

i) Attending to Personal Problem
ii) Praising of Individual
iii) Knowing individual personally
iv) Recognising & using special individual abilities
v) Training Individuals.
2) Are you Quality Leader?

i) Reliability : How much can people rely on you ?
ii) Responsiveness : How available are you to their needs ?
iii) Competence : Do you posses the required ability ?
iv) Acess : Can people reach you in times of needs ?
v) Courtesy : How affectionate are you ? Do you offer respect.
vi) Communication : Can you say the right things rightly ?
vii) Credibility : Do you always keep up the commitments you have made ?
✦✦✦
4
Modern Thermal Power Plant Cycle
In thermal power plant, energy conversion takes place by employing various processes.
All the processes are interconnected sequentially, thus forming a thermodynamic cycle.
All power plants convert some form of easily and naturally available energy in to electrical
energy. In thermal power plant, source of energy is Chemical Energy of fuel and Water is the
working fluid.
Following figure shows how a unit mass of working fluid, undergoes various external
heat and work interactions in executing a power cycle. The net energy transferred to the fluid
as heat in the cycle is equal to net energy transferred as work from fluid. In this cycle, Boiler
– Turbine – Condenser - Pump – Boiler is the path of the working fluid, and heat input to Boiler
is converted to net work output continuously.
Fig. 1
By the first law of thermodynamics,

Σ Q net = Σ W net
cycle cycle
Q1 – Q2 = WT – WP
Where Q1 – Heat transferred to working fluid, in Boiler
Q2 – Heat rejected by working fluid, in Condenser
WT – Work transferred from working fluid, in Turbine
WP – Work transferred to working fluid , in Pump.
The efficiency of the cycle = Wnet

Q1
= Q1- Q2
Q1
= 1- Q2/ Q1
The cycle described above is called Rankine Cycle. In every process of the cycle, energy
conversion is taking place. After every conversion, state of Water (i.e. of working fluid) is
changing.
5
Modern Power Plants also work on the principles explained above but there are certain
additional features provided such as Reheat Cycle, Low pressure and High pressure feed
water heaters etc. Figure No.2 explains the Boiler process and fig No. 3 explains Turbine cycle
for a Modern Power Plant.
Boiler : Boiler is the place where water is heated and converted to steam at required parameters.
In the furnace, Coal is admitted in Pulverized form. Pulverization of coal is carried out in Coal
mills. Optimum combustion efficiency is obtained when coal is fully burnt and minimum Ubburnt
coal is present in Bottom Ash as well as Fly ash. For this to happen, it is extremely important
that Coal Particles size in Coal pipes should be as per design, i.e. 70% should pass through
200 mesh and not more than 1% retained by 50 mesh. Hot primary air is admitted to coal
mills, which dry out the coal particles and also lift those for transport to Furnace through Coal
pipes. In furnace, combustion of fuel takes place in presence of air. Combustion air is supplied
by secondary air Fan called FD Fans. Primary air supplied to coal mills and secondary air
supplied from FD fans is the total combustion air . Oxygen from air reacts with burning coal
particles. This combustion of fuel releases heat energy, which is used for steam formation.
Feed water is passed thorough steel tubes forming walls of Furnace chamber. Heat energy
obtained from combustion is transferred to water circulated through water wall tubes and
thus steam is formed. The mixture of water and steam in Furnace water wall tubes is then
collected in Boiler drum. Feed water is also admitted in the Drum. Steam from drum is then
passed to Superheaters arranged in the flue gas path of the Boiler. Hot flue gases impart heat
energy contained in it to steam passing though the tubes of Superheaters thus increasing
steam temperature to required value. Flue gas formed due to the combustion is removed from
the furnace with the help of I.D. fans arranged near the chimney. From Boiler, flue gas is first
passed through Air Heaters, where secondary and primary air is heated with the transfer of
heat energy from flue gas to air. Air temperature thus rises to 325 C and flue gas temperature
drops to 136 C after air heater. From air heater flue gas then flows to electrostatic precipitators,
in which ash is removed. Ash free Flue gas is then discharged to atmosphere through chimney.
Ash from Bottom ash hoppers, ESP hoppers is mixed with water and slurry thus formed is
pumped to the ash bund for its final disposal. Figure 2 shows the Boiler system:
Turbine functioning : Steam from Boiler is admitted to turbine, where it is made to expand
through nozzles. Expansion of steam causes velocity to increase at the expense of Heat energy
contained in steam and thus Heat Energy is converted to Kinetic Energy. High velocity jet
from the nozzles is directed to the rotating blades of Turbine. Due to the impact of steam jet,
blades get displaced causing rotor to rotate and Kinetic energy is converted to work energy.
Rotational speed of steam turbines is controlled at 3000 RPM by means of a Governing
system. This causes 50 Hz frequency of the electrical power at the output of Generator.
Turbines contains a number of blades in one stage and there are number of such stages in the
Turbine.
Turbine Cycle in Modern power plants: In the modern high pressure Power plants, three
Turbines, called High Pressure Turbine, Intermediate pressure turbine and Low Pressure turbines
are arranged with their shafts coupled. Generator is also coupled to the same shaft. Steam
6
from Boiler, called Main Steam is admitted to the HP Turbine at a Pressure of 140 Kg/cm² and
537 C temperature. After doing work in HP Turbine, steam pressure and temperature drops to
28 Kg/cm² and 325 C. This steam is then passed to reheaters in the boiler. At rehaeter outlet,
steam pressure is 26 Kg/cm² and temperature is 537 C. This steam is then admitted to IP
Fig. 2
Turbine. At exhaust of IP Turbine, steam parameters drop to 7 Kg/ cm² and 275 C. Exhaust of
IP Turbine is admitted to LP Turbine. LP Turbine exhaust steam is admitted in to the condenser
maintained at a pressure below atmospheric pressure with the help of Vacuum Pumps or
steam Ejectors. Condenser vacuum should be maintained at 750 mm Hg. In Condenser, steam
condenses and condensate temperature is 45 C. Cooling water flowing through Tubes arranged
in the condenser absorb heat of condensation and hence becomes hotter by around 10 to
12 C. This hot water is then cooled in the Cooling towers and again used for condenser cooling,
thus forming a recirculation system.
Condensate from condenser is pumped and passed through a series of low-pressure
Feed Heaters. Small volume of Steam from LP Turbine, extracted successively from three
places from LP Turbine, is passed to LP Heaters. Feed Water flowing through the tubes in the
heaters gets heated due to the steam passing over the tubes. After 3 such LP Heaters,
7
condensate is admitted to Deaerator where steam from one of the LP extraction is passed over
the condensate. In Deaerator, dissolved Oxygen is removed from the Condensate. This Oxygen
free condensate is collected in a Tank called Feed storage Tank. Boiler feed Pumps suction is
connected to FET. BFP delivers high-pressure water to HP Heaters. Steam extracted from HP
and IP Turbine stages is admitted in to these heaters. Feed water flows through the HP Heater
tubes. Steam thus further heats the feed water. Feed water temperature at Boiler inlet is thus
250 C. This arrangement of LP and HP heaters is called regenerative feed heating system.
Fig. 3 shows the turbine cycle.
✦✦✦
8
Principles of Thermal and Hydro Power Generation
All the processes are interconnected sequentially, thus forming a thermodynamic cycle. The
simplest of such cycles is shown in the schematic below.
All power plants convert some form of easily and naturally available energy in to
electrical energy. In thermal power plant, Water is the working fluid. The source of energy is
Chemical Energy of fuel.
In thermal power plant, sequence of energy conversion is:
9
heat and work interactions in executing a power cycle. Since the fluid is undergoing cyclic
process, there is no net change in its internal energy over the cycle. The net energy transferred
to the fluid as heat in the cycle is equal to net energy transferred as work from fluid. The
following figure shows the cyclic heat engine operating on the vapor power cycle, where the
working substance, water, follows Boiler – Turbine – Condenser - Pump path interacting
externally as shown, and converting net heat input to net work output continuously.
Σ Q net = Σ W net
cycle cycle
Q1 – Q2 = WT – WP
Q2 – Heat rejected by working fluid, in Condensor

Q1
= Q1- Q2
Q1
= 1- Q2/ Q1
The cycle described above is called Rankine Cycle. In every process of the cycle, energy
conversion is taking place. After every conversion, state of Water ( i.e. of working fluid)
change. These changes are analyzed graphically on different coordinate systems. One such
graphical analysis is called P- V plane, where P stands for Pressure and is plotted on Y- Axis
and V stands for Volume, which is plotted on X-Axis. Most widely used graphical analysis is
called T- S plane, where T stands for temperature and is plotted on Y- Axis and S stands for
10
Entropy, which is plotted on X-Axis. Through these plots, the work output, rejected energy
etc. can be analyzed.
Hydro Power Generation :

A jet of fluid emerging from the nozzle has some velocity and hence it posses certain
amount of Kinetic Energy. If this jet strikes on the object placed in its path, it exerts a force on
the object obstructing the path of fluid flow. This impressed force is called Impact of jet and
it is designated as hydrodynamic force.
Force exerted by a Fluid Jet on a stationary plate :

Let a jet of diameter d and velocity v strikes a stationary plate as shown in the figure.
The plate is perpendicular to the centerline of jet. The jet, after striking the plate, will leave it
tangentially
Assuming that plate is frictionless and there is no energy loss, then
Fig. 4
Quantity of fluid flow = Q = (πd2/4) × V = a V where a is the area of cross section of the jet
Mass m of fluid issued by the jet per second = ρ a V where ρ is fluid’s mass density = (w /g)
where w is specific weight of fluid.
Therefore, Mass m of fluid issued by the jet per second = (w a V) / g.
After striking the jet gets deflected through 90 Degrees and component of velocity in original
direction shall be zero. The force is thus determined as
- F = (w a V / g) ( 0 - V)
Or F = (w a V 2) / g.
If the plate is inclined to the jet at an angle θ, then the above expression becomes
F = ((w a V 2) / g.) × Sin θ
If the jet strikes a plate moving at velocity u in the same direction that of jet, then
F = w a (V - u) 2 / g.
11
Work done by the jet on plate, per second = Force × Displacement of the plate
= w a (V - u) 2
× u / g.
The above scenario does not practically possible as, when plate starts moving, the jet
need to follow it, which is not possible. But this difficulty can be resolved by arranging a
number of plates are mounted radially at equal spacing on periphery of a wheel, which is
capable of rotating in a vertical plane.
Fig. 5
Force exerted by jet = ( w a V / g ) × ( V - u)
Kinetic Energy supplied by jet = 1/2 × (w a V /g ) × V 2
Efficiency of the wheel η = Force exerted by the jet / Kinetic Energy supplied by the jet
or η = 2 u (V - u) / V 2
For a given velocity jet, Maximum efficiency = dη / du = 0
or u = V /2
Hence efficiency of the wheel is maximum when u = V/2.
And corresponding Maximum Efficiceny of the wheel = 2 u (2u - u)/ 4 u 2

= 50 %b
Based on above principles, Hydraulic Turbines are developed. The arrangement of a

Hydro Power station is as shown below :
Elements of Hydro Power Station :

Continuous source of water with large amount of Hydraulic Energy is the primary
requirement for Hydro Power station. Such a source of water is usually a lake either natural or
artificial at a higher elevation. The water surface of the reservoir is known as Head race.
12
Water through the reservoir is carried through penstocks, which are large diameter pipes
made of Steel or Concrete or Wood, which carry water from under pressure from storage
reservoir to the turbine. Water from Turbine is discharged in to tail race from where it is
discharged in to another river or specially built channel.
Head and Efficiency of Hydraulic Turbine: Please ref Fig. 6

a. Heads : The head acting on turbine is defined in two ways:
b. Gross head : It is the difference between head race and tailrace when no water if flowing.
It is often termed as Static Head.
c. Net or effective head : It is the head available at entrance of Turbine. It is calculated by

subtracting frictional losses taking place in penstock from Static Head.
For a reaction turbine, as shown in Fig a above, net head is equal to :

(Pressure head at the entrance to the turbine + velocity head in the penstock at this
point + elevation of this point above assumed Datum) - (Elevation of tailrece + velocity head
in the draft tube at its exit)
Thus H = (p1 /w + V12/2g + Z1) - (Z2 + V2 2 / 2g)
For an impulse turbine shown in Fig b,
H = (p1/ w + V1 2 / 2g + Z 1) - Z2
Hydro Power plants are usually classified according to the head under which they work.
High heads are the plants working at 250 meter or above head,
Medium heads are the plants working at heads between 60 to 250 m
Low Head are the plants working at heads below 60 m.
Work done by Pelton Wheel = W / g [ ( V - u) (1 + k cos ϕ )] × u
Where,
W is the weight of water per second striking the bucket,
V is absolute velocity of jet before striking the bucket,
u is absolute velocity of the bucket tangential to pitch circle,
ϕ is the angle of bucket at outlet tip
k is less than unity and is calculated from the losses.
13
Work done by Francis Turbine = W / g [ Vw u ] if velocity at exhaust whirl is zero.
Where,
W is the weight of water per second striking the bucket,
Vw is the velocity of water at entrance of turbine
u is absolute velocity of the bucket tangential to pitch circle
Fig. 6
✦✦✦
14
Introduction to Thermodynamics
While studying thermal power plant, knowledge of Thermodynamics and Heat transfer
is extremely necessary. In this chapter, frequently used terms related to thermodynamics and
heat transfer are explained.
The objective is to introduce these terms to the trainees not conversant with mechanical
engineering.
Thermodynamics is the science of energy transfer and its effect on the physical properties
of substances involved in the phenomenon of energy transfer. Thermodynamic laws explain
the energy transfer and all its effects on physical properties.
Physical properties of a substance are

1) Pressure
2) Temperature
3) Composition
4) Density
5) Enthalpy
6) Entropy
7) Volume etc.
Thermodynamic System and Control Volume :

A thermodynamic system is quantity of matter or region in space being analyzed.
Everything external to it is called environment or surroundings. The system is separated from
surroundings by system boundary, an imaginary partition that separates the system under
study from environment. A system together with its surroundings is called the universe. The
following figure shows this concept :
SYSTEM Boundary
The figure shows a thermodynamic system consisting of

water being heated in a container.
The system is separated from its surrounding by drawing

a line around it. This line represents system boundary.
Surroundings
Heat Source
15
There are three classes of the system, An open system, a closed system and an isolated
system.
Vapors An Open System is one in which matter as well as

energy crosses the system boundary. Adjoining drawing
shows such system. In this, water vapors are leaving
the system boundary and passing in to surroundings.
Also heat energy is crossing the boundary in he form of
radiation.
Heat Energy Source
Tight
A closed system is one in which matter does not cross
system boundary. Energy may cross the boundary. In
adjoining figure, water being heated in closed container
is the example of closed system. In this case, vapors
can not leave the container and hence can not cross
the control boundary. Energy may cross the boundary
Heat Energy Source
in the form of radiation.
An isolated system is one in which neither matter nor

energy cross the system boundary. Adjoining figure
shows one such system. In this system, water is heated
causing formation of vapors. But, vapors can not leave
the container and hence matter can not cross the system
boundary. Also the container and source are surrounded
by Ideal insulation hence heat energy can not cross the
Heat source
boundary.
Process : It is defined as a path by which system changes its state. Any operation on system,
which causes change of state of working fluid, is called a process.
Isothermal Process : An isothermal process is a process in which Temperature of the system

remains constant. For example, Boiling of water is a process in which temperature of water
does not change.
Adiabatic process : An adiabatic process is the process in which Heat does not enter the
system from surrounding nor it can leave the system to surrounding. An well-insulated Turbine
cylinder is the example of adiabatic system.
The Cycle : For converting heat energy to work on continuos basis, one needs to operate on
a cycle. The process begins at one state of fluid and ends at other state. Whereas cycle is a
16
series of processes that begin and end at the same state of fluid and thus can be repeated
indefinitely or till needed.
Homogeneous System : If the quantity of matter is homogeneous throughout in physical

structure and chemical composition, then the matter is called to exist in one phase. Every
substance can exist in any of the three phases, solid, liquid or gaseous. System consisting of
single phase is called a homogeneous system while if it exists in more than one phase, it is
called heterogeneous system.
Thermodynamic equilibrium : The system is said to exists in thermodynamic equilibrium

when the systems properties do not change even if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
Also there can not be a spontaneous change in the properties of the system which is in
equilibrium.
If system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is in

a) Mechanical equilibrium – i.e. absence of unbalanced force within the system itself or
between surrounding and the system
b) Chemical equilibrium - i.e. absence of any chemical reaction or transfer of matter from
one part of the system to another
c) Thermal equilibrium - i.e. No transfer of heat from system to surrounding or vice a versa.
First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy which states that
energy can neither be created not can it be destroyed. The energy of a system undergoing
change can be increased or decreased by exchange with surroundings and converted from
one form to another within that system.
This law, therefore states how accounting of all forms of energy in a system or process
is carried out. The following example explains this accounting procedure.
The steady state steady flow open system in which mass or energy crossing the boundary do
not change with time and the mass within the system is constant. Also there is only one inlet
to the system and only one outlet from the system.
∆Q
PE1 PE2
KE1 KE2
IE1 IE2
FE1 FE2
∆ Wsf
17
The first law equation for this system is:
PE1 + KE1 + IE1 + FE1 + ∆Q = PE2 + KE2 + IE2 + FE2 + ∆Wsf

Where,
PE is potential energy = m * z * g where
m = mass of the fluid entering and leaving the system
z = Elevation measured from arbitrary datum at fluid inlet and outlet,
g = Acceleration due to gravity,
KE = Kinetic energy = m * Vs²/ 2g
Where, Vs is the velocity of fluid

IE = Internal energy = U, Function of temperature of the liquid entering and leaving the
system
FE = Flow energy = PV
Flow energy is the work done on the fluid for pushing it in to and out of system where
P= Pressure of fluid and V = Volume of the fluid
∆Q is the Energy input to the system, = QA - |QR| where QA is Net Heat added to the system
and QR is the net heat rejected by the system.
∆Wsf is the net mechanical steady work = (Work done by the system - Work done on the
system)
For mass m, the equation can now be written as:
mz1g+ mVs1²/ 2g + U1 + P1V1+ ∆Q = mz2g + mVs2²/ 2g + U2 + P2V2 + ∆Wsf
For unit mass
z1g+ V²s1/ 2g + u1 + P1v1+ ∆q = z2g + V²s2/ 2g + u2 + P2v2 + ∆wsf
The Enthalpy :
Sums U + PV or u + pv is given the name Enthalpy, and symbol H and specific enthalpy h.
H= U + PV
H= H/m
Enthalpies and Internal Energies are properties of fluid and have single value for every
state of fluid. For water and steam, these values are tabulated in Steam Table and can also be
known from Mollier Charts for water and steam. The value of Enthalpy indicates the heat
energy contained by the fluid at given state and have the unit Joules / Kg. K. Enclosed steam
table shows Specific enthalpy of water and steam.
18
Following equations for specific system, such as Boiler, Turbine etc show and define
the process from first law of thermodynamics.
1) For steam generator:
∆ Wsf, i.e. work done =0
PE2- PE1= negligible
KE2- KE1= negligible
∆Q = H2- H1
∆q= h2-h1
Hence, in steam generator, increase in enthalpy of fluid = heat energy added.
2) Steam Turbine :
∆Q is negligible
PE2- PE1= negligible
∆Wsf = H1- H2
∆wsf= h1-h2
Hence in steam turbine, enthalpy of steam at inlet is partially converted to work done.
In doing so, state of inlet steam changes from enthalpy H1 to H2. H2 represents that part of
inlet enthalpy remaining unutilized.
3) Water Pump:
∆Q is negligible
PE2- PE1= 0
U2 = U1V2= V1 = V, Water being non compressible, its volume change
is negligible due to increase in pressure
∆Wsf = FE1- FE2 = V(P2- P1)
∆wsf= v( P2- P1)
Hence in water pumps, work added from the prime mover is utilized for increasing in
pressure of water.
4) Nozzle:
∆Q = 0
∆Wsf = 0
PE2- PE1= 0
Thus Vs2 = 2g J (h1-h2)
Vs2 = 2 g J Cp (T1- T2) For ideal gas, where Cp is specific

heat at constant pressure
Vs2 = 2 g u ( P1- P2) For incompressible fluid.
19
5) Throttling :
∆Q =0
∆Wsf = 0
PE2- PE1= 0
H1= H2
H1=h2
Quality of steam :
This term is used to indicate the dryness of steam. It is denoted by x
x = ( Mass of vapor) / ( Mass of vapor + Mass of liquid) in a two phase mixture.
The specific enthalpy of a two-phase mixture is

h= hf + xhfg where hf = specific enthalpy of saturated liquid and
hfg = (specific enthalpy of vapor - specific enthalpy of saturated
liquid ) all obtained at the pressure of the system.
Similarly
Specific volume v= vf + xvfg
Specific entropy s= sf + xsfg
Subcooled Liquid : A subcooled liquid is one, which is at a temperature below its saturation
temperature at the given pressure. For example, when water is at the temperature of 28° C at
atmospheric pressure of 1 Kg/cm², then it is a subcooled liquid, because saturation temperature
of water at this pressure is 100°C. Subcooled liquid is also called as compressed liquid.
The second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics : The first law is about conservation of Energy, declaring
that all forms of energy are convertible to one another, it does not state whether the conversion
can take place or not. There are many forms of energy that can not be converted.
Consider the case of work and heat energy. Although work can be completely and
continuously converted to heat energy, reverse is not true. Heat energy can not be completely
and continuously converted to work.
The second law introduces the concept of unavailable energy. The heat energy is not
entirely available for conversion to work in a continuos manner i.e. in a cycle (though it may
be in a process).
The portion of heat, which can not be converted, is called unavailable energy, and it
has to be rejected as low-grade heat after the work has been done. Thus while energy is
conserved, availability is not. In other words, thermal efficiency of continuously converting
heat to work, in a heat engine, must be less than 100%.
Reversibility: Reversibility applies to the process. If all the processes in a cycle are reversible,
then the cycle is also reversible. Even if one of the processes in a cycle is irreversible, then the
20
cycle is irreversible. A reversible process is an ideal process. If a process reverses itself by the
same path it undertook in the first place and thus restores to the system or surrounding the
same heat and work previously exchanged, then it is called a reversible process.
Hence there is no process in real world that is completely reversible. How ever, the
degree of irreversibility can vary from process to process.
Sources of irreversibility: Frictions, Heat Transfer, throttling and mixing are the sources of
irreversibility in the real world.
Friction : In mechanical friction, mechanical energy is dissipated as heat. Consider a shaft

rotating in a bearing. Due to friction, heat is dissipated in the bearing raising the temperature
of bearing and lubricant. Some work is thus lost to friction and hence is unavailable to drive
the load. Fluid friction takes place in a Turbine, due to which fluid it self gets heated. The heat
energy thus generated is not available for useful work. More the irreversibility in the process,
more is the heat generated and less is the useful work.
Consider a shaft rotating in a bearing. Friction causes heat dissipation. But it is not
possible to add the amount of heat energy lost due to friction and expect shaft to rotate.
Heat transfer : Heat transfer takes place from a body at higher temperature to that at lower
temperature. But reverse process is not possible. The loss of availability takes place because
no work is done in the process of heat transfer. Larger the temperature difference between the
bodies involved in heat transfer, larger is the non-availability.
Throttling : It is a process of uncontrolled expansion of fluid from high pressure region to low
pressure region. Velocity of fluid increases, increasing the fluid friction. The resultant heat
generated from fluid friction increases the temperature of fluid, increasing its Enthalpy. No
work is done in this process. The process is irreversible because flow can not be established
from low pressure region to high pressure region.
Mixing: Mixing of one fluid in to other is irreversible, as separation can not take place without
employing external means.
Entropy : Entropy is a property of fluid as temperature, pressure, enthalpy and internal

energy. Its symbol is S or Φ. It has the unit of Joule per Kelvin. Specific entropy has the unit
of Joule/Kg. K.
P1 > P2 P1 P2
T
1
2Τ
2’
2
2s
21
Entropy is the property that remains constant in ideal (reversible) adiabatic
expansion process.
Consider expansion of gas in Turbine. The process is shown below on a T- S Diagram.
The lines P1 and P2 are constant pressure lines drawn on T-S Plane. Assume that gas
starts at Pressure P1, Temperature T1 and entropy s1 and expands to Pressure P2. If the
process is ideal adiabatic and reversible, entropy remains constant and it will take path 1- 2s.
Due to irreversibility ( in the form of fluid friction) in Turbine, temperature of gas at exhaust
is T2 instead of T2s.
T2> T2s and hence less heat energy is converted to work.
It is therefore also said, “ If there is a irreversibility in the process, Entropy of the
working fluid increases. Extent of increase in entropy is the measure of degree of irreversibility
present in the process.” Greater the irreversibility, lesser is the work.
The enclosed steam table shows entropy of steam and water for various states.
The reversible Carnot Cycle :

Sadi Carnot, a French scientist introduced the concepts of irreversibility and cycle in
thermodynamics. He also introduced the principle that temperature of heat source and heat
sink determined the thermal efficiency of the reversible cycle. He also postulated that because
all such cycles must reject heat to the heat sink, the efficiency is never 100%. To show this,
and to show that the effect of the working fluid on the thermal efficiency of a reversible cycle
is nonexistent he invented a hypothetical (There can not be a reversible cycle) Carnot Cycle.
The Carnot cycle, shown on P-V and T-S diagram is composed of four processes.
TH 2 3
TL
1 4
1 - 2 Reversible adiabatic compression

2 - 3 Reversible constant temperature heat addition
3 - 4 Reversible adiabatic expansion
4 - 1 Reversible adiabatic heat rejection
Change in entropy is equal in magnitude during heat addition and rejection. The
efficiency of Carnot cycle is obtained as
Heat addition QA = TH ( S3- S2)
Heat rejection QR = TL (S4 - S1)
22
Where TH & TL are heat source and heat sink absolute temperatures.
The Carnot cycle is reversible internally and externally and hence heat transfer between
heat source and working fluid takes place ideally i.e. across a zero temperature difference and
hence TH = T2 and TL = T1.
For all power cycles, net work done ∆W net = QA- |QR|
Efficiency ηth = ∆W net / QA
Therefore for Carnot Cycle, Efficiency ηC = TH –TL/ TL
This expression explains that efficiency of Carnot Cycle is independent of working

fluids and is a function of Heat source and sink temperatures only. It can be observed that:
1) Since Carnot is ideal cycle, its efficiency is maximum
2) The real cycles can have efficiencies lower than that of Carnot cycle,
3) In real cycles also, higher the efficiency if higher the temperature at which cycle receives
heat and lower is the temperature at which it rejects heat.
✦✦✦
23
Concepts of Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer is the science of flow of heat energy from one body to another. It deals
with calculations for finding the rate of heat flow. By studying this science, better understanding
can be developed for Boiler, Regenerative Feed Heating, Condenser and Cooling towers and
cooling methods for generator.
Consider that Steam is to be delivered to HFO Tank, which is at a distance of 500
meters from Boiler. Steam, at a temperature of 250° C, flows with the velocity of 10 m/sec
thorough pipe. In this case, can we know what will be the temperature of steam at HFO tank?
If we want that steam temperature should not drop, which insulating material to be used?
What should be its thickness? In boiler furnaces, flame temperature is more than 1400° C,
then how it is that boiler tubes, made of steel, do not melt? How does the heat energy from
Sun reaches earth? All these questions are answered by studying the science of Heat Transfer.
In all these cases, heat energy is flowing from one body to another. But the “way” is
different in every case. There are three ways called Modes of heat transfer. The mode of
heat transfer depends on whether the bodies involved are solids or fluids & what kind of medium
is separating these bodies. Accordingly the modes of heat transfer are given names, such as,
1. Conduction Mode of heat transfer – flow of heat through a solid body or from solid to solid.
2. Convection – when heat flows from solid to fluid or vice a versa,
3. Radiation – when there is no physical contacts between two bodies and even if there is
absence of medium.
Conduction heat transfer through the solid bar :

Consider a Metal bar being heated at one end, as shown in following figure.
Heat source End A, temp t1. End B, temp
Due to increase in temperature at ‘A’, the molecules of the matter reach a higher
energy level. Due to very tight bonding in solids, molecules can not displace but start agitating
causing friction with surrounding molecules, in turn raising their temperature. So, the heat
energy received by one molecule is transferred to another one. The process continues till the
complete mass of bar reaches the temperature of the heat source. This type of flow of heat
energy is called conduction heat transfer, which is predominant in solids only.
Consider a body, receiving heat at end A, as shown in fig.1. Temperature at end A
starts increasing causing heat energy at A starts flowing towards end B
End A, Ta° C End B, Tb° C The rate at which this transfer takes place is given by
q = ( A × ∆T × K ) / L (1)
Where, q = Rate of heat flow in K Cal/ s
A = Heating surface area in m²
K = Thermal Conductivity, Kcal/ m²/s/°C
Solid Body
Heat L = length or thickness of plate in m
∆T = Difference in temperature = (Ta - Tb), °C
K, thermal conductivity, is the property of matter.
Prepared by R. S. Kulkarni, EE (G), KTC Approved by Chief General Manager (TRG)
24
Values of thermal conductivity for some of the materials are:
Thermal
Material Type Conductivity State
W/m-K
Pure copper Metal 384 20° C
Brass Metal 110 20° C
Steel (0.5% C) Metal 54 20° C
Stainless Steel (18%Cr,8% Ni) Metal 16 20° C
Asbestos Non-metal 0.23 20° C
Plastics Non-Metal 0.58 20° C
Coal Non-metal 0.186 20° C
Wood Non-metal 0.17 20° C
Mineral Wool Non-metal 0.047 20° C
Water Liquid 0.60 20° C
Dry Air Gas 0.026 1 bar - 20° C
Steam Vapours 0.026 1 bar - 100° C
Heat transfer through a pipe : When hot fluid flows through a pipe, its inner surface
receives heat from fluid, causing its temperature to increase. The outer surface of the pipe will
also receive heat from inner surface. If the pipe, have inside radius of ri, outside radius of r0,
Ti is the temp. of inner tube surface, To is the temp. of outer surface and L the length of pipe,
then rate of heat flowing from inner surface to outer surface is given by :
q = 2Π L k (Ti - To) / ln(r0/ri) (2)
Concept of thermal resistance:

Thermal Resistance is the concept, which is analogous to electrical resistance.
Current I
T1° C T2° C
Resistance R
q
Potential V
b
Thermal Resistance Rth = (Ti- T2)/ q Electrical resistance Re V/ I
The thermal resistance is given by:

Infinite slab = b/KA :b= slab thickness, K is thermal conductivity and A, the area (3)
Infinite cylinder = ln(r0/ri)/ 2Π L K (4)
25
#Application to actual Problem : A heat exchanger was designed for cooling of oil by water
as shown in diagram. Cold Water
Hot Oil Cold oil
Hot Water
It was found that oil is not getting cooled to the expected temperature. Is it possible to
increase the performance by replacing GI by copper? The answer can be found by mathematical
calculations. Data given is -
1. The tubes are made of G.I. which have the Thermal conductivity of 30 W/m- K.
2. Water side heat transfer coefficient is 140 W/m²-K
3. Oil side heat transfer coefficient is 160 W/m²- K.
4. Inner pipe O.D. : 2 cm
5. Outer pipe OD : 4 cm.
6. Wall thickness for both the pipes : 2 mm
Thermal resistance for one-meter length of the pipe is calculated as below:

Inner GI pipe : ln(r0/ri)/ 2" K = 0.00118 K/W
Water side : 1/ (140 * “ * 0 .02) = 0.114 K/ W
Oil side : 1/ (150 * “ * 0 .016) = 0.133 K/ W
As thermal resistance because of GI pipe is less than 0.5% of total resistance,

replacement of GI by copper is not going to solve the problem.
#: Problem from “ Text Book of Heat Transfer” by Shri S.P. Sukhatme
Critical Insulation Thickness for a pipe: When insulation is provided on pipes for reduction
in heat loss to surrounding, its outside diameter also increases. Following figure shows loss of
heat from such composite pipe Vs its outside diameter:
Heat Loss
rc
Radius of composite pipe.
26
It can be seen from above diagram that, heat loss increases even after providing
insulation, if the radius of the composite pipe is below critical radius. The critical radus can be
calculated as below:
rc = k/Ho, (5)
Where, k is the thermal conductivity of insulation and Ho is convective heat transfer
coefficient for outer surface and ambient air.
Convection Mode of Heat transfer :

Heat transfer from solid to fluid takes place by mode of convection. How heat transfer
takes place in fluids is explained in the following discussions. Please ref to the figure on next
page.
Particles of water, which are in contact with the container’s bottom surface, receive
heat by conduction mode resulting in increase in their Temperature, causing drop in their
density. The lighter particles then start moving upwards and their place is occupied by colder
particles. While the hot water particles are moving upwards, those come in contact with
colder water and loose heat energy to the cold water. Thus, heat received at the bottom
propagates to the bulk water and this heat transfer continues till bulk water temperature is
uniform through out.
Container filled with water.
Hot particles moving upwards
Heat source
In this mode, moving particles of water become the carrier of heat energy. Convective
heat transfer take place due to the motion of the fluid involved in the process. In the example
discussed, it is the difference in density that sets in the motion. If the fluid would have
remained standstill, heat transfer should have taken place by conduction only. Fluid motion
can take place by two ways:
1. Caused by density difference produced by temperature gradient. Heat exchange in this
case is called free or natural convection.
2. Caused by external agency, such as a pump or blower. In this case, motion of fluid is
much faster than that in free convection and results in increased rate of heat transfer.
This type of heat transfer is known as Forced Convection.
Fluid dynamics thus plays an important role in this mode. In addition, the rate of heat
transfer also depends on difference in temperature, shape of the container involved and its
geometry. The law explaining the phenomenon is :
q=h × A × ∆t (6)
27
Where h = Convective heat transfer coefficient,
A = Area of the surface of the solid exchanging energy in the process,
∆t = Difference of temperature between surface and fluid film
q = rate of heat transfer
The value of h depends on many other parameters, such as fluid velocity, boundary
layer thickness etc. By computation of ‘h’, true picture of the exchange process can be known.
The expression for computation of h is;
Nu = h × L / k, (7)
Where Nu is called Nusselt Number, which can be computed for the given system. L is the
characteristic length of conduit through which fluid in flowing, and k the thermal conductivity
of fluid.
Nu is a function of Reynold’s number Re and Prandtl Number Pr and is related with
these as follows:
Nu = Φ (Re) ψ (Pr) (8)
Reynolds number Re is given by:

Re = V × D × ρ / µ (9)
Where V = velocity of flow,
D = characteristic dimension of the conduit,
ρ = Fluid density
µ = Viscosity of the fluid.
When Re is more than 6000, flow is said to be turbulent. Higher the value of Re, higher
the turbulence.
Prandtl Number : Pr = Cp × µ / k, where Cp is specific heat (10)

Prandtl number is the property of Fluid. For knowing the rate of heat transfer,
computation of Reynolds Number and Prandtl Number is necessary.
Laminar Flow : In this case, layers of fluid slide over each other and also on the surface.
Every particle flows in the direction of flow. There is no radial movement. If the Reynolds
Number is less than 10000, flow is called Laminar Flow.
Turbulent Flow : In this flow pattern, fluid particles are subjected to both axial and radial
movement. Hence flow is turbulent. In this case, the boundary layer thickness depends on the
extent of turbulence. If the Reynolds Number is more than 10000, flow is called Laminar Flow.
Boundary Layer thickness :

When fluid flows over a surface, the velocity distribution is not linear. Velocity is
maximum at the center of the cross section of fluid flow and zero at the conduit’s walls.
Hence, fluid is stagnant at the walls and forms a small layer (usually of thickness of a few
microns) over it. This layer is called boundary layer, thickness of which depends on property
of fluid, called viscosity, and also the nature of flow (whether turbulent or laminar). The
28
relationship between boundary layer thickness and heat transfer coefficient is given by -
h = k/ δ, (11)
Where h is heat transfer coefficient,
k is the conductivity of fluid,
and δ is the thickness of boundary layer.
The thickness to which the boundary layer is formed is an important parameter. Since the
thermal conductivity of fluids is small, higher the thickness of boundary layer, smaller is the
heat transfer coefficient.
From above discussions, it can be known that value of heat transfer coefficient is
1. Directly proportional to Velocity of flow, Density and conduit diameter
2. Inversely proportional to viscosity and boundary layer thickness.
The empirical relationships between Nu and Re and Pr are given by various mathematical
expressions, some of which are listed below.
For forced convection and turbulent inside tubes:
Nu= 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4 ——— Mc Adams correlation (12)

Nu= 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n ———Dittus Boelter Relationship (13)
Where n = 0.4 for heating, (Fluid temperature > Tube wall temperature)
n= 0.3 for cooling, (Fluid temperature < Tube wall temperature)
Textbooks on heat transfer can be referred to know the correlation for various cases of fluid
flow.
Radiation Heat Transfer : Solid and liquid surfaces at all temperatures emit Thermal Radiation.
Rate of emission increases with temperature. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic wave and
does not require any material medium for propagation. The wavelength of radiation emitted
from surfaces of bodies’ ranges from 0 to “. However it is found that for temperatures exceeding
1000 K, most of it lies in wavelength range of 0.3 to 10 micron. In addition to emitting
radiation, a body also has the capacity for absorbing all or part of radiation emitted by the
surroundings. Consider a hot body placed in an evacuated container. Since there is vaccume,
there will not be convection heat transfer between the body and container walls. However, hot
body emits thermal radiation by virtue of its temperature, which will cause heat transfer to
walls. The container walls will also emit thermal radiation by virtue of its temperature that will
be intercepted and absorbed by hot body. Since the rate at which the hot body emits radiation
is much more than the rate at which it absorbs radiation, hot body looses its heat energy to
container, till the temperatures of the body and the container are equal. In this case, thermal
equilibrium is reached and rate of emission and absorption becomes equal.
A surface emits radiation in all the directions encompassed by a hemisphere. The
amount emitted depends on the nature of surface.
Black Body radiation : A black or ideal surface is one, which absorbs all the radiation falling
on it, irrespective of wavelength and directions. Also for given temperature and wavelength,
29
it emits maximum radiation. A black surface is thus a standard against which all practical
surfaces are evaluated for emissive and absorptive powers.
Emissive power : It is the summation of radiation emitted in all the directions and at all the
wavelengths. It is denoted by symbol e and unit is W / m2. For the black surface, it is denoted
by eb.
Emissivity : Emisivity of a surface is the ratio of its total emissive power to the total emissive
power of black surface, at the same temperature. It is denoted by symbol
= e / eb. The emmisivity for a black surface is unity. (14)
Monochromatic emissive power : Monochromatic emissive power of a surface at wavelength

λ is the radiant flux emitted from the surface per unit wavelength about the wavelength λ. It
is denoted by eλ. For black surface it is denoted by ebλ.
Monochromatic emisivity : It is the ratio of monochromatic emisivity of a surface to

monochromatic emisivity of black surface.
λ= eλ / ebλ (15)
The following diagram shows the monochromatic emissive power of a surface at different
temperatures.
Stephen Boltzman Law : It states that emissive power of the black surface is given by
eb = s T 4 where T is the absolute temperature of the surface and (16)
ó Stephen Boltzman Constant whose value is 5.670 × 10 –8
W/m² - K 4.
For the non-black surface

e = σ T 4, (17)
Values of emissivity : For different surfaces, values of emmisivity are experimentally found
out and for some of the surfaces, these are listed below.
Surface Temperature, °C Emmisivity
Metals: Polished copper, steel, stainless 20 - 500 < 0.15, increases with
steel and nickel temperature
Oxidised copper, steel, stainless steel Up to 1000 0.6 to 1.0
and nickel
Non metals: Brick, wood, marble, water 20 to 100 0.8 to 1.0
It can be seen that polishing the metals decreases the emmisivity. For most non metals,
emmisivity is high irrespective of the surface’s finish.
Radiation Incident on a surface :

Black body absorbs all the radiation, where as real body does not. Only part of radiation
30
is absorbed, other being reflected and retransmitted (if the body is semitransparent such as
glass etc). This is shown in following figure:
Ray of an Incident radiation Reflected Radiation
Diffuse Radiation
Absorbed Radiation
Transmitted Radiation
In case of polished surface, radiation is reflected in one direction, with angle if reflection
equal to angle of incidence. In case of rough surfaces, reflection takes place in all directions.
Total Hemispherical irradiation: The total heat flux radiating on the surface is called total
hemispherical irradiation.
Absorptivity of the surface :

Absorptivity of the surface is the fraction of the radiation absorbed by it, out of total
irradiation. It is denoted by the symbol α.
Heat Exchange by two surfaces :

Consider two surfaces at temperature T1 and T2. The heat transfer between these two
surfaces is given by:
q1-2 = F1-2 × σ × A1 × ( T1 4 - T24) where F1-2 is called shape factor. (18)
Conversion of water to steam :
In Boiler, water is converted to steam. When water, at ambient temperature and pressure,
is heated, it is said that heat energy is being added to water. The process progresses as follows.
1) Water temperature increases due to heat energy supplied. The increase in temperature
continues till water boils. This temperature is known as Boiling point temperature, also
called saturation temperature. The energy required to raise the temperature of water
to saturation temperature is called “ Sensible Heat”. Saturation temperature is the
temperature at which phase change takes place and its value depends on Pressure at
which process is being carried out.
2) If addition of heat energy is continued further, water changes state to vapor form.
This phenomenon is called change of phase. During change of phase, temperature of
water and that of vapor remains constant. The energy required for phase change is
called “ Latent Heat of Vaporization”.
31
3) Further additions of heat energy results in increase of vapor temperature. The vapor is
now called superheated steam.
Temperature Increases due to Sensible Heat addition.
Temperature
Heat Increases
Addition due to
Sensible Heat
addition.
Temperature remains Vapor
Vapor
constant. Water temperature
temperature
converts to vapor.
Addition of latent heat
increases.
increases.
of vaporization. Steam
Steam is
called
called
Saturation temperature superheated
Temperature
✦✦✦
32
INSTRUMENT AIR & SERVICE AIR COMPRESSORS
IN POWER PLANTS
The compressed air system in power plant is one of those critical systems of the plant which
is necessary for day to day routine operations in the plants during all situations whether its is
project activities, commissioning activities, normal operation of the plant, overhaul & general
maintenance activities. Most of instruments, valves & electrical breakers in the plant requires
instrument air for on-off operations whereas service air is used to operate many pneumatic
equipments, air operated hand tools and for other general service purposes. In other words,
one can say that IA & SA system is life line of the power station like AC/DC electric supply
system. Non-availability of air supply may lead to shutting down of whole unit.
Classification of Compressors : Compressor is a device used to increase the pressure of air,

gases or vapours and deliver it at a higher pressure. Compressors may be of various types
either of positive displacement type or of Dynamic type. Positive displacement type
compressors are further classified as Reciprocating & Blowers whereas Dynamic compressors
are further classified as Radial flow centrifugal blower, axial flow compressors & mixed flow
compressors. Compressors are sometimes classified by their drive also like steam engine
driven, steam turbine driven, electric motor driven & IC engine driven etc. Method of connection
to the driving unit of compressor may be various type like Direct connected, Reduction gear,
belt driven or enbloc.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
In most of the power plants, generally multistage, single or multi cylinders, double
acting, vertical or balance opposed reciprocating compressors are used in plant air system. In
the general arrangement the piston executes reciprocating motion in the cylinder, which is
either air or water cooled, and is provided with a head which contains valves. The piston rings
are for sealing the air. The piston is connected to the driving mechanisms by means of suitable
lines or elements. Though the different reciprocating compressors differ in construction details,
the following important elements are common :
• Main Compressing system (cylinder with heads containing air valves & pistons)
• Driving Unit
• Cooling systems, Jacket cooling, Intercoolers & after coolers
• Lubricating System
• Regulating System
• Unloading System
• Air dryers
Main Compressing system :

In an air compressor the desirable idealistic processes are isothermal and adiabatic.
Hence we have two compression efficiencies; the isothermal compression efficiency and
adiabatic compression efficiency. For reciprocating compressors the isothermal compression
183
efficiency is very important and it is taken as the standard of comparison while the centrifugal
compressors the adiabatic efficiency is a standard of comparison.
Isothermal efficiency = isothermal work/ actual indicated work
The actual indicated work is obtained from the actual indicator diagram taken during
the test on the compressor.
Adiabatic efficiency = adiabatic work/ actual indicated work
Another important efficiency of a compressor is the volumetric efficiency which is the

ratio of actual volume of the air taken in the cylinder and swept volume of the compressor.
PRACTICAL APPROACH IN OPERATION & MAINTENANCE

The aim of best operating practice is to achieve cost effective & performance oriented
utilisation of air system. The critical utilisation of air is for instruments which ensures crucial
role of measurement & control. The failure of some of critical instruments operated by instrument
air may result into enormous monitory loss due to unwarranted tripping of unit or due to
generation of misleading information to plant operators. Hence the primary target is to make
available clean & dry instrument air without interruptions and to ensure reliability about the
quality of air supplied at all the times.
Thrust should be on predictive & preventive maintenance, optimized minimum cost
operation practices, continuous improvement in the lay out of air lines & air bottles supplying
air to use points and periodic quality surveillance.
Program for periodic checking of working efficiency of compressors must be planned in
advance by monitoring isothermal efficiency as well as volumetric efficiency. The energy
consumption audit & air consumption audit should be planned & carried out judiciously. The
major failures & repetitive maintenance items may be analyzed to plot the failure of frequency,
probability of failure and cost of use of spares as compared to the asset value of the compressor.
Cost data of use of lubricants, spares & consumables may also be maintained properly to
ensure optimum cost of these items. These data can be utilized effectively for replacement
decisions to minimize the operating cost in long run.
✦✦✦
184
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
OF SOOT BLOWERS
PURPOSE : Soot blowing once considered a necessary evil has become a positive necessity
on modern coal and oil fired boilers. Ash, sulfur, low fusion temperature slag’s cause more
trouble and demand dependable soot blower operation. The continued efficiency and capacity
of boiler depends to a large extent on its external cleanliness. (By soot blowers on tubes)
there is direct relationship between good combustion with minimum excess air and the
inhabitation of deposits, soot blowing is for effective heat transfer on load.
Type of Blowers :
There are 3 types of soot blowers :
1) Short retractable soot blowers/ wall blowers, 56 in nos.
2) Long retractable soot blowers, these are 20 in nos. These are used at platen S/H, R/H,
Final S/H, Second pass.
3) A.H. soot blowers 2 in nos. i.e. one for A.H. in hot zone (swivel type)
Construction details :
1) Short retractable soot blower / wall soot blower, it sweeps at radius of 10’ Nozzle dia =
25mm, Heat resistant SS Material 25% Cr 12% NI, Total travel is 30 cm and inside furnace
is 4 cm, rotation 0.61 rpm.
2) LRSB : Travel is 7.2 m, speed is 6 to 20 ft/min. 6 to 15 rpm. Total length of LRSB is 55’
maximum, so-furnace width is restricted to 110’ at present. Lance is made of mild steel
for low temp. zone and for high temperature zone it is made of alloy steel.
Operation :
Soot blowing steam is drawn from header no. 10 i.e. after primary super heater.
1) Ensure proper temp & pressure of steam by opening drains as required.
2) Install blower at proper position.
3) Increase furnace draft than normal value, (-ve side)
4) Correct operation will help to minimize maintenance problems.
5) Blowers should be operated in proper sequence along the gas flow.
6) Boiler load should be ¾ to full, if possible to prevent puffs or possible explosions.
Soot blower operation at lower boiler load, with a resulting colder furnace may also result
in some of the unburned combustible escaping from the furnace and collecting in pockets
in back passes. Agitation and ignition of these gas pockets will cause puffs and explosions.
7) Never allow a blower to blow unless the nozzle in rotating.
8) Blower should operated at proper intervals to reduce temp. and prevent loss of elements
and nozzles. The guiding rule is that flue gas temp. Should not rise more than 200C
between soot blower operating periods.
9) If 3mm soot collected/ accumulated on tubes causes 2.5% excess fuel loss.
10) If proper temp. of steam in not maintained (wet steam) causes thermal shock to lance,
Blr. Tubes, valves & erosion.
185
Maintenance :
1) Check the nozzle dia & replace if not proper. Maintain the clearance of nozzle & furnace
tube to 4 cm.
2) LRSB: The clearance between the edge of the lance tube and the super heater, reheater
minimum 100 mm.
3) All steam leakages to attended immediately.
4) All valves should seat tightly to prevent wire drawing.
5) All gland packing, flange gaskets to be replaced in time.
6) All cams of moving parts should be properly lubricated.
7) Gear boxes to be filled to proper level, grease should be checked.
8) Electric motor, brushes, commutators to be maintained.
9) Equipment’s to be coated with rust preventive lubricants.
186
✦✦✦
187
BOILER FITTINGS AND MOUNTINGS
To ensure the efficient operation of the boiler unit and to comply with the Factory Acts,
the following fittings and mountings are specified for drum type boilers:
• An approved number of safety valves.
• An approved number of blowdown and drain valves for superheater, furnace walls, boiler
and economiser.
• Air release valves, where necessary.
• Direct reading water level gauges and remote water level indicators.
A high and low water alarm.
• Boiler water sampling equipment and the provision of connections on the steam drum for
steam sampling.
• Main steam stop valves.
• Equipment for the injection of conditioning chemicals into the drum.
SAFETY VALVES
The number and size of safety valves fitted is such that, with the valves fully open, the
maximum evaporation of the boiler can be discharged without a rise in drum pressure of more
than 10% of the highest set pressure. The valves are fitted on the drum and superheater
outlet, with those on the latter being sized to pass at least 20% of the maximum evaporation
of the boiler to provide coolant steam and prevent overheating of the superheater tubes.
In selecting the set pressures for the drum and super-heater safety valves the following
factors have to be considered :
• The margin between normal operating pressure and set pressure to minimise lifting of the
valve due to normal operational pressure fluctuations.
• Relative set pressures of drum and superheater valves to ensure that superheater valves
lift before drum valves, and drum valves reseat before superheater valves.
• Reseat pressure should be higher than normal op-erating pressure.

Safety valves on the reheater must be sized to pass maximum reheater flow without a rise
in reheater inlet pressure of more than 10% of the highest set pressure. Protection of the
reheater tubes is afforded by having the valves with the lowest set pressure on the outlet
side and with a capacity of not less than 20% of the reheat maximum flow.
The types of safety valve used are:

• Direct loaded safety valve - a safety valve in which the loading due to the fluid pressure
underneath the valve disc is opposed by direct mechanical load-ing. The two types used
are the spring type (see Fig 1) and the torsion bar.
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Fig. 1 Typical spring type safety valve construction
• Supplementary loaded safety valve - a safety valve which has, until the pressure at the
inlet of the safety valve reaches a set pressure, an additional force (supplementary load)
to increase the sealing force which may be provided by means of an ex-traneous power
source which is reliably released when the pressure at the inlet of the safety valve reaches
the set pressure; also it attains its certified discharge capacity in the event of the
supplemen-tary loading not being released at an overpressure not exceeding 115% of the
set pressure.
• A pilot-operated safety valve (indirect loaded safety valve) the operation of which is initiated
and con-trolled by the fluid discharged from a pilot valve which is itself a direct loaded
safety valve.
It is now CEGB practice on high pressure boilers to use supplementary loaded valves
since these prevent simmering which can occur with direct loaded \ when the fluid pressure
approaches the valve set pressure. Simmering results in steam flowing through small area of
opening and this often results in damage. The use of supplementary loaded valves permits
the set pressure to be approximately 5% a normal operating pressure without incurring problems
of inadvertent lift or simmering during operation.
The safety valve escape pipes are led to the nearest convenient point on the boiler
house roof where necessary incorporate silencers to minimise noise nuisance when the valve
lifts. Provision needs to made in the escape pipework to accommodate relative expansion
between the valve and the escape pipe. Drains are required to handle the condensed steam in
the valves and piping.
Following safety valves are provided for each boiler of 210 MW boilers. Safety valves at
different locations are provided as per boiler act and to safeguard the system at the time of
excessive steam pressures at those particular locations. The details are given below :
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Details of Safety Valves
All the safety valves are spring-loaded type. One safety valve is of electromagnetic type,
which operates on solenoid assistance.
Safety valves on the superheated main steam line provide protection by assuring
adequate flow through the steam lines if the steam demand is suddenly and unexpectedly
drops.
Reheater safety valves, located on the hot and cold reheat piping serve to protect the
reheater steam flow if steam flow through the reheater is suddenly interrupted.
STEAM STOP VALVES

The boiler main steam stop valves are located as near as practicable to the superheater
outlet, allowing for accessibility.
A typical design of the parallel slide type of valve used is shown in Fig 2 and has a
venturi throat to reduce the diameter of the valve discs and seats. This results in a small force
acting on the valve seats aand makes for easier operation together with reductions in the
body diameter and thickness, spindle diameter control gear, overall height, weight and cost of
the valve. Such advantages serve to compensate for an increase in steam pressure drop over
a valve with a constant bore.
The small spring between the discs keeps the disc on the seat when there is no pressure
in the line and prevents small particles of debris coming between them. It is of the utmost
importance that no scoring of the seats or discs should occur, or leakage will result. To prevent
this, the discs and the seats have a facing of a very hard alloy deposited on to them. These
faces are ground smooth and lapped so that at least 75 % of the width of the faces are in
contact all round the circumference of the face. The small spring has no effect in sealing the
valve as this is maintained by the steam pressure within the body of the valve.
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A small bypass valve, with interconnecting pipe-work between the inlet and outlet
branches, is used to reduce the pressure differential across the main steam stop valve when
opening. This reduces the starting torque and enables a smaller motor to be used. The valve
internal fitments, however, are suitable for the full differential pressure. The main valve and
the bypass valve are motor operated, with the opening or closing of the bypass valve being
arranged in sequence with the main stop valve.
In 210 MW boiler steam from superheater No. 14 which is final superheater, is taken to
turbine by two pipes one from left and one from right side of the Boiler. On these lines the
valves are provided so that the steam line can be isolated when steam flow to turbine is not
required but the Boiler is to be kept running for any important works on turbine.
These stop valves are of gate type and are manually / electrically operated. Also for
hydraulic testing of the boiler these valves provide isolation of steam lines going to turbine.
BLOWDOWN AND DRAIN VALVES

Blowdown valves are fitted at strategic points on boi-ler drums to discharge, as
necessary, boiler water containing undesirable concentration of chemicals, so assisting in the
control of the boiler water within the desired chemical limits. Drain valves are fitted to all
points on the boiler from which the water is to be drained for emptying purposes. Those on
the super-heater are used to drain off water which accumulates on cooling down the boiler
and are opened during steam raising to ensure a flow of steam through the superheater.
Both blowdown and drain valve connections are placed at a convenient point for operation
and are arranged with two valves in series to minimise wear on the valves and to facilitate
maintenance. When operating either blowdown or drains, the valve on the pressure side
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(known as the master valve) is opened first, followed by the outer valve (known as the martyr
valve) and the outer valve is closed first, followed by the valve on the pressure side. In this
way the master valve is to some extent protected and the heaviest wear is taken by the
martyr valve, which is more readily replaced if faulty.
The master valves used for blow down or draining are of the parallel slide type similar
to that shown in Fig 3. The martyr valve should be of a type such as a globe valve, suitable for
throttling.
Both blowdown and drain valves may be motoroperated and remotely controlled from
the unit operating desk.
CONTINUOUS BLOW DOWN :

As Boiler is running with full load or partial load, the steam consumption varies as per
load and at all loads the chemical values are to be maintained. Chemist checks these values
by taking samples from the sampling points. The chemical values of the Boiler drum are very
important as, if the values of the drum water disturb it carries the impurities to steam and
turbine blades may get damaged due to scale formation on blades-
The values if are found abnormal during sampling, there must be some arrangement
to drain out the impure water, so that fresh treated water can be fed to the boiler. For this the
continuos blow down connection to the boiler drain is given which is at the bottom of Boiler
drum so that any solids deposited in the drum can be drained while the Boiler is steaming. By
adjustirq the -opening of this blowdown valve the draining and feeding rate of Boiler is
maintained by maintaining the drum level to a normal level. During this process the chemical
dosing to the boiler drum can be increased by adjusting dosing (i.e. adding concentrated
dosing to boiler water) and the values of the boilerr water can be increased to the required
values. This is a very important operation for running the boiler with safe chemical limits.
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AIR RELEASE VALVES
When a boiler has been opened up for maintenance, or even when standing cold, air
will accumulate inter-nally and as pressure is raised will be forced to the top of the steam
drum and into any pipework before the boiler stop valves. It is important to secure the removal
of all air from the steam space and small-bore air release valves are fitted to the highest
points for this purpose.
The valves, usually of the parallel slide pattern, are opened when steam raising begins
and are not closed until the boiler pressure reaches about 4 bar. The discharge from the
valves is usually piped to waste but in some cases may be allowed to blow to atmosphere. Air
release valves may be motor-operated and remotely controlled from the unit-operating desk.
It is important to use the air release valves to draw air in when emptying a boiler and also
when filling the boiler for a hydraulic pressure test to ensure that no air is trapped. Trapped air
constitutes an explosion danger during the hydraulic test should a failure of any of the pressure
parts occur. Where multiple con-nections such as from drum-to-superheater are fitted it is not
always practicable to vent all of them and any remaining air may need to be removed prior to
a hydraulic test by vacuum exhausting.
STARTUP DEVICES :
a) This is provided on each boiler and is operated when the boiler is being lighted up and to
gain or achieve the required values of pressure and Temperature and to stabilise the
chemical values of boiler water before charging the steam lines or HP/LP by pass even.
b) Safety valve of the boiler is supposed to close after certain pressure drop. If it is not
closing at a particular pressure, by opening startup vent valve, the pressure, can be
dropped to lower the value and safety valve closing is achieved. If the safety valve is
allowed to continuously blow the seat of the safety valve may get damaged and may
create a problem in running the boiler.
Startup vent is operated from the control room. It is a puffing type valve.
LEVEL GAUGEE GLASS OF BOILER DRUM :

Gauge glass is an important mounting for the Boiler Drum water and plays a very
important part in controlling the Boiler operations. Direct gauge glass is mounted on the
boiler drum that shows the water level in the drum on site. But every time it is not possible to
watch the level from local. So some arrangement is to be incorporated to transmit this level in
remote control room. For this the connections of gauge glass pipes are used or separate
provision is always made for tapping this type of gauge glass provision. The detail of this type
of gauge glass is explained below. Apart from this also there are other equipment for indication
of boiler water level for remote, such as electronic transmitters coupled with recorders or
indicators, camera signal etc.
DIRECT GAUGE GLASS :

This gauge glass is mounted on left and right side of the Boiler drum, which indicates
the drum water level directly there are 7 ports on the gauge glass and ports are having vision
glasses to see the level. So by vision, the exact level in the drum can be seen. The details off
the gauge glass connections are self explanatory in the following figure of gauge glass.
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Yarway’s remote level indicator :
This indicator combines two major components i) a sensing element that responds to
differential pressure and (ii) an indicating system that presents a visual response as a true
reading level. Following figure shows yhe deails of the gauge glass.
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The sensing element, or constant head chamber, measures and compares the variable
head of the liquid in the vessel to a constant head maintained within the sensing element.
The indicating system is located outside the pressure zone and receives its rotating force
through a permanent magnet coupling, thereby eliminating direct mechanical linkages and
stuffing boxes. The permanent magnet is positioned by a spring loaded stack diaphragm,
which moves in response to differential pressure changes.
In most installations the water level gauge glass reading is the accepted standard or
reference. To assure indicating accuracy, the indication system is provided with suitable
compensation to match the pressure demands of particular system. Three types of
compensations are available, natural, temperature, and pressure compensation.
Natural Compensation : In a natural compensation system, the constant head chamber

assures natural compensation by reducing the density of the water in the indicator. In operation,
steam from the boiler fills stream leg piping and the constant head chamber, condensing and
heating the water in this chamber and in the upper portion of the constant head pipe running
to the indicator. The side overflow, the variable leg, is connected to this lower fitting on the
pressure vessel. In addition to this natural compensation the indicator is calibrated to the
average gauge glass water density.
Temperature Compensation : On pressure above 52 kg/cm2, density changes due to

increasing temperature become sufficiently pronounced to require the addition of a temperature
compensation jacket fastened around the variable and constant head pipes of the constant
head chamber. This permits reheating of the constant head pipe by the stream within the
variable head pipe, adjusting the density of the water so that mid scale accuracy is guaranteed
for all pressures. In addition this compensation provides full-scale accuracy at the specified
operating pressure.
Pressure Compensation : When total, full scale accuracy is necessary for all pressures, as
during activation or deactivation of high pressure boiler, pressure compensation used in
conjunction with temperature compensation can be added to the indicator, thereby providing
additional pointer movement to compensate for density of water at different pressure in the
indicator. The pressure compensated indicator can be furnished to gauge density or drum
density as specified.
Auxiliary Equipment :
Vent Valves : The indicator is equipped with vent valves that purge air from both sides of the
diaphragm and the piping system to maintain system accuracy.
Instrument shut off valves : The indicator is equipped with two isolating valves.
Instrument valve Manifold : Consisting of middle equalizing valve and two shut off valves
is supplied on indicators operating under high pressure conditions. The equalizing valve permits
balancing of the pressure on opposite sides of the diaphragm during start up and priming
operations.
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Secondary indicator :
In combination with the signal conditioner, the primary indicator can electrically operate
one or more secondary instruments which are panel mounted. The secondary indicators are
independent of any pressure connection.
Signal conditioner :
The device is provided with the primary indicator to deliver an output signal that varies
with the level measured by the primary instruments. The signal conditioner transmits an
electronic signal from the primary indicator to secondary indicator as well as other system
accessories. Thus the signal of level is transmitted to the level indicator in control Room.
CHEMICAL DOSING SCHEME :

For 210 MW boiler chemical dosing and chemical sampling schemes are as per the
following. A chemical dosing system consisting of
a) Phosphate dosing to boiler drum.
b) Hydrazine dosing to booster feed pump suction.
c) Morpholine/ammonia dosing to condensate suction.
Each dosing scheme is provided with solution preparation facility, solution measurement,
dosing pumps and inter connecting piping to provide condensate to the solution preparation
tank, suction piping and the discharge piping up to the point of the application.
Phosphate dosing has been provided to maintain a maximum phosphate level of 10 PPM in the
boiler drum to keep the scale in loose conditions and also to maintain the pH.
Hydrazine dosing has been provided to scavenge the residual dissolved oxygen coming from
the deaerator outlet. Hydrazine dosing scheme has been designed to inject upto a maximum
of 0.02 ppm of hydrazine.
Morpholine/ammonia dosing has been provided to neutralise the carbon dioxide in the
condensate. The system is suitable to handle both morpholine and ammonia. Anyone of the
chemicals is used as per requirements.
The brief specifications of the equipment is as given below.
a) PHOSPHATE DOSING SCHEME :

Tanks Solution preparation Metering
Number One One
Capacity 800 litres 800 litres
Diameter & height 0.9 * 1.0 Ht. 0.9 * 1.0 Ht.
Material M.S. Rubberlined
Accessories Dissolving basket, level gauge
motorised agitator & level gauge
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b) PHOSPHATE DOSING PUMPS :
Number Two one working and one standby
Flow rate 41 ltrs/hr max.
Discharge pressure 200 kg/cm2
Material All welded parts of stainless steel.
Type Duplex Positive displacement plunger type.
Capacity 0 to 100 % by changing the stroke length manually while pump is
running or at rest.
Accessories i) External pressure relief valve on discharge side of each pump.
ii) Pressure gauge on discharge side of each pump.
iii) ‘Suction strainer in common suction line to the pump to entrap
suspended matters.
c) PIPING VALVES AND FITTINGS :

i) All valves are of stainless steel with socket welded ends.
ii) All piping of stainless steel.
iii) All fittings are of stainless steel socket weld end types.
a) Hydrazine Dosing System :

Tanks Measuring Material Accessories
Number One two, one working & one stand by
Capacity 50 Liters 600 Liters.
Material M.S. Rubber Lined M. S. Rubber lined
Accessories Level gauge Level gauge & breather.
b) Hydrazine dosing pump :

Number Two one working and one standby
Flow rate 30 ltrs/hr max.
Discharge pressure 15kg/cm2
Material All welded parts of stainless steel.
Type Simplex Positive displacement plunger type.
Capacity 0 to 100 % by changing the stroke length manually while pump is
running or at rest.
Accessories i) External pressure relief valve on discharge side of each pump.
ii) Pressure gauge on discharge side of each pump.
iii) Suction strainer in common suction line to the pump to entrap
suspended matters.
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Morpholine/Amonia Dosing Pumps :
All specifications are as per hydrazine dosing system
SAMPLING :
General :
Before starting the boiler and while running also, the chemical values of drum water
superheated steam etc are always maintained within the operating limits. So all these chemical
values are to be checked periodically. To check these values the actual sample of the steam
and water is essential. As the boiler is running with high pressure and temperature, the
samples collection is difficult. For this certain specified sampling points are arranged at the
piping or equipment and are arranged and the sample is thus taken through sampling points
to the sampling coolers specially provided for the purpose.
Following samples are taken periodically.

i) Feed water sample : This sampling point is taken after the H.P.heaters outlet before
FW 26 valve.
ii) Saturated steam sample : This sampling point is taken from the pipes coming out
from drum to super heater No.1. There are five pipes coming out from drum superheater
No. 1, from all these pipes a sampling line is taken out and of these five sampling lines
one common line is taken to sampling cooler.
iii) Superheated steam : This sampling point is taken from outlet steam pipe of superheater
No.14 going to turbine before Boiler- stop valve, generally from left Hand side steam
pipeline.
iv) Drum water : This sampling point is taken from C.B.D. line before C.B.D. valves.
✦✦✦
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D. M. PLANT AND SOFTENING PLANT
D.M. PLANT :
Dissolved solids present in water is removed in DM plant by ION exchange process and
for this ION exchange resins are used.
ION EXCHANGE RESINS:

ION exchanges resins are synthetic organic polymers. Most commonly used resins are
gel type polysyrine resins. Acrylic resins/ Macroporous / microporous resins are now also
available in market.
CATION EXCHANGE RESINS:

Cation exchange resins are nothing but acid and can be simply represented as :
R- - H+, where R is resin matrix, completely insoluble in water and only H+ is mobile in water.
Cation resins are of two types. Strong Acid Cation Exchange resins (SAC) and weak
Acid Cation Exchange resins (WAC).
SAC : When the functional group attached to resin matrix is strong acid group it is called SAC
resin.
SAC can split all salts and its performances is not influenced by pH of water. Operational
exchange capacity and regeneration efficiency of SAC is less than WAC.
ANION EXCHANGE RESINS:

Anion resins can be simply represented as R+-OH- and is nothing but an alkali/ base.
OH is only mobile in water.
Anion exchange resins are two type. Strong basse anion resins (SBA) and weak base
anion resins (WBA).
SBA : When the functional group is strong base it is called SBA resins. SBA performance is not
influenced by water pH and it exchanges with both strong and weak acids.
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WBA : When the functional group attached is weak base it is called WBA.
WBA performs better at low pH and increased pH decreases its performance. When pH
is more than H, actually regeneration takes place.
Operation capacity and Regeneration efficiency of WBA is higher than SBA. WBA can
only react with strong acids :
HCl H2O H2O

Cation effluent ———————! WBA-! ——————— ! SBA ! ————
H2CO3 H2CO3 H2O
H2SiO3 H2SiO3
H2CO3
H2SiO3 H2O
Cation effluent ———————— ! SBA ! —————
HCl H2O
PRINCIPLE OF DEIONISATION :
All impurities except dissolved soilds are removed in pretreatment plant.
Only dissolved solids ae removed in D.M.Plant.
Dissolved solids in water dissociates into ions (as water is a polar solvent and it dissolves
electro-valent compounds)
Positive charged ions are called cations and negative charged ions are termed as anions.
In normal river water most common salts presents are calcium, magnesium and sodium
salts, associated with corresponding equivalent anions like Cl-, SO4—, CO3— etc.
Dissolved solids can be represented as :
Cation Anion
Ca++ HCO3-, CO3-
Mg ++ SO4 —
Na+ Cl-
SiO3 –
If the above water passes through a cation exchanger all the cations are exchanged
with H+ of cation exchange resins.
R- - H+ +CaCl2 ! R- - Ca ++ + HCl
R- - H+ + CaCO3 ! R- - Ca ++ + H2CO3
Similarly all cations are exchanged and retained by resin and ultimate product will be
corresponding acids. PH drops around 3.5 and it becomes soft.
Cation Anion
H+ HCO3 - CO3 —
SO4 —
Cl -
SiO3 —
The above water when passed through an anion exchanger, all anions are exchanged
with OH- of SBA resins and equivalent amount of water is produced.
200
H+Cl- +R+ - OH- ! R – Cl + H+OH- (H2O)
H2+CO3— + R+ - OH- ! R – CO3 + H+OH- (H2O)
Similarly all the acids are converted to H2O. It appears that by passing water containing
salts through a cation and anion exchange resins all ionsiable salts can be removed.
However actual process is a little bit different.
SODIUM SLIP:
When water containing Ca, Mg, Na ions is passed through cation exchanger bed, Ca
ions are retained in Ist layer then Mg and in the last layer Na ions are retained.
Ion exchange reactions are reversible (for regeneration and reuse).
The reaction in the bottom part of the bed is with sodium salt (say NaCl).
R – H + NaCl ! R – Na + HCl
Now even at very low concentration of R – NA some back reaction produces NaCl.
R – Na + HCl ! R – H + NaCl
Thus effluent coming out from cation exchanger is not 100% acid but contain a little
amount of Sodium Salt. This is called sodium slip. Increased bed depth reduces this amount
of slip but can never be nil. Further it is not techno-economically feasible to increase bed
depth indefinitely. Hence some amount of sodium slip is accepted in design.
The cation effluent containing some sodium when passes through anion exchanger,
acids are converted to water but sodium salts are converted to NaOH.
R – OH + NaCl ! R – Cl + Na OH
R – OH + HCl ! R – Cl + H2O
So the effluent coming out of anion bed contain NaOH that increases the pH and
conductivity of the anion effluent.
Further, similar to Na-slip, silica slip takes place from anion exchanger.
Thus water coming out through cation and anion exchanger has high pH/conductivity
and silica and is not as per requirement of H.P. Units.
MIXED BED UNITS :

After passing water through cation then anion exchanger it is passed through mixed
bed unit. In mixed bed cation and anion resins are mixed and while water passes through it as
it passes through thousands of cation / anion exchanger ‘ resulting final effluent of very good
quality water. So, minimum requirement is, SAC à SBA à MB. Further, H2CO3 produced in SAC
can be easily removed at low running cost in a Degassifier.
D.M. PLANT :
From filter water chlorine is removed before allowing it to enter ion exchanger. It can
be done by :
(a) Passing through activated carbon filter which absorbs chlorine or
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(b) Dosing calculated amount of sodium sulphite which reduces chlorine to chloride ion.
Depending upon the amount of water to be treated and quality of the filter water, different
types of deminerlisation schemes are made.
(1) Cation Unit – Degasser – Anion Unit – M.B. Unit

SAC SBA
(2) Cation Unit – WBA – Degasser – SBA – MB
SAC
When water requirement is more.
(3) WAC – SAC – WBA – Degasser – SBA – MB
Where water contains more carbonate / Bicarbonate and requirement is more.

A typical D.M. scheme is shown in Fig.2b.
CATION EXCHANGER :
Ion exchange vessels’ are designed for operation of deep beds of resins in column. It
aims to provide water flow in smooth steady piston like motion across the entire width of the
bed. Provisions for resin distribution and support is also important.
Fig.2c shows a typical cation exchanges internal.
Cation exchanger vessel is constructed with steel inside rubberlined. It has 50 to 75%
void space to allow free expansion of resin during back wash.
Size of the vessel varies considerably depending upon the quantity of resins required.
Upper limit of the diameter if set by need for uniform flow distribution. For successful column
operation minimum bed depth 30 inches is required to minimise leakage. Maximum bed
depth is restricted to about 60 inches as higher bed depth will create pumping problem.
Hence height of the vessel is set by the resin bed depth. Feed water flow distribution is
regulated by distribution. The lower manifold serves to distribute the backwash flow and
collect treated water evenly for optimum performance.
During operation cation exchange effluent contains some Na (Na slip) which is ultimately
removed in MB Unit. End point of the run is detected by increase in Na leakage in cation
effluent which also increases the conductivity and pH of the anion effluent.
REGENERATION OF CATION EXCHANGER :

Regeneration of the cation exchanger is done when the sodium leakage increases to
certain pre set value.
The following steps are observed in Regeneration.
(i) Backwash : Backwash is done by upflow of water with air scouring (if arrangement is
available purpose of backwash is to loose the bed and remove accumulated suspended
solids dirts, resin fines, fragments, etc. Otherwise these will lead to channeling at points
of flow break through, poor kinetics and large pressure drops. To allow removal of
accumulated solids without loss of resigns through distributor, free board should be 50-
75% of the resin bed height.
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(ii) Acid Injection : After backwash required about of acid is injected at specified
concentration. Contact time is normally 30 min. Hydrochloric acid is used.
In case of Hydrochloric acid 5% acid is injected with normal flow. Regeneration
level is normally 4-5 lbs/cubic ft of resin.
(iii) After acid injection the bed is rinsed with water, first at slower rate (1qpm/sqft) and then
at higher rate 5 to 8 qpm/sq.ft. Volume used is 30-40 gal/cubic ft.
ANION EXCHANGER (SBA + WBA)

Constructional features of anion exchanger is similar to cation exchanger unit.
During operation effluent coming out from anion out let contain some silica as leakage
and NaOH. At the end point of run silica leakage starts increasing and at a present value the
Unit is taken out of service for regeneration.
Operational capacity of the Anion exchanger depends upon anion load, regenerent
level, SiO2, Anion ration, quality of treated water, bed depth, performance of cation exchanger,
termperature of the regenerant etc. The Unit is normally designed to have one regeneration a
day.
REGENERATION OF ANION EXCHANGER :

The following steps are observed for regeneration of Anion exchange unit.
(i) Backwash : Backwashing is done to loose the bed and remove resin fines and fragments
(below 50 mesh). Normal backwash rate is 2-4 g pm/ sq.ft. for 10 minutes.
(ii) Injection of caustic : 4% caustic at 4 to 8 Ibs/cubic ft. resin is injected for a contact
time of about 1 hour. For better removal of silica particularly in WBA/SBA combination
higher regenerant level more contact time and higher temperature of the regenerant (50
C) may be needed.
(iii) Rinse : Slow rinse at 1 qpm/sq. Ft then fast rinse at 5 to 8 g pm/ sq. ft. for 1 to 1½ hour
may be required to bring down the conductivity and silica to the acceptable level. Volume
used is 40-100 gal/cubic ft.
WBA
End point of WBA is detected by increase in the conductivity and lowering of pH.
The Regeneration of WBA need about 1% NaOH. Therefore regeneration is done for
WBA where SBA outlet caustic is injected to WBA with some modification to avoid silica
precipitation in the WBA Unit (Fig.2C) Other steps are similar to SBA Regn.
MIXED BED :
Mixed bed unit gives much better quality of water compared to series of cation and
anion units.
MB unit is designed to take care of expected leakage from preceding cation and anion
bed. Regeneration frequency is normally once in a week. Not more than 30-40% of the capacity
of MB unit is utilised to have better quality of treated water. If the MB is over run, it will be
loaded with more ions. Which needs higher regenerant level in the next regeneration. A
typical MB internal is shown in Fig. (2f).
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It is similar to conventional ion exchanger, a cylinderical steel vessel. Internally rubber
lined containing resin bed above which there is free space to allow expansion of resin when
back washed. In addition to the usual distributors, a mixed bed is fitted with a centre distribution
and collection system.
At the time of regeneration the bed is back washed. This expands the resin bed and
allows the heavy cation resin to sink to bottom and lighter anion resin rises to top. After some
time when back wash is stopped the resins settle without upsetting the seperation. There is a
well defined interface between the cation and anion resin bed and that interface is just at the
level of centre distributor.
Anion resin can be regenerated with caustic and rinsed. Spend caustic solution and
rinse water can be withdrawn through the centre distributor.
After this cation resin can be regenerated and rinsed. In that case caustic outlet will
now be acid inlet/ rinse water inlet.
When both the resins are regenerated and rinsed the excess water is drained down to
the surface of the bed and the resins are mixed throughly, with the help of air blowing. The air
is blown in through bottom distributor and out through the air release at the top. After proper
mixing the space above the bed is filled from above and unit is put into final rinse.
REGENERATION OF MIXED BED:

MB is normally regenerated when the effluent conductivity is more than preset value
of silica is more than 0.02 ppm.
The following steps are observed at the time of regeneration.

(i) Air Scrubbing : Water is drained to top of the resin bed and air scrubbing is done for
10 min.
(ii) Back Washing : Unit is filled with water and back washing is done at 4-9 qpm/ sq. ft;
then the resin is allowed to settle for 10 minutes which separates the anion and cation
resin. (Fig.2g).
(iii) Regeneration of Anion Resin Bed : Regeneration of anion resin bed is done with 4%
caustic at 121 bs/ cubic ft. resins. (Fig.2h).
(iv) Rinse of the Anion Resin Bed : For about an hour till effluent conductivity is below
10 ms/cm.
(v) Regeneration of Cation Resin Bed : Regeneration of cation resin bed is done with
4% acid at a regeneration level 8-12 lbs/cubic ft. (Fig.2i).
(vi) Rinse of the Cation Resin bed till conductivity less than 10 ms/cm (20 minutes).
(vii) Mixing of the Resins : The water is drained down to the surface of the resin bed and
mixing is done by air blowing for about 5 minutes then it is allowed to settle. Through
the site glass proper mixing can be observed. (Fig.2j).
(viii) Final Rinse : After mixing the unit is refilled with water and put to final rinse till the
effluent comes to the acceptable limit (approx. 30-50 mins.)
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MIXED BED OUTLET WATER QUALITY
Conductivity 0.2 – 0.3 µs/cm
PH 6.8 – 7.2
SiO2 Less than 0.02 ppm
DEGASSIFIER
After the cation exchanger the effluent is acid and all the bicarbonate present in water
is converted to CO2. This CO2 can be removed in Degasser very cheaply. The capital cost of a
Degasser is very less and running cost also. Otherwise this CO2 is to removed in anion
exchanger. Hence Degasser actually reduces load in Anion exchanger.
The theory of degassification is mainly based on following gas laws.

DELTON’S LAW: The total pressure exerted by a mixture of several gases is equal to the sum
of the partial pressures of individual gas. Again according to charles law the partial pressure
of each gas is determined by the amount of that gas in the mixture.
HENRY’S LAW : The solubility of the gas in water is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of that gas in contract with water X=P/H, X= amount of gas dissolved in water, P=
Partial pressure of the gas in contact with water, H= constant at that temperature.
Hence solubility of a gas may be decreased to effect more complete from water in
several ways.
(i) by lowering the partial pressure by inserting another gas in contact with water
(Degassifier).
(ii) By decreasing the pressure (cold water deareation).
(iii) By lowering the partial pressure by heating the water to boining point corresponding
to the pressure of the steam introduced (Hot water deareation).
SOFTENING PLANT :
Soften water is generally used for cooling or general service. Softer water have total
hardness less than 5 ppm..
Softening plant consist of Series of base exchangers and number of exchanger is
depend upon water requirement.
BASE EXCHANGER :
It is basically cation exchange resin and can be represented as :
R – Na+ where R is resin matrix, which is completely insoluble in water and only Na+
is mobile in water.
In base exchanger, we softer the water by removing Ca2+ and mg2+ ions from the
water and exchange Na+ in place of it.
This can be elaborated as :
R – Na+ + Ca2+ or Mg2+ ! R – Ca2+ or R – Mg2+
All the calcium and magnesium ions retain in the exchanges bed and sodium
from the bed releases in to the water in exchange. Now all the water is called as soften water.
205
Regeneration :
When entire bed is filled with calcium and magnesium ions this ion exchange bed is
called as exhausted.
To regenerate it, to its original form i.e. R – Na+, regeneration with 5-6% NaCl (Sodium
Chloride) is done.
The steps is similar with Cation Exchanger only in (ii) step. Sodium Chloride injection
is done.
After regeneration, total hardness of the eluent is measured and regeneration is complete
when total hardness is reached below 5 ppm.
206
207
✦✦✦
208
RAW WATER AND PRETREATMENT OF WATER
Our natural water supplies are derived chiefly from the oceans. Clouds are formed by
solar evaporation and are driven by winds overland, to condense and precipitate as rain, snow
or hail. After these fall to the earth, they either flow over the surface or percolate into the
ground. Excess water then returns to the primary source by way of the rivers that flow back to
the oceans.
Our water supplies are therefore classified into two main groups.
1) Surface waters i.e. rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, reservoirs etc.
2) Underground waters : Wells, springs.
Natural water always contain impurities in the form of floating solids, suspended solids,
colloids, dissolved gases, organic impurities etc.
In most of the industrial and domestic application water can not be used in a received
condition. It requires treatment. Impurities present in river water can be broadly classified
into following groups.
Major Impurities of Water
Suspended solids Ionic & Dissolved Solids Dissolved liquids & gasses,
(Dirt, silt, mud, plankton, (Calcium, Magnesium, (Carbon dioxide, Ammonia,
Coloured organic matter) Iron, Nitrate, Chlorides Hydrogen sulfide,
Sulphates, Silica) Oxygen & oils.)
REMOVAL OF IMPURITIES :
Suspended solids, and dissolved liquids and gases are removed in pretreatment, and
ionic and dissolved solids are removed in D.M.Plant.
So the water treatment plant has two sections.

1) PRETREATMENT PLANT.
1) POST TREATMENT (D. M. PLANT) PLANT:
The pretreatment plant is discussed in this section and the details of post treatment
plant (D. M. Plant) are given in GCT-06/03.
209
PRETREATMENT PLANT
SCREENING
Sedimentation in one day reservoir of

RAW WATER
PRE CHLORINATION Chlorine gas or Bleaching powder
AERATION
ALUM DOSING + LIME DOSING

(Chemical dosing)
COAGULATION
FLOCCULATION
Clariflocculator
CLARIFICATION
FILTRATION Through Rapid sand filter

or Pressure filter
FILTER WATER STORAGE
FOR FOR FOR

D.M. PLANT COOLING WATER PLANT DRINKING WATER PLANT
210
FLOW CHART OF PRETREATMENT OF WATER GENERALLY PRACTICED IN TPS.
A) SCREENING :
Coarse Screens are provided at river intake to prevent floating material of fairly large
size entering the works. The steel bars forming the screen are normally quite substantial
(about 25 mm Dia) and are spaced about 100 mm apart. They are often placed on slight
inclination from the vertical to facilitate raking. Sometimes the bars are mounted in frames,
which are duplicated so that one frame can be lifted for clearing or repairing without admitting
unscreened water to the plant. The velocity of water through the screen openings should not
exceed 0.5 m/s.
Fine screens are also normally fitted immediately after the coarse screens, the orifices
of which are generally of the order of 6 mm. It is now a common practice to install one of the
many proprietary form of mechanical screen (also called travelling water screens) which are
constructed on the endless band or drum principle and cleaned continuously by water jets
which wash the straining away along channels.
B) RAW WATER STORAGE :

In many instances and for various reasons, raw water is stored for appreciable periods.
In all such cases an improvement in the raw water quality is noticeable purely as a result of
retention of water provided. The storage provided is for 7-15 days of the average water
demand. This is sufficient to reduce pathogenic bacteria suspended solids and river algae,
while at the same time not along enough to encourage other organisms to develop.
C) PRE CHLORINATION
This is a practice of injecting chlorine into the raw water soon after it enters the plant,
generally at a dosing rate of 2-5 mg/L. This, not only destroys the high bacterial count, but
also oxidises and precipitate iron and manganese, kills algae, reduce color and slime formation
and generally assists settlement. However, if water is highly turbid the merit of prechlorination
declines, as chlorine absorbs without compensatory benefit. Use of prechlorination is also
avoided when sewage, otherwise poisonous compound of nitrogen trichlo could be formed
and present in water is very unsafe for potable purpose.
D) AERATION :
It is a cheap and valuable means of controlling taste, odour and corrosion but not in all
case complete control may be achieved. Gases are absorbed or liberated from water until
equilibrium is reached between the natural content of each gas in the atmosphere and its
content in the water. The process is however slow unless the water is agitated or great area
exposed to atmosphere. This is commonly done by splashing the water over trays cascades to
break up the stream into countless droplets or by reversing the effect and blowing air bubbles
through the water. Thus if the water is lacking in dissolved oxygen it will pick up oxygen from
the air, and its taste will improve. If it has an excess of CO2 or H2S it will tend to lose them.
Certain volatile substance is liberated by algae growths or decomposing organic matter, can
be released from water by aeration. Iron and manganese in solution are also oxidised and
precipitated out.
211
E) COAGULATION :
Coagulation is a process by which small particles in suspension join together to form
larger agglomerate. Fine suspended particles and colloids present in water carry charges on
their surface and most of the common materials assume negative charge.
For agglomaration fine particles should come in contact with each other or collide with
each other. Since they carry the same charge they repel each other. They will only come in
contact when they are on a true collision course. In that case they will join together to
coagulate into large particles and settle down quickly. The rate of this coagulation depends
upon the frequency of collisions. So mixing promotes the effect but violent agitation will
break down the attraction between the particle and retard coagulation. If enough time is
given, stagnant water may coagulate sufficiently to form particles large enough to settle
down, leaving the water largely clear. This auto coagulation improves the water quality of
large reservoir, lakes, etc.
The process is very slow and in industry we are continuously in need of water, so it is
very important to promote the coagulation process to accelerate sedimentation of the suspended
and colloids particles.
Obvious way of promoting coagulation is to neutralise or reverse the electrical effect.
In that case the particles will touch each other or pulled together and agglomerate. This can
be done in two ways.
(i) By adding traces of surface active materials called coagulation aids.
(i) By introducing fresh particles with positive charge which is best done by Flocculation
that is by precipitating aluminium or iron hydroxide in water.
COAGULATION AIDS
Coagulation aids of different types are available. They are all long chain molecules
carrying electrically active groups all along the length of the chain.
For example, very effective aids are long chain poly-acrylamides, which carries positive
charge.
Each long chain molecule collapses on to a single suspended particle, where it covers
a sizable area as it settles. The area is then electro positive and attracts and holds the electro
negative surfaces of suspended particles/colloids. This arrested particle may also have an
electro positive patch on it and so on. The aids have very long chains. In shorter chain
molecules amount required for the same effect is higher. The amount required for effective
coagulation with the coagulation aids are very small and they are effective in any type of
water. The problems with them are that they are difficult to dissolve, dilute or mix.
Most of the very effective aids (Polyacrylamide as mentioned above) are toxic and
cannot be used in potable water.
A common nontoxic aid is activated silica, which is prepared on the site because it is
unstable. Requirement may be more than ten times than that of polyacrylamides other than
perfectly controlled preparation and dosing it will leave high polymers of silica in water (non
reactive silica).
All coagulation aids or big polymers will foul the ion exchanger bed. Other than effluent
treatment or cooling water treatment use of coagulation aids may be avoided as far as possible.
212
F) FLOCCULATION :
Ferric and alluminium salts when added in water forms insoluble hydroxides which
come out as floppy flocs, whose surface carry positive charge. This positive charge flocs
attaches itself with the negative charged particles in water and also attract and hold humic
acid.
Flocculation is more effective as flocs has large electropositive surface area and also it
greatly increases particle concentration in water, which increases the probability of collision,
proper pH, good mixing, time and presence of nuclei on which precipitate can form, favours
good floc formation.
Aluminium and iron hydroxide gives good flocs normally in slight acidic pH.
(Iron 5-6 pH and Aluminium 6-7 pH)
When (Aluminium sulphate is known as alum in TPS) is added in water aluminium

hydroxide floc and sulphuric acid is formed. This acid reduces the pH of the water.
AL2 (SO4) 3 + 6H2O Al(OH) 3 +3H2SO4
Normally raw water pH is alkaline. In that water after addition of required amount of
alum pH may come down to coagulation pH.
In rainy season when the turbidity is high alum dosing is also high. In that case pH
may fall far below the coagulation pH. Lime Ca(OH) 2 is generally used to increase pH to the
required level.
Ca(OH) 2 has also some coagulation properties and it helps to remove some temporary
hardness.
Iron salts give best coagulation at low pH. But it is not so much pH sensitive as aluminium
salts. Hence with iron salts, coagulation can be done at whole range of pH. Where the coagulation
pH is very narrow, raw water pH is very high iron slats may be better choice.
Extract chemical condition to give best coagulation can only be ascertained by systematic
trial and error method in the laboratory. The test is called Jar Test, and the results from the
Jar Test is applied in the actual plant.
G) CLARIFIERS :
Clarifiers are structure/system in which water is cleared from most of the suspended
solids with or without addition of coagulant. There are different types of clarifiers.
A conventional type clarifier is discussed below.
CONVENTIONAL TYPE CLARIFIER :

This has the arrangement of a flash mixer, flocculator and settler in separate
compartments. The water first enters the flash mixer, where it is mixed with the chemicals by
means of a high speed agitator. Usually several minutes of detention are needed in the chamber.
The mixed water then enters the flocculator chamber, where slowly rotating paddles provide
more gentle agitation, stimulating the growth of the floc, which enmeshes the turbidity, colour
and other suspended matter. About 20 to 60 minutes of retention are allowed in the flocculator.
The flocculated water then is distributed uniformly to the horizontal flow settling basin
213
compartment, where the floc and precipitates settle out. A slowly rotating sludge scraper
maker the settled clarified water flows to the outlet launder at the top, from which it passes to
the filters.
The setting basin for the horizontal flow may be a square or rectangular chamber or it
may be a round, vertical tank for radial, inclined flow from the bottom of a central cylindrical
down comer to a peripheral launder. In the latter case the flocculator may be in a separate
chamber or be inserted in the down comer. The detention time for the settling varies from 2 to
6 hr. The speed of flow should be kept at less than 1 to 2 ft/min for a good separation and
setting of the precipitates and floc.
A second major category of clarifiers are solid contact unit, available in two basic
types :
i) Slurry re-circulation clarifier.
i) Sludge blanket clarifier.
Both of these combine chemical mixing floculation and clarification in a single unit. In
the mixing zone of a solids contact clarifier, the solids concentration may be as much as 100
times that of simple clarifier. The high solids level greatly increases the rate of chemical
destabilisation reactions particle growth. Because of this feature, the solids contact unit is
used in limes softening. In the sludge recirculation unit the high floc values is maintained by
recirculation from floculation zone to the clarification zone.
In the blanket type clarifier, the floc solids are maintained in a fluidized blanket through
which the water must flow. Because of the increased solids, in a solids contact unit, clarifier
size may be reduced. The even distribution of inlet flow and the vertical flow pattern of this
type clarifier provide better performance than standard horizontal flow clarifier.
HOPPER BOTTOM CLARIFIER :

Later concept of clarifier is hopper bottom clarifier. The tank is usually square in plan
with upper portion having vertical sides and the lower position in the form of an inverted
pyramid with sides at an angle of 60 to the horizontal, size of the tank is governed by the
turbidity and volume of the feed water.
Raw water with chemicals is delivered near the bottom of the hopper portion by a
vertical inlet pipe. Velocity of discharge and change in direction of flow creates and maintains
the mild agitation needed for initial flocculation which continues within the sludge blanket.
SLUDGE BLANKET :
The water rises at a steady decreasing velocity at the initial stage up flow velocity of
water is more than the settling velocity (downword) of the suspended particle. Then at a
distance both velocity equals and we get maximum sludge formation in that area. This sludge
blanket is composed of relatively long particle and they are capable of maintaining their
position. After this sludge blanket is formed subsequent settling of the smaller particles is
quick because when they come in contact with sludge blanket. Agglomeration is quick due to
very easy contact. Sedimentation of the smallest particle may be said to be taking place on
the surface of the larger stationary particles of the sludge blanket.
214
The particles that are too heavy to be carried to the sludge blanket fall to the bottom
of the hopper from where they are discharged periodically.
CONTROL OF FLOCCULATION :
A variable velocity valve adjustable from the top of the tank is fitted with inlet pipe to
take care exceptional changes of water characteristics or wide variation of flow.
In normal cases inlet pipe has a fixed diameter out let to give required discharge
velocity. The effect of increases flow through the tank is the expansion of the sludge blanket
until the equilibrium is re-established. The surface of the sludge blanket will rise but carryover
will not occur until the increase in flow is excessive.
COLLECTION OF CLARIFIED WATER :

The water coming out of the sludge blanket passes up through straight position of the
tank and is drawn off by a series of collecting troughs. They have notched side and are
provided with adjustable supports to enable them to be set for uniform draw off. This eliminates
chances of short circuiting.
SLUDGE DISCHARGE :
It is necessary to bleed off a small flow of sludge through concentrating pocket. It may
be a constructed in the concrete or it may be suspended from the top of the tank.
H) FILTERATION :
Deep Bed Filter :
This type of filtering also leads to local accumulation of suspended mater. Once the
particles have been brought into contact by settling in the some place, electrostatic forces
tend to hold them together. As the medium accumulates filter dirt, the pressure across the
medium increases and thus leads to increase in shear force, which may collapse some of the
bridges, which hold mini cakes. This causes upset infiltration, first dirt passes through the
upper bed, then it starts to pass through entire filter media causing filter break through.
The deep bed filter differ from another filters as under:

a) They are capable to filtering very fine solids including colloids.
b) Fine sand gives finer filtration because the size of the channel is decreased and because
for more area of filtration is achieved.
c) Because particles tend to accumulate at the same place it promote coagulation.
d) Deepening the bed increases the availability of the filter medium and improves the quality
of filtrate.
e) At the end of a filter cycle, the rising pressure loss can force accumulated dirt right through
the filter.
BACK WASHING THE BED :

Sand filters are always back washed upwards so that the sand bed expands and solids
so accumulated is released. The theory of back washing indicates, the maximum fluid velocity
at any point is terminal velocity of solid accumulation at that point. Normally this velocity is
215
not enough to rip the accumulated material from it. Extra agitation is necessary for efficient
washing usually by air blowing through the bed does the job. In practice, a bed on backwash
should classify, so that the smallest particles end up at the top and the largest at the bottom.
Sand filters are not usually fluidized for complete clarification. Bit by bit, however, the bed
does tend to classify. With a bed of uniform density, the finest particles end up at the top.
Thus a filter bed may be designed to hold different layer of filter media having different
density. The specific gravity and media of filter is described as under :
MATERIAL TYPICAL SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Polystyrene 1.04
Anthracite 1.40
Silica sand 2.65
Garnest 3.83
There are two types of filters mainly:

a) Up-flow filters
a) Down – flow filters
These are again termed as “slow” and “rapid” sand filters. The slow filter has usually a
flow rate of 1-2 g/sq.ft/h. i.e. rate will be just as 100 litres/sq.m/hr. This requires very large
filter bed or restricted to small amount of water to be handled. Thus the high capital cost, had
made it progressively less economical.
Rapid Sand Filters :

This is the present day concept in the filter industry. It consists of a bed of graded sand
typically + 30 mesh to 15 mesh about 0.6 meter in depth. This lies in a bed of graded gravel
in several layers. The gravel sizes vary from 2.5 mm to 25 mm. This filter operates between
5-10 m3/m2/hr. and capable of removing particles upto 10 micron size from water containing
100 ppm of suspended matter. The restricting ppm of suspended load, the capacity can be
increased. The filters are designed to back wash once/twice a day. The back washing water
should be filtered water. Air scoring is done to agitate the filter bed.
Gravity vs. Pressure Filter :

The head of water required to push the water through filter media can be supplied
either by gravity or by pressure. These filters are having their own merits and demerits.
Activated Carbon Filter : (AC Filter)

Granular carbon is used as a filter bed through which water is passed. The impurities
that is left behind is extracted methodically. The water, as it progressively losses its pollutants
encounters zones of activated carbon which are less and less saturated and therefore more
and more active.
216
An A C filter in broad has following limitations :
a) Filtration : This must often be reduced to minimum in order to avoid clogging of the
bed. In addition carbon tends to extract absorbable products from the flow with which it
is in contact, causing premature saturation. Thus a sand filter before activated filter
will reduce such problems.
b) Biological Media : The surface of carbon offers ideal conditions bacterial growth. This
phenomenon do assist purification but can also be very dangerous if not properly controlled
(anaerobic fermentation giving off odor, clogging of bed etc.)
c) Catalytic Action : The main function of activated carbon is oxidation of water by free
chlorine.
Cl2 + H2O 2 HCl + ½ O2
The pH has a considerable role to play. The dechlorination property is affected by any
factor that interferes between carbon and chlorine such as filterable impurities like flock,
algae, etc. Thus clean water performs better for activated carbon filter.
d) Absorption : This is the principle role of the activated carbon. Thus a great care is taken
to keep the bed and unaffected.
ACF is used before Demineralisation of water. After passing through gravity or pressure
filter, water is stored as filter water.
✦✦✦
217
INTERLOCKS AND PROTECTIONS OF PUMPS
(A) CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP
START PERMISSIVE :
1) Recirculation valve open
2) Suction valve open
3) Hot-well level low does not exist.
TRIPPING INTERLOCKS :
1) Hot-well level very low.
2) Discharge pressure low (< 14.0 kg/cm2)
PICK UP OF STANDBY PUMP : Standby pump piksup at the time of following conditions
1) If running pump trips on motor portion.
2) If discharge header pressure is low (< 10.0 kg/cm2)
CHECKES AFTER START-UP OF THE PUMP :

1) Pump runs smoothly,
2) Discharge pressure is normal i.e. 21.1 kg/cm2,
3) Bearing temperature is normal (Less than 550C),
4) Motor body temperature is normal.,
5) Lubricant oil level in bearing is normal.
(B) BOILER FEED PUMP
START PERMISSIVE :
1) Suction valve is open and pump is well vented.
2) Discharge valve and its B.P. valve is closed.
3) R/C valve is open and on auto.
4) BLOV is open.
5) Warm-up valve is open and temp of pump casing is less than 150C than Feed tank
temperaure.
6) Scoop is at minimum (30%)
7) A.O.P. is running and pressure is > 2 kg/cm2
8) D.C. is ON and 6.6 KV breaker is rocked in and ‘LRP’ on ‘R’.
9) Precheck lamp will glow if above ‘8’ conditions are satisfied and pump is “ready to start”.
CHECKES AFTER START-UP OF THE PUMP :

1) A.O.P. stops and oil pressure is > 2.0 kg/cm2
2) Warm-up valve is closed.
3) Discharge valve is opened and pressure is 55 kg/cm2
458
4) Lub oil flow is normal.
5) R/C valve closes above 180 T/H flow and re-open at 100 T/H flow.
AUTO START OF S/B PUMP :

1) One of the two running pumps trip and feed flow is greater than one pump.
2) One of the other two pumps running and discharge header pressure is < 100 kg/cm2
TRIPPING INTERLOCKS :
1) Lub oil pressure very low (< 0.8 kg/cm2)
2) Working oil temperature is very high (1300C)
3) Feed water discharge temperaute > 1700C
4) Booster pump suction pressure < 2.5 kg/cm2
5) Booster pump discharge pressure < 9.5 kg/cm2 (IOS)
6) Feed flow high > 480 T/H ( 20s)
7) Feed pump discharge pressure low < 50 kg/cm2 (20s)
8) Dearater level very low
9) Unit trips through 86-GT
10) Motor protection trip.
i) Different portion.
ii) Lock rotor.
iii) Thermal O/L
iv) O/C
11) Suction valve not open (only indication)
12) Balance leak off valve not open (only indication)
CHECKS AFTER TRIPPING OF THE PUMP :

1) A.O.P. picks up on auto.
2) Warm-up valve opens.
3) Scoop to minimum position.
4) Discharge valve closes.
5) R/V opens.
6) Motor water cooling valve closes.
7) Motor space heater is ‘ON’.
✦✦✦
459
BOILER LIGHT-UP & LOADING
PART ‘A’
Preparation for Boiler light-up :

Prior to starting the activity of Boiler light up following activities are assumed to be completed.
i) Electrical supply system charged.
ii) All the permits cancelled.
iii) All the auxiliaries made normal.
iv) Trial of all the auxiliaries over.
v) Filling of the boiler.
Following are some important activities in brief and are to be undertaken before light up of the
boiler.
FURNACE :
i) Check the furnace for any foreign material and no foreign material should exist in the
furnace.
ii) All manholes and inspection windows to be closed tightly.
iii) Shutters of the peepholes should be closed.
iv) Overflow to be maintained from seal water trough and bottom ash hopper.
v) All furnace water wall soot blowers & LRSB in home position.
AIRHEATER :
i) Switch on the lub oil system of Airheater.
ii) Keep Airheater sootblower in ready condition and it is to be kept in service continuously
till oil firing is in service.
iii) Take trial of alternative drive of Airheater such as air motor or D.C. drive.
iv) Aireheater flue gas path and air path dampers to be kept open.
v) Both air heaters to be kept in service.
FANS :
i) Electrical interlock as well as process interlock trials of I.D., F.D. & P.A. fans be taken
prior to starting of this important auxiliaries.
ii) All the I.D. & F.D. fans be started one by one prior to lighting up of the Boiler. Maintain -
12.5 mm drafts in the furnace and also maintain 30% airflow in the furnace.
Oil Handling Plant :

i) Take the stock position of LDO & FO/LHSH oil in the oil handling plant and confirm that
adequate oil stock is available.
ii) Keep LDO available upto the oil station of the Boiler. Keep FO/LSHS recirculation valve
open and maintain 1200C temperature of it.
iii) Keep oil heating automising air and automising steam ready.
iv) Check steam tracing lines and keep them in service.
460
Fuel firing equipments :
i) Check cleanliness of oil guns.
ii) Take trials of F.O. / LDO trip valves. Keep the valves close.
iii) Take trials of automising air and automising steam valves.
iv) Check synchronous operation of burner tilt and auxiliary air dampers of respective
elevations.
v) Check that all oil guns are in position and control switch in remote position.
vi) Check that all igniters are in position.
vii) Check that all flame scanners are in position. Switch on scanner air fan and maintain at
least 150-mm WCL pressure in the scanner air duct.
viii) All coal mill boxed up and discharge valve open.
ix) Hot air gate and hot air dampers of all coal mills closed where as cold air gates open and
cold air damper 5% open.
x) Bunker outlet valve open, coal available to all coal feeders.
xi) Pulveriser and feeder seal air valves open.
Electro Static Precipitator :

i) All inspection doors be closed.
ii) Flue gas dampers be open.
iii) All fields in off condition.
iv) All feed gates of hopper be closed.
Ash Handling System :

i) Minimum one clinker grinder of each hopper should be available.
ii) H.P. water pumps in service and H.P. water be available for de-ashing.
iii) Slurry water pumps and ash slurry pumps and their service be available.
F.S.S.S. :
i) Control supply for F.S.S.S. must be available.
ii) Furnace purging: purge ready signal will appear only when the following conditions are
full filled.
a) 110 VAC & 220 VDC control supply of FSSS available.
b) Boiler drum level normal.
c) Atleast one air cycle in service.
d) Air flow at least 30% or more than 30%
e) Trip valves of igniter, LDO + FO be proven closed.
f) All warm up & heavy oil nozzle valves proven closed.
g) All auxiliary air dampers modulating.
h) All coal mills, coal feeders off and hot air gates closed. Cold air damper 5 % open.
i) All flame scanners show no flame.
j) No boiler trip command exists.
461
Line-up for boiler filling :
Boiler can be filled from bottom ring header or from economizer inlet side with the help of
emergency lift pump known as ELP. Make D. M . water system ready. Open drum vents, super
heater vents and R.H. vents. In normal running condition of the plant, ELP is connected to the
feed storage tank (FST). Close the valve of ELP through which it is connected to FST.
Connect ELP either to bottom ring header or to feed line by opening D.M. 101 / 102 valves. If
the boiler is to be filled up from economizer side, then open isolating valves of low load control
valve and take low load control valve in service. Start ELP and fill Boiler drum up to two ports.
Close the isolating valve of CBD and EBD close all sampling line valves. Open economiser
re-circulation valve before light up. Close all S.H. and R.H. spray isolating valves.
PART ‘B’
Procedure of Boiler light up & Boiler loading:

In part ‘A’ we have seen how the Boiler is prepared for lighting up. If the purge ready
signal is available then press button on the Boiler desk designated for start of purging of the
boiler and press switch “push to purge”. After pressing of the switch push to purge, ‘purging’
indication appears on the desk and after 5 minutes purge complete indication appears on desk
and Boiler trip circuit resets. Now Boiler can be lighted up.
Maintain 40 mm WCL furnace to windbox differential pressure. Maintain airflow more than
30%, select LDO or warm up oil for cold start. Warm up trip valve opens if the following
conditions are met.
a) No Boiler trip command.
b) Elevation AB warm up nozzle valve closed.
c) Warm up oil pressure adequate (5.7 kg/cm2)
Warm up trip valve closes under following conditions.

a) Boiler light up
b) Oil pressure less than 1.4 kg/cm2 for more than 2 seconds.
c) Differential pressure of Air to Oil less than 0.3 kg/cm2 for more than 2 seconds.
d) Close push botton pressed.
Now a days HEA igniters have replaced the HSD igniters and air cooled oil guns have
replaced the retractable oil guns.
After completion of purge cycle, boiler resets and then Boiler is ready for lightup. So after
resetting of the Boiler select warm up oil i.e. LDO oil by pressing the push button designated
for it. L.D.O. can be made available to only AB elevation oil guns. So after this press start
command to oil gun pair 1,3 or 2,4. After giving the start command, respective igniter will be
forwarded and at the same time respective hydromotor valve will get open. Spark will remain
for 10 seconds and within this time oil gun catches fire. After 10 seconds igniter retracts and
if the respective flame scanner is proved the oil flame is established and in this way the Boiler
is lighted up.Within 40-45 minutes steaming of boiler will start. Boiler drum pressure shall
increase and at Boiler drum pressure 2 kg/cm2 close the Boiler drum vent and throttle super
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heater vents. At this firing rate drum pressure shall increase and at about 5 kg/cm2 close
super heater vents and open drains of main steam line and by opening boiler outlet valve
slowly charge main steam line keeping start up vent open. At 5 kg/cm2 of drum pressure, boiler
drum temp is about 1950C. Charge PRDS from adjacent unit and prepare for F.O. firing. If
adjacent unit is not available then at at about 16 kg/cm2 drum pressure charge self PRDS and
increase FO temp up to 120 0C by keeping recirculation valve of FO open. After this flue gas
temp after air heater shall increase and attend the temperature up to 100 0C and at this time
take one pair of oil gun of C.D. elevation in service. Take FO in AB elevation and increase the
firing rate by taking second pair of oil gun of C.D. elevation.
Close vents of reheater and start vacuum pulling in condenser by starting ejector and
then increase it by taking main ejector in service. Increase condenser vacuum upto 540 mm
Hg and charge HP/LP bypass system. ELP can maintain drum level up to 18 to 20 kg/cm2 drum
pressure and then start Boiler feed pump and maintain drum level .After charging of HP/LP
bypass, start up vent can be closed or throttled. At this time transfer pipes of HP & IP turbine
can be put on heating and watch the parameters. Before rolling of the T/A set following should
be the temperature of respective pipe lines.
Main steam line - 1500C
H.P. transfer pipe line - 1500C
Cold Re-heat line - 1000C
I.P. transfer pipe line - 1000C
H.P. casing temperature > 1500C
Boiler drum pressure is kept at about 25 kg/cm2 and above parameters are achieved and
H.P. L.P. bypass system is withdrawn and T.A. set is rolled and synchronized. About 10 – 15
MW are pricked up and preparation of coal firing is started. Start both the P.A. fans A & B and
keep lower elevation coal mill on heating. Charge ESP, close economizer re-circulation valve.
Load the T. G set by taking 30-35 MW load and for this increase the firing rate. To increase the
firing rate start coal mill of lower elevation. Keep watch on turbine as well as boiler parameters,
while cut-in of coal mill, check furnace draft and keep it under permissible value. Rate of
increase of drum temperature should not be more than 1000C min in one hour. Before starting
of second mill, super heat spray line can be charged. In this way take one by one mill and
increase the load. Oil support can be withdrawn at the boiler load more than 60%. At about
40% of boiler load start second BFP .CBD is to be kept open according to the advice of chemist
and boiler blow down may be taken in service at about 20 kg/cm2 of drum pressure and that
too as per the advice of chemist.
Finally we have to achieve the following parameters:
1) Drum pressure - 145 kg/cm2
2) M./S. Pressure - 138 kg/cm2
3) Hot R/H pressure - 24 kg/cm2
4) H.R.H. temp - 5400C
5) H.R.H. temp - 5400C
6) F.W. temp at economiser inlet - 2450C
7) M.S. flow - 650 T/hr.
✦✦✦
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PREPARATION FOR START UP OF TURBINE
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR_STARTING OF TURBINE

The turbine is considered to be cold if the temperature of lower part of H.P.T. casing is
150 0 C. From the moment, auxiliary equipment is put into operation, regularly note the readings
on all the important measuring instruments in the turbovisory.
Eccentricity : Before supplying steam to turbine, when the rotor is on barring gear, check
shaft eccentricity by means of the separate dial indicator provided with long arm. Increase in
rotor speed is prohibited if eccentricity is more than 0.07 mm. If the eccentricity exceeds more
than 0.20 mm, the turbine should be shut down immediately and put on barring.
Vibrations : If during rolling bearing vibrations approach 40 microns, stop the turbine and the
rotor should be put on barring gear. Restarting is permitted only after finding out and removing
the cause of vibration.
Critical speed : Critical speeds of turbine shaft system are 1585,1881,2017,2489,4500 RPM.
While increasing the rotor speed, the critical speeds should be passed as fast as possible to
avoid appearance of rotor vibration. In case there is a sudden increase in vibration while
increasing the speed, trip the turbine through ESV and break vacuum to decrease the speed
quickly.
Metal Temperatures : While heating the casing of ESV, HPT & IPT and also while increasing
speed and loading turbine, metal temperature should be raised gradually avoiding sudden sharp
rises.
Cylinder Expansion : The thermal expansion of the casing should be symmetrical. While
increasing the speed and loading of turbine, it is recommended to check clearances between
pins mounted on the bearings and casing supports.
Differential Expansion : It is prohibited to raise the speed of the turbine rotor if relative
expansion on contraction of the rotor reaches maximum permissible values given below
For Rotor of HPT + 4.0 mm or -1.2 mm. For Rotor of IPT + 3.0 mm or -2.5 mm. For Rotor of
LPT + 4.5 mm or -2.5 mm.
‘+ ve’ sign indicates that rotor is longer than cylinder and vice versa for ‘- ve’ sign.
Oil Temperature : Lub oil temperature should not be less than be 40°c and should be within
40+/-5 DC. Temp. of oil at the exit of bearing should not exceed 65°c.
Checks : During heating, speeding and loading of turbine, carefully watch following readings-
1. Shaft eccentricity.
2. Vibrations of bearings.
3. Axial shift of rotors.
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4. Differential expansion of all the three rotors.
5. Metal temperature of upper and lower halves of HPT.
6. Oil temperature of the inlet & outlet of bearings.
7. Babbit temperature of thrust bearing.
8. Pressure and temperature of steam of control points.
9. Vacuum.
OPERATION OF TURBINE AND AUXILIARIES :

Following is the brief description of the major steps / actions to be taken for starting,
loading and shutting down the 210 MW LMW steam turbine. Before the actual rolling of the
turbine, the following auxiliary equipments and systems are to be established.
a) Ensure C.W.System is running normal :

1) Ensure that raw water pumps are in service.
2) Maintain the basin level at cooling tower pumps and as well as CW pump sump level.
Check that the CT fans are running normal.
3) Ensure whether all the permits from maintenance division are cleared.
4) Keep the 6.6 KV electrical breaker of CW pump ready after carrying out protection and
interlock tests, if on long shut down. Then start the CW pump by opening CW discharge
valve 20-30 %. After normalising the pump, the discharge valve should be opened fully
from unit control board.
5) Observe the ampere of the pump motor
6) Then give the prestart checks to Cooling Water (CW) Booster pump.
7) After getting the clearance of prestart checks, atleast one hydrogen cooler suction and
discharge valve to be kept open, otherwise pump can be run on recirculation. Now start
the CW booster pump. Ensure from the operator that the post start checks are complete
and healthy.
8) After 5 min. run of the booster pump, the pump is to be stopped and to be started again
when turbine speed comes to 1100 rpm.
9) CW system is running normal.
b) Ensure Condensate system is running normal :

1) Start the DM make up pumps after checking DM tank level and line up of connected lines.
2) Open both the isolating valves for hot well make up.
3) Maintain hot well level more than 3/4th of the gauge glass. Check the hotwell level high/
low level alarm is working alright.
4) After normalising the electrical breaker and clearance from operator, start the condensate
extraction pump.
5) Chemist to check the quality of condensate to ensure that there is no condenser tube
leakage.
6) Keep other two available pumps as stand-by, putting interlock switch to ‘ON’ position.
7) Take water to deaerator after charging LP heaters from water side.
8) Condensate system is running healthy.
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c) Ensure feed system is running normal :
1) Maintain the deaerator level normal by running Condensate Extraction Pump.
Maintain the pressure and temp. in deaerator at 2 kg/cm2 and 90°c by auxiliary steam.
2) Ensure that all permits are cleared from maint. division for BFP and HP heaters.
3) After line up of the pump, ensure that protections and interlocks are healthy.
4) Inform the operator to restore power to the pump. line up HP heaters after checking the
interlocks.
5) After getting clearance from BFP operator, start the boiler feed pump.
6) If there is delay in opening recirculation valve by more than 2 sec. then open the valve
remotely from UCB, otherwise trip the pump. Watch and note down ampere of pump
motor.
7) After about 15 min. when the bearing temp. gets stabilised open the discharge valve.
8) Inform turbine operator to charge the HP heaters on water side.
9) Check the other two BFP for their availability.
10) Keep the other BFP pumps available on interlock by putting the interlock switch on ‘P’
11) Feed water system is running healthy.
d) Ensure generator seal oil & hydrogen cooling systems are normal :
1) Ensure the main oil tank (MOT) level is normal and quality of oil is OK.
2) Run the Centrifugal and MOT vapour fans atleast 6 hrs. before taking seal oil system in
service.
3) Start the AC seal oil pump.
4) Check availability of DC seal oil system. Protection and interlocks for the pumps should
be tested.
5) Hydrogen pressure in generator casing should be maintained at 3.5 kg/cm2. Sufficient
nos. of H2 cylinders should be available.
6) Seal oil and H2 cooling system running normal.
e) Ensure turbine lub oil system is running normal :

1) A.C. standby lub. oil pump should be running. Maintain tub oil pressure 1.0 to 1.1 kg/cm2
at bearing header and also check the availability DC lub oil pump.
2) Lub oil pump interlocks should be ‘ON’.
3) Maintain the oil temp. around 40°c. If it is’ more, charge the oil cooler from water side
also.
4) Check protection and interlocks of lub oil system.
f) Ensure turbine rotor is on barring gear and normal :

1) Check the protection of barring gear. Barring gear should not start when lub oil pressure
falls to 0.3 kg/cm2.
2) Ensure that turbine rotor is at stand still position and lub oil system is running.
3) Engage the barring gear lever and start the barring gear motor. Note down the ampere of
the motor.
4) Check barring gear protection and again restart barring gear. Barring gear should trip at
0.3 kg/cm2 lub. oil pressure.
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5) Keep a constant watch on lub oil pressure (1.1 kg/cm2) and temp. (40Oc).
6) Barring gear is normal and healthy.
g) Ensure auxiliary steam line is charged :

1) Inform boiler operator to charge auxiliary steam line (16 ATA header) from running unit or
from MS line of its own unit.
2) Keep the drain valve near the gland steam cooler open and charge the steam line for
ejector, gland steam cooler and steam seals by opening the valve. Before charging,
check that system inlet valves are closed.
3) After the line is heated up (for 15 to 20 min.) throttle the drain valve near gland steam
cooler to avoid wastage of steam.
h) Vacuum pulling :
1) Ensure CW pumps are in service
2) Ensure Condensate system in service and main ejectors both and LP heaters (all) are
charged from water side. All valves subjected to vacuum should be sealed by condensate
water.
3) Ensure that turbine is on barring gear.
4) Ensure that aux. steam is charged from 16 ATA header to turbine seal and ejector
header.
5) Close the vacuum breaker valves near main ejector and fill the funnel with DM water for
sealing. And open valves at condenser outlets.
6) Prior to start the starting ejector open the drain valves (after steam valves) and the
isolating valves. Then open inlet valves for putting starting ejector in service and close the
drain valves. Open air valves. See the condenser Vacuum rises to 100 to 150 mm of Hg.
7) Start gland steam cooler ejector. Open inlet valves and adjust pressure at 3 kg/cm2 and
see that vacuum at GSC rises to 40 to 60 mm of Hg column.
8) Admit steam to seals. Steaming from faces of end sealing is not permitted.
9) Open the drain valves to the condenser from the first stage of the ejector. Ensure that
drain valve from stage III to UDT is open.
10) Open the steam to main ejector through motorised valves when vacuum in condenser is
400 mm. See the steam pressure to main ejector is 6 kg/cm2 and see that vacuum is
steadily rising in the condenser.
11) Stop the starting ejector by vent valve first and steam valve afterwards.
12) At about 600 mm of Hg check the vacuum protection.
COLD START UPOF TURBINE :

1) Check that all present requirements are over.
2. Operation of HP/LP bypass station :
a) Before HP/LP bypass stations are brought into operation, check -
I. ESV, IV are closed.
II. Oil system of bypass station is put into operation by switching on its motor.
III. Vacuum in the condenser is deeper than 540 mm of Hg. (about 600)
IV. Condensate flow to steam throw off device in the condenser is established by
opening motor operated valves MC-39 and MC 57.
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b) Ensure that the valves of bypass system are fully closed by reading the respective
position indicators.
c) Set the temperature set point of HP bypass station at 200 °c with the help of
push button.
d) Put the pressure controllers and slave positioners of each HP bypass valves on
‘Manual’ mode with the help of push button.
e) Put LP bypass valves on ‘Auto’ mode, set the temperature set point of LP bypass
station at 200 DC. Switch over the temperature control loop of LP bypass valve
on ‘Auto’ mode with the help of push button.
f) Put the control of LP bypass valve on ‘Auto’ mode with pressure loop in circuit with
the help of selector switch by making the contact in ‘R’ position. Set the pressure
set point at a 6.0 ata with the help of push button. Check that HPT evacuating
valves and bypass valves across cold reheat NRV’s are tightly closed.
2. After internal superheater flow has been established through start up vent, open drain
valves before and after bypass. Open drain valves of MS, CR & HR lines and open after LP
bypass drain valves.
3. Open fully the MS valves for HP bypass and then open the outlet MS valves. Check that
temperature control loop is functioning normal. The steam flow thus established shall
assist in the heating of main steam, cold & hot reheat lines and also increasing the
parameters of the steam. Watch the rise of metal temp. of MS,CR & HR Lines.
4. After 50°c superheat is available at superheater outlet, open bypass valves of MSV
for heating pipelines upto turbine.
5. Open the ESV to CV (HPT transfer pipe line) drain valves. And open ESV by about 10-20
mm as per scale and heat the steam admission pipe upto control valves to a temperature
of 150 °c. Rise in metal temp. should not be more than 4°c per min. While opening the
ESV care should be taken so that the CV’s of HP turbine should remain tightly closed.
6. Open bypass valves across the NRV’s in the cold reheat lines and heat H.P. turbine upto
150°c. Rise in metal temp. should not be more than 4°c per min.
7. Check the steam pressure in hot reheat line, which should be less than 1 kg/cm2 (gauge)
before starting the heating of steam admission pipe upto control valves of IPT. If the
pressure in this line is more than 1 kg/cm2 (gauge) adjust the set value at 1 kg/cm2 with
the help of push button. If it still exceeds close a little the HP bypass valves.
8. Open IV to CV (IPT transfer pipe line) drain valves. And open IV’s by 10-15 mm as per the
scale and heat the steam admission pipelines up to control valves to a temperature of
100°c. Care should be taken that CV’s of IPT remain closed completely during the operation.
9. Close bypass valves of MSV and cold reheat NRV’s when steam parameters before MSV
are 20 -25 kg/cm2 and 280 - 300 DC and steam admission pipe of HPT and IPT are heated
upto 150 DC and 100 DC respectively. Rise in metal temp. should not be more than 4Dc
per min.
10. Close ESV and IV.
11. Bring the control of LP bypass valve on ‘Manual’ mode’.
12. Manually close the HP bypass valve with the help of push button. When the pressure in
the reheat line comes to condenser pressure, manually close the LP bypass valve with
the help of push button.
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13. After having accomplished the heating, check and note down the following readings in
the log-sheet before rolling the set.
a) Metal temp. of pipes before MSV and also before ESV.
b) Metal temp. of steam admission pipes.
c) Metal temp. of hot reheat lines.
d) Metal temp. of IV’s.
e) Metal temp. of HPT & IPT top/bottom.
f) Steam parameters before MSV.
g) Differential expansions of HP,IP and LP rotors.
h) Axial shift, total expansion of HPT/IPT and Condo Vacuum.
i) Eccentricity of turbine rotor on barring gear.
14. Open the drain valves of HPT, IPT, HP and LP extraction valves.
15. Open ESV, IV, CV’s of HPT & IPT completely with help of control gear (Full Arc Admission
Method).
Now turbine is now ready for rolling :

16. Slowly open the bypass valves of MSV’s, thereby allowing the steam to roll the turbine.
As soon as speed rises above 3.4 rpm, check that barring gear gets disengaged and its
motor gets switched off automatically. Increase in rotor speed is prohibited if the turbine
rotor eccentricity is more than 0.07 mm. During the process of raising the speed bearing
vibration should not exceed 40 microns.
17. Raise the speed to 500 rpm. For good listening of the turbine for rubbing at 500 rpm, it is
recommended to stop the steam supply to the turbine by closing the bypass valves MSV
and if any abnormality is found, stop further rolling of the turbine.
18. Being certain that turbine is in healthy condition again raise the speed to 500 rpm by
opening bypass valve of MSV, and soak the set for 5-10 min. at this speed. It is prohibited
to raise the speed of turbine if the diff. expansion of the turbine rotor reached the max.
permissible values.
19. Smoothly raise he speed to 1200 rpm and soak the set for about 20 min. Note that the
control valves of HPT tend to close with rise in speed .To keep them completely open,
the control gear should be turned in the direction of ‘increase’.
20. Raise the speed smoothly to 3000 rpm from 1200 rpm in 5 min. without any pause. The
critical speeds (1585,1881,2017 & 2489) of the machine should be passed as fast as
possible to avoid the appearances of rotor vibration.
21. Hold the turbine at 3000 rpm for about 20-25 min with a view to carryout inspection,
listening and soaking of the turbine. Perform the checking of protection and governing
system and tightness test of ESV and CV’s of HPT.
22. While raising the speed, observe the temp. of oil entering the bearings. Maintain
temp at about 40+/-5 °c. Stop the SOP and keep it ready.
23. After attaining the rated speed and before synchronizing rated parameters of the
steam should be as follows :
Main steam pressure Main steam temp.
: 22 - 25 Kg/cm2 : 290-310 DC
: 240 - 260 DC
Steam temp. before IPT
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24. At the speeds 500,1200,3000 rpm note down following readings in the log book :
1. Shaft eccentricity.
2. Vibration of bearings.
3. Axial shift of rotors.
4. Differential expansion of all the three rotors.
5. Metal temperature of upper and lower halves of HPT.
6. Oil temperature of the inlet & outlet of bearings.
7. Babbit temperature of thrust bearing.
8. Pressure and temperature of steam of control points.
9. Vacuum.
25. Speeding, loading and increasing of parameters should be carried out in conformity with
the enclosed drawing. Curves for cold start up of turbine 210 MW unit”.
26. Now synchronize the machine with the grid.
LOADING THE TURBINE

1. After synchronising the machine with the grid, take a load of 10 to 15 MW. Hold the
machine at this load for 30 min. to carry out soaking and listen for rubbing. After soaking
close all the drain valves on steam lines, steam admission pipes, HP & IP drain collectors.
2. The steam parameters by this time are expected to be as follows:
a) Pressure of steam before ESV : 30 Kg/cm2
b) Temp. of main steam : 350 DC
c) Pressure of steam before IV : 320 DC
d) HPT overall expansion : 10 mm
3. During the heating of turbine under load, constantly monitor the relative expansion of the
rotor and in no case it should be permitted to exceed the permissible limits. Ensure that
the metal temp. diff. between outer & inner surfaces of the wall of HPT and IPT casing at
regulating stage does not exceed 35 DC.
4. Charge the LP heaters from water and steam side.
5. Start the flange & stud heating, if the diff. expansion comes to + 2.5 mm.
6. After ensuing the satisfactory and healthy operation of turbine at the load of 10- / 5 MW,
increase the load to 30 MW in a period of 70 min. Hold the set at this load for 20 min. for
soaking of the turbine. Steam parameters should be continuously raised to attain following
values at the end of this soaking period.
b) Temp. of main steam : 430 DC
c) Pressure of steam before IV : 420 DC
d) HPT overall expansion : 20mm
7. At the load of 30 MW close all the drain valves in LP heater extraction. Note the thermal
expansion of the turbine and all other readings. Charge deaerator by opening 2 nd
extraction steam valves.
8. Put the drip pump in service.
9. Stop flange and stud heating system. The diff. of temp. across the width of the flange
should be within 20-30 DC.
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10. Increase the load to 60-70 MW in a period of 50 min. and put HP heaters in service.
Charge HP heaters from water and steam side. Close HP extraction drain valves.
11. After soaking the turbine for 30 min. at 70 MW, the parameters of the steam should
be as follows :
b) Temp. of main steam before ESV: 490 DC
c) Pressure of steam before IV:480 DC
d) HPT overall expn.:28mm
12. As the pressure in deaerator stabilises at 7.0 Kg/cm2 abs., change over the steam
supply for ejectors and glands from auxiliary source to deaerator (2nd extraction).
13. At about 80 MW start second condensate extraction pump and boiler feed pump and
keep third as standby.
14. At about 150 MW, check that the supply of steam to deaerator gets switched over from
2nd to 3rd extraction. When pressure in HP heater 5 reaches the preset value, check
that the drip automatically cascades from HP heater 5 to deaerator. When the condensate
flow increases to 300 T/H, partly open the bypass valves on main ejectors, gland system
cooler and LPH-1.
15. Smoothly and gradually increase the load to 210 MW in a period of 70 min. and
simultaneously raise the steam parameters to the rated value. On reaching the rated
load, steam parameters should be as follow:
b) Temp. of main steam before ESV : 535 DC
c) Pressure of steam before IV : 535 Dc
d) HPT overall expn. : 35mm
16. Set point of HP bypass valves pressure control loop at 140 ata and temp. set point at
380Dc.Change manual mode of pressure control loop of HP bypass valves to ‘Auto’ with
the help of push button. Set the LP bypass valve pressure set point to 6.0 Kg/cm2 and
temp. set point to 200 DC . Changeover LP bypass operation from ‘manual’ mode to ‘Auto’
mode with pressure control loop in circuit.
WARM START UP OF TURBINE
This type of start is chosen when metal temperature of H.P.T. casing in the zone of
regulating stage is between 150 to 350°c.
1. Before warm / hot restart, the auxiliary equipment should be started in the same manner
and order as in the case of “cold start”.
2. Before warm / hot restart the starting oil pump should have been working and supplying
oil to bearings, the shaft is rolling on barring gear and one of the condensate extraction
pumps is operative. Check oil pressure in lubrication and governing system and see
draining of oil from bearings.
3. Check that all the control and measuring instruments are switched ON and they are
working satisfactorily.
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4. Supply steam to end sealing and check that pressure in the header should be 1.15 to
1.20 kg/cm2.
5. Put starting ejector and main ejectors into operation to create vacuum in condensers.
6. Before starting heating of steam lines, vacuum in condenser should be 600 mm. MSV,
ESV, CV’s of HPT & IPT should be tightly closed.
7. Heating of live steam lines, body of ESV, reheat pipe lines, body of IV may be done in
case the temperature of these elements is 80 - 100 °c less than the temperature of the
lower half of HPT casing in the zone of regulating stage and in the zone of steam
admission, in case of I.P.T. respectively by opening the drain of relevant portion.
8. Main steam pipes, body of ESV and steam admission pipes should be heated upto the
temperature existing in the zone of regulating stage of HPT. Heating of reheat lines is
accomplished by allowing fresh steam through H.P. bypass station. The temperature of
steam entering the cold reheat line should be about 50 °c higher than the metal temperature
of cold reheat line but not more than 380 °c.
9. By using the “temperature-matching chart” as shown in the drawing no.2 (Page16/16),
determine the desired steam temperature and pressure for rolling the turbine. However,
the steam temperature should, be more by at least 25 °c than the hottest metal
temperature of ESV and steam admission pipes of H.P.T.
10. Select the operational mode of H.P. bypass valve on ‘Manual’ and of loP. bypass valve on
‘Auto’. The LP. bypass valve be selected for pressure mode of operation. Set the set
point of LP. bypass station of 6.0 ata.
11. Select the temperature control loop of H.P. bypass station on ‘Auto’ and set the temperature
as per the requirement on the down steam side of HP bypass station. Temp.control loop
of LP. bypass station temperature should be on ‘Auto’ and temp. be set at 200 °c.
12. Ensure that evacuating valves and valves across NRV’S in cold reheat lines are tightly
closed.
13. Open H.P. bypass valve and raise the steam parameters of boiler to desired value and
simultaneously heat the main steam, cold reheat and hot reheat lines if required. During
this operation have a check that the flue gas temperature is within 540 °c.
14. Open bypass valves of MSV and ESV by about 15-20 mm and heat steam admission pipes
upto control valves.
15. Check steam pressure in hot reheat lines which should be less than 1 Kg/cm2 (gauge). if
required manually close a little the HP bypass valve before heating of steam admission
pipe of LP.T. If the pressure is more, adjust with the help of LP bypass valves or closing a
little H.P. bypass valves.
16. Open LV. servomotor by about 10-15 mm and heat steam admission pipes upto control
valves of LP.T. control valve of IPT should remain tightly closed during this process.
During the process of heating the seam pipe lines, check the draining system is all right.
17. Having accomplished the heating, check and note down the various metal temp. viz. of
steam pipes, ESV,IV,IP casing and HPC at the regulating stage. Ensure that the desired
matching steam temp. is available at ESV.
18. Bring control of LP. bypass valves on ‘Manual’ mode’.
19. Manually close H.P. bypass valves and open LP. bypass valves when pressure in reheat
line comes to condenser vacuum, close LP. bypass valves.
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20. Check that eccentricity and diffn expansion are within limit.
21. With the help of speeder gear, fully open ESV, IV and CV’s of H.P. & LP. turbines.
22. Slowly open the bypass valves of MSV and roll the turbine. Raise the speed to 500 RPM
within 5 minutes by further opening bypass valves of MSV. Hold the turbine for 5 minutes
for checking diffn expansion, bearing vibration etc.
23. Raise the speed from 500 to 1200 rpm. within 5 min. and hold the turbine 3 min. for
checking diffn expansion, bearing vibration etc.
24. Raise the speed from 1200 to 3000 RPM within 3 min. without any pause. Hold the turbine
at 3000 RPM for 5 minutes for inspection, listening and soaking of turbine.
25. Ensure that M.O.P. takes over at 2800 R.P.M. and then stop S.O.P.and keep it standby.
26. Synchronize the set with the grid and load the set to 20-30 MW. All the drains must be
closed after some load has been taken on turbine. Raising of steam parameters and
loading is carried out as per curve and guidelines of loading for the warm start.
27. After loading the unit, HP/LP bypass stations be set as follows:
i) HP bypass station -
Pressure control loop -’Auto’ mode with set point at 140 ata
Temp. control loop 380 °c ‘Auto’ mode.
ii) LP bypass station -
Operational mode - Pressure control
Pressure control loop - ‘Auto’ with set point of 6 kg/cm2 (abs)
Temp. control loop200 °c ‘Auto’ mode.
28. The 2nd condensate extraction pump, boiler feed pump & HP heaters etc. should be cut
in depending upon the load conditions as described in “Loading the turbine” (Page 7/16).
HOT STARLUP OF TURBINE

This type is selected when metal temperature of H.P.T. casing at regulating stage is
more than 350 °c. With the help of “temperature matching chart” as shown in the drawing
no.2 (Page16/16), desired steam temperature and pressure are determined. Steam
temperature before E.S.V. at the time of rolling must be more by at least 25 °c than the
hottest element mentioned below.
a) Body of ESV.
b) Steam admission pipes of HPT& IPT.
c) HPT in the zone of regulating stage.
d) Steam admission chamber of LP.T.
e) Body of IV.
1. Parameters are raised with the help of H.P/LP.bypass station. After attaining desired
steam temperature and pressure, suitable for rolling, hold firing rate of boiler.
2. Ensure that all the prestart conditions such as oil system is in operation, vacuum in
condenser is more than 540 mm of Hg, flow of condensate in steam throw device is OK.
3. Set the HP bypass valves on ‘AUTO’ mode and set the pressure setting at 5-8 % higher
than the actual pressure available in the main steam lines. Set the LP bypass station also
on ‘AUTO’ with pressure control mode with set point at 6.0 Kgjcm2.
473
4. Put the temperature control loop of HP bypass valves on ‘AUTO’ mode and set the
temperature set point at 50°c higher than the cold reheat pipe metal temperature. The
set point of temperature would have also to be slided upwards to meet the boiler
temperature and ensuring the allowed heating rate of cold reheat pipe lines and reheater.
The temp. set point should not exceed 380°c. The temperature set point of LP bypass
station to be set at 200°c with ‘AUTO’ mode.
5. Ensure that the bypass valves across NRV’s in cold reheat lines are closed. Open the
evacuating line valves CR-5 & CR-6 to release the entrapped.
6. Supply fresh steam to front sealing of HPT & IPT in case the contraction of HPT rotor has
reached 0.8 mm and that of LP. rotor 1.5 mm.
7. Before supplying fresh steam to front seals of HPT & IPT, the concerned pipelines should
be adequately heated up and blown out by opening valves. For supplying steam to HPT
front sealing, open valve AS-42j43 and check that valve AS-47 gets closed under interlock
action. For supplying steam to LP.T. front sealing, open valve AS-42 and As-44 and
check that As-48 gets closed under interlock action. Check readiness of entire equipment
of the turboset for hot start.
8. Heat transfer pipes between IV & CV of IPT by opening IV by 5-10 mm. Valves in the
drains of these pipes should be kept full open prior to opening of LV. After heating, close
LV. fully.
9. Open fully both M.S.V.’s and valves in drain lines of transfer pipes.
10. Completely open ESV & IV with the help of control gear. Turbine will start rolling through
LP.T.
11. As soon as speed rises above 3 .4 rpm ensure that barring gear lever has disengaged and
its motor cuts out automatically. Ensure that the valves CR-5 & CR-6 in the evacuating
lines of HPT get closed.
12. Start opening of CV’s of IPT. Raise speed to 3000 RPM without pause.
13. Ensure that MOP takes over at 2800 RPM and stop SOP and keep it standby. 14. Synchronize
the set and pick up 20 MW load. Close all drains.
15. Load the turbine at the rate of 5 MW per minute until the HP bypass gets closed under
the pressure impulses and the entire steam is swallowed by the turbine. Hold the set at
this load.
16. As soon as the steam starts flowing through H.P.turbine, ensure that H.P. bypass valves
start closing.
17. Further loading of the set is done as per the curves for hot start of turbine by increasing
boiler-firing rate. The time for loading the set during hot restarts depends on the thermal
condition of H.P.T. & I.P.T.
18. While loading the turbine, ensure that metal temp. diff. between inner and outer surfaces
of the wall of HPT casing not exceed 35 DC. In case this requirement is not fulfilled, stop
further loading till it is met.
19. Stop fresh steam supply to front sealing of HPT & IPT when differential expansion of HPT
& IPT rotors has reduced and has got stabilized as per the differential expansion indicator.
For this close valves AS- 42, 43 & 44 and check that AS 47 & 48 get opened under
interlock action.
20. At 60-70 MW load bring H.P. heaters in service.
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21 Check that drip pump cuts in under interlock action of 70 MW.
22. At 90-100 MW check that supply of steam to deaerator gets switched over from auxiliary
source to second extraction under interlock action.
23. As the pressure in deaerator stabilises at 7.0 kgjcm2 abs, change over the steam supply
from auxiliary source to deaerator for ejectors and glands.
24. At 100 MW start second condensate extraction pump.
25. Start second boiler feed pump at 100-110 MW.
26. At 150 MW check that supply of steam to deaerator gets switched over from Ext.II to
Ext. III.
27. When pressure in HP heater no. 5 has reached preset value, check that the condensate
of heating steam automatically cascades from heater no.6 into heater no.5 and from
heater no.5 to deaerator.
28. Set the set point of HP bypass valve pressure control loop at 140 ata and temperature
set point at 380 DC. Changeover the ‘Manual’ mode of pressure control to ‘Auto’.
29. Set the LP bypass operation to ‘Auto’ mode with pressure control loop in circuit. Set the
pressure set point to 6 kgjcm2 and temp. set point at 200 DC.
PLANNED SHUT_DOWN OF TURBINE

1. Inform the boiler house that the turbine would be soon shut down.
2. Check the SOP and also availability to AC & DC lub. oil pumps.
3. Reduce the load at a rate of 3 MW per min. at rated parameters by operating control
gear motor.
4. Watch the axial shift and diff. expansion of the rotor and cylinder.
5. After reducing load to 160 MW switch off the HP heaters on steam side and drain heating
steam condensate by opening the drain valves.
6. At 90-100 MW switch off one of the CEP and at 70 MW load check the drip pump
gets switched off under automatic controller action and also ensure that aux. power
supply is changed from unit to reserve.
7. Maintain deaerator & condenser hot-well level normal.
8. At load 10 -12 MW, open bypass valve of MS before ESV and close valve on main steam
line.
9. Reduce the load to about 5 MW slowly. Trip the unit through any protection.
10. Check the ESV and control valves get closed. Isolate lub oil cooler from cooling water
side one by one to maintain lub oil temp. at 45°c.
11. Ensure that generator is isolated through low forward power relay and the time for
stopping the steam supply to turbine and isolation of generator should not be more than
4 min.
12. After closure of the control valves immediately close the main steam outlet and check
that bypass of main steam valves are also closed.
13. Stop the other Boiler Feed Pump depending upon the level of the boiler drum.
14. At 2800 rpm. start AC lub oil pump and AC seal oil pump, check the lub oil pressure and
AC seal oil pressure is normal.
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15. When rotor comes to stop, start the barring gear and roll the rotor continuously on
barring gear till temp. of lower part of HP casing at regulating temp. stage drops to
1700c,engage the barring gear lever at a stand still condition of rotor and then start the
barring gear motor and make sure that rotor RPM is 3.4 when put on barring gear.
16. Break the vacuum by opening vacuum braking valve and cut off the steam supply to main
ejector, gland steam cooler and steam to seals and closing the respective valves.
17. When max. turbine metal temp. comes down below 200°c ,open cylinder, transfer line
and main steam line valves.
18. Barring gear and lub oil pumps can be stopped if necessary.
19. Condensate and CW pumps can be stopped when LP exhaust temperature comes below
40°c.
IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS D_URING TURBINE ROLLING

1. The turbine is capable of accepting variations from the rated conditions within limits
stated below
Live steam pressure : 117 - 143 kg/cm2
Live steam temp. : 527 - 543 °c
Reheat steam temp. : 527 - 543 °c
2. Sharp fluctuations of temp. /load on turbine should be avoided as far as possible. Sharp
fluctuations consume the fatigue life of vital components.
3. Turbine operation with the steam exhaust to atmosphere is forbidden.
4. The main steam and reheat steam temp. should preferably equal to or more than the
metal temp. of steam admission elements.
5. When the turbine is tripped due to action of protection or by turbine shut down switch,
check the operation of equipments mentioned below alongwith the closure of emergency
stop valve.
a) Main steam stop valve must be closed.
b) NRV’s on extraction lines must get closed.
c) Generator circuit breaker should be open.
6. If there are more than one indicators for the same measurement, then the one which
is giving favorable reading should not be assumed to be correct.
7. If any of the control valves gets closed accidentally the load on the turbine would get
reduced. Trace out the valve by comparing pressure reading after all control valves.
8. The turbine must be stopped manually independent of the action of relevant protection
under following conditions:-
a) Sudden appearance of excessive vibrations
b) Water hammering
c) Oil ignition
d) Emergency governor out of order
e) Oil temp. rising upto 75 °c at the drain from the bearings
f) Drop of oil level in the tank below the lowest permissible value
g) Appearance of metallic noise in the turbine steam flow path
h) Axial shift of the rotor at the thrust bearing reaching limiting value
i) Accidental vacuum down to 540 mm.
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j) Increase of live or reheat steam temp. upto 655 DC.
k) Lubrication oil pressure has dropped to 0.5 kg/cm2 gauge and lubrication pump has
failed to start.
l) Sharp fall in main steam temp. from nominal value to 450 °c .
m) Increase in speed beyond 3360 rpm.
n) ESV, IV or control valves have seized.
9. In order to remove salts deposited on the guide and moving blades, the flushing of
turbine flow path should be carried out with saturated steam during next cold start up.
10. Analyze each drum of oil before filling in the oil tank, in case filling is done from oil
drums.
11. The generator should operate at the network frequency of 50 cps, which correspond to
gen. rotor speed of 3000 rpm. The network frequency below 49.0 or over 50.5 cps. is not
allowed and immediate measure should be taken for restoring it within 49.0 to 50.5 cps.
12. Turbine operation on load limiter is not recommended for a long time except in
emergency. Such operation hampers control of network frequency.
13. General temp. rise in oil supplied to the bearings at constant pressure and constant
cooling water temp. indicates the choking of oil coolers.
14. Dust off the turbine at least once a shift, special care should be taken while cleaning
the levers and links of governing and steam distribution systems.
CURVE FOR COLD START-UP OF TURBINE 210 MW UNIT
477
NOTES :
1. If first stage metal temp.
is used to obtain main
steam temp., 50°C must
be added to metal temp.
before entering chart.
2. Values on curves are
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✦✦✦
main steam pressure in
Kg/cm² abs.
3. Example illustrated on
chart with dashed
Turbine metal temp. at
the first stage at time unit
is rolled = 380ºC.
MAIN STEAM TEMP (ºC) REQUIRE TO MATCH

Maximum Allowable Main steam pressure at
HIGH PRESSURE TURBINE METAL TEMPERATURE

positive mismatch time unit is rolled = 70 Kg/
steam hotler than
cm² abs.
H.P. Turbine metal
Main steam temp. required
to match temp. 468ºC.
Exact Match Preferred 513ºC max. &
preferred 423ºC min.
Maximum Allowable negative
mismatch (steam colder than
H.P. Turbine metal)
VALUE ON LOWER DIAGONAL ONES ARE
HP TURBINE METAL TEMP (C) JUST BEFORE UNIT IS ROLLED
TEMPERATURE MATCHING CHART

FIRE HAZARDS IN POWER PLANT AND PREVENTION
Different types of fire fighting equipment to be added
1. PREAMBLE :
Electric power is the backbone of most of the industrial and economic activity. It is very
much clear that electricity has become a part of life and it is almost practically seen that
mankind cannot survive without electricity. Dislocation in the supply of electricity leads to
dislocation of normal activities. It not only causes great inconvenience to the users, but may
also culminate in serious losses of life and property and industrial/agricultural product-particularly
when the interruption is supply is prolonged.
Therefore reliable generation of electric power is of vital importance and reliability of
existing power generation facilities needs to be ensured. It is in this context that risks due to
fire, need to be properly evaluated and preventive and protective measures taken.
2. CONSEQUENCES OF FIRES IN THERMAL POWER PLANTS :

Unlike in other industries, a major fire accident in thermal plants, besides its own losses
has more serious consequences affecting the entire neighbouring community / industries. It
sets up a chain of losses & hardship. The more important after effects of a major power plant
fire are :
a) Complete / partial shut down of the plant, the outage more often lasting for several
months or a few years.
b) The plant’s own direct and indirect losses (like loss of revenue, idling of labour etc.
c) Replacement costs and attendant delays.
d) Power shut down and consequent hardships to the community around.
e) Production interruption and consequential losses to dependent industries.
3. FIRE PRONE ZONES FOR THERMAL PLANTS :

The zones for outbreak of fire may be classified as below :
A. Mechanical :
1. Coal handling plant – coal stock yard : Normally a stock of one-month requirement
of coal is stocked in an area. The coal is a combustible material of calorific value of
4500 K.Cal/Kg.(around), hence there are chances of spontaneous combustion due
to inherent heat at the bottom layer of the stocked coal with the oxygen available
in the atmosphere.
2. Oil handling plant : Though it is precious and costly, because of the high calorific
value and necessity, oil being stocked in huge tanks and number of tanks depends
upon the requirement. As we are aware, oil is highly inflammable and also to keep at
a temperature to maintain free flow (Viscosity), adequate care has to be taken to
avoid/prevent any fire hazards.
3. Boiler area : The boiler is designed to operate on multi0fuel (Coal and Oil) and is
provided with six elevations of coal firing and three elevations for oil firing. Each
elevation is having four corners, whether it is fired with oil or coal. Any small leak
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(Coal or Oil) will catch fire very easily with the available radiational heat in the
boiler area and also with the atmospheric oxygen.
4. Turbine area : The turbine zone is flooded with steam piping of high temperatures
and also oil piping leading to oil tank governing mechanism and sealing systems. The
oil tank of capacity 40,000 litres (approx.) is located just below the main turbine.
Any oil leak either from the oil piping or flanges or bearings is susceptible for
(catching) fire.
B. Electrical : Electrical zone is a vast area having several transformers (filled with oil),
several kilometers length of cables number of L.T. modules for several actuators and
switchgears. In addition, electrical systems also employ several exhausters, power plugs,
sockets and illumination system etc.
C. Others : Generator is cooled by demineralised water in addition to hydrogen gas. Hence

to have continuous monitoring and supply, a separate hydrogen room with several hydrogen
cylinders is maintained. Care should also be taken to prevent any possible outbreak of
hydrogen since it is an explosive.
Water treatment plant consists of several lon exchangers in addition to acid tanks
and chlorination plant. Care should be taken to avoid any possible outbreak.
Any combustible materials such as wooden scrap, cotton waste, refuse collections
scattered in and around fire zones are the worst culprits since fire may breakout at any
provocation even with small ignition available.
4. PREVENTION, DETECTION AND PROTECTION :

Once the risks are identified and segregated, the next step is to evolve strategies for
effective protection in case of fire.
The fire protection for any system/equipment is achieved in the following three steps.
a) Prevention is better than cure and in fire risk management efficient house keeping is of
prime importance. A power plant poses a variety of fire hazards starting from simple
paper fire in the office premises to oil fire in fuel oil area or fire in control room housing
sophisticated electronic equipment. This wide nature of sources of fire in power plants
therefore necessitates well throughout house keeping. Regular cleaning with service
water/service air system would prevent accumulation of coal dust and oil. Fire proof/fire
resistance/fire retardant materials must be used to the extent possible so that the fire
risk is minimized.
b) Timely detection of fire leads to swift and effective extinguishment of any fire. Hence
provision of adequate fast response type detection system to identify and initiate alarms
in case of fire at the incipient stage itself is necessary.
c) Provision of well-designed fire fighting system.
Further the fire fighting systems should also take into consideration the likely damage
to equipment and the risk to operating personnel. All these factors therefore endorse the
view that each hazard will have to be examined on individual basis and provided with the
suitable fire fighting system. The fire prevention, detection, protection systems adopted
for different risk areas in a power station are outlined in the following sections.
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5. Fire Fighting Systems adopted for various sites at TPS :
I. Coal Handling Plant : The fires in CHP take place both in storage and handling areas.
Fire usually occurs due to spontaneous combustion as well as ignition of coal dust at hot
spots. The coal stacked in open yards has access to air / oxygen pockets which sustain
combustion. This spontaneous combustion is assisted by the presence of foreign matters.
Secondly, long coal conveyors are use to transport coal in a power station. The galleries
and tunnels through which the conveyor passes is therefore subject to coal dust
accumulation, spillage and carry over. Further, the jammed bearings of idlers over which
the conveyor rolls, gets overheated over a period of time and may initiate a fire.
In order to minimise fire risk, fire resistant conveyor belts are used. Further, the
conveyor galleries are continuously cleaned to prevent accumulation of coal dust along
the galleries/tunnels.
In additional to the above safety measures, elaborate fire detecting and protection
systems for coal conveyors are also provided. In order to detect the fire in incipient
stage, a detection system based on thermocouple principle i.e. rate of risk (ROR) type
detectors was provided earlier. However, demonstration conducted indicated that
thermocouple based detectors requires huge fire for actuation, these are recently being
replaced with more sensitive infra red detectors. The infra red detectors are unaffected
by direct or indirect sunlight, and are not sensitive to static fire. Further field
demonstrations have verified that infra red detectors are sensitive even to the smoldering
fires and can detect fire embedded in a coal heap. Infra red detectors for detecting
moving fires and linear heat sensing (LHS) cables for detecting stationary fires are
provided in the coal conveyor galleries.
The fire extinguishing system provided for coal conveyors is sprinkler system in
addition to conventional hydrant system. However, site tests have led to doubts about
efficacy of the sprinkler system in coal conveyor galleries. For the ambient conditions
prevalent in our country sprinkler bulbs with 790C are usually employed. In order to
operate the heat sensitive bulbs, the fire needs to be sufficiently intense and large to
raise temperature of bulb to 790C. By this time, the coal gallery may be subjected to lot
of damage. In order to limit the damage, a quicker operating system is preferable. This
can be achieved by providing automatic medium velocity water (MVW) spray system in
lieu of sprinkler system. Such a system does not require any preset temperature to be
operative and can be even operated remote/manually from the control panel in CHP
control room or through the local push button provided near each deluge valve of the
system. Such a system should effectively contain the damaged, in any of the coal
conveyor gallery in case of a fire.
II. Fuel Oil Area and Fuel Oil Storage Area:

The fuel oil used in power plant are furnace oil, LSHS, HPS etc. and have a flash point of
660C and above. These are classified as combustible liquids (Class III). In addition light
oils such as LDO are also used.
Large quantity of fuel oil are stored in F.O. storage tanks and is primarily used for
boiler start-up and low load operation. The F.O. tanks are periodically filled in by pumps
taking direct suction from oil tankers. The entire F.O. handling area, equipment and F.O.
481
tanks are vulnerable to fire accidents. Further, oil spillage during refilling of tanks, leakage
in pipelines, valves or overflow from tanks increases the fire risk.
Flame proof motors and pneumatic actuated valves are provided in the tank farm
area to minimise the source of fire. Further for protection of adjoining property or
waterways, dyking around the tanks is done. The walls of the dyke are of earth, concrete
or solid masonry designed to be liquid tight and to withstand a full hydrostatic head.
As the oil protection system is continuously monitored, this itself works as the
detection system for fuel oil tanks. The fire protection system adopted in a fuel oil
handling area and fuel oil storage tanks areas follows:
a) Fire hydrant system using double-headed hydrants/monitors surrounding the dyke
area.
b) Fixed foam system is provided. The foam used is 100% protein type or synthetic
type with fluorinated surfactant additive to deposit a vaporization preventive film
on the surface of the fuel. This is added with stabilizing additives and inhibitors to
protect against freezing prevent corrosion of equipment and containers, resist
bacterial decomposition and to control viscosity.
c) Fixed water spray system are provided where fuel oil, having flash point less than
660C is stored such as LDO, Naptha etc.
d) Indoor fuel oil pumping station is protected with sprinkler or high velocity water
spray system.
III. Transformers :
The various transformers in the power plant contain substantial amount of oil e.g.
200 MVA generator transformer contains approx. 30,000 litres of oil. Heavy current
flowing through the coils of the transformer and occurrence of and electric fault may
ignite the oil inside the transformer.
In order to prevent the fire form intensifying and to contain the damage, all large
transformers are provided with spot type heat detector network along with automatic
high velocity water (HVW) spray system. Automatic operation of the system is achieved
by the use of deluge valve, triggered by a separate system of quartzoid bulb detector
had on a pipework array charged with water or air. The wet detection initiation system
can be employed for those risk areas where height of highest detector is not more than
20 fts. Above the deluge valve and where freezing temperatures are not encountered.
IV. Lube oil tanks :

The lube oil reservoir represents one of the largest fire hazard in the turbine building in
terms of the quantity of oil and its inaccessibility in the event of fire.
In general, the oil reservoirs and its associated accessories such as purifiers, oil
coolers, etc. are placed in enclosure of masonry wall and protected by an automatic high
velocity water spray system.
V. Cable galleries :
A typical cable gallery in a power plant contains a large quantity of power and
control cables. In order to minimise fire risk, fire retardant low smoke (FRLS) cables of
482
adequate coating is used. However, rather than the cables itself, the accumulation of
coal dust, rubbish, oil spillage etc. on the cables, make the cable gallery vulnerable to
fire accidents.
The most commonly used detection system for fire in cable gallery is use of
combination of smoke detector (i.e. one ionization and photo electric type smoke detector)
and / or linear heat sensing (LHS) cables. These cables have the unique ability of
detecting fire or overheat conditions along the route of a cable installation. Both digital
and analog detection system are used.
One of the major additional risks, in case of fire in a cable galley is spread of fire to
control room and switch gear rooms through wall and floor opening. In order to avoid
this, the cable openings in the wall and floors are sealed by fire proof sealing for preventing
propagation of fire during fire accident.
The fire extinguishing system provided in cable galleries is automatic sprinkler system.
The sprinkler system to be provided can be of following type :
a) Dry sprinkler system.
b) Wet sprinkler system.
c) Thermoelectric sprinkler system.
In thermoelectric sprinkler system, any one set of smoke detectors (consisting of
one ionisation or photo electric type smoke detector) or linear heat sensing cable can
actuate the automatic thermoelectric sprinkler system thus spraying water over the
zone where fire has been detected by these detectors. In addition fusible type quartzoid
bulb sprinklers work as ultimate protection.
Alternatively, in dry sprinkler system thermoelectric sprinklers are replaced by open
type sprinklers and actuation of the system is through deluge valves. The demonstrations
of these systems have been quite satisfactory. The civil structures in the gallery are
designed for water loading and adequate provision of drainage are made to promptly and
effectively dispose of all liquids from the area during operation of the fire protection
system.
VI. MCC/switchgear rooms :

The electric equipment and panels located in the above areas pose fire hazard
primarily due to electric faults and due to propagation of fire from cable galleries. In
these areas smoke detectors of ionization type have been provided for early detection.
Further, propagation from cable galleries can be prevented by effectively sealing all
cable openings.
VII. Control rooms and control equipment room :

The control rooms represent the brain of the entire station controlling and
coordinating the various sub-systems engaged in the generation of electricity. The control
rooms in T.G. building houses highly sophisticated electronic and microprocessor based
equipment. Any major fire in the control rooms can cripple the generation of that station
even for years. Hence, early detection and extinguishing of fire is very vital.
Till recently, Halon 1301, as a total flooding extinguishing agent due to its ability to
be discharged rapidly, was being extensively used for the protection of vital electronic
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facilities such as control rooms and communication / equipment rooms. However, scientific
evidence indicates that Halon 1211, Halon 1301 and chloroflurocarbons deplete the
stratospheric ozone layer, which acts as a shield against harmful solar ultraviolet radiation.
VIII. Building, structures and other areas :

Hydrant system, form the core of fire fighting means in all power stations. Every
building in the main plant area, transformer yard and other vulnerable areas such as fuel
oil handling area, CHP area, etc., are provided with adequate hydrant points. An extensive
underground and over ground network of pipelines feed these hydrants with water pumped
from reservoirs with exclusive storage for fire fighting. Portable / mobile fire extinguishers
are provided throughout the plant. Besides fire protection and detection system, fire
station fully equipped with all the equipment e.g. fire tenders, safety tools etc. as
required for efficient operation of fire squad is also provided.
6. CONCLUSION :
Though only a few points are mentioned herein, regular and periodical inspection of all
fire prone zones and removing any suspected combustible materials then and there will naturally
lessen the burden / risk to a very great extent.
Conducting Mock Fire Drill, educating all those who are associated with the Thermal
Station on the fundamentals and details of the system and method of operation will be of very
great advantage to the Fire Protection Squad in particular and the Thermal Station in general.
It is needless to say, in spite of having taken all precautions to avoid any outbreak, the
personnel should be readily available to face the challenge so as to quench the fire and also
reduce the damages to the maximum possible. In this count, awareness and proper training
comes on top priority so that we cannot only fight the fire but also to prevent the direct and
indirect losses to the nation.
✦✦✦
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PERMIT SYSTEM
Permit System is designed to regulate the process of Issue of Permit on various complex
systems in the power plant comprising of delicate issues related to isolations of various
machines of inter-related systems involving safety of plant & human beings. It helps in formation
of hierarchy of relational structure of various plant machines and systems as well as isolation
level thereof. It also creates data related to standard actions for specific isolations on specific
machines.
A. Codification of System/ Sub Systems/ Auxiliary Systems & Machines, Division of
Generation unit into Cost Centres, area & sub area for designing machine codes,
Concept of sub machines :
All operation processes are divided into 12 main cost centres for each generating
plant whereas as all maintenance & other departments are recognised as service centres.
These cost centre & service centre cods are used in designing the machine codes & sub
machine codes. These are also used in designing the sub cost centre code for proper
booking of manpower, spares & contract cost related to job undertaken to appropriate
processes.
Each Cost Centre is further divided into 10 areas with exclusive area codes. Each
area is further divided into 10 sub areas. As such each cost centre can be divided into
maximum 100 divisions on specific / any decided criteria. A list of all established systems,
mechanical/ Electrical/ Control (Like Boiler Feed Water System or Main Steam Piping)
with all associated machines is prepared for every unit of generating plant. These systems
are divided into sub systems & associated auxiliary systems. Thereafter list of all machines
associated with such auxiliary systems & sub systems in any system is prepared. Linking
associated sub systems, auxiliary systems, and machines and sub machines establish the
System Self-Network (SSN) with the help of proper system codes. Each system is then
linked with other systems to form Inter System Network (ISN).
The machines in each smallest sub area of cost centre is prepared & codified.
These are allotted specific machine type. The standard defect codes are designed for
specific machine type. Each machine can be attached with 1000 sub machines.
Every cost center contains sub processes, which shall be either station/ Multi-
stage/ stage/ Multi-unit/ unit level process. Every such sub process (example: 021001)
has got unique operating section/ permit issuing section from specific unique stage and
all services shall be provided in such process center exclusively from such stage only.
B. Structure for System Codes & its importance

Codes are generated with the help of master data entry utilities. The codes for System,
Sub System & Auxiliary System codes are generally known as system codes. These
codes have structure of 11 digits. The codes link all members SSY (System type machine
codes), SSY (Sub System Type Machine codes) and ASY (Auxiliary System type machine
code) of a particular System Self-Network (SSN). For example M5501000000 is a
code for Boiler Feed Water System.
Code structure : M 5 501 000 000
The first digit M stands for Mechanical system. (E for electrical & C for Control
systems). Second digit indicates Plant’s Unit No., and balance nine digits are group of
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three digits indicating system, sub system & aux system respectively. If last six digits are
zero then it is a code for system. If only last three digits are zero, it is sub system and if
there is no zeros than it is aux system. Here 501 is system serial number. Sub system 001
of system 501 can be indicated by code M 5 501 001 000, similarly aux system 005 of sub
system 001 can be indicated by M 5 501 001 005.
C. Interconnectivity of system elements in System Self-Network & Inter System

Network.
• Entry of connected Machines & sub machines in SSN links : After entry of all system
(SYS) codes, sub system (SSY) codes and aux. System (ASY) codes in SSN; machines &
sub machines are attached to each ASY, SSY & SYS. With this, Self-System-Network is
fully defined with its terminal points, all connected elements up to sub machine levels.
D. Managing Authorized persons for taking and issuing permits

The section wise list of authorised persons with designation can be registered and only
these persons shall be allowed to take & issue the permits.
E. Various Situations to issue PERMIT

• Normal Permit (Through Application) : Generally Maintenance section applies for permit
against the reported defect cards. This is called normal permit.
• Working Permit (Through Application) : The working permit can be issued for any
machine or group of machines. If no isolations are necessary then such permits can be
issued. The work can be carried out by giving intimation to local incharge of location.
• Working Permit with one by one isolations (Through Application) : If the permit is
issued to work on group of machine for carrying out the maintenance activity on these
machines one by one (at a time only one machine shall be isolated & worked upon), then
this type of permit is issued. Such permit can involve multiple defect card of same
section or defect card on multiple machines having it for same type of defects. Such
permits are also necessary in case of activity base Preventive Maintenance.
• GCR Permit (Through Application) : Sometimes GCR requires some isolation to be made
for work related to GRID or Sub station. They communicate their requirement on phone &
permit is issued by recording the code word for communication & confirmation.
• Remote location Permit (Through Application) : Sometimes for remote locations permit
are issued and communicated on phone on the basis of some code words. If permit is
required for the work being done at remote locality like Erai Dam & RWPH area, local
incharge can issue the permit and request PCR to make required isolations on phone.
These permits can be issued by PCR on the basis of such request by recording the code
word to be confirmed by local incharge for cancellation of permit during the same shift.
• Running Shift Permit (Through Application) : If permit is required, entry of defect
card is necessary in normal course. But some times in emergency any incharge of any
location can call the maintenance personnel available in shift for attending any work with
the permission of Shift Incharge without application or issue of permit. These are to be
recorded subsequently. Generally shift staff from Testing & I&C perform these trifling
works through out the shifts.
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F. Managing Applications of Permits
Only authorized person from any section can apply for the permit to work on any machine
or system. There should be some identified work or defect card already assigned by
appropriate authority to such authorised person. The Daily Works Planning Process ensures
proper generation of defect cards for repair tasks and PM defect cards for PM activities.
Permit application can be done on the basis of such defect cards (or job cards). Section
can generate job cards for section initiated activities also.
• Details of Applicants/ Transferring permits/ Extending permits : Permit application
is written in the permit book kept in PCR in the custody of PCR/Plant Incharge. Applicant
has to write details of applicant such as name, designation, section etc along with the
details of machine of system on which he is applying for work. In computerized process,
once the defect card is entered all details are automatically fetched from the data in
system.
Once the permit is issued, it shall have validity as specified in the permit. The
permit can be transferred to the name of another authorised person or validity can be
extended on the request from applicant.
• Managing preparatory works : Some jobs requires preparatory works to be done before
actually starting the work. In such cases, working permit is applied first to complete all
preparatory work & such permit is then converted into regular permit with required isolations.
• Applications for trial runs : Once the maintenance work is completed, permit holder
applies for trial run if necessary, by endorsing on the same permit or by making application
on computer system for such purpose.
• Link with work distribution and job completion slip : The computerized program of
permit system has its link with the data of work distribution & job completion sheets
which is filled in separate program by the concerned attending section. This gives account
of manpower cost, material cost and status of work on line.
G. Managing Issue of Permits

• Isolation related features : Before issuing permit to the applicant, the issuing authority
has to decide the isolations required for safe work of execution of applied work. If there
is no isolation & work can be done while the machine/ system is still in use, then working
permit is issued to applicant.
In case of isolations, either electric isolations or mechanical isolations, PCR or Plant
incharge first make arrangement to isolate the system as per requirements of job &
specific requirements of applicant. This is done with the help of location incharges or PCR
staff. Some times help of other sections is also necessary for isolations. The nature &
details of isolations are recorded in permit before issuing the permit. Once the isolation done,
the concerned operation staff is instructed to put danger board on the related machines.
• Related Permit Concept : Some times for performing maintenance work on some machine,
either decoupling from other elements is required or removal of electrical or instrument
connections are necessary. In such case, the attending section can sent related defect
card on the basis of original defect card. If the permit is applied by section for work on all
such related defect cards done by various sections and work done by same sections
repeatedly by applying series of permits on same defect card can be linked as related
permits.
✦✦✦
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STATUTORY ACTS
Following are the statutory acts related to our power plants.

I) The Factory Act – 1948
The Maharashtra Factories Rule – 1963
II) The Industrial Dispute Act 1947.
III) The Workmen’s Compensation Act 1923
IV) The Maharashtra Recognition of Trade unions and prevention of unfair labour practice
Act 1971
Salient points of these Acts are given below :

I) The Factory Act – 1948 :
1) This Act came into force on the 1st day of APRIL 1949. It extends to the whole of India.
Initially we will learn about some basic terms related to factory Act.
1) Factory.
2) Occupier.
3) Worker.
4) Firm.
5) Company.
6) Factory owned or controlled by central Govt./ state Govt.
7) Adult, Child, Adolescent, Young person.
8) Natural person and Artificial person.
9) Competent person.
2) WORKING HOURS :
Sec 53 s/s(1) : Compensatory holiday to be allowed for technical staff/ worker. But not
more than two holidays are given in one week.
Sec 52 : About Weekly Holiday.
Person is allowed to work not more than 48 hours in a week applicable to the person who
are not required to perform manual labour or a clerical work as a regular part of their
duties.
Sec 64 : No woman worker shall be allowed to work for more than 9 hours in any day. In
between 07.00 Pm to 06.00 Am woman worker shall not be permitted to work in a
Factory. Total working hours in a week, including overtime, shall not exceed sixty.
10 hours per day inclusive of interval for rest. Total overtime shall not exceed 50
hours for any one quarter.
Sec 64 s/s (a) & (b) : Limits imposed on specified schedule.
In case of a shift workers engaged in a factories, worker is allowed to work the whole or
part of the subsequent shift in the absence of the worker who has failed to report for
duty.
3) MODE OF LEAVE :
Sec 79 & Sec 80 : Every worker who has worked for a period of 240 days or more in a
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factory during a Calender year shall be allowed during the subsequent year, leave with
wages for number of days.
One day for every twelve days of work performed.
One day for every fifteen days of work performed for child.
One day for every twenty days of work performed for adult.
Section 83 : Manager or section Incharge may alter the date fixed for the leave only
after giving a notice of four weeks to the worker.
A worker may exchange the period of his leave with another worker subject to approval
of said Authority.
4) Provision made in Factory act in concern with Hygienic conditions.

Following points to be considered :
1) Cleaniness : Factory premises shall kept clean and free from effluvia arising from
any drain, privy or other nuisance.
2) Disposal of Wastes and Effulents : Effective arrangement for the treatment of
waste should be made which is produced during manufacturing process.
3) Ventilation & Temperature : Adequate ventilation shall be arranged circulation of
fresh air and reasonable conditions of comfort and prevent injury to health.
4) Dust and Fumes : Dust and Fumes measures to prevent its inhalation and
accumulation in any workroom.
5) Over-Crowding : No overcrowding to an extent injurious to health.
6) Sufficient illumination : Natural and artificial lighting arrangement shall be made in
factory. No glare, No formation of shadow.
7) (Sec. 46.) Canteen : Canteen to be established in a factory, where 250 workers
are employed, within a six month, after government notification.
Managing committee to be formed. One member to be deputed for every 1000
workers & total number of committee member shall be five or less than five.
8) Drinking Water : Suitable points to be selected in factory premises for drinking
water tappings and 24 hours adequate water supply to be provided.
9) Lavotory & Urinals : It shall accessible to workers at all times and should be
prescribed sanitary type.
10) Spitoons : Spitoons shall provided at a convinient places and maintained in a clean,
hygienic condition.
11) Creches : Creches facility to be provided for women worker’s children under the
age of 6 years, it in factory 30 or more women are employed.
12) First Aid : As per Rule 45. It working employees is 150, First Aid box, Cup-board
facility to be provided.
Ambulance facility to be provided if the employed workers are 500 in a factory.
Medical and nursing staff as may be prescribed and medical facilities shall always be
made readily available during the working hours of factory.
5) Rule 49 :
Wherein 500 or more workers in the factory are ordinarily employed, the occupier shall
employ in the factory such number of Welfare Officer (W.O) as may be prescribed. The
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state Govt. may prescribe duties, qualification, responsibilities of welfare officer.
6) Sec 112, Rule 125 :

Notification of Accident :
i) Chief Engnieer or his represntative shall, within 4 hours of the happening of such
accidental incident or occurences, send notice there of by Telephone or special
messanger or by telegram to the inspector of factory and administrativ medical
officer.
ii) If accident is Fatal / Serious nature or to be proved Fatal, notice as a foresaid shall
also be sent to -
a) The District magistrate or Sub-Divisional Magistrate.
b) The Officer-In-Charge of the nearest police station.
c) The nearest relative of the injured or decreased person.
iii) Written Report : Form No. 24 or 24A or in form 16, within 12 hours of the taking
place of any such accident or occurrence referred to in that sub-rule, shall submitted
in written to the o/o Chief Factory Inspector or Resional Factory Inspector.
iv) Where any accident of minor character, authority shall, within 24 hours, send
notice there of, to the Inspector.
Accident of Serious Nature :

1) Immediate loss of any part of the body or any limb or part thereof.
2) Crushed or serious injury to any part of the body due to which loss of the same is
obvious or any injury which is likely to prove ‘Fatal’.
3) Unconsciousness.
4) Severe burn, scald due to chemicals, steam or any other cause.
7) Power to exempt during Public Emergency :

In case of public emergency, the state Govt. may, by notification in the official gazette,
exempt any factory or class or description of factories from all or any of the provision of
this act (except Sec. 67) for such period and subject to such conditions as it may think
fit. Provided that no such notification shall be made for a period exceeding three months
at a time. Public Emergency means a grave emergency whereby the Security of India or
any part of territory thereof is threaten, whether by war or external aggression or
internal disturbance.
8) Power of Factory Inspector :

Subject to any rules made in this behalf, an inspector may, within the local limits for
which he is appointed.
1) He may enter, with his assistant, as he think fit, any place which is used, as a factory.
2) He shall make examination of premises, plant, machinary, article or substance.
3) Inquire into any accident or dangerous occurences, whether resulting in body injury,
disability or not and take on the spot, the statement of a person which he may consider
necessary for such inquiry.
4) He shall require the production of any register, record or any other document or any
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portion thereof. He may sieze any register, record or any other documents or any portion
thereof.
5) He shall take measurements and photograph and make such recording for the purpose of
any examination.
6) In case of any article or substance found in any premises which is likely to cause danger
to health or safety of worker, direct it to be dismantled or subject it to any process or
test.
7) He may exercise such other powers as may be prescribed, provided that no person shall
be compelled under this section to answer any question or give any exidence tending to
incriminate himself.
8) He shall prosecute, conduct or defend before a court any complaint, or other proceeding
arising under the act or in discharge of his duties as an inspector.
9) Information regarding closure of Factory :

Sec 112, Rule 125 :
The occupier and the manager shall be jointly or severally responsible for sending
information in duplicate to the inspector, of any intended closure of the factory or any
shift/ section or department thereof, immidiately after it is decided to do so and before
the closure takes place stating.
a) The date of intended closure.
b) The reason for closure.
c) The number of workers employed/ working in the factory on the day of information
is sent.
d) The number of workers likely to be affected by the closure.
e) The probable period of closure.
Provided further that it shall not be necessary for the occupier or manager to send
information of intended closure if the closure is rendered inevitable on account of fire,
breakdown of machinery, stoppage of power or water supply or any other cause beyond
his control.
II) The Industrial Dispute Act 1947 :

An Act to make provision for the investigation and settlement of industrial dispute and
for certain other purposes related to industry. The I. D. Act come into force on the 1st
any of APR, 1947. It extend the whole of India. The Act was amended by Act No. 49 of
1984, effective from 17th Aug. 1984.
1) Industry : Industry means any systematic activity carried on by cooperation between
on employer and his workmen for the production, supply or distribution of goods or
services with a view to satisfy human wants or wishes whether or not.
i) Any capital has been invested for the purpose of carrying on such activity or any
activity relating to the promotion of sales or business or both carried on by an
establishment. “Industrial establishment or undertaking” means an establishment
or undertaking in which any industry is carried on or units thereof shall be deemed
to be an Industrial establishment or undertaking.
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Any capital has been invested for the purpose of carrying on such activity or
such activity is carried on with a motive to make any gain or profit but it does not
include.
ii) Any agricultural operation, hospital or dispensaries, Education, scientific re search
or training institution, any domestic service, Khadi & village industries, & cooperative
society etc.
2) Industrial Dispute : means any dispute or difference between employer and employer,
between employer and workmen or between workmen & workmen which is connected
with employment or non-employment or the terms of the employment or with the conditions
of labour of any person.
Following are the major industrial disputes :

Layoff, Lockout, Strike, Unfair Labour practice, dismissal, retrenchment and filling of
vacancies recovery of money due from an employer, protection of person, delegation of
power, congnizance of offences and penalties etc. Strike and Unfair Labour practice on
the part of employer and unions is mostly observed.
It is seen that most of the times, management tries to declare the strike as illegal
strike. A strike or lockout shall be illegal if it is commenced or declared in contravention of
Sec. 22 or Sec. 23 to I. D. Act.
3) Prohibition of Strikes & Lockout :

Sec. 22 :
No person employed in public utility service shall go on strike in breach of contract.
1) a) Without giving to the employer notice of strike, as here in after provided,
within six weeks before striking.
b) Within 14 days of giving such notice.
c) Before the expiry of the date of strike specified in any such notice aforesaid or
d) During the pendancy of any conciliation proceeding before a conciliation officer
and seven days after the conclusion of such proceeding.
2) If Employer receives, from any person employed by him, any such notice as are
referred to in s/s (1) or gives to any person such notice as are referred in s/s (2),
he shall within 5 days thereof report to the appropriate government or to such
Authority as the govt. may prescribe.
4) General Prohibition of Strike and Lockout :

Sec. 23 :
During the pendany of conciliation proceeding Labour court, Tribunal or national tribunal
or arbitration proceeding and particular period after conclusion of such proceeding.
Sec. 25 of I. D. Act :
No person shall knowingly expend or apply any money in direct furtherance or support of
any illegal strike or lockout.
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5) Public Utility Service :
a) Public utility service means any industry which supplies power, Light or Water to the
public. It includes Railway service, transport service, part or dock, Postal & telegraph,
telephone services, system of public conservancy or sanitation etc.
b) Any section of an industrial establishment, on the working of which the safety of
the establishment or the workmen employed therein depend.
c) An industry specified in the 1st schedule which the appropriate govt. may, if satisfied
that Public Emergency or Public interest so requires, by notification in the official
gazatte, declare to be public utility service for the purposes of this Act, for such
period (maximum six mouth) as may be specified in the notification.
6) NOTICE OF CHANGE :
Sec. 9A :
No employer, who proposes to effect any change in the condition of service applicable
to any workman in respect of any matter specified in the fourth schedule, shall effect
such change.
a) Without giving to the workmen likely to be effected by such change a notice in the
prescribed manner of the nature of change proposed to be effected; or
b) Within 21 days of giving such notice.
Provided that no notice shall be required for affecting any such change.
i) Where the change is effecting in pursuance of any settlement or award.
ii) Where the workmen likely to be affected by the change are person to whom the
fundamental and supplementary rules, civil services, or regulation that be notified
in this behalf by the appropriate govt. in the official gazette only.
7) Authorities under I. D. Act :

1) Works Committee : Works Committee consists of representative of employers and
workmen engaged in the establishment.
2) Conciliation Officer : The appropriate govt. may, by notification in the official gazette,
appoint such number of person as it thinks fit to be conciliation officer, charged with the
duty of mediating in and promoting the settlement of industrial dispute.
3) Board of Conciliation : A Board shall consist of a chairman and two or four other
members, as the appropriate government thinks fit.
4) Courts of Inquiry : A court may consist of one independent person or consist of two or
more members, one of them shall be appointed as the chairman, as the appropriate
government may think fit.
5) Labour Court : A Labour Court shall consist of one person only to be appointed by the
govt. He is, or has been, a judge of high court or District judge/ Additional district Judge
having 3 years minimum experience.
6) Tribunal : Industrial tribunal for the adjudication of industrial dispute relating to any
493
matter, whether specified in the second schedule or third schedule. Tribunal consist of
one person only to be appointed by the govt. qualification as above.
7) National Tribunal : Central government constitute one or more national industrial Tribunals
for the adjudication of I. D. It involves question of national importance.
III) The Workmen’s Compensation Act 1923 : The workmen’s compensation Act came
into force on the first day of July, 1924. It extends to the whole of India. An Act to
provide for the payment by certain classes of employers to their workmen of compensation
for injury by accident.
Employer’s Liability for Compensation : If personal injury is caused to a workmen by

accident arising out of and in the course of his employment, his employer shall be liable
to pay compensation in accordance with the provision of this Act.
Provided that the Employer shall not be so liable :

a) In respect of any injury which does not result in the total or partial disablement of the
workman for a period exceeding a period of three days.
b) The workman having been at the time thereof under the influence of drink or drugs.
c) The wilful disobedience of the workman to an order expressly given, or to a rule expressly
framed, for the purpose of securing the safety of workman.
d) The wilful removal or disregard by the workman of any safety guard or other device
which he knew to have been provided for the purpose of securing the safety of workmen.
No claim for compensation shall be entertained by a commissioner unless notice of accident

has been given in the manner herein after provided as soon practicable after the happening
thereof and unless the claim is preferred before him within tow years of the occurrence
of accident.
Section 10 B :
Report of fatal accident, and serious bodily injuries : Notice is required to be given to
any authority, by or on behalf of an employer, of any accident occurring on his premises
which result in death or serious bodily injury, the person required to give the notice shall,
within seven days of death or send a report to the commissioner giving the circumstances
attending the death or serious bodily injury.
Section 18 A :
Penalties : No prosecution under this section shall be instituted except by or within
previous sanction of a commissioner, and no court shall take cognizance of any offence
under this section, unless complaint thereof is made within six months of the date on
which alleged commission of the offence came to the knowledge of the Commissioner.
Amount of Compensation : Subject to the provision of this Act, the amount of

compensation shall be varied according to the severity of injuries. The amount of
compensation depends upon monthly wages of deceased workman also, namely.
494
a) Where death results from the injury. An amount equal to fourty percent of the
monthly wages of the deceased workman
multiplied by relevant factor.
b) Where permanent total disablement result an amount equal to 50% of the monthly
from the injury. wages of the deceased
workman multiplied by relevant factor.
c) Where permanent partial disablement percentage of the compensation payable in

result from the injury. the case of permanent total disablement as
is proporationate to the loss of earning
capacity (as assessed by the qualified
medical practitioner) permanently caused by
the injury.
Sec. 4 A :
Compensation to be paid when due and penalty for default.
Sec. 4 A :
In cases where the Employer does not accept the liability for the compensation to the
extent claim, he shall be bound to make provisional payment based on the extent of
liability which he accepts, and such payment shall be deposited with the commissioner or
made to the workman, as the case may be, without prejudice to the right of the workman
to make any further claim.
Schedule II
Section 2 (1) (n) :
List of the person who subject to the provisions of section 2 (1) (n) are included in
the definition of workmen.
S/s xx : Employed in a light house as defined in clause (a) of section 2 of the Indian light
house Act 1927.
S/s ix : Employed in setting up, maintaining, repairing or taking down any overhead
electric line or cable or post or standard or fitting and fixtures of the same.
S/s x : Employed otherwise than in an electrical capacity, in the construction, working,

repair or demolition of any aerial ropeway (CHP premises), canal, pipelines or senter or
service of any fire brigade.
In schedule III section 3 describe the list of occupational diseases. Some of them
related to power station are as follows :
a) Infections and parasitic diseases contracted in an occupation where there is a
particular risk of contamination, due to toxic compounds, fumes, pulversed coal
dust etc (In CHP, Blr house, WTPlant etc.)
b) Hearing impairment caused by noise (Turbine floor).
c) Occupational asthma, lung cancer, T. B. Etc and skin diseases.
495
IV) The Maharashtra Recognition of Trade unions and Prevention of unfair Labour
practices Act, 1971 :
An Act to provide for the recognition of trade unions for facilitating collective bargaining
for certain undertakings, to state their rights and obligations; to confer certain powers
on unrecognised unions; to provide for declairing certain strike and lockout as illegal
strike or lockout; to define and provide for the prevention of certain unfair labour practices;
to constitute courts (as independent machinary) for carrying out the purposes of according
recognition of trade unions and for enforcing the provisions relating to unfair practices;
and to provide for matters connected with the purposes aforesaid.
1) Industrial court and labour court are the authorities under this Act :
The state govt. shall by notification in the official gazette, constitute an Industrial
court. Industrial court shall consist of not less than three members, one of whom shall be
the president.
Duties of Industrial court is
i) to decide an application by a union for grant of recognition to it,
ii) to decide an application from another union or an employer for withdrawn or
concellation of recognition of a union.
iii) To decide complaints relating to ULPA.
iv) To decide appeals under section 42.
v) To assign work and to give directions to the Investigating officer.
vi) To decide reference made to it on any point of low either by any civil or criminal
court.
Labour Court : The state government shall by notification in the official gazette, constitute
one or more labour courts, having jurisdiction in such local areas, as may be specified in
such notification, and shall appoint persons having the prescribed qualification to preside
over such court.
Duties of Labour Court : To decide complaints relating to unfair labour practices described
in schedule IV and to try offences punishable under this act.
Unfair Labour practices means any of the practices listed in schedule II, III & IV.
2) Schedule II : Unfair labour practices on the part of Employer :

1) To interfere with, restrain or coerce employees in the exercise their right to organise,
form, join or assist a trade union and to engage in concerted activities for the
purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection.
2) To dominate, interfere with or contribute, support financial or otherwise to any
union.
3) To establish employer sponsored unions.
4) To encourage or discourage membership in any union by discriminating against any
employee.
5) To refuse to bargain collectively, in good faith, with the recognised union.
6) Proposing or continuing a lockout deemed to be illegal under this Act.
496
3) Schedule III : ULP on the part of Trade Unions :
a) To advise or actively support or instigate any strike deemed to be illegal under this
Act.
b) To coerce employees in the exercise of their right to self organization or to join
unions or retrains from joining any union.
c) For a recognised union to refuse to bargain collectively in good faith with the
employer.
d) To stage, encourage or instigate such forms of coercive action as wilful “go slow”
squatting on work premises
e) To stage demonstrations or gherao of any of the member of the managerial staff
member or employer.
4) Schedule IV : General ULP on the part of employers :

1) To discharge or dismiss employees by way of victimization, by falsely implicating an
employee in a criminal case on false evidence, for patently false reasons, on untrue
or trumped up allegations of absence without leave, misconduct of minor or technical
character or utter disregard o the principles of natural justice in the conduct of
domestic enquiry or with undue haste.
2) To abolish the work of a regular nature being done by employees and to give such
work to contractors as a measure at breaking a strike.
3) To transfer an employee malafide from one place to another under the guise of
following management policy.
4) To insist upon individual employees, who were on legal strike
5) To show favouritism or partiality to one set of the workers regardless of merits.
6) To recruit employee during strike which is not an illegal strike
7) Failure to implement award, settlement or agreement.
8) To indulge in act of force or violence.
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497
MAHARASHTRA ELECTRICITY REGULATORY COMMISSION
(TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF TARIFF) REGULATIONS 2005
ELECTRICITY ACT, 2003
PART A : GENERAL
Scope of regulation and extent of application
The Commission shall determine tariff, including terms and conditions therefore, for all
matters for which the Commission has the power under the Act, including in the following
cases :
(i) Supply of electricity by a Generating Company to a Distribution Licensee : Provided that
where the Commission believes that a shortage of supply of electricity exists, it may fix
the minimum and maximum ceiling of tariff for sale or purchase of electricity in case of
an agreement entered into between a Generating Company and a Licensee or between
Licensees, for a period not exceeding one year;
(ii) Intra-State transmission of electricity;
(iii) Rates and charges for use of intervening transmission facilities, where these cannot be
mutually agreed upon by the Licensees;
(iv) Wheeling of electricity;
(v) Retail sale of electricity:
(vi) Surcharge in addition to the charges for wheeling in accordance with the Distribution
Open Access Regulations;
(vii) Additional surcharge on the charges for wheeling in accordance with the Distribution
Open Access Regulations.
Notwithstanding anything contained in these Regulations, the Commission shall adopt
the tariff if such tariff has been determined through a transparent process of bidding in
accordance with the guidelines issued by the Central Government.
PART B : PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINATION OF TARIFF

Commission shall at all times have the authority, either suo motu or on a petition filed by
any interested or affected party, to determine the tariff, including terms and conditions there
of, of any Licensee or Generating Company :
Determination of generation tariff

Existing generating station
• Where the Commission has already approved a power purchase agreement or arrangement
between a Generating Company and a Distribution Licensee, such power purchase
agreement may be adopted by the Commission.
• An application for approval of power purchase agreement or arrangement shall be made
by the Generating Company or the Distribution Licensee to the Commission within a period
of three (3) months from the date of notification of these Regulations :
Determination of tariff for transmission, wheeling and retail sale of electricity

The applicant shall provide, as part of his application to the Commission, full details of his
calculation of the aggregate revenue requirement and expected revenue from tariff and
charges pursuant to the terms of his licence, and there after he shall furnish such further
530
information or particulars or documents as the Commission may reasonably require to assess
such calculation :
The applicant shall publish a notice, in at least two (2) English and two (2) Marathi
language daily newspapers widely circulated in the area to which the application pertains, out
lining the proposed tariff, and such other matters as may be stipulated by the Commission,
and inviting objections from the public
The applicant shall furnish to the Commission all such books and records (or certified
true copies thereof), including the Accounting Statements, operational and cost data, as may
be required by the Commission for determination of tariff.
Tariff Order
The Commission shall, within one hundred and twenty (120) days from the receipt of a
complete application and after considering all suggestions and objections received from the
public (a) issue a tariff Order accepting the application with such modifications or such conditions
as may be contained in such Order; or (b) reject the application for reasons to be recorded in
writing if such application is not in accordance with the provisions of the Act and the rules and
regulations made there under or the provisions of any other law for the time being in force:
Provided that an applicant shall be given a reasonable opportunity of being heard before his
application is rejected.
PART C : MULTI-YEAR TARIFF

Multi -year tariff frame work
The Commission shall determine the tariff under a multi-year tariff framework with
effect from April 1, 2006: Provided that the Commission may, either suo-motu or upon
application made to it by the applicant, exempt the determination of tariff of a Licensee or
category of Licensees under the multi-year tariff framework for such period as may be contained
in the Order granting such an exemption(now exempted up to April 1, 2007).
The multi-year tariff framework shall be based on the following elements, for calculation
of aggregate revenue requirement and expected revenue from tariff and charges:
(i) control period, at the commencement of which a forecast of the aggregate revenue
requirement and expected revenue from existing tariffs and charges shall be submitted by the
applicant and approved by the Commission;
(ii) applicant’s forecast of aggregate revenue requirement and expected revenue from
tariffs and charges during t he cont rol period, based on reasonable assumptions relating to
the expected behaviour of the underlying financial and operational variables;
(iii) trajectory for specific variables as may be stipulated by the Commission, where the
performance of the applicant is sought to be improved through incentives and disincentives;
(iv) annual review of performance vis-à-vis the approved forecast and categorization of
variations in performance into those that were caused by factors within the control of the
applicant (controllable factors) and those caused by factors beyond the control of the applicant
(uncontrollable factors);
(v) mechanism for pass-through of approved gains or losses on account of
uncontrollable factors;
(vi) mechanism for sharing of approved gains or losses arising out of controllable factors;
(vii) annual determination of tariff for each financial year within the control period,
based on the approved forecast and results of the annual performance review.
531
Control period
The applicant shall submit a forecast of his aggregate revenue requirement and expected
revenue from tariff and charges for the approval of the Commission for each financial year
within a control period of five (5) financial years:
Provided that for the first application made to the Commission under this Part, the
control period shall be three (3) financial years i.e. April 1, 2007 to March 31, 2010.
Provided further that the Commission may, based on the experience gained with implementation
of multi-year tariffs in the State, extend or reduce the duration of subsequent control periods,
as it may deem appropriate:
Provided also that the Commission shall not so extend or reduce the duration of subsequent
control periods without hearing the parties affected:
Provided also that the Commission shall not extend or curtail the duration of any control
period during such control period.
Forecast of aggregate revenue requirement

The applicant shall develop the forecast of aggregate revenue requirement using any
one of the following two methodologies:
(a) Assumptions relating to the behavior of individual variables that comprise the aggregate
revenue requirement during the control period; or
(b) Assumptions relating to-
(i) Percentage annual change in a suitable macro-economic or market index, or
combination thereof, to which the aggregate revenue requirement of the applicant is
correlated; and
(ii) Percentage annual reduction in aggregate revenue requirement due to efficiency or
productivity gains proposed to be achieved by the applicant during the control period:
Where, for any control period, the applicant seeks to change the methodology for forecasting
the aggregate revenue requirement, he shall apply to the Commission for approval of change
of methodology along with the rationale there for and such other details as the Commission
may require, at least nine (9) months before the commencement of such control period. The
Commission may, upon scrutiny of such application and after hearing the affected parties,
either pass or reject the application for reasons to be recorded in writing.
Specific trajectory for certain variables

The Commission may stipulate a trajectory, which may cover one or more control periods,
for certain variables having regard to the reorganization, restructuring and development of
the electricity industry in the State.
Provided that the variables for which a trajectory may be stipulated include, but are not
limited to, generating station availability, station heat rate, transmission losses, distribution
losses and collection efficiency.
Where the Commission has stipulated a trajectory for certain variables, the norms specified
in these Regulations, shall not apply with regard to such variables for such period as the
trajectory has been so stipulated.
Annual review of performance

Generating Company or Licensee covered under a multi-year tariff framework shall be
subject to an annual performance review during the control period.
532
Upon completion of the review, the Commission shall attribute any variations or expected
variations in performance, to factors within the control of the applicant (controllable factors)
or to factors beyond the control of the applicant (uncontrollable factors):
Upon completion of the annual performance review, the Commission shall pass an order
recording -
(a) the approved aggregate gain or loss to the Generating Company or Licensee on account
of uncontrollable factors and the mechanism by which the Generating Company or Licensee
shall pass through such gains or losses ;
(b) the approved aggregate gain or loss to the Generating Company or Licensee on account
of controllable factors and the amount of such gains or such losses that may be shared.
(c) the approved modifications to the forecast of the Generating Company or Licensee for the
remainder of the control period, if any.
Annual determination of tariff

The Commission shall determine the tariff of a Generating Company or Licensee covered
under a multi-year tariff framework for each financial year during the control period, at the
commencement of such financial year, having regard to the following:
(a) The approved forecast of aggregate revenue requirement and expected revenue from
tariff and charges for such financial year, including approved modifications to such forecast;
and
(b) Approved gains and losses to be passed through in tariffs, following the annual performance
review.
PART D : ELECTRICITY PURCHASE AND PROCUREMENT

Long-term power procurement plan
The Distribution Licensee shall prepare a five-year plan for procurement of power to
serve the demand for electricity in his area of supply and submit such plan to the Commission
for approval :
Every agreement or arrangement for long-term power procurement by a Distribution
Licensee from a Generating Company or Licensee or from other source of supply entered into
after the date of notification of these Regulations shall come into effect only with the prior
approval of the Commission :
Short-term power procurement

The Distribution Licensee shall undertake his power procurement during the year in
accordance with the power procurement plan for such year approved by the Commission.
Any variation, during any quarter of a financial year, in the quantum or cost of power
procured and any procurement from a source other than a previously approved source, in
excess of five (5) percent of the quantum or cost, as the case may be, of power procurement
for such quarter, as approved by the Commission in the power procurement plan of the
Distribution Licensee, shall be only with the prior approval of the Commission.
Where there has been a shortfall or failure in the supply of electricity from any approved
source of supply during the financial year, the Distribution Licensee may enter into a short-
term arrangement or agreement for procurement of power without the prior approval of the
Commission where the tariff for power procured under such arrangement or agreement is
determined in accordance with (a) a transparent process of bidding in accordance with guidelines
issued by the Central Government; or (b) the terms and conditions contained in Part E of
533
these Regulations.
Where the Commission has notified that a shortage of supply of electricity exists and has
fixed a minimum and maximum ceiling of tariff for sale or purchase of electricity, in pursuance
of an agreement , entered into between a Generating Company and a Licensee or between
Licensees, for a period not exceeding one year, the Distribution Licensee may procure power
within such minimum & maximum ceiling of tariff without the prior approval of the Commission.
Where the Distribution Licensee seeks to procure power in excess of the quantum approved
by the Commission in his approved power procurement plan and expects to sell such additional
power at a tariff higher than the cost of supply to the consumer, the Distribution Licensee may
enter into a short term arrangement or agreement for procuring such additional power without
the approval of the Commission.
Where the Distribution Licensee has identified a new short -term source of supply from
which power can be procured at a tariff that reduces his approved total power procurement
cost, the Distribution Licensee may enter into a short -term power procurement agreement or
arrangement with such supplier without the prior approval of the Commission.
The Distribution Licensee may enter into a short -term arrangement or agreement for
procurement of power without the prior approval of the Commission when faced with emergency
conditions that threaten the stability of the distribution system or when directed to do so by
the State Load Despatch Centre to prevent grid failure.
Within fifteen (15) days from the date of entering into an agreement or arrangement for
short -term power procurement for which prior approval is not required, the Distribution
Licensee shall provide the Commission, full details of such agreement or arrangement , including
quantum, tariff calculations, duration, supplier details, method for supplier selection and such
other details as the Commission may require with regard to such agreement/ arrangement to
assess that the conditions specified in this Regulation 25 have been complied with:
PART E : GENERATION
Tariff determination
1. Tariff in respect of a generating station shall be determined stage-wise, unit-wise or for
the whole generating station.
2. Where the tariff is being determined for stage or unit of a generating station, the Generating
Company shall adopt a reasonable basis for allocation of capital cost relating to common
facilities and allocation of joint and common costs across all stages or units, as the case
may be: Provided that the Generating Company shall maintain an Allocation Statement
providing the basis for allocation of such costs and submit such statement to the Commission
along with the application for determination of tariff .
Components of tariff
1. Tariff for sale of electricity from a thermal power generating station shall comprise of two
parts, namely, the recovery of annual fixed charges and energy charges.
2. Tariff for sale of electricity from a hydro power generating station shall comprise of two-
parts, namely, recovery of annual capacity charge and energy charges.
Provided that the annual capacity charges for a hydro power generating station shall be
computed in accordance with the following formula :
Annual Capacity Charges = (Annual Fixed Charge- Energy Charge)
Provided further that the Energy Charge shall not exceed the Annual Fixed Charge under
these Regulations.
534
3. The annual fixed charges of a thermal generating station or of a hydro power generating
station, as the case may be, shall consist of recovery of the following :
(a) Return on equity capital;
(b) Income-tax;
(c) Interest on loan capital;
(d) Depreciation, including Advance Against Depreciation, and amortization of intangible
assets;
(e) Operation and maintenance expenses; and
(f) Interest on working capital.
Multi -year tariffs

The Commission may specify a trajectory for certain norms of operation for a generating
station, for a Generating Company and/or for a Licensee in respect of his Generation Business:
Where the Commission has stipulated a trajectory, then the norms specified shall not apply for
such variables as may be covered under such trajectory for the period covered by such trajectory.
Capital cost
1. Actual expenditure incurred on completion of the project shall form the basis for
determination of the original cost of project. The original cost of project shall be determined
based on the approved capital expenditure actually incurred up to the date of commissioning
of the generating station and shall include capitalised initial spares subject to following ceiling
norms as a percentage of the original cost as on the cut-off date:
(i) Coal-based/lignite-fired generating stations -2.5%
(ii) Gas Turbine/Combined Cycle generating stations -4.0%
(iii) Hydro power generating st at ions -1.5%
Any expenditure on other items/assets, not being generating assets, including, but not
limited to, normal tools and tackles, personal computers, furniture, air conditioners, voltage
stabilizers, refrigerators, fans, coolers, TV, washing machines, heat-convectors, etc. bought
after the cut -off date may be capitalised, with the prior approval of the Commission: Provided
that the approval of the Commission under this Regulation shall not be required where the
aggregate expenditure on such assets in any financial year does not exceed Rupees Ten (10)
crores. Impact of additional capitalisation in tariff revision may be considered by the Commission
twice in a tariff period, including revision of tariff after the cut -off date.
Any expenditure on replacement, renovation and modernization or extension of life of old
fixed assets shall be considered after writing off the gross value of any such replaced assets
from the original capital cost:
The provisions of the Statements of Accounting Standards (AS10): Accounting for Fixed
Assets of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India shall apply, to the extent not
inconsistent with these Regulations, in determining the original cost of the project.
Debt-equity ratio
Existing generating stations
The amount of loan capital and equity capital shall be calculated as follows:
(a) The amount of loan capital shall be equal to the sum of the outstanding balance of all
long-term loans taken to finance the purchase or construction of the generating station,
at the commencement of the financial year for which tariff is being determined, as reflected
in the books of account of the Generating Company;
535
(b) The amount of equity capital shall be equal to-
(i) Equity capital as at April 1, 2004 as determined by the Commission in accordance
with the Explanation below; plus
(ii) Equity component of approved capital expenditure for the financial year ending
March 31, 2005:
Provided that in case of a Generating Company formed as a result of a transfer scheme
of the Act, the date of the said transfer scheme shall be the effective date instead of April 1,
2004 for determination of equity capital under clause (b) above.
New generating stations

Any generating station commissioned on or after the date of notification of these
Regulations shall be assumed to be financed at a normative debt :equity ratio of 70:30.
A Generating Company that has achieved financial closure in respect of a new generating
station prior to the date of notification of these Regulations with a debt: equity ratio less than
70:30 may apply to the Commission for exemption along with reasons there for:
Renovation, modernization and replacement

Any approved capital expenditure incurred on renovation, modernization, replacement
or extension of life of existing generating assets on or after April 1, 2005 shall be assumed to
be financed at a normative debt :equity ratio of 70:30:
Other fixed assets

Any approved capital expenditure incurred on purchase of other fixed assets (not being
generating assets) on or after April 1, 2005 shall be assumed to be financed at a normative
debt :equity ratio of 70:30.
The Commission may, if it deems appropriate, allow a relaxation in the debt:equity ratio
norm specified in this Regulation 31 where the applicant reasonably demonstrates inability to
raise loan capital, up to the specified norm, due to market constraints, corporate / group
exposure norms of lenders or similar factors:
Loan repayment schedule

The repayment schedule for the loan capital of existing generating stations shall be in
accordance with the loan agreements.
The loan capital calculated using the normative debt: equity ratio shall be assumed to
be repaid each year based on a normative repayment schedule:
Provided that the amount of such normative repayment for a year shall be equal to the
amount of depreciation on the fixed asset to which such loan relates:
Provided further that where the outstanding normative loan balance is less than the
amount of normative loan repayment calculated as above, the repayment shall be assumed to
be equal to the outstanding normative loan balance and no further amount shall be permitted
on account of such loan:
Norms for operation

Thermal generating stations
• Availability
(a) Target availability for full recovery of annual fixed charges shall be 80 per cent
(b) Target Plant Load Factor for incentive in accordance with Regulation 37 shall be 80 percent
536
• Auxiliary Energy Consumption
(a) Coal-based generating stations With cooling tower Without cooling tower
(i) 200 MW series 9.0% 8.5%
(ii) 500 MW series
Steam driven boiler feed pumps 7.5% 7.0%
Electrically driven boiler feed pumps 9.0% 8.5%
(b) Gas Turbine/Combined Cycle generating stations
(i) Combined cycle : 3.0%
(ii) Open cycle : 1.0%
(c) Lignite-fired thermal power generating stations
The auxiliary energy consumption norms shall be 0.5 percentage point more than the
auxiliary energy consumption norms of coal-based generating stations specified in
clause (a) above.
Note : During stabilization period, normative auxiliary consumption shall be reckoned at 0.5 percentage
point more than the norms indicated at (a), (b) and (c) above.
• Gross station heat rate

(a) Gross station heat rate for coal-based generating stations
200/210/250 MW sets 500 MW and above sets
During stabilization 2600 kCal/kWh 2550 kCal/kWh period
Subsequent period 2500 kCal/kWh 2450 kCal/kWh
Note 1 : In respect of 500 MW and above units where the boiler feed pumps are electrically operated,
the gross station heat rate shall be 40 kCal/kWh lower than the station heat rate indicated above.
Note 2 : For generating stations having combination of 200/210/250 MW sets and 500 MW and above
sets, the normative gross station heat rate shall be the weighted average station heat rate.
(b) Gross station heat rate for gas turbine/combined cycle generating stations
Advanced Class E/EA/EC/E2 Class
Machines Machines
Open cycle 2685 kCal/kWh 2830 kCal/kWh
Combined cycle 1850 kCal/kWh 1950 kCal/kWh
• Secondary fuel oil consumption

(a) Coal-based generating stations :
During stabilization period Subsequent period
4.5 ml/kWh 2.0 ml/kWh
• Transit losses
(a) Transit losses for coal based generating stations, as a percentage of quantity of coal
dispatched by the coal supply company during the month, shall be as given below:
(i) Pit head generating stations - 0.3%
(ii) Non-pit head generating stations -0.8%
Calculation of annual fixed charges
Return on Equity : Return on equity capital shall be computed on the equity capital determined
in accordance with Regulation 31 at the rate of 14 per cent per annum in Indian Rupee terms.
Income-tax : Income-tax on the income of the Generating Business of the Generating Company
shall be allowed for inclusion in the annual fixed charges:
537
Interest on loan capital : Interest on approved loan capital for existing generating stations
calculated under Regulation shall be allowed, based on the approved interest rate and the
repayment schedules of such loans:
The provisions of the Statements of Accounting Standard (AS 16): Borrowing Costs of
the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India shall apply, to the extent not inconsistent with
the provisions of these Regulations, in determination of the interest on loan capital.
Depreciation, including Advance Against Depreciation

Depreciation
For the purpose of tariff, depreciation shall be computed in the following manner, namely:
(i) The value base for the purpose of depreciation shall be the original cost of the asset as
approved by the Commission in accordance with Regulation 30;
(ii) Depreciation shall be calculated annually, based on straight-line method at the rates
provided in the Annexure - I to the Regulation:
Provided also that the provisions of the Statements of Accounting Standards (AS6):
Depreciation Accounting of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India shall apply to the
extent not inconsistent with these Regulations.
Advance Against Depreciation

In addition to depreciation, the Generating Company shall be entitled to Advance Against
Depreciation, calculated in the manner given in Regulation.
The Generating Company shall be permitted to recover amortisation of intangible assets up to
such level as may be approved by the Commission.
Interest on Working Capital

(a) In case of Coal based/ oil-based/ lignite-fired generating stations, working capital shall
cover :
(i) Cost of coal or lignite for one and a half months for pit-head generating stations and two
months for non-pit-head generating stations, corresponding to target availability;
(ii) Cost of oil for two months corresponding to target availability;
(iii) Cost of secondary fuel oil for two months corresponding to target availability;
(iv) Operation and Maintenance expenses for one month;
(v) Maintenance spares @ 1 per cent of the historical cost; and
(vi) Receivables for sale of electricity equivalent to two months of the sum of annual fixed
charges and energy charges calculated on target availability; minus
(vii) Payables for fuel (including oil and secondary fuel oil) to the extent of one month of t he
cost of fuel calculated on target availability.
(b) In case of Gas Turbine/Combined Cycle generating stations, working capital shall cover:
(i) Fuel cost for one month corresponding to target availability duly taking into account t he
mode of operation of the generating station on gas fuel and / or liquid fuel;
(ii) Liquid fuel stock for fifteen (15) days corresponding to target availability;
(iii) Operation and maintenance expenses for one month;
(iv) Maintenance spares at 1 per cent of t he historical cost ; and
(v) Receivables for sale of electricity equivalent to two months of the sum of annual fixed
charges and energy charges calculated on target availability, minus
(vi) Payables for fuel (including liquid fuel stock) to the extent of one month of the cost of
fuel calculated on target availability.
538
(c) In case of hydro power generating stations, working capital shall cover:
(i) Operation and maintenance expenses for one month;
(ii) Maintenance spares at 1 per cent of the historical cost ; and
(iii) Receivables for sale of electricity equivalent to two months of the annual fixed charges
calculated on normative capacity index.
(d) In case of own generating stations, no amount shall be allowed towards receivables, to
the extent of supply of power by the Generation Business to the Retail Supply Business,
in the computation of working capital in accordance with these Regulations.
(e) Rate of interest on working capital shall be on normative basis and shall be equal t o the
short -term Prime Lending Rate of State Bank of India as on the date on which the
application for determination of tariff is made.
Operation and Maintenance Expenses

Existing generating stations
(a) The operation and maintenance expenses including insurance shall be derived on the basis
of the average of the actual operation and maintenance expenses for the five (5) years
ending March 31, 2004, based on the audited financial statements, excluding abnormal
operation and maintenance expenses, if any subject to prudence check by the Commission.
(b) The average of such operation and maintenance expenses shall be considered as operation
and maintenance expenses for the financial year ended March 31, 2002 and shall be
escalated at the rate of 4 per cent per annum to arrive at operation and maintenance
expenses for the base year commencing April 1, 2005.
(c) The base operation and maintenance expenses for each subsequent year shall be escalated
at the rate of 4 per cent per annum to arrive at permissible operation and maintenance
expenses for such financial year.
Provided that in case, an existing generating station has been in operation for less than
five (5) years as at April 1, 2004, the average shall be computed for such shorter period for
which such generating station was in operation and such average shall be treated as the
operating and maintenance expense for the base year commencing April 1, 2004. T he operation
and maintenance expenses for any subsequent financial year shall be computed in accordance
with clause (c) above.
New generating stations

(a) Thermal generating stations
(i) Coal-based generating stations
200/210/250 MW sets : Rs. 10.82 lakh/MW
500 MW and above sets : Rs. 9.73 lakh/MW
(ii) Gas Turbine/Combined Cycle generating stations other than small gas turbine power
generating stations
With warranty spares of 10 years : Rs. 5.41 lakh/MW
Without warranty spares : Rs. 8.11 lakh/MW
(iii) Small gas turbine power generating stations: Rs. 9.84 lakh/MW
(iv) Lignite-fired generating stations : Rs. 10.82 lakh/MW
The above operation and maintenance expense norms are for the base year commencing
April 1, 2005, which shall be escalated at the rate of 4 per cent per annum to arrive at
permissible operation and maintenance expenses for the relevant year of tariff period.
539
(b) Hydro power generating stations
The base operation and maintenance expenses shall be fixed at 1.5 per cent of the
approved original cost of the project, in the year of commissioning, and shall be escalated
at a rate of 4 per cent per annum for the subsequent years.
Energy charges
(a) Energy charges shall cover fuel costs and shall be worked out on the basis of ex-bus
energy sent out corresponding to scheduled generation as per the following formula :
Energy Charges (Rs) = Rate of Energy Charges in Rs/kWh X Ex-bus energy sent out
corresponding to scheduled generation for the month in kWh Where, Rate of Energy Charges
(REC) shall be the sum of the cost of normative quantities of primary and secondary fuel for
one-kWh of ex-bus energy sent out corresponding to scheduled generation and shall be
computed as under :
REC = 100{Pp x (Qp) + Ps x (Qs)n } (Rs/kWh) / (100-(AUXn))
Where,
Pp = Landed cost of primary fuel namely coal or lignite or gas or liquid fuel in Rs/Kg or
Rs/cubic-metre (m3) or Rs./litre, as the case may be
(Qp)n = Quantity of primary fuel required for generation of one kWh of electricity at generator
terminals in Kg or litre or m3, as the case may be, and shall be computed on the
basis of normative Gross Station Heat Rate (less heat contributed by secondary
fuel oil for coal/lignite based generating stations) and gross calorific value of coal/
lignite or gas or liquid fuel as fired
Ps = Landed cost of Secondary fuel oil in Rs./ml
(Qs)n= Normative Quantity of Secondary fuel oil in ml/kWh as per Regulation 33.1.4, as
the case may be, and
AUXn = Normative Auxiliary Energy Consumption as percentage of gross generation as per
Regulation 33.1.2, as the case may be.
(b) Adjustment of rate of energy charge (REC) on account of variation in price or heat value
of fuels Initially, gross calorific value of coal/lignite or gas or liquid fuel shall be taken as per
actuals of the preceding three months. Any variation shall be adjusted on month to month
basis on the basis of gross calorific value of coal/lignite or gas or liquid fuel received and burnt
and landed cost incurred by the Generating Company for procurement of coal/lignite, oil, or
gas or liquid fuel, as the case may be. In case of any dispute, an appropriate application in
accordance with the Conduct of Business Regulations shall be made before the Commission.
(c) Landed Cost of fuel

The landed cost of fuel shall include price of fuel corresponding to the grade/quality of
fuel inclusive of royalty, taxes and duties as applicable, transportation cost by rail/ road/
pipeline or any other means, and, for the purpose of calculation of energy charges, shall be
arrived at after considering transit losses as per Regulation 33.1.6
Hydro power generating stations

Energy Charges
(a) Energy charges shall be worked out on the basis of paise per kWh rate on ex-bus energy
scheduled to be sent out from the hydro power generating station.
540
(b) The energy rate for a hydro power generating station shall be such rate as may be
notified by the Commission from time to time, based on the price/ variable cost of the
least-cost available alternative source of power if such hydro power generating station
was not to be despatched in accordance with the final despatch schedule of the State
Load Despatch Centre.
(c) The energy charge shall be computed in accordance with the following formula
Energy Charge = Saleable Energy x Energy Rate
Charges for unscheduled interchange

The generating station may be entitled to receive or shall be required to bear, as the
case may be, the charges for deviations between energy sent-out corresponding to scheduled
generation and actual energy sent-out, in accordance with the Balancing and Settlement
Code, as may be published by the State Load Despatch Centre and approved by the Commission:
Incentive
Incentive shall be payable at a flat rate of 25.0 paise/kWh for ex-bus scheduled energy
corresponding to scheduled generation in excess of ex-bus energy corresponding to target
Plant Load Factor.
Billing and payment of charges

Billing and payment of charges shall be done on a monthly basis.
Demonstration of Declared Capacity

The Generating Company may be required to demonstrate the declared capacity of its
generating station as and when required by the State Load Despatch Centre. In the event the
Generating Company fails to demonstrate the declared capacity, the fixed charges due to the
Generating Company shall be reduced as a measure of penalty.
The quantum of penalty for the first mis-declaration for any duration/block in a day shall
be the charges corresponding to two days fixed charges. For the second mis-declaration the
penalty shall be equivalent to fixed charges for four days & for subsequent mis-declarations, the
penalty shall be multiplied in the same geometrical progression as per the Order of the
Commission.
Where the declared capacity of the generating station is on the lower side and actual
generation is more than the declared capacity, then any charges for unscheduled interchange
due to the Generating Company on account of such extra generation shall be reduced t o zero
and t he amount shall be credit ed t o the account of the Distribution Licensee in proportion to
the share of the Distribution Licensee in the installed capacity of such generating station.
The operating log books of the generating station shall be available for review by the
Commission.
Deemed generation
In case of reduced generation by a hydro power generating station on account of reasons
beyond the control of the generating station or on account of non-availability of Transmission
Licensee’s transmission lines or on receipt of backing down instructions from the State Load
Despatch Centre resulting in spillage of water, the energy charges on account of such spillage
shall be payable to the Generating Company.
Energy charges on the above account shall not be allowable if the energy generated
during the year is equal to or more than the design energy.
✦✦✦
541
QUALITY-RELIABILITY CONCEPTS
CONCEPT OF QUALITY
The goal of the Quality Management is to meet the ultimate objective of customer
satisfaction. Customer service and quality are synonymous terms and as such Management of
Quality bears close relationship to the Organizational philosophy, which needs to be percolated
from the Chief Executive of the Organisation down to the employee at the lowest end of the
Organisational ladder. The percolation should enable each one to understand his/her role in
tune with the overall objective. Management of quality, in fact, means Quality Management.
Organisational commitment to the quality has to be developed through the process of educating
the ‘Internal Customer’ i.e. the people who make up the organisation. It is immaterial whether
this education process is carried out through formal training or participative programmes
such as Quality Circles or Zero Defects or something else or a combination of these. The
education will be aimed at
(a) giving overall organisational direction,
(b) enabling the employee to perform his role efficiently in his particular capacity,
(c) promoting his/ her interactions with the other participants in the quality production and
(d) developing the system and procedures for quality generation and maintenance.
Quality Management is no more just conceived with the specifications of the product or
work and the inspection and control procedures for the same, but more importantly it sets the
system standards. Internationally, current thinking on the quality is to reduce the variability.
According to Taguchi, the spokesman of this concept, it is better to be precise and inaccurate
that to be accurate and imprecise. For example, between the two hits on the dart board, as
shown in figure 1 & 2, the former should be preferred because although the darts have missed
the bull’s eye, with a correction in the direction of the hit, most of the darts will hit the bull’s
eye.
X
X X
XX
X
X
X
Fig. 1 Fig.2
The reduction in variability cab be brought about when all the systems in an organisation
are standardized. The process will then be in excellent control with almost nil variability. A
whole section of quality discipline has thus been born. System means several things such as
1. System of Management Responsibilities 2. Design system, 3. Documentation system, 4.
Purchase and Procurement system, 5. Contract System, 6. Logistics System 7. packing ,
storing & handling system, 8. Training system, 9. Inspection & testing system, 10. Process
control system, 11. system of corrective actions on non-confirmities, 12. system of quality
servicing & maintenance, 13. Quality Records and 14. internal audit for quality.
Quantitative Aspect of Quality Management : These are mainly the traditional Statistical
quality control procedures for acceptance sampling and process control. We shall study &
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confined to (i) Acceptance Sampling and (ii) Process Control charts, although there are several
other equally or more important aspects of quality management.
Acceptance Sampling: The term relates to acceptance of a consignment/ batch of items on

the basis of its quality. If batch has N items, a sample of size n is taken, in which c or less
number of items are found defective, then the consignment or batch gets accepted; if more
than c items are found defective, the entire consignment/ batch is rejected. Thus the inference
/ decision regarding a large quantity (or population) of N items is made on the basis of sample
quantity (n). Here (N,n,c) as a set, constitute the sampling plan, called the sampling Plan for
Attributes. Wit any sampling plan there is always a certain risk that (a) very bad shipments/
lots will be passed – i.e. accepted and (b) good lots will be rejected. These two risks are
appropriately called (i) Consumer’s risk and (ii) Producer’s risk, respectively.
Process Control: The process itself can be controlled by taking samples of output of the
process. These samples may be checked for (i) their measurable characteristics such as
length, diameter, hardness, tensile strength etc, or (ii) fraction defectives or (iii) number of
defectives in sample. The process is assumed to be in control if the sample points fall within
the pre-established control limits. The crux of process control lies in establishing the appropriate
control limits.
CONCEPT OF RELIABILITY
Traditionally, the maintenance of plant and equipment is an activity considered to be
less amenable to management techniques and tools. This is because maintenance is identified
with breakdowns and these do not come with the calling card. Breakdowns are usually associated
with chaos, crisis and emergency measures for normalization. However this should not be so
and is not the case. For one thing, with increasing input of technology and automation, plants
and equipments have become increasingly expensive. Increased availability of well maintained
plants should therefore be a matter of considerable importance as it directly affects plant
capacity, productivity and profitability. Moreover maintenance does not merely mean attending
breakdowns, the effort should be to minimize the breakdowns by planned actions, preventive
maintenance, conditioning monitoring and opportunity maintenance.
For planning the any of above types of maintenance, one needs to understand the
phenomenon of breakdown or failure. A vital information in this regard relates to failure
statistics. An important statistic is relative frequency of failure or probability of failure with
respect to the age of the item (of machine or system) in question. There are three types of
failure (a) Normal Distribution – most wear out phenomenon show normal behaviour, item
failing at some mean operating age with some failing sooner or later. not due to overload or
defects.. (b) Negative exponential distribution - some item fail not because they wear out but
due to overload or defects external to them (like electric fuse). Here failure rate here is not
age specific, it is constant. (c) Hyper-exponential distribution- for many equipments probability
density of failure is much higher during initial teething period than during their subsequent life.
From failure analysis, it is necessary to calculate by statistical formula, average failure
rate or frequency of failure and probability of failure in any given time period. The reliability
of item can be computed there from. Failure statistic, Reliability figures in particular, are very
important & helpful in design of equipment, machinery, production unit and plant system. A
number of components functionally linked together will make a module, a number of module
linked together makes an equipment or machine and a number of machines functionally
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linked together makes a plant system or a production unit. The reliability of higher level
production unit depends not only upon the levels of reliability of the various equipments
making the system but also upon how these equipment are functionally linked with one
another. The reliability of two equipments connected in series is the product of two reliabilities.
Whereas if these two components are connected in parallel, the reliability of two-component
can be calculated from their individual failure probabilities namely say P1 & P2. Then joint
reliability shall be 1-(1-P1)(1-P2). Word of caution is – in reliability, parallel means functionally
one which is standby to other. Thus two Non return valves in same pipeline do not represent
a series connection but a parallel, because when one non-return valve fails the other checks
the return of flow. Lot of organisational efforts is necessary to establish Reliability Monitoring
System.
Understanding Concept of Availability, Reliability & failure of machine

State of machine : The state of any machine can be defined with terms such as
(1) RunNing (2) StandBy (3) Under Permit (4) Not Available.
1. Machine is said to be taking part in process if it is either running or standby.
2. If machine is stopped or cut off from process, then it can be made either standby to
running machine or it can be declared as not available for process or it can be declared as
under permit. After clearance to permit, machine can remain as not available or can be made
stand by or may be brought in service as running machine.
Reliability of machine : Reliability can be calculated for specific machine or for group of
machines taken together. Such machines may be a group of all machines running as an
alternative to each other (standby & running) or these may be a group of connected machines
in series or parallel in a well defined system. Reliability as such can be calculated for machine,
group of machines, system, group of systems, process, group of processes & unit or station.
Availability of machine: Actual machine running & standby hours/ total theoretical possible
hours during such period.
1. Availability can be calculated for defined period of shift, day, week, month or year.
2. Availability can be for machines in specific reliability i.e. say 100% reliability.
3. Non-availability may be for total or for specific defect/ defects.
Failure : Failure of machine is state of deterioration in reliability or availability of machine

during defined span of time. It can be classified into categories like failure of reliability
(performance guarantee) or failure of availability.
Defect : Defect is an observation of any abnormal behaviour of machine which may have
caused or likely to cause the start of the deterioration in availability or reliability (failure) of
machine.
Types of Availability : Availability for normal/ standby operation (with full reliability or
reduced reliability), availability for emergency operations either normal or standby (in presence
of defect likely to cause deterioration in reliability or sudden failure)
Failure, defect & frequency of failure of machine :

1. Defect may have already resulted in to failure of machine or merely a suspected to be
failure.
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2. Any defect can be defined to be a failure or not failure after examination by competent
staff.
3. There can be one or many defects responsible for one instance of failure.
4. Life of Failure can be defined for span of time.
5. Failure can be defined with group of specific defects .If machine is under failure for
multiple defect then failure can be booked to one or multiple major defects or equally on all
defects as may be allowed by policy for booking the causes of failure.
6. Frequency of failure (failure of availability) in general is total span of non-availability
of machine for running hours or standby hours. It can be split into type of failures depending
on the type of availability and type of defects.
Benchmarking Business Excellence & Reliability of Performance

Continuous growth of organisation is subject to many factors internal as well as external.
Sustainable growth in competitive environment not only demands business excellence but
also continuous scrutiny of all factors for creating value for all stakeholders of the business.
When we play in open economy in the open market with many competitors, every technical or
commercial activity & decisions is to be analysed in terms of profit/gain on the investment
done. Rate of return on the investment done is the key word of success in corporate business
world. When there is an acute competition and market share is decided mainly by cost &
quality based services, it is inevitably lead to price war. At times, one has to play with
negative gains by offering product at loss to gain ground in the market. In such a competitive
situation, the Organisation dealing with high technology operations has to come up with
innovative means to achieve productivity as well as technological advancement to cope with
the costs of operations. This demands continuous growth of quality of management & operations
at all level in the organisation and institutionalization of business excellence process to create
the value for all stakeholders while focusing on the long-sustainable competitive success.
The profit & investment relations are simple to monitor. But identifying the key factors and
key personnel at the bottom of profit drive is a real task. Profit on asset in the organisation
can be identified to specific group of personals on the basis of division of assets to some
extent. But after certain level, it becomes difficult to assign creditability of portion of profit to
specific person in a group engaged in teamwork. Good Corporate leader at the helm of team
can be capable of achieving profitability & productivity in healthy industrial atmosphere but
still identifying capabilities/skill of individual team members & awarding these with appropriate
incentives is essential for development of promising leaders & for the assured growth of
organisation.
For any organization competing in open market, it is necessary to build up the
infrastructure for effective monitoring of technical as well as commercial gains/ losses and
short term as well as long-term effects of these. Tracing back the origin of such gains/ losses
shall be necessary for exploring the skills to the best advantage & also to take corrective
means for bridge up the identified gaps. Every organ of the company, every power station,
every unit, every section, every sub section and every personnel in it is to make to compete
for profitability, business excellence, business volume and code of conduct. There should be
system by which every organ can be able to assess their position comparing to all other
organs in the same organisation and also with the similar organs in other organisation in the
business industry. To create such an institution to monitor the excellence and grading every
organ while encouraging these to achieve well-defined path of growth, definite strategy is
required at topmost level of management. The question is to be asked are “Whether we need
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any such monitoring and why?”, “What kind of improvement we need?”, and “What arrangements
shall be necessary to achieve the same?”.
Steps to establish Framework for monitoring excellence

There can be various methods & approaches, but all these essentially revolve around
following steps.
• To create base level of minimum level of excellence & milestones for different level of
excellence. Deciding Qualifying criteria for each level of excellence.
• Institution for monitoring the performance on the basis of Profitability, Business
excellence, market share & code of conduct.
• Every entity in the MAHAGENCO shall compete for excellence level and make application
in the prescribed proforma initially for minimum level of excellence fulfilling the criteria as
may be finalized for qualification to be at base level of excellence.
• Every Station after having qualified for base level excellence shall offer its utilities,
Units, Sections & sub sections as well as selected individuals for internal or external audit
periodically as may be fixed by Centralised Monitoring Institution.
• Awarding excellence level to MAHAGENCO as compared to other companies in the
industry, to individual power station to judge their position amongst all power stations within
MAHAGENCO, to individual Unit in power station to judge the position amongst all Units of
same power station as well all other power stations.
STEPS NECESSARY FOR PROFITABILITY ASSESSMENT

Out of four element of excellence namely (1) Profitability, (2) Business excellence,
(3) market share & (4) code of conduct, first “Profitability” is of the prime importance for
survival of business. There are different approaches to monitor profitability of Company, power
stations, operating units, Maintenance sections, other sections & individuals therein. But asset
based monitoring is popular & practicably more suitable. Steps involved are
• Identification of group of assets (Investment) with calculated share of achievements/
gaps.
• Identifying station, Units, sections, sub sections sharing the operation of individual
group of assets. Such station/ Units/ sections may be exclusive or common user for such
asset.
• If many stations, Units, sections or sub sections are commonly sharing the individual
group of asset, basis of deciding the bifurcation of identified achievements/ gaps.
• Monitoring standard methods & continuous improvement therein.
• Collection of data, audit of data and periodical processing thereof
• Communication & feedback arrangements.
In MAHAGENCO, there is a corporate office at the top, which takes all strategic decisions
& long term planning activities in respect of investment plans, growth/ expansion plans and
budgets for existing operations. There are identified common services, which are utilized by
all individual stations in the MAHAGENCO. Broadly these common activities can be identified
in following heads.
• General Corporate management activities & Capital Management
• Financial & Cash Management
• Human resources Administration & Management
• Stores management activities
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• Coal / fuel oil Linkage, transportation & availability.
• Generation Planning & Works monitoring
Apart from these Common services to be shared by all power stations, all other business
operation activities of power generation are divided into power station wise regions. The
asset division amongst the individual power station is feasible on actual possession of asset
on book value basis. Every of such group of asset with specific power station can be assigned
with standard MW wise performance indicator as a standard measure for technical as well as
financial achievement. This will be based on further analysis of cost structure of individual
power station, asset distribution in common services shared by individual units in such power
station and business logistic facilities available. The asset distribution and identification of
standard norms for MW wise performance indicator for individual power station is the one
time exercise in the process of establishing “Performance Monitoring Organisation” at Corporate
level and station level. Being a strategic policy decision, this exercise shall have to be associated
with opinion of consultancy group, cost benefit analysis, feasibility report and details of
associated resources for effective implementation so as to enable the corporate management
to take appropriate strategic decision on priority.
Value Chain Matrix as a means to compare the interpower station profitability

Value Chain Matrix is a cost flow diagram to identify the cost & profit share of various
standard functions (Management as well as Operations) for business of electricity generation
at specific Power Station. Value Chain Matrix contains basic functions of
• Establishment of value chain matrix by dividing station activities in to various standard
& comparable functions and
• Identification of standard MW based asset, related profit margin and Its related cost
structure for every well defined functions in the power stations,
For this, first step is to standardize the division of broad activities for comparison of inters
power station profitability in terms of return on assets with all India power industry standard
profitability in the year. Initially, the value chain matrix shall contain major functional activities
as under
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Such Value chain matrix will display the individual function along with the related
standard share of profitability, actual profitability of MAHAGENCO in terms of cost/ MW as well
functional assets/ MW and the related comparative data of other Generation companies.
The above broad assessment of profitability of power stations within MAHAGENCO is
the first step to introduce the infrastructure for effective monitoring of commercial excellence
through profitability.
STEPS NECESSARY FOR ASSESSMENT OF BUSINESS EXCELLENCE

The assessment of business excellence can be set through technical performance leading
to higher profitability. Performance monitoring through comparative indicators reflecting the
position of expected target, set goal for achievement & actual position related to standard
performance. The technical parameters like Generation target, PLF, Availability factors,
generation loss, coal consumption, Oil consumption, Auxiliary power consumption, water
consumption per MW etc are useful in comparing the technical performance of individual
power station and to the most unit level comparison of technical efficiency of operations.
However, there are other organs in the individual station, which is common to various sets of
units like Station wise administrative services/ sections, Stage wise Maintenance sections and
common utilities. The infrastructure for assessment of business excellence/ performance of
these needs to be considered seriously because the profitability of individual unit as well as
performance of individual unit both are related to effective functioning of these organs.
Especially Stores Organisation, Purchase Organisation and Maintenance sections decides the
reliability of machines, systems & processes used in operation of individual unit.
The reliability of machines, systems & processes can be best measure of business
excellence of these organs. But development of infrastructure for reliability assessment requires
well-articulated long run efforts & planning. Initially some base is required to start with some
simple means of assessing the performance of these sections which are engaged in services
other than the operation of Generating unit. The ultimate goal of reliable assets available for
operation is ensured by all these services in one way or other. The factors to be identified for
assessment of excellence may include establishment of “on line operations and timely data
availability” as the base level initial qualification for entering into competition for excellence.
All regular functions & areas like Finance, administration, complete time management, Plant
asset inventory, Sectional asset inventory, Fire Fighting Gears Assets, Safety assets, Spares
inventory, Consumable inventory, T&P inventory, Separate accounting of Lifting devises,
Separate accounting of Licensing requirements, all listing of essential ISO documents, Work
Instructions applicable to system operation as well as individual position manned by staff and
any other criteria as may be finalized by Centralised Monitoring Institution for initial registration
for excellence may be included as requirement.
It shall be compulsory for all sections/ sub sections to take part in competition &
register for initial excellence with the time bound plans to establish initial requirements and
offer itself for centralised audit. If it is decided to award point of excellence initially from 100
and then in the steps of 200, 300 and so on to 1000, all such sections/ sub sections shall be
awarded initial stage of 100 point excellence after opting for registration & fulfilling the initial
qualifications in time bound manner. The station shall qualify to register for initial 100 point
Mile stone of excellence only after all its sections & Units have opted for such qualification.
Incentive scheme if decided shall be applicable only after opting for such excellence competition
program. Central Monitoring institution shall decide qualification criteria for each step of
excellence in step by step manner after standardizing these norms with due diligence.
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RELIABILITY CONCEPTS FOR MAINTENANCE SERVICES
As already elaborated above, the reliability of machines, systems & processes can be
best measure of business excellence. Making available all these individual machines, systems
& processes for “Running as well as Standby services” to ensure fullest availability & reliability
for operation can be the targeted task for maintenance. Initially main machines, systems &
processes can be included in performance benchmarking with reliability measurement and
contribution of efforts of maintenance services to achieve such targeted reliability.
The detailed set up can be established to develop the concept in the actual day-to-day working
and for development of infrastructure & framework to monitor required parameters. The
contribution of individuals, sub sections & sections can be identified for incentive schemes.
STANDARDIZATION & IMPROVEMENT OF PERFORMANCE INDEXING TECHNIQUES

Once the system for participation in the race for business excellence is established &
put to use, the immediate task is to ensure steady improvements & refinements in the system
by ensuring active participation of all level of management therein. The standardization &
improvement in performance indexing techniques should be well planned and shall have to
get the priority at topmost level of management in the organisation. The standardization
efforts may involve hectic exercise of understanding each function from basic needs and may
also involve scientific study as well as documentation of time & motion of every functional
task at every location.
STEPS NECESSARY FOR MONITORING MARKET SHARE

Marketing consists of series of P’s. First four P’s are product, price, promotion and
placement. These four P’s put together form the marketing mix. There are a few other P’s
also. One is pattern & profile of the market, which in turn is not only determined by a host of
external factors but is partly influenced by the first four P’s. Then there is another vital P viz.
People – both external and internal. All these P’s eventually lead to the ultimate P, i.e. Profit.
Profit is the end result of efficient management and effective handling of all other P’s.
The electricity tariff and consumer categorization are at present totally influenced by the
policies framed by MERC. MAHAGENCO shall be facing the corporate consumers and mainly
DOSCOMs from MSEB only. The market segmentation is not yet clear after restructuring.
Competition is yet to take shape. The product differentiation is a distinct dream as yet. However
the emerging changes in the power sector environment is showing indication to compel us to
start preparation to face this phase of marketing management very soon.
STEPS NECESSARY FOR ENSURING CODE OF CONDUCT

The Code of Conduct is the means of reference for every employee in the
organisation for mutual interaction and for every communication & dealing with each other
and all stakeholders of the organisation. The staff, every sub section, section and all
agencies in the power station should adopt the code of conduct drafted for participation in
the race for business excellence as a preliminary condition. The code of conduct shall be
drafted and standardized by organisation for all organs in the company to follow it in day-
to-day business activities with all sincerity. The strict view shall be adopted against the
violation of the code of conduct.
Adopting Code of Conduct : Initial Exercise

Before competing for excellence and as a means of initial reform, all sub sections,
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sections, sections in the Power station or office and every staff therein shall identify all initial
points for turn around strategy, all pending requirements in ISO set up, Work instructions for
fulfilling the tasks assigned to individuals and resources required for fulfillment of these tasks
in the most proficient manner. All power stations should come up with full-fledged MIS to
supply on line data related to day-to-day activities in all its section to monitoring agency and
to all authorities for decision making process. Every sub section shall identify the arrangements
for flexible budgeting review data & long range planning data inputs, valuation of assets &
depreciation norms, data entry tasks related to every daily transactions at sub section level &
adequate/ reliable arrangements required there for.
The power stations shall identify the all preliminary works that are necessary at station
level for fulfilling the turn around objectives of the company in the given time framework.
Minimum tasks can include following tasks.
1. Fully automated & On Line Inward/ outward arrangements for all documents, Centralised
inward for financial documents like Bills/ Invoices, quotations, tenders etc.
2. Fully on line General Administration, staff transfers, posting, Time office function,
Salary system, On line Accounts, On line Fund movements & management, on line Budgets
exercise, On line purchase System, On line staff grievance monitoring system, totally automated
accounting system, On line Defect monitoring & Permit System, On line Costing system and
On line transmission of data/ reports to centralised data monitoring agencies.
3. All tasks related to proper house keeping, safety, architectural review to ensure proper
look to work places, machines, areas of the plants, sections and open spaces. Modern welfare
arrangements for staff in the premises of power station.
4. All tasks related to modernization of maintenance tools and logistic arrangements by
identifying resources required for modern maintenance practices in all maintenance sections.
5. All arrangements, which are necessary to ensure excellence in business activities & to
motivate the staff to participate with zeal & spirit in the competition for excellence.
6. Every staff (at least all staff of pay group II & above) shall review the work instructions
if any for the charge of duty taken over by him and if there is no such work instruction, shall
draft such WI in the time limit decided. Such review/draft shall be processed for approval of
Management Representative in ISO set up.
7. Every stores containing material of value constituting asset of company and all sectional
assets shall be subjected to strict audit as per financial norms & provisions of companies Act.
✦✦✦
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS
DEFINITION :
Occupational health should aim at the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree
of physical, mental and social well being of workers in all occupations, the prevention of
departures from health in workers as caused by their working condition, the protection of
worker in their employment form risks resulting from factors adverse to health the placing and
maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adopted to his physiological and
psychological equipment & to summarize the adaptation of work to man & each man to his job.
AIM :
To provide a safe occupational environment in order to safeguard the health of the
workers and to step up industrial production.
OCCUPACTIONAL HAZARDS :
An individual worker may be exposed to the following type of hazards depending upon
his occupation, viz: physical, chemical, biological, mechanical and psychological.
(A) Physical hazards : The commonest physical hazard in most industries is heat. The
direct effects of heat exposure are burns, heat exhaustion, heat stroke and heat cramps. The
indirect effects are decreased efficiency increased fatigue and enhanced accident rates.
Corrected effective temperature of 69° F to 80° F is the comfort zone in this country and
temperature above 80° F causes discomfort.
i) Heat Cramps : These are the initial manifestations of heat. Any mechanical work
the body performs, causes body sugar to burn at an enhanced rate, generating energy,
of which 20% is used in mechanical work and 80% is released as heat, which tends to
increase body temperature above 98.4° F. This heat is dissipated from body due to the
direct contact it makes with surrounding air. Air if moving, can do the job faster. If air is
still or moving inadequately, the temperature tends to rise and should be brought down
by sweat formation and its vaporisation from the body surface. Moving air is also helpful
in this cooling of the body. However, it causes depletion of water reserves and electrolytes
such as Na+, k+, Cl, and HCO3.Unless these are replaced adequately form time to time,
the calf muscles undergo painful spasm, which becomes stronger and stronger with
continued depletion of water and electrolytes. Another reason for such cramps is also
the accumulation of Lactic acid, which is an end product of anaerobic Glucose break
down for energy production. Lactic acid needs adequate oxygen to be broken down to
CO2 and H2O. Heavy mechanical work therefore makes one breadth faster and if Oxygen
is, still inadequate, leading to oxygen debt. Workers should therefore be given adequate
rest periods with refreshments and plenty of fluids to drink to replace lost fluids and
electrolytes.
ii) Heat exhaustion : If workers have to work in the environment not within the
comfort zone or near hot spots like furnace, boilers, generators etc. , without adequate
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rest periods refreshments and fluids, water loss from the body by way of sweating may
be enormous enough to reduce blood volume leading to shock.
Symptoms and signs of shock : Severe weakness, prostration, giddiness and faint
may lead to body collapse. Face of victim shows anxiety (fear), sweating and pallor. His
hands and feet are cold and wet with sweat. Pulse is rapid and body temperature is sub
normal. He feels thirsty, nauseated and may even vomit and also shiver with cold. In
advanced cases, the victim may become restless, have dim vision, ringing in ears, pass
in sleep unconsciousness and even die.
Such shock may also follow in worker when confronted with sad news, order of
suspension / dismissal etc. or an unpleasant court verdict.
First Aid Measures :

• Lay the casualty flat on ground promptly. Do not hold him standing or make him sit
in chair. Shock is a result of very low blood pressure, which almost stops blood flow
to upper parts of the body in its upright position, sitting or standing and can cause
death.
• Raise the feet end supported by a chair, stool or a pile of books. This, with the
above, restores blood supplies to the vital organs and ensures survival and recovery
of the victim.
• Give him cool water, fruit juice in plenty, to restore lost water from the body. Even
sweet and strong Tea / Coffee are good. Anti-shock solution with 8 Tsp. of sugar
and 2 Tsp. of common salt with 1/2 a Tsp. of soda-bi-carb or a full lime in the fluid
is also equally good. But feed those fluids in sips so that he does not vomit as he
also has nausea.
iii) Heat Stroke : Workers working in proximity to the hot spots as above or in the hot
sun for long hours may sometimes develop a biological disturbance in their sweating
mechanism, which almost stops completely leading to rapid rise in body temperature
which may not come down even after removal of the hot spot. Temperature may rise to
1020 F beyond which it becomes uncontrollable and further reach 1040 F when it is called
as hyperpynexia (Pulse is rapid but strong) . Exceptionally these have reached even
beyond 1060 upto 1100 F but any temperature beyond 1040 F should be considered fatal
and prompt first aid should be given.
First Aid for Heat Stroke :

• Move the victim to a cool room with moving air.
• Remove his clothing leaving bare minimum undergarments.
• Wet his bare body on all sides repeatedly with a wet towel drenched in water at
room temperature.
• Maintain quarter hourly temperature record taking sub-lingual temperature in a
conscious victim and sectal temperature in an unconscious one.
• Stop sponging him once the temperature reaches 1020 F and allow the temperature
fall further by the cool moving air.
• Give him fluids as in case of heat shock.
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iv) Burns :
Burns of the human victims are classified as per their cause as follows;
A) Thermal burns caused by :
i) Dry heat e.g. flames, hot metals, glass etc.
ii) Wet heats e.g. Vapors, Steam etc.
B) Chemical burns caused by :

i) Acids and
ii) Alkalis
C) Electrical burns caused by electric current contact :

Whereas the electrical burns cause deep ulcers along with the path of the nerves
which carry the current, the other two types of burns manifest in the form of:
a) Io burns as reddening of the skin with diffuse swelling.
b) IIo burns as blisters containing watery fluid and
c) IIIo a burns as open, oozing ulcers having lost the skin cover depending upon the
intensity of heat or corrosive .concentration and duration of contact with source of
burns.
However apart form the local effects as above the following general effects can lead to
grave consequences, including death.
1) Asphyxia or breathing distress due to

= Inhalation of CO or other poisonous gases.
= Burns of the wind-pipe due to flames, fumes, Vapors, hot gases or Air etc.
= Burns of neck with tight metal ornaments or hands.
Immediate Death
2) Shock due to fluid loss form the circulating blood depending upon the percentage of
the area of skin surface burnt.
i) > 20% Mid
ii) 31-30% Moderate
iii) 30-70%.Life threatening
iv) 71 % < Sure Death.
Death within 4-48 hours.
3) Infection : Death within 3 weeks.
4) Loss of the body protein: Death within 5 weeks.
5) Blindness if eyes/eyelids burnt.
6) Permanent sear formation:
• Physical deformities.
• Economic dependence if hands are burnt.
• Cosmetic disfigurement causing marital and psycho-emotional problems.
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First Aid for Burns :
1. Casualty in Flames :
Lie down, cry for help, roll if alone. Do not roll if helper is available.
2. Helper to extinguish flames by :
d) Drenching the victim in water
OR
b) Covering the casualty fully by any thick cloth e.g. Blanket, Quilt, Mattress,
Carpet, Curtains etc.
3. Immerse the victim neck deep in a drum/tank of water for an hour outside the zone
of fire, smoke, poisonous gases, Running stream of water more advantageous.
4. Remove tight bands around neck, chest, abdomen and all ornaments form hands/
fingers etc.
5. Give artificial respiration if necessary.
6. Cover the victim with washed and dried bed sheet, dhoti, sari etc.
7. Do not wipe blisters or apply ointments/oils etc.
8. Safe and speedy transport to hospital with raised feet end as in shock.
Chemical Burn First Aid :

• Flush with water stream for about an hour.
• Apply anti-dote:
a) Acid burns : Soda-bi-carb, chalk powder, quick lime solution, 10 T.s.p.
in a mug of water.
b) Alkali burns : Lime juice or vinegar 10 T.sp. in a mug of water
• Eye Burns : Wash with a gentle stream of water for an hour. Cover with dry pad and
bandage
No antidote application.
Electrical Burns :
• Dissociate from the source/current of electricity.
• Cover wounds with dry pad/bandage.
• No application of water /medicament etc.
Electrocution :
Contact with high voltage current may lead to instant loss of one or more of the following
vital functions :
a) Consciousness,
b) Breathing (Chest movements)
c) Blood circulation (Pulse).
Apparently dead victim is the one who has lost all the three vital functions.
First aid for Apparently dead (resuscitation) :

Dissociate from source/current of electricity.
i) Check neck pulse if chest movements absent. If neck pulse is absent,
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ii) Periodically thump on the mid point of the breastbone with the victim laid on hard
ground/ platform.
iii) Check neck pulse again. Assuming it to be absent,
iv) Airway clearance
v) Breathing artificially by mouth-to-mouth method: 4 quick blows of air.
vi) Circulation artificially by external heart massage: 15 compressions on the mid point
of the breastbone pressing the chest by 5-6 Cms. In jerky strokes @ 2/sec.
vii) Check neck pulse. Assuming it to be absent,
viii) Repeat v) twice and vi) 15 times followed by I) until neck pulse returns.
ix) Repeat v) @ 10/min. until chest movements return.
x) Keep/transport the victim in unconscious position until consciousness returns.
v) Light :
Both poor as well as excessive illumination, apart from enhancing the chances of accidents
also cause some acute and chronic health problems. Poor illumination leads to eye strain,
headache, eye pain, laclhrymation (watering, congestion, redness) around cornea and
eye fatigue. A chronic effect as seen in miners is nystagmous causing jerky movements
of eyes looking at the sides. Excessive brightness or glare is also associated with
discomfort, annoyance and visual fatigue. Intense direct glare may also lead to blinding
of vision.
vi) Noise :
Unbearable noise apart from causing temporary to permanent loss of hearing can also
cause nervousness, fatigue, interference with communication by speech, decreased
deficiency and annoyance.
vii) Vibrations :
Handling of pneumatic tools such as drills and hammers with vibration in the frequency
range of 10 to 500 Hz after several months/years develop tendency to spasms of blood
vessels of hands/fingers leading to white fingers. Joints of hands, elbows and shoulders
are also affected by repeated injuries, fibrosis and freezing of movements.
viii) Ultraviolet Radiation :

Arc welding without protection affects eyes causing intense conjunctivitis and keratitis
called as welder’s flash. Redness and pain however disappear in a few days without any
permanent ill effects on eyes or vision.
ix) Ionizing Radiation :

Ionizing radiation is finding increasing applications in medicine and industries e.g. X-
rays, Radioactive isotopes etc, important ones being cobalt 60 and phosphorous 32.
Body cells undergoing rapid multiplication such as in bone marrow, skin, gonads etc. are
highly radiosensitive, while those like brain cells, muscles which do not multiply in
postnatal life are highly radio-resistant. Growing foetus is similarly very radiosensitive
and pregnant mother exposed to radiation during early pregnancy may either abort or
555
pregnancy may terminate in still birth or the live born babies may show malformations.
Exposure of gonads may lead to temporary to permanent sterility or genetic mutations
may increase incidence of congenital malformation in the offspring from third generation
onwards. Radiation sickness, anemia, leukopenia with reduced immunity to infections,
appellations, ulceration, premature cataract etc. show as early effects whereas cancers
of blood, skin, bones etc. may show up in later years.
5) Chemical Hazards :
1) Whereas local effects such as dermatitis, ulcers and even cancers due to allergic or
irritant action may be caused by suet, machine, oil, rubber, X-rays, caustic alkalis,
lime etc. Some chemicals like aromatic nitro-aniline and amino compounds e.g.
TNT are absorbed through skin and cause systemic effects.
2) Inhalation :
i) Dusts : Operations like crushing, grinding, abrading, loading-unloading etc. as
carried out in mines, foundries, quarries, potteries, textiles, wood etc. produce dust
with solid particles ranging from 0.1 to 150 microns. Those smaller than 10 microns
remain suspended indefinitely in the air and those smaller than 5 microns are
inhaled in lungs and retained there. These produce pneumoconiosis.
ii) Gases such as Carbon monoxide, cyanogen, Sulphur dioxide, Chlorine, Phosgene,
M.LC etc. cause asphyxia of varying degree leading even to death depending
upon the dose received and the period of exposure.
iii) Metals and their compounds inhaled as dusts or fumes such as lead, antinomy,
arsenic beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, manganese, mercury, phosphorous,
chromium, zinc etc. absorbed in blood and cause affections of blood, digestive
systems, nerves etc.
3) Ingestion : Lead, mercury, arsenic, zinc, chromium, cadmium, phosphorous etc.
are swallowed in minute amounts through contaminated hands, food, water etc.
C) Biological Hazards : Farm workers and those dealing in animal products tend to be
exposed to microorganism causing brucellosic, anthrax, leptospirosis, hydatidosis, tetanus,
encephalitis, fungal infections, schistosomicasis etc.
D) Mechanical Hazards : In from of accidents leading to injuries or deaths.
E) Psychological Hazards: These arise from the failure of the worker to adopt to an alien
psychological environment. Frustration, lack of job satisfaction, human relationship,
emotional tension etc. undermine both the physical and mental health of the worker.
Education, cultural background, family life, social habits and fulfillment of expectations
from all employment influence the capacity to adapt working environment. Psychologjcal
and behavioral changes such as hostility, aggressiveness, anxiety, depression, tardiness,
alcoholism, drug abuse, sickness absenteeism may develop.
Psychosomatic ill health manifests as fatigue, headache, pain in shoulders, neck and
back, peptic ulcer, hypertension, heart diseases rapid aging etc. show up on the body also.
✦✦✦
556
THE RANKINE CYCLE
Review:
All the processes are interconnected sequentially, thus forming a thermodynamic cycle. The
simplest of such cycles is shown in the schematic below.
Schematic flow diagram of a Power Plant Cycle.
Fig. 1
All power plants convert some form of easily and naturally available energy in to
electrical energy. In thermal power plant, Water is the working fluid. The source of energy is
Chemical Energy of fuel.
In thermal power plant, sequence of energy conversion is :
Fig. 2
33
heat and work interactions in executing a power cycle. Since the fluid is undergoing cyclic
process, there is no net change in its internal energy over the cycle. The net energy trans-
ferred to the fluid as heat in the cycle is equal to net energy transferred as work from fluid.
The following figure shows the cyclic heat engine operating on the vapour power cycle, where
the working substance, water, follows Boiler – Turbine – Condenser - Pump path interacting
externally as shown, and converting net heat input to net work output continuously.
Fig. 3
By the first law,

Σ Q net = Σ W net
cycle cycle
Q1 – Q2 = WT – WP

Q2 – Heat rejected by working fluid, in Condensor

Q1
Q1- Q2
=
Q1
= 1- Q2 / Q1
The cycle described above is called Rankine Cycle. In every process of the cycle,
energy conversion is taking place. After every conversion, state of Water ( i.e. of working
fluid) change. These changes are analyzed graphically on different coordinate systems. One
such graphical analysis is called P- V plane, where P stands for Pressure and is plotted on Y-
Axis and V stands for Volume, which is plotted on X-Axis. Most widely used graphical analysis
is called T- S plane, where T stands for temperature and is plotted on Y- Axis and S stands for
Entropy, which is plotted on X-Axis. Through these plots, the work output, rejected energy
etc. can be analyzed.
34
The cycle is demonstrated graphically below.
Fig. 4.A and 4.B above show the Ideal Rankine cycle on P-V and T- S planes. The numbers
on the plot correspond to those on the Power Plant cycle of Fig. 1.
States 1" are three distinct states of steam that can be generated in Boiler. State 1
indicates the dry saturated steam, 1’ the wet steam and 1" the superheated steam. (In power
plants, steam is always in superheated state when it leaves Boiler and admitted to Turbine.)
In turbine Steam expands reversibly and adiabetically to state 2 or to 2’ or to 2" as is
the case.
In condenser, steam condenses reversibly at constant pressure to water from state 2
( or 2’ or 2") to state 3.
Water at state 3 is then pumped to Boiler reversibly and adiabetically at state 4.
In Boiler water is heated and converted to steam at state 1 ( or 1’ or 1").
Assuming that the Rankine cycle is carried out in steady flow operation and neglecting
the changes in kinetic and potential energies (being very small compared to heat energy), the
steady Flow Energy Equation can be applied to individual process of the cycle as follows.
For unit mass of water :

In Boiler :
h4 + Q1= h1
Q1 = h1- h4, Increase in enthalpy of water from h4 to h1 due to heating.
In Turbine :
h1 = WT + h2
WT = h1- h2, Enthalpy drop from h1 to h2, difference converted to work
In Condenser :
h2= Q2 + h3
Q2= h2-h3, Rejection of Heat energy (condensation of steam to water)
In Pump :
h3+Wp= h4
Wp= h4- h3, Pump work added to raise water Pressure.
35
The efficiency of Rankine Cycle is then given by
WT – Wp (h1- h2) – (h4-h3)

η= =
Q1 (h1-h4)
3600
Steam rate =
WT – Wp
The efficiency of Rankine Cycle is represented on T-S diagram as shown in figure 5.
Fig. 5
Q1 is proportional to area bounded by points 1,5,6,4

Q2 is proportional to area bounded by points 2,5,6,3
Net work is proportional to area bounded by points 1,2,,3, 4
Actual Vapour Cycle :

Until now, we have discussed Ideal vapour Cycle in which it is assumed that there are
no losses. Such cycle does not exist in reality and actual cycle is now discussed below. Fig. 6
shows the Schematic flow diagram of a Power Plant Cycle.
Fig. 6
36
The actual vapour cycle deviates from ideal because of various losses taking place. These are
1) Piping Losses: Pressure drop due to water and steam friction and heat losses to surroundings
by radiation (even with insulation) are dominant losses in the piping. Fig 6 shows these
losses plotted on T- S Plane. Status of steam at leaving Boiler is state 1’ and entering
turbine at 1". Also heat lost to surroundings through piping causes reduced heat at
admission of Turbine, and actual status of steam entering Turbine is 1.
2) Turbine losses: In practical Turbines plants, expansion of steam is irreversible due to fluid
friction. State of exhaust steam is 2 as against 2s for reversible expansion.
3) Condenser losses: If water is cooled below saturation temperature corresponding to
Condenser Pressure, heat loss due to under cooling takes place.
Fig. 7
Mean Temperature of heat addition.

Please ref fig. 8. In Rankine cycle discussed up till now, it was assumed that heat is
added reversibly at constant pressure but at infinite temperature. If Tm1 is the mean
temperature of heat addition, so that area under 4s and 1 is equal, then heat added
Q1= h1-h4s = Tm1 (s1 - s4s)
Hence, Tm1=(h1 - h4s) / (s1 - s4s)
Since Q2= Heat rejected = h2s - h3 = T2(s1 – s4s)
Efficiency η rankine= 1- Q2/Q1 = 1- (T2 (s1-s4s)) / (Tm1(s1 – s4s)
Hence η rankine = 1 – (T2/ Tm1) where T2 is temperature of heat rejection.
For given Tm, lower is the T2 higher is the efficiency. But the temperature of surrounding
limits T2. Hence, for obtaining higher efficiency, higher should be the mean temperature of
steam. Metallurgical considerations, limits the admission temperature. To achieve better
efficiency within these limitations, increasing the pressure of admission increases the mean
temperature as can be seen form Fig. 8. As the pressure at which heat is added in the boiler
37
increases from p1 to p2, the mean temperature of heat addition also increases since Tm1
between 7s and 5 is more than that between 4s and 1.
But when turbine inlet pressure increases from p1 to p2, the moisture content in
turbine exhaust increases (because x6s< x2s). If the moisture content at later stages of
turbine is higher, the water particles entrained in steam coming out from nozzles at high
velocity strike the blades eroding the blade surface. As a result blade life decreases. Hence
the moisture content at later stages in turbine is limited to 15%. This also fixes the maximum
pressure at turbine inlet. The limiting pressure Pmax is therefore fixed. But, to obtain higher
efficiency, it is necessary to admit steam at pressure above Pmax. Under these circumstances,
Rehaeting of steam becomes necessary. In doing so, steam is expanded, in the first turbine
cylinder, only to a pressure at which the quality of steam shall drop to 85%. Then this steam is
exhausted from turbine and reheated in boiler where its temperature is again raised to maximum
possible. Then the reheat steam is further expanded in another Turbine cylinder.
Fig. 8
The Reheat Cycle :

As the steam expands, steam temperature and pressure drops over successive stages
of Turbine and also the dryness of steam. To avoid erosion of Turbine blades, dryness must not
drop below 85 %. To maintain the dryness below this limit, steam exhaust pressure and
temperature, in High pressure Turbines, are much above the ambient temperature and pressure
and hence contains large amount of available energy. This energy can be utilized by reheating
the exhaust steam. All the steam exhausted from the turbine is reheated in Boiler and then
admitted to another turbine for further expansion. The schematic diagram is as follows.
38
The reheat cycle on T-S plot is shown in figure 10
In Ideal Reheat cycle,

Process 1 - 2s : Steam expands in the first step in High Pressure Turbine to approximately the
saturated vapour line.
Process 2s – 3 : The steam is resuperheated ( reheated) at constant pressure in Reheater of
the boiler.
Process 3 – 4s : Expansion of steam in I. P. T.
Process 4s – 5 : Condensation of steam in Condenser at constant pressure.
Process 5 – 6s : Condensate pumped back to Boiler.
Process 6s – 1 : Superheating of steam in Boiler.
For 1 kg of steam,
Q1 = h1 – h6s + h3 – h2s
Q2 = h4s- h5
WT = h1– h2s + h3 – h4s
Wp = h6s – h5
WT - Wp = (h1– h2s + h3 – h4s) – (h6s – h5)

η=
Q1 (h1 – h6s + h3 – h2s)
3600
Steam rate = Kg/ KWh
(h1– h2s + h3 – h4s) – (h6s – h5)
Had the cycle would have been used without Reheat, the ideal Rankine Cycle would
have been 1 – 4’s – 5 – 6s. With the use of reheat, area 2s – 3 4s – 4’s is added to the basic
cycle. Since (hs – h4s) is greater than (h2s – h4’s), net work output from the plant increases
with reheat.
39
Ideal Regenerative Cycle :
For increasing the mean temperature of heat addition, up till now the focus was on
increasing the amount of heat supplied at high temperature. The mean temperature of heat
addition can also be increased by decreasing the amount of heat added at low temperature. In
the saturated steam Rankine cycle shown in diagram 12, considerable amount of heat is added
in liquid phase, to raise liquid temperature to T1, i.e. heating liquid from state 4 to 4’. For
maximum efficiency, heat should be added in boiler from 4’ to 1(i.e. only for change of phase).
Hence feed water should enter boiler at state 4’. This can be accomplished by regenerative
feed heating. The steam in the turbine, while doing work, is also used for heating feed water.
The flow diagram of such cycle is shown in fig. 11 and T-S plot in fig. 13.
Areas 4 – 4’ – b- a- 4 and 2’- 1- d- c-c2’ are equal and congruous. Therefore all the
heat added from external source (Q1) is at constant temperature T1 and all the heat is
rejected (Q2) at constant temperature T2.
Then Q1 = h1 – h4’ = T1( s1 – s4’)

Q2 = h2’ – h3 = T2( s2’ – s3)
Since s4’ – s3 = s1 – s2’

S1 – s4’ = s2’ – s3
Hence, η = 1 – (T2/ T1)
The efficiency of regenerative cycle is therefore equals that of Carnot cycle.
The net work out put of the regenerative cycle is
WT = (h1- h2’) – (h4’ – h4)
The net work output is thus less, hence steam rate will be more, but its efficiency will
be more.
Fig. 11
40
Fig. 12 Fig. 13
Fig. 14 Fig. 15
A modern steam power plant is equipped with both Reheat and regenerative feed cycle,
flow diagram of which is shown in diagram 14 and its T- S plot in fig, 15.
WT = (h1 – h2) + ( 1 – m1)( h2 – h3) + ( 1 – m1) ( h4 – h5) + ( 1 – m1 – m2) ( h5 – h6)

+ ( 1 – m1 – m2 – m3) ( h6 – h7) kJ / Kg
Q1 = ( h1 – h15) + ( 1 – m1) ( h4- h3) kJ/kg
Q2 = ( 1 – m1 – m2 – m3)( h7 – h8) kJ/ kg

The energy balance of heaters is given by
m1h2 + ( 1 – m1 ) h13 = 1 * h14
m2 h3 + ( 1 – m1 – m2) h11 = ( 1 – m1) h12
m3 h6 + ( 1 – m1 – m2 – m3) h9 = ( 1 – m1 – m2) h10.
Feed Water Heaters :

Feed water heaters are of two types, open and closed. In all modern power plants,
closed heaters are used and its flow diagram is as sown in fig. 16. In closed feed water
heaters, feed water flows through tubes and steam bled from the turbine condenses on out
41
side surface of the tubes in a shell. Two fluids are thus separate. Heat released in condensation
is transferred to fluid flowing through tubes. The drip, i.e. the condensate formed due to
condensation of extracted steam, is at extraction pressure and it is sent to the next heater at
lower pressure and from there it is finally sent either to condenser or deaerator, which is the
open heater.
Higher the number of heaters, higher the cycle efficiency. If n heaters are used, the
greatest gain in efficiency occurs when the overall temperature rise is about n / (n+1) times
the difference between the condenser and boiler saturation temperature.
Fig. 17
Fig. 16
✦✦✦
42
CONCEPT OF ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION
1. Generation of Alternating Voltage and Currents :

Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field as shown in
figure 1(a) or by rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil as shown in fig. 1(b).
Fig. 1 (a) Fig. 1 (b)
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns in
the coil, strength of the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the two ways shown above but rotating-
field method is the one that is mostly used in practice.
2. Equations of the Alternating Voltages and Currents

Consider a rectangular coil having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field with
an angular velocity of w radian/second as shown in Fig.(2). Let time be measured for the X-
axis. Maximum flux φm is linked with the coil when its plane coincides with the X-axis. In time 1
seconds this coil rotates through angle = ωt. In this defected position, the component of the
flux which is perpendicular to the plane of the coil is φ = φm cos ωt. Hence, flux linkages of the
coil at any time are Nφ = Nφm cos ωt.
According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, the e.m.f. induced in the
coil is given by the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil. Hence, the value of the induced
e.m.f. at this instant (i.e. when φ = ωt) or the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. is
e = - d (Nφ) volt
dt
= -N. d (φm cos ωt) volt
dt
= -N φm ω (-sin ωt) volt
= ωN φm sin ωt volt
= ωN φm sin θ volt …….. (i)
When the coil has turned through 900 i.e. when θ = 900
then sin θ = 1, hence e has maximum value, say Em.
Therefore, from Eq. (i) we get.
Fig. 2
Em = ωN φm = ωNB φm A = 2πƒNB mA volt …….. (ii)
Where Bm = maximum flux density in Wb/m2; A = area of the coil in m2
43
ƒ = frequency of rotation of the coil in rev/ second
Substituting this value of Em in Eq. (i), we get e= Em sin θ = Em sin ωt …….. (iii)
Similarly, the equation of the induced alternating current is i = I m sin ωt…….. (iv)
provided the coil circuit has been closed through a resistive load.
Since ω = 2πƒ, where ƒ is the frequency of rotation of the coil, the above equations of the
voltage and current can be written as
e = Em sin 2πƒt = Em sin 2π t and i = Im sin 2πƒt = Im sin 2π t

T T
Where T = time-period of the alternating voltage or current = 1/ƒ
It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time angle ωt and when
e.m.f. is plotted against time, a curve similar to the one shown if fig (3) is obtained. This curve
is known as sine curve and the e.m.f. which varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f.
Such a sine curve can be conveniently drawn as shown in fig(4). A vector equal in length to Em
is drawn. It rotates in the counter-clockwise direction with a velocity of ω radian/second,
making one revolution while the generated e.m.f. makes two loops or one cycle. The projection
of this vector on Y-axis gives the instantaneous value of the induced e.m.f. i.e. Em sin ωt.
To construct the curve, lay off along X-axis equal distances oa, ab, bc, cd etc.
corresponding to suitable angular displacements of the rotating vector. Now, erect ordinates
at the points a, b, c and d etc. and then project the free ends of the vector Em at the
Fig. 4
corresponding positions a’, b’, c’ etc. to meet these ordinates. Next, draw a curve passing
through these intersecting points. The curve so obtained is the graphic representation of
equation (iii) above.
3. Alternate Method for the Equations of Alternating

Voltages and Currents
In fig(5) is shown a rectangular coil AC having N turns
and rotating in a magnetic field of flux density B Wb/m2. Let the
length of each of its sides A and C be l metres and their peripheral
velocity v metre/second. Let angle be measured form the
horizontal position i.e. form the X-axis. When in horizontal
position, the two sides A and C move parallel to the lines of the
magnetic flux. Hence, no flux is cut and so no e.m.f. is generated
Fig. 5
in the coil.
44
When the coil has turned through angle θ, its velocity can be resolved into two mutually
perpendicular components (i) v cos θ component – parallel to the direction of the magnetic flux
and (ii) v sin θ component-perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic flux. The e.m.f. is
generated due entirely to the perpendicular component i.e. v sin θ.
Hence, the e.m.f. generated in one side of the coil which contains N conductors as
seen form Art. 7-7 is given by
e = N X Bl v sin θ.
Total e.m.f. generated in both sides of the coil is e = 2 BNl v sin θ volt …..(i)
Now, e has maximum value of Em (say) when θ = 900. Hence, from Eq. (i) above we get,
Em = 2 BNlv volt
Therefore Eq. (i) can be rewritten as e = Em sin θ. …..as before
If b = width of the coil in metres; f = frequency of rotation of coil in Hz, then v = πbƒ
Em = 2 BNl X πbƒ = 2πƒΝΒΑ volt …..as before.
4. Simple Waveforms
The shape of the curve obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of voltage or
current as the ordinate against time as abscises is called its waveform or wave-shape.
An alternating voltages or current may not always take the form of a symmetrical or
smooth wave such as that shown in fig(3). Thus, fig(6), also represents alternating waves.
But while it is scarcely possible for the manufactures to produce sine-wave generations or
alternators, yet sine wave is the ideal form sought by the designers and is the accepted
standard. The waves deviating from the standard sine wave are termed as distorted waves.
Fig. 6 (a) Fig. 6 (b)
Fig. 6 (c) Fig. 6 (d)
In general, however, an alternating current or voltage is one the circuit direction of

which reverse at regularly recurring intervals.
5. Complex Waveforms
Complex waves are those which depart form the ideal sinusoidal form of fig(4). All
alternating complex waves which are periodic and have equal positive and negative half cycles
can be shown to be made up of a number of pure sine wave shaving different frequencies but
all these frequencies are integral multiples of that of the lowest alternating wave called the
fundamental (or first harmonic). These waves of higher frequencies are called harmonics. If
45
the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, then the frequency of the second harmonic is 100 Hz and
of the third is 150 Hz and so on. The complex wave may be composed of the fundamental
wave (or first harmonic) and any number of other harmonics.
In fig.(7) a complex wave is shown which is made up of a fundamental sine wave of
frequency of 50 Hz and third harmonic of frequency of 150 Hz. It is seen that
i) the two halves of the complex wave are identical in shape. In other words, there is no
distortion. This is always the case when only odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th etc.) are
present.
Fig. 7 Fig. 8
ii) frequency of the complex wave is 50 Hz i.e. the same as that of the fundamental sine
wave.In fig(8) a complex wave is shown which is combination of fundamental sine wave
of frequency 50 Hz and 2nd harmonic of frequency 100 Hz and 3rd harmonic of frequency
150 Hz.
It is seen that although the frequency of the complex wave even now remains 50 Hz, yet
i) the two halves of the complex wave are not identical. It is always so when even
harmonics (2nd, 4th, 6th etc.) are present.
ii) there is distortion and greater departure of the wave shape from the purely sinusoidal
shape.
Fig. 9
46
Sometimes, a combination of an alternating and direct current flow simultaneously
through a circuit. In fig(9) is shown a complex wave (containing fundamental and third harmonic)
combined with a direct current of value ID. It is seen that the resultant wave remains undistorted
in shape but is raised above the axis by an amount ID. It is worth noting that with reference to
the original axis, the two halves of the combined wave are not equal in area.
6. Cycle
One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity is known as
cycle. Hence, each diagram of fig(6) represents one complete cycle.
A cycle may also be sometimes specified in terms of angular measure. In that case, one
complete cycle is said to spread over 3600 or 2π radians.
7. Time Period
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its time
period T. For example, a 50 Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 second.
8. Frequency
The number of cycles/ second is called the frequency of the alternating quantity. Its
unit is hertz (Hz).
In the simple 2 pole alternator of fig(1b)., one cycle of alternating current is generated
in one revolution of the rotating field. However, if there were 4 poles, then two cycles would
have been produced in each revolution. In fact, the frequency of the alternating voltage
produced is a function of the speed and the number of poles of the generator. The relation
connecting the above three quantities is given as
ƒ = PN/ 120 where N = revolutions in r.p.m. and P = number of poles
For example, an alternator having 20 poles and running at 300 r.p.m. will generate alternating
voltage and current whose frequency is 20 X 300/120 = 50 hertz (Hz).
It may be noted that the frequency is given by the reciprocal of the time period of the
alternating quantity.
ƒ = 1/T or T = 1/ƒ
9. Amplitude
The maximum value, positive or negative, of an alternating quantity is known as its
amplitude.
10. Different Forms of E.M.F. Equation.

The standard form of an alternating voltage, as already given is
e = Em sin θ = Em sin ωt = Em sin 2πƒt = Em sin 2π t

T
47
By closely looking at the above equations, we find that
i) The maximum value or peak value or amplitude of an alternating voltage is given by the
coefficient of the sine of the time angle.
ii) The frequency ƒ is give by the coefficient of time divided by 2π.
For example, if the equation of an alternating voltage is given by e = 50 sin 314 t then
its maximum value is 50 V and its frequency is ƒ = 314/2π = 50 Hz.
Similarly, if the equation is of the form e= Im V(R2 + 4ω2L2) sin 2ωt, then its maximum value is
Em = Im V(R2 + 4ω2L2) and the frequency is 2ω/ 2π or ω/π Hz.
11. Phase
By phase of an alternating current is meant the fraction of the time period of that
alternating current which has elapsed since the current last passed through the zero position
of reference. For example, the phase of current at point A is T/4 second where T is time period
or expressed in terms of angle, it is π/2 radians (Fig. 10). Similarly, the phase of the rotating
coil at the instant shown in fig (11). Is ωt which is, therefore, called its phase angle.
In electrical engineering we are, however, more concerned with relative phases or
phase differences between different alternating quantities rather than with their absolute
phases. Consider two single turn coils of different sizes arranged Fig(11a) radially in the same
plane and rotating with the same angular velocity in a common magnetic field of uniform
intensity. The e.m.f. induced in both coils will be of the same frequency and of sinusoidal
Fig. 10 Fig. 11
shape, although the values of instantaneous e.m.fs. induced would be different. However, the
two alternating e.m.fs. would reach their maximum and zero values at the same time as shown
in fig. Such alternating voltage (or currents) are said to be in phase with each other. The two
voltage will have the equations.
e1=Em1 sin ωt and e2=Em2 sin ωt
12. PHASE DIFFERENCE:

Now, consider three similar single turn coils displaced from each other by angles α and
β and rotating in a uniform magnetic field with the same angular velocity.Figure(12 a)
In this case, the values of inducted e.m.fs in the three coils are the same but there is
48
Fig. 12 (a) Fig. 12 (b)
an important difference. The e.m.fs. in these coils do not reach their maximum or zero values
simultaneously but one after another. The three sinusoidal waves are shown in fig(12 b). It is
seen that curves B and C are displaced from curve A by angles β and (α+β) respectively.
Hence, it means that phase difference between A and B is β and between B and C is α but
between A and C is (α+β). The statement, however, does not give indication as to which e.m.f.
reaches its maximum value first. This deficiency is supplied by using the terms ‘lag’ or ‘lead’.
A leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum (or zero) value earlier
as compared to the other quantity.
Similarly, a lagging alternating quantity is one which reaches its maximum or zero value
later than the other quantity. For example, in fig.(12 b), B lags behind A by β and C lag behind
A by (α+β) because they reach their maximum values later.
The three equations for the instantaneous induced e.m.fs. are
eA = Em sin ωt . ………Reference quantity
eB = Em sin (ωt-β)
eC = Em sin [ωt-(α+β)]
in fig quantity B leads A by angle φ.

Hence, their equations are
eA = Em sin ωt . …………Reference quantity
eB = Em sin (ωt+ φ) Fig. 13
A plus (+) sign when used in connection with phase difference denotes ‘lead’ whereas a
minus (-) sin denotes ‘lag’.
13. Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S.) Value

The r.m.s value of an alternating current is given by that steady (d.c.) current which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as produced by
the alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
It is also known as the effective or virtual value of the alternating current, the former
term being used more extensively. For computing the r.m.s value of symmetrical sinusoidal
alternating currents, either mid-ordinate method or analytical method may be used, although
for symmetrical but non-sinusoidal waves, the mid-ordinate method would be found more
convenient.
49
Fig. 14
A simple experimental arrangement for measuring the equivalent de value of a sinusoidal

current is shown in fig(14). The two circuits have identical resistances but one is connected
to battery and the other to a sinusoidal generator. Wattmeters are used to measure heat
power in each circuit. The voltage applied to each circuit is so adjusted that heat power
produced in each circuit is the same. In that case, the direct current will equal Im/V2 which is
called rms value of the sinusoidal current.
14. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

The synchronous machine is the most important element of a power system. It converts
mechanical power into electrical form and feeds it into the power network or, in the case of a
motor, it draws electrical power from the network and converts it into the mechanical form.
The machine excitation that is controllable determines the flow of VARs into or out of the
machine. A simplified circuit model of a synchronous machine with suitable modifications wherever
necessary (under transient conditions) shall be presented here.
Figure (15) Shows the schematic cross-sectional diagram of a three phase synchronous
generator (alternator) having a two pole structure. The stator has a balanced three-phase
winding-aa’, bb’ and cc’. The winding shown is a concentrated one, while the winding in an
actual machine is distributed across the stator periphery. The rotor shown is a cylindrical one
(round rotor or non-salient pole rotor) with rotor winding excited by the DC source. The rotor
winding is so arranged on rotor periphery that the field excitation produces nearly sinusoidally
distributed flux/pole (φƒ) in the air gap. As the rotor rotates, three-phase emfs are produced in
stator winding. Since the machine is a balanced one and balanced loading will be considered, it
can be modeled on per phase basis for the reference phase ‘a’.
Fig. 15 : Schematic diagram of a round rotor
50
In a machine with more than two poles, the above defined structure repeats electrically
for every pair of poles. The frequency of induced emf.
is given by
ƒ = NP Hz
120
where
N = rotor speed (synchronous speed) in rpm
P = number of poles
On no load the voltage Ef induced in the reference phase a lags 900 behind φf which
produces it and is proportional to φf if the magnetic circuit is assumed to be unsaturated. This
phasor relationship is indicated in fig. 16. Obviously the terminal voltage Vt = Ef.
Fig. 16
As balanced steady load is drawn from the three-phase stator winding, the stator
currents produce synchronously rotating flux φa/pole. (in the direction of rotation of the
rotor). This flux, called armature reaction flux, is therefore stationary with respect to field flux
φf. It intuitively follows that φα is in phase with phase a current Ia which causes it. Since the
magnetic circuit has been assumed to be unsaturated, the superposition principle is applicable
so that the resultant air gap flux is given by the phasor sum
φr = φf +φa (14.1)
Further assuming that the armature leakage reactance and resistance are negligible,
induces the armature emf which equals the terminal voltage Vt. phasor diagram under loaded
(balanced) conditions showing fluxes, currents and voltages as phasors is drawn in fig. 17.
Fig. 17 : Phasor diagram of synchromous Generator
51
Here θ = power factor angle
δ = angle by which Ef leads Vt call load angle or torque angle determines the
power delivered by the generator and the magnitude of Ef (i.e. excitation) determines the
VARs delivered by it.
Because of the assumed linearity of the magnetic circuit, voltage phasors Ef, Ea and Vt
are proportional to flux phasors φf, φa and φr, respectively; further, voltage phasors lag 900
behind flux phasors. It therefore easily follows from Fig(17) that phasor AB = - Ea is proportional
to φa (and therefore I a) and is 900 leading φa (or I a). With the direction of phasor AB indicated
on the diagram
AB = jI a Xa
Where X is constant of proportionality.
In terms of the above definition of Xa, we can directly write the following expression for
voltages without the need of invoking flux phasors.
Vt = Ef – jI a X a (14.2)
Where
Ef = voltage induced by field flux f alone
= no load emf
The circuit model of equation(14.2) is drawn in Fig(18). wherein Xa is interpreted as
inductive reactance which accounts for the effect of armature reaction thereby avoiding the
need of resorting to addition of fluxes [Eq. (14.i)].
Fig. 18
The circuit of Fig(18) can be easily modified to include the effect of armature leakage
reactance (these are series effects) to give the complete circuit model of the synchronous
generator as in fig. The total reactance (Xa + Xl ) = Xs is called the synchronous reactance of
the machine. Equation (14.2) now becomes
Vt = Ef - jIa Xa – Ia Ra (14.3)
This model of the synchronous machine can be further modified to account for the
effect of magnetic saturation where the principle of superposition does not hold.
Fig. 19
52
Armature resistance Ra is invariably neglected in power system studies. Therefore, in
the place of the circuit model of Fig. 19 the simplified circuit model of Fig. 20 will be used
throughout this book. The corresponding phasor diagram is given in Fig. 21. The field induced emf
Ef leads the terminal voltage by the torque (load) angle. This, in fact, is the condition for active
power to flow out of the generator. The magnitude of power delivered depends upon sin δ.
In the motoring operation of a synchronous machine, the current Ia reverses as shown
in Fig. 22, so that Eq. (14.3) modifies to
Ef = Vt – jIa Xa (14.4)
Which is represented by the phasor diagram of Fig. 23. It may be noted that Vt now leads Ef
by δ. This in fact is the condition for power to flow into motor terminals.
The flow of reactive power and terminal voltage of a synchronous machine is mainly
controlled by means of its excitation. The Voltage and reactive power flow are often automatically
regulated by voltage regulators acting on the field circuits of generators and by automatic tap
changing devices on transformers.
Fig. 21
Fig. 20
Fig. 22 Fig. 23
Normally, a synchronous generator operates in parallel with other generators connected

to the power system. For simplicity of operation we shall consider a generator connected to
an infinite bus as shown in fig. 24. As infinite bus means a large system whose voltage and
frequency remain constant independent of the power exchange between the synchronous
machine and the bus, and independent of the excitation of the synchronous machine.
53
Consider now a synchronous generator feeding constant active power into an infinite
bus bar. As the machine excitation is varied, armature current Ia and its angle θ, i.e. power
factor, change in such a manner as to keep
Vt Ia cos θ = constant = active power output
Fig. 24
It means that since Vt is fixed, the projection Ia cos θ of the phasor Ia on Vt remains
constant, while the excitation is varied. Phasor diagrams corresponding to high, medium and
low excitations are presented in fig. 25. The phasor diagram of Fig. 25 corresponds to the
unity power factor case. It is obvious from the phasor diagram that for this excitation.
Ef cos δ = Vt
Fig. 25 : Phasor diagrams of synchronous generator

feeding constant power as excitation is varied
54
This is defined as normal excitation. For the overexcited case i.e. Ef cos δ > Vt, Ia lags
behind Vt so that the generator feeds positive reactive power into the bus (or draws negative
reactive power from the bust). For the underexcited case, i.e. Ef cos δ > Vt, Ia leads Vt so that
the generator feeds negative reactive power into the bus. (or draws positive reactive power
from the bus).
Fig. 26 : Phasor diagrams of synchronous motor drawing

constant power as excitation is varied
Figure 26 Shows the overexcited and underexcited cases of synchronous motor

(connected to infinite bus) with constant power drawn from the infinite bus. In the overexcited
bus, Ia leads Vt, i.e. the motor draws negative reactive power (or supplies positive reactive
power); while in the underexcited case Ia lags Vt, i.e. the motor draws positive reactive power
(or supplies negative reactive power).
From the above discussion we can draw the general conclusion that a synchronous
machine (generating or motoring) while operating at constant power supplies positive reactive
power into the bus bar (or draws negative reactive power from the bus bar) when overexcited.
An underexcited machine on the other hand, feeds negative reactive power into the bus bar
(or draws positive reactive power from the bus bar).
Consider now the power delivered by a synchronous generator to an infinite bus. From
fig. this power is
P = Vt Ia cos θ
The above expression can be written in a more useful form from the phasor geometry.
From fig.
Ef = Ia Xs
Sin (900+ θ) sin δ
Or
Ef sin δ (14.5)
Ia cos θ =
Xs
Ef Vt sin δ (14.6)
∴P =
Xs
55
The plot of P versus δ, shown in fig. , is called the power angle curve. The maximum
power that can be delivered occurs at δ = 900 and is given by
∴ Pmax = Ef Vt (14.7)
Xs
For P>Pmax or for δ>900 the generator falls out of step.
Fig. 27 : Power angle curve of a synchronous generator
15. Power Factor and Power Control

While figs. 25 and 26 illustrate how a synchronous machine power factor changes with
excitation for fixed power exchange, these do not give us a clue regarding the quantitative
values of Ia and δ . this can easily be accomplished by recognizing from Eq. (14.5) that
Ef sin δ = Ia Xs cos θ
= PXs (14.5)
Vt
= Constant (for constant exchange of power to infinite bus bar) (14.8)
Figure shows the phasor diagram for a generator delivering constant Power to infinite bus
Fig. 28 : Effect of varying excitation of generator

delivering constant power to infinite bus bar
56
but with varying excitation. As Ef sinδ remains constant, the tip of phasor Ef moves along a line
parallel to Vt a excitation is varied. The direction of phasor Ia is always 900 lagging jIaXs and its
magnitude is obtain from (Ia Xs)/ Xs.Fig. shows the case of limiting excitation with δ = 900. For
excitation lower than this value the generator becomes unstable.
Fig. 29 : Case of limiting excitation of generator

delivering constant power to infinite bus bar.
Similar phasor diagrams can be drawn for synchronous motor as well for constant input
power (or constant load if copper and iron losses are neglected and mechanical loss is combined
with load).
Another important operating condition is variable power and fixed excitation. In this
case Vt and Ef are fixed, while δ and active power vary in accordance with Eq. 14.6 a
The corresponding phasor diagram for two values of δ is shown in Fig. 30. It is seen from this
diagram that as δ increases, current magnitude increases and power factor improves. In fact δ
changes, there is no significant change in the flow of reactive power.
Fig. 30 : Operation of synchronous

generator with variable power and
fixed excitation
16. Salient Pole Synchronous Generator

A salient pole synchronous machine, as shown in fig, is distinguished form a round rotor
machine by constructional features of field poles, which project with a large interpolar air gap.
This type of construction is commonly employed in machines coupled to hydroelectric turbine
which are inherently slow-speed ones so that the synchronous machine has multiple pole pairs
as different from machines coupled to high-speed steam turbines (3,000/1,500 rpm) which
have a two-or four-pole structure. Salient pole machine analysis is made through the two-
reaction theory outlined below.
57
Fig. 31 : Salient Pole Synchronous machine
(4 pole structure)
In a round rotor machine, armature current in phase with field induced emf Ef or in
quadrature (at 900) to Ef, produces the same flux linkages per ampere as the air gap is uniform
so that the armature reaction reactance offered to in-phase or quadrature current is the same
(Xa + Xt = Xs). In a salient pole machine air gap is non-uniform along rotor periphery. It is the
least along the axis of main poles (called direct axis) and is the largest along the axis of the
interpolar region (called quadrature axis). Armature current in quadrature with Ef produces flux
along the direct axis reactance) to the flow of quadratur component Id of armature current Ia.
On the other hand, armature current in phase with Ef produces flux along the quadrature axis
and the reluctance of the flux path being high (because of large interpolar air gap), it produces
smaller flux linkages per ampere and hence the machine presents smaller armature reaction
reactance Xq (quadrature axis reactance <Xd) to the flow of inphase component Iq of armature
current Ia.
Since a salient pole machine offers different reactances to the flow of Id and Iq
components of armature current Ia, a circuit model cannot be rawn. The phasor diagram of a
salient pole generator is shown in fig. 32. It can be easily drawn by following the steps given
below :
Fig. 32 : Phasor diagram of salient pole synchronous generator
58
1. Draw Vt and Ia at angle θ
2 Draw Ia Ra. Draw CQ = j Ia Xd (⊥ to Ia)
3. Make Xd = Ia Xd and draw the line OP which gives the direction of Ef phsor.
4 Draw a ⊥ from Q to the extended line OP such that OA = Ef
It can be shown by the above theory that the power output of a salient pole generator is
given by
Vt Ef Vt2 (Xd-Xq) ( 14.9 )

P= sin δ + sin 2δ
Xd 2XdXq
The first term is the same as for a round rotor machine with Xs = Xd and constitutes the
major part in power transfer. The second term is quite small (about 10-20%) compared to the
first term and is known as reluctance power.
Fig. 33 : Power agle curve for salient pole generator
P versus δ is plotted in Fig. It is noticed that the maximum power output occurs at δ
< 900 (about 700). Further dP (change in power per unit change in power angle for small dδ
changes in power angle), called the synchronizing power coefficient, in the operating region
(δ<700) is larger in a salient pole machine than in a round rotor machine.
In this chapter we shall neglect the effect of saliency and take Xs = Xd in all types of power
system studies considered.
During a machine transient, the direct axis reactance changes with time acquiring the
following distinct values during the complete transient.
Xd = subtransient direct axis reactance
X’d = transient direct axis reactance.
Xd = steady state direct axis reactance
17. Operating Chart of a Synchronous Generator.

While selecting a large generator, besides rated MVA and power factor, the greatest
allow stator and rotor currents must also be considered as they influence mechanical stresses
and temperature rise. Such limiting parameters in the operation are brought out by means of
an operating chart or performance chart.
59
Fig. 34 : Phasor diagram of synchronous generator
For simplicity of analysis, the saturation effects, saliency, and resistance are ignored
and an unsaturated value of synchronous reactance is considered. Consider fig .
the phasor diagram of a cylindrical rotor machine. The locus of constant IaXs, Ia and hence
MVA is a circle centred at M. the locus of constant Ef (excitation) is also a circle centred at O.
As MP is proportional to MVA, QP is proportional to MVAR and MQ to MW, all to the same scale
which is obtained as follows.
For zero excitation, i.e. Ef = 0
-jIaXs = Vt
or
Ia = jVt / Xs
i.e.| Ia | = | Vt | / Xs leading at 900 to OM which corresponds to VARs/phase,.
Consider now the chart shown in Fig. 35 which is drawn for a synchronous machine
having Xs = 1.43 pu. For zero excitation, the current is 1.0/1.43 = 0.7 pu, so that the length
MO corresponds to reactive power of 0.7 pu, fixing both active and reactive power scales.
With center at 0 a number of semicircles are drawn with radii equal to different pu MVA
loadings. Circles of per unit excitation are drawn from center M with 1.0 pu excitation
corresponding to the fixed terminal voltage OM. Lines may also be drawn from 0 corresponding
to various power factors but for clarity only 0.85 pf lagging line is shown. The operational limits
are fixed as follows.
Taking, 1.0 per unit active power as the maximum allowable power a horizontal limit-line
abc is drawn through b at 1.0 pu. It is assumed that the machine is rated to give 1.0 per unit
active power at power factor 0.85 lagging and this fixes point c. Limitation of the stator
current to the corresponding value requires the limit-line to become a circular arc cd about
center 0. At point d the rotor heating becomes more important and the arc de is fixed by the
maximum excitation current allowable, in this case assumed to be Ef = 2.40 pu (i.e. 2.4 times
Vt). The remaining limit is decided by loss of synchronism at leading power factors. The
theoretical limit is the line perpendicular to MO at M (i.e. = 900), but in practice a safety
60
Fig. 35
margin is brought in to permit a further small increase in load before instability. In fig. 35, a 0.1
pu margin is employed and is shown by the curve afg which is drawn in the following way.
Consider a point h on the theoretical limit on the Ef = 1.0 pu excitations arc, the power
Mh is reduced by 0.1 pu to Mk; the operating point must, however, still be on the same Ef arc
and k is projected to f which is the required point on the desired limiting curve. This is
repeated for other excitations giving the curve afg. The complete working area, shown shaded,
is gfabcde. A working point placed within this area at once defines the MVA, MW, MVAR,
current, power factor and excitation. The load angle δ can be measured as shown in the
figure.
✦✦✦
61
TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
Introduction :
The Electricity plays a very important role in every day life of every citizen. All our appliances,
equipments computers etc.work on electricity. For proper functioning of any of the equipments
and to avoid damages, it is necessary to keep variation of electrical parameters under control.
For control, it is necessary for supply voltage, load, frequency, power factor etc. of a transformer
to be within permissible limit. Transformer is a static device, which transfer electrical power
from one circuit to another, without change of frequency. It raises or lower the voltages with
corrosponding decrease or increase the current respectively. It accomplishes these phenomena
by electro-magnetic induction where two electrical circuits are in mutual inductive influence
with each other.
The transformer is vital equipment in the electrical network system. Best result of
Generation, Transmission and Distribution network ultimately depends upon the reliability of
the transformer. Reliability of Operation is very much dependent on reliability of design,
manufacturing methods, maintenance and materials.
M.S.E.B., as a User, are interested in reducing the defects and breakdowns so that reliable and
uninterrupted supply to be provided to the consumer. Considering these facts, we have to find
out means and methods by which the time and cost of repair of transformer could be reduced
to minimum. Distribution transformers are subjected to frequent overload and over voltages,
as precise monitoring and regular maintenance check is not possible due to various reasons.
With increasing size and complexity of power system, transformers are likely to be subjected
to frequent and more severe short circuit. Short circuit result into severe mechanical and
thermal stresses, overload and over voltages result into overheating, higher voltage stresses
on insulation and improper maintenance result into deterioration of oil, insulation and as a
result reduction in life of transformer. Moreover if the quality of transformer is not good, the
result will be premature failure, even though it is operated properly.
Considering above aspects, it will be most appropriate to design a transformer which will have
a normal life (@30-40 years.) even if it experiences frequent short circuit, frequent overload,
over voltages and which does not require more any operations and maintenance.
1. Principle of Transformer :
An electric circuit has its magnetic field. If current is alternating, the magnetic flux will also
change proportionately. If another circuit is associated with this flux, a secondary e.m.f. will
be produced in this circuit. This is a Mutual Induction. It consists of two inductive coils, which
are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance. Mutual
Induction between two circuits is linked by common magnetic flux.
Two coils possess high Mutual Induction. If one coil is connected to a source of AIC voltage,
an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linkup with other coil, in
which it produces Mutually induced e.m.f. Thus the flux due to alternating current in primary
winding will produce an e.m.f in secondary winding and vice-versa. If second coil circuit is
closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically) from
first coil to second coil. The first coil in which electric energy is fed from the AIC supply main,
343
called Primary winding and other from which energy drawn-out is called secondary winding.
The mutual induction is improved if two circuit are mutually linked by a common iron core.
The effects are:

a) Large increase in total flux due to better permeance of magnetic circuit.
b) Smaller magnetizing current (for same flux)
c) Mutual flux is more.
d) Introduction of core loss.
Faraday’s law of Induction : e = M (di/dt)

Lenz’s law : e = -N. (dφ/dt)
Statically induced E.M.F. : E.M.F. induced in stationary electric circuit is directly proportional
to rate of change of magnetic flux linked with it.
In any electrical circuit, the direction of induced e.m.f and current is such as to oppose
the very cause which produce it.
Average rate of change of flux i.e. Average e.m.f per turn = 4 f φm volts.
If flux varies sinusoidally, then
R.M.S. value of e.m.f = Average value of e.m.f * Form factor.
R.M.5. value of e.m.f per turn =4 f φm *1.11
R.M.S. value of e.m.f per turn = 4.44 f φm Volts
Total e.m.f = 4.44 f N φm Volts
E1, E.M.F produced in Primary winding= 4.44 f Nl <pm Volts
E2, E.M.F produced in secondary winding= 4.44 f N2 <pm Volts
E2 / E1= K = Voltage transformation ratio = N2 / N1 = I1 /I2
If K > 1, then it is Step up Transformer, if K < 1, then it is Step-down Transformer.
2. Types of Transformer
i. Station Transformer : Transformer at the generating station is required for starting of
the generating units when they are either newly constructed or taken of the bar for overhaul.
These Power transformers are called station transformer, which receives power from the grid
and feed power-to-power station distribution system.
ii. Distribution Transformer : Core type and shell type transformer are obtained from
the simple linked circuit by splitting of coil or splitting of core. In distribution network, transformer
plays very vital role for feeding uninterrupted electric supply to the consumer end.
iii. Instrument Transformer : For metering and protection to maintain instrument

accuracy. For sensing H.T. side current at the secondary side used in protection relay, trip
coils and pilot wires. It is used in current power measurement, temperature sensing etc.
Current Transformer (CT.)
Potential Transformer (P.T.)
344
iv. Transformer used for general purposes and for different processes.
a. Welding Transformer
b. Specially designed Transformer used for X ray, Radio, Telecommunication, T.V., High
frequency heating, and Industrial heating for different processes.
4. Distinguish between Power Transformer & Distribution Transformer

SN Power Transformer Distribution Transformer
1. Overall size is big Comparatively less overall size
2. OFW Cooling systems or other cooling
system as per rating of transformer. Natural air, oil-cooling system.
3. Tap changing facility As a fixed ratio transformer upto 100KVA
(manual ormotorized) tap-changing facility is not necessary
4. Losses are more, as a numbers of turns Less loss.
are More.
5. Provided more safe guard protections Less safeguard protections hence cannot
Properly monitor.
6. Rate of Temp. Increment is more Comparatively less Temp. Incrementrate.
7. Particularly used for high load Used for lighting, domestic load.
8. Design for high flux density, as KVA Comparatively less flux density as KVA
is more is less.
9. Flux density is high, special laminated Flux density low hence core Saturate
Core used which does not saturate early. fast.
10. Used neutral grounding transformer Neutral connected by solid strips
11. No frequent load variation Always energies and frequent loadvariation.
5. Construction of power Transformer

Transformer is a static device used for transferring power from one circuit to another
without change in frequency. It can raise or lower the voltage with a corresponding decrease
or increase in current. Transformer plays major roles in energy transfer from the place of its
generation i.e. power plant to actual utility area i.e. load Centre. At the receiving end the
transformer is again required to step-down the voltage so that the ultimate consumer can use
the energy.
Following are the elements of transformer :

i. Magnetic circuits : Core, Limb, Yokes and clamping structure.
ii. Electric circuits : Primary and secondary winding. Sometimes-Tertiary winding.
iii. Different Terminals : Tappings, Tapping switches, Terminal Insulators, Leads etc.
iv. Tanks : Main oil tank, Conservator tank, cooling devices.
v. Other components : Buchholz’srelay, Breather, Lightening arrestors, Jumpers, Dryer, Arching
rings, Different valves etc.
345
i. Magnetic Circuit :
Core Construction : Silicon steel (5% Si) of high resistance and high permeability are
used.(CRGO:- High grade Cold rolled grain oriented annealed steel.) Due to pulsating flux, eddy
current are set up. To minimize eddy current loss, the core must be laminated. The lamination
must be insulated from each other. Lamination are pressed and bolted. Bolts are insulated from
the sheets. Permeability is maximum in the direction of grain produced by rolling sheets must
be cut and assembled so that Magnetic flux will be along the grains. Lamination May reduce
effective cross-sectional area by 10%. Burring of the lamination edges can provide short
circuit path for eddy current, so burrs must be removed.
ii. Electric Circuit : For small transformer, the winding coils can be rectangular and so
rectangular core is easily built up. For large transformer, rectangular coils are wasteful and
only circular coils are used. A stepped core is then built up which very nearly approximates a
circle. The coils may be concentric or sandwiched. In core type, the LV. winding is nearest to
the core. In shell type, sandwich winding, the LV. winding is outside. This is on the account of
easier insulation facilities. Tertiary winding is used for additional load only. It circulates third
harmonic current due to unbalanced load. Insulation which is used in transformer are manila paper,
cloth, synthetic resin bonded paper tubes (SRBP), Teak/Haldi wood, Perma, Varnish etc. class
of insulation is considered as per design for voltage per turn of winding and not on KVA rating.
iii. Different Terminals

A. Lead and Terminals : Bushing - Different types of bushing are used according to
voltage level of transformer. OIP Bushing (Oil and impregnated paper), porcelain bushing,
condenser type oil filled bushing, resin impregnated bushing, silicon rubbed shed bushing, SF6
gas bushing etc.
Ordinarily porcelain insulator can be used upto 33 Kv. For higher voltages, condenser
type, oil filled bushing is used. Foreign substances like dust, moisture or metallic particles in oil
tends to arrange themselves in radial lines under the influence of electric field. Thus paths of
low electric strength are formed with danger of breakdown. Concentric Bakelite tubes are used
to prevent this. Capacitor type bushing consists of thick layer of Bakelite paper alternating
with thin graded layer of tin foil. Thus a series of Capacitor is formed. The Capacitance is kept
constant by successively reducing the length of tin foil. Thus voltage across each Capacitor is
equal and a uniform dielectric stress is obtained. Oil replacement of bushing has helped to
improve IR value. It is advisable to use water sealants on top sealing of bushing which are
above the conservator level, this will avoid moisture ingress in the HV bushing which is one of
the cause of transformer bushing failure. SF6 bushing has some advantages such as no fire
hazard, no leakage problem, absolutely maintenance free, sufficient electric strength etc.
B. Tap changer : Different types of tap changer are as follows :

a) On load tap changer.
b) Off load tap changer.
c) Linear tap changer.
d) Coarse tap changer.
e) Reversing type tap changer.
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Each tap change shall result in variation of 3% in voltage. Range of voltage variation 3 % to 9
% depends upon voltage ratio of transformer. No tapping shall be provided on the higher
voltage winding for variation of H.V. voltages, in respect of transformer upto 100 KVA rating.
Abovel00 KVA rating, tapping shall be provided on the higher voltage winding for variation of
H.V. voltages. Tap changing shall be carried out by means of an externally operated self-
position switch. Provision shall be made for locking the tapping switch handle in position. Each
tap change shall result in variation of 3% in voltage. Range of variation is 3 to 9% depend upon
voltage ratio.
Following precautions has to be taken at the time of operating tap changer. It is
advisable not to touch the tap changer if sufficient knowledge and expertise is not available.
Some failure of transformer have been caused due to problem of tap changer faced on OLTC
are lose arc chute, loose contact shell, heavy carbon contents or oil leakages through OLTC
head cover ‘0’ rings. It is very essential to inspect selector switch part during internal inspection
of transformer. At few locations, selector switch failure has lead to the failure of transformer.
Protection tripping on OLTC must be viewed very seriously and proper analysis to be done prior
to recharging of transformer. OLTC cylinder either being fiberglass or SRBP cylinders have a
tendency to absorb moisture and hence oil circulation for 4/6 hours at 55°C. Circulation has to
be done at higher temperature to extract the embedded moisture.
iv. Tanks : Main oil tank and conservator tank : Mineral insulating oil derived from
petroleum are used in transformer. (EHV grade IS-335/1983) These oil, however most widely
used because of its cheapness, ready availability and technical acceptability for all but the
most critical and specialist applications. These oils function as an insulator and coolant in
transformer. In service, the insulating liquids are subjected to thermal and electrical stresses
in the presence of adverse conditions and materials. Mineral insulating oil used in transformer
deteriorates in service due to oxidation. Proper equipment design, such as inclusion of conservator,
breather etc.and production of properly refined oils has to some extent helped in prolonging
the life of these oils. Despite these measures, insulating oil deteriorate with time leading to the
formation of sludge and acids which prevent the efficient performance of the equipment in
which these are used.
Oil level should be checked at frequent intervals and if necessary conservator should
be topped up. Oil for topping up should be clean fresh filtered and complying with IS 335 and
preferably be from the same source as the original oil. Conservators are so designed that the
lower part act as a sump in which impurities and sludge may collect. Oil indicator glass should
be kept clean so that oil level is clearly and correctly visible. Transformer condition monitoring
by oil test and DGA have proved to be a quite useful tool and has prevented many forced
outages.
Limiting value of oil : Low viscosity-151 S (Redo number) at 27°C

Flash point / Fire point - 160°C / 220°C
Dielectric strength -50 to 60 KV / mm PPM- 15 to 25
Insulating property -IR @ 2 Mega ohms. / Kv
Purity i.e. absence of excess sulphur, alkali and moisture.
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When Sludge and acids contents exceeds certain limit, and oil become unfit for further
use, reclamation is resorted to. The reclaimed oil has however poor oxidation stability
characteristics. For effecting improvement in oxidation stability characteristics, anti-oxidants
(DBPC- Detertiary butyl Para cresol) have been added.
Acidity to be removed, otherwise it will encourages sludge formation, by adding 0.05
mg KOH/gm. To prevent this antioxidant, activated Alumina or synthetic inhibitor is mixed in oil.
Due to sludging, hydrocarbons formed on core, and in tank etc. Hence winding temperature
increases result in oxidation of oil and ultimately ineffectiveness of cooling system.
Bushing, Tap changer and Oil are known as weak links in transformer and hence special
attention is provided at the time of operating and checking of transformer.
Cooling system of transformer is provided by considering design and KVA rating of a
transformer. Cooling system of transformer is as follows.
i. Air natural cooling system.
ii. Oil natural cooling system with or without radiator.
iii. Cooling of transformer improved by force airflow by blowers/Air blast by fans
iv. Oil forced natural cooling system (OFN): - circulation of oil by pump to radiator, which has
natural cooling.
v. OFB : Forced oil circulation of oil by pump to radiator, which has force, cooled by air
blower.
vi. OFW : Forced circulation of Oil through oil cooler and water-cooling is by water.
Generally Oil temp is maintained in between 45 to 55 Dc. & Winding temp in between 55
to 80 °c.(depends upon insulation class)
Law of Insulation Ageing : The Insulation of the transformer tends to age and deteriorate
when heated. For higher temperature, the faster is the Insulation deterioration. It has been
established that between 80 to 140° C, the rate of loss of life due to aging of transformer
insulation is doubled for every 6° C rise in temp.
v. OTHER COMPONENTS :
a. Buchholz’s relay : This relay is provided in the connecting pipe from transformer tank to
conservator. This is a gas operated relay used for protecting the transformer against different
faults i.e. interturn fault in winding, core bolt insulation failure, local overheating, bad electrical
contacts, loss of oil due to leakage and ingress of air into system or air pockets remaining after
topping up of oil or after filtration process etc. Some time such air pockets remain undetected
in initial energising of the transformer but after taking full load the air pockets becomes hot
and hot air bubbles travels from tank to conservator which passes through Buchholz’s relay
unit causing alarm or trip contact to close, through mercury switch, thereby the breaker trip
coil energise. Inflammable gases generated accumulated in the chamber of Buchholz’s relay.
Oil get decomposed and formed hydrocarbon gases such as ethane, methane, propane,
acetylene, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen etc. The nature of the fault could
be judged with the help of gas collected in the Buchholz’s relay. The gas generation is
proportional to the severity of fault. Two floats are provided inside the relay, which are
connected to mercury switches. Normally the relay is full of oil and in case of gas collection
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the floats, due to their buoyancy, rotate on their support until they engage their respective
stops. Initially fault is developed ‘slowly and heat is produced locally which begins to decompose
solid or liquid insulating materials and thus produces inflammable gases. Alarm switch and
tripping switch is provided for this purpose. Alarm appears due to interturn fault in winding,
lamination problem, crimping limb problem, hot spots (local over heating), clogging of oil (loss
of oil due to leakages or low level), insulation failure, ingress of air into system or air pockets
remaining after topping up of oil or after filtration process, cooling system problems, core fault,
bad electrical contact (fault on tap changer) or continuous parallel operation of transformer
on uneven load.
Gas bubbles are collected in relay causing oil level to lower down, the upper float
rotate as the oil level in the relay goes down and when sufficient oil is displaced the mercury
switch contact close and initiate alarm. For serious fault, gas generation is more violent and
the oil displaced by gas bubbles flows through the connecting pipe to conservator. This
abnormal flow of oil causes deflection of both floats and trip out the transformer.
b. Silica jel Breather : In small size transformer, tank is sealed airtight. In bigger size transformer,
sealed airtight tank is not possible hence breather is provided. Breather joint shall be screwed
type. It shall have dye-cast aluminum body or polypropylene material and inside container of
silica jel shall be of tin shell. Volume of breather shall be suitable for 2S0 gms of silica jel up to
100 KVA transformer.500 grams of silica jel above 100 KVA transformer. Due to load variation
on transformer, oil temperature changes, increases or decreases hence oil expand or contract
accordingly. Atmospheric moisture is absorbed by silica jel in breather and prevents to mix with
oil. Breather should be inspected frequently especially in a situation where temperature and
humidity changes are considerable and when transformer is subjected to fluctuating load.
During continuous operation, its colour changes to pale blue/pink/white. Silica jel can reactivated
if it is heated upto 110-130oc for about 8 hours.
c. Lightening arrestor : Function of Lightening arrestor is to absorb the surge before it

reaches to the transformer winding.
d. Jumpers : Connecting leads between transmission line and primary side of transformer
winding.
e. Valves : Pressure relief valve, drain valve, filter valve, sampling valve, air release valve.
✦✦✦
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SWITCHGEAR
INTRODUCTION
A Switchgear is one which makes or break an electric circuit.The equipment which
normally fall in this category are :
• Isolators • Load Break Switches
• Earth Switches • Circuit Breakers
Isolator
An Isolator is one, which can break an electric circuit when the circuit is to be switched
on no-load. These are normally used in various circuits for the purpose of isolation a certain
portion. when required for maintenance etc.
Switching Isolators are capable of
i) Interrupting transformer magnetizing currents :
ii) Interrupting line charging current; and
iii) Load transfer switching.
Its main application is in connection with teed or bank transformer feeder as this unit
makes it possible to switchout one transformer while the other is still on load.
Load Break Switches

Load Break Switches are those interrupting devices, which can make or break ckts. at
7 to 8 times rated current. These are normally installed on the same circuit or on the circuits,
which are backed up by circuit breaker.
Earth Switches
Earth Switches are devices, which are normally used to earth a particular system to
avoid any accident, which may happen due to induction on account of live adjoining circuit.
These do not handle any appreciable current.
Circuit Breakers
The main duty of circuit breaker is to interrupt the highest fault current.
Let us consider an elmntary circuit breaker.
As soon as the two contacts of a breaker apart, an arc is developed between the two
contacts and it is this arc quenching which invites developing a lot of systems and devices in
a circuit breaker.
These types of problems are not encountered in case of others such as Isolators.
Earth-Switches and Load Break Switches.
ARC
FIXED CONTACT MOVING CONTACT
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ISOLATORS TYPES
Isolators may be sub-divided into following categories:
i) Pneumatically operated ii) Motor operated
The isolators can also be sub-divided as under:

i) Centre post rotating type ii) Both post rotating type.
Description :
The most common form of isolators is the rotating center post type in which each
phase has three insulators posts, the outer posts carry the fixed contacts and connections,
and the center post, the contact arm which is arranged to move through 900 its axis.
However, in some 220 KV Switchyard two post design is used in which each post carries
a half length contact arm, linked together to rotate through 900 in opposite directions.
This design was introduced so as to economise on insulators but had been found to
occupy a greater area than the three post type and necessitates making the base structure
extremely rigid to avoid deflection of insulators under load.
Modern trend is again to return back on to the three-post type. It has been possible to
reduce the Isolator size by limiting the moving contact blade to move to a fully open position
of 700 to the axis of the phase of the isolator instead of 900 as previously.
The rotating center post is still constrained to rotate through 900 but last 200 of
movement are used to rotate the moving contact in its own axis.
The concept of using that last 200 of movement of the rotating center post to turn the
moving contacts through this angle about their own axis, enables very high contact pressure
to be achieved without the need for a very powerful operating mechanism.
THREE POLE TYPE TWO POLE TYPE
An operating mechanism box normally installed near the ground level drives the isolators.
The box also has the control ckt. and auxiliary contacts.
As discussed earlier, the operating mechanism may be solenoid operated, pneumatic or
simple system. Motorised operating mechanism generally consists of A.C. three-phase motor
or D.C. motor transmitting through a sturdy spur gear to the torsional shaft of the isolator.
The motor is to be controlled by a contactor for opening and another for closing
operation. Hand operation has also to be provided by a detachable handle that can be fitted
on the square end of the shaft to enable to operate the switch during control supply failure.
Two aluminum cams with limit switches are fitted with groove, one on each of the limit
of operation of motor for opening and closing. Auxiliary switches are to be provided for
indication, interlocking etc.
The pneumatic operated mechanism is compact and is supported on the structure
itself. A pair of cylinders and pistons are used, one to drive the mechanism and the other to
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dampen the shock. The linear motion of piston is transferred into rotating motion by the rack
and pinion mechanism.
Electromagnetic valve is provided consisting of tripping mechanism and coil. If the coil
is excited, the valve opens and the air goes into the cylinder, when the coil is deenergised the
valve closes and air in the cylinder is exhausted.
A limit switch is provided which deenergises the coil at the end position of the operation.
INTERLOCKS FOR ISOLATOR

The following interlocks are provided :
i) Isolator cannot operate unless the breaker is open.
ii) Bus I & Bus II isolator cannot be closed simultaneously.
iii) This interlock can be by-passed in the event of closing of bus coupler breaker.
iv) No isolator can operate when corresponding earth switch is on
v) Only one bay (one feeder load) can be taken on by-pass bus.
SWITHCING ISOLATORS/LOAD BREAK SWITCH

The breaking capacity of conventional isolator is virtually nil, but a type of isolator is
now available which is capable of :
i) Interrupting transformers magnetizing currents.
ii) Interrupting line charges currents.
iii) Load transfer switching
iv) Short circuit making capacity of 3500 MVA.
Its main application is in connection with banked transformers feeders, as this unit
makes it possible to switch out one transformer while the other is still on load.
It has also been used in place of Air Blast Circuit Breaker to switch generators in and
out of service, where the noise from the ckt. Breaker proved trouble some to bear by residents.
The construction is simple. A single interrupted per phase which is filled with Sulphur
hexa fluoride (SF6) at a pressure slightly above atmosphere and isolator arm moving in a
vertical plane, are all the mechanisms.
EARTH SWITCHES
Earth switches in the 220 KV switchyard are simple mechanically operated switches,
the purpose of which is to earth the bus if required for the purpose of eliminating induced
voltage in the particular bay on account of parallel running live conductors. It is always
accompanied by an auxiliary switch to provide interlock and indication.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The circuit breakers play an important role in the design and performance of a Power
System, in that these are the key pieces of apparatus protecting the system and thus ensure
continuity of supply. From considerations of cost, the circuit breakers represent a major items,
and are, next only to the generator and transformer, since their quantity is greater than that
of generators/ transformers in a Power System owing to the services required for control of
transmission lines, bus-bats etc. in addition to control of transformers and generators.
Circuit breakers consist essentially of current carrying contacts called electrodes.
These are normally engaged but under predetermined conditions separate to interrupt the
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circuit. When the contacts are separated an arc is struck between them. This arc plays
important part in the interruption process as it provides for the gradual transition form the
current carrying to the voltage withstanding states of the contacts, but it is dangerous on
account of the energy generated in it sin the form of heat which may result in explosive
forces. The main problem in a circuit breaker is therefore, to extinguish the arc shortly after it
has started and before the energy generated by it, has reached a dangerous value.
Function of Circuit Breakers

The expected function of a circuit breaker are :
i) It must be capable of closing on to and carrying full load currents for long period of time.
ii) Under prescribed conditions, it must open automatically to disconnect the load or some
small overload.
iii) It must successfully and rapidly interrupt the heavy current which flow when a short
circuit has to be cleared form the system.
iv) With its contacts open, the gap must withstand the circuit voltage.
v) It must be capable of closing on to a circuit in which a fault exists and of immediately re-
opening to clear the fault form the system.
vi) It must be capable of carrying current of short circuit magnitude until, and for such time
as, the fault is cleared by another breaker nearer to the point of fault.
vii) It must be capable of successfully interrupting quite small currents such as transformer
magnetising current or line and cable charging currents.
viii) It must be capable of withstanding the effects of arcing at its contacts and the
electromagnetic forces and Thermal conditions which arise due to passage of currents of
short circuit magnitude.
Circuit Breaker Ratings :

i) Rated Voltage : Rated voltage of a circuit breaker designates the maximum nominal
system voltage for which the breaker is intended and also a maximum design voltage
which designates the maximum operating voltage which should not be exceeded. Standard
rated Voltage for popularly used breakers are given in Table 1.
ii) Rated Normal Current : The Rated Normal Current of a circuit breaker is the r.m.s. value
of the current which the circuit breaker shall be able to carry continuously at its rated
frequency under specified conditions with temperature rises of different parts not exceeding
the specified values.
Some of the standard current ratings in amperes are :
200, 250, 400, 500, 630, 800, 1000, 1250,1600, 2000, 2500, 3150, 4000, and 5000.
iii) Maximum Allowable Temperature : The maximum allarable temperature for different
parts are :
Silver coated Copper contacts in air : 1050 C
Silver coated Copper contacts in oil : 750 C
Breaker terminals : 850 C
Circuit breakers oil (oil circuit Breakers only) : 800 C
Metal parts in oil contact : 1000 C
Metal parts in contact with different type of insulations : 1300 C
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Breaking Capacity :
i) Symmetrical Breaking Capacity : It is the r.m.s value of the a.c. component of the
current which the circuit breaker is capable of breaking at a stated recovery voltage and
a stated reference restriking voltage under prescribed conditions.
ii) Asymmetrical Breaking Capacity : It is the r.m.s value of the combined a.c. & d.c.
components of the current which the circuit breaker is capable of breaking at a stated
recovery voltage and a stated reference restriking voltage under prescribed conditions.
Breaking capacity for a breaker is chosen after calculating the short circuit MVA for the
most severe fault (Generally taken as three phase symmetrical fault condition) at the substation
where the beaker is required. For every system generally this value is available or otherwise
the same can be calculated after knowing the parameters of generators, transformers and
transmission lines. Some of the standard short circuit MVA ratings are shown in Table 1.
(Note : Only limited number of ratings as per BS : 116 under columns 3, 4 & 5 are given).
TABLE - 1
Voltage K.V. Rated Current Breaking Capacity Symmetrical Insulation
r.m.s. AMP MVA Breaking current K.A. Level K.V.
Nominal Higher
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
200,400 or 600 25 4.38
3.3 3.6 200,400 or 600 50 8.76 45
400,600 or 800 100 17.50
6.6 7.2 400, 600, 800 100 8.76 60
400, 800, 1200 250 21.9
400, 800, 120 250 13.1
11 12 800,1200,1600 500 26.3 75
1200,1600,2000 750 39.4
400, 800 500 8.76
33 36 400, 800, 1200 750 13.1 170
400, 800, 1200 1000 17.5
66 72 400, 800 1000 8.76 325
800, 1200 1500 13.1
600 2500 10.9
132 145 800, 1200 3500 15.3 650
5000
7500
800 5000 6.57
220 245 1200 10000 9.2 1050
1600 15000
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Contacts : A large variety of contact designs are in use. For the normal and fault currents
now valent, the plain butt and the plain knife contact are inadequate. Present practice,
therefore favours the contactor butt type, or the high-pressure line type. The important
feature in each case is a high local contact pressure, coupled with a adequate mass to permit
of dissipation of heat from the contact points. For metal-clad circuit-breakers, the rod and
socket or tulip type contact is still employed, but this again is now designed to give a series of
line contacts rather than of surface contacts. This type has, however; the disadvantage of
gripping the moving contact when heavy short-circuit currents are applied and thereby delaying
the opening of the breaker. For the special case of sliding contacts in air-blast circuit-breaker
interrupters a contact of piston ring form made of high-strength beryllium copper may be used.
Contacts in air are normally silver-plated or faced, to avoid oxidation of the copper or,
when out-doors, corrosion of the contact points and subsequent failure. Whilst silver oxidizes
very readily, its oxide is a good electrical conductor, but oxidation of copper produces a film of
insulation, or, at the best, a very inferior conductor. It is important that contact springs should
be so placed or insulated that they cannot provide a path for current which may cause
annealing of the spring and consequent loss of contact pressure. Figures 2.2.1D and 2.3.5A
illustrate, respectively, typical examples of contactor-butt contacts and tulip-type contacts.
Circuit-breaker Mechanisms : A circuit-breaker mechanism must be designed to deal with

large forces at high speeds with unfailing reliability, even after long periods of idleness. At high
voltages the mass and travel of the moving parts of an oil circuit-breaker, or an air-blast
circuit-breaker isomaker arm, are very large requiring correspondingly large accelerating forces,
and powerful dash-post for deceleration.
The oil circuit breaker mechanism consists of a train of linkages through which a
solenoid or compressed air operating piston works to close the breaker against the opening
sorings. The train of linkages is designed to be held in the closing conformation by a relatively
light trip-latch, and to break up and allow the breaker to open when the trip-latch is operated,
even if this occurs during the closing stroke (so-called trip-free operation). To attain opening
times of the desired order (0.03 sec from trip impulse to contact separation) the inertia of the
train must be kept very low, and the throw-off force applied to accelerate the contacts must
be high; as much as 20 tons may be employed in a large circuit-breaker. To provide the
necessary throw-off force, torsion bar springs are increasingly used in place of spiral springs,
which are bulky and have a higher inertia.
To arrest the mechanism at the end of the stroke, dashpots, usually of the piston type
working in oil, are employed. The design of these is critical, as the energy to be absorbed in a
short distance is high. The final position of travel must be exactly defined as this will materially
influence the contact engagement. This mechanism may be either solenoid or pneumatically
operated.
At 132 kV and above the power required for solenoid operation becomes rather high (50
kW plus) and compressed air is increasingly used. For this service, pressures of 150-200 lb/in2
are usual; the quantity of air per operation is relatively small, approximately 5 ft3.
In short-circuit conditions, the throw-off forces exerted on the moving contacts at the
moment of making a short-circuit may be considerable. The power of the mechanism must be
sufficient to overcome these forces-any hesitation at this moment may lead to heavy contact
burning and subsequent failure to clear. Circuit breakers are, therefore, tested to prove their
ability to make short-circuits at 80% of the rated coil operating voltage. The latter is best
expressed, for solenoid mechanisms, in terms of the ampere-turns in the coil rather than in
355
terms of the voltage applied.
A further type of mechanism recently introduced is a stored energy type of mechanism,
incorporating a pneumo-hydraulic accumulator. The accumulator is charge with an inert gas at
a pressure of 2000 lb/in2. Oil is pumped in against the gas pressure and causes the accumulator
piston to rise, the pumping action automatically stopping when the pressure reaches 4000 lb/
in2. the stored oil can be released into the operating cylinder of the circuit-breaker operating
mechanism by either an electrically or manually operated valve.
Normal current carrying capacity : The current it will carry continuously without exceeding
the specified temperature rise determines the normal current-carrying capacity of switchgear.
In most cases this is a maximum of 500 C above ambient. It should be noted that switchgear
has no overload rating at all except for short durations or in very low ambient conditions. The
assigned current rating cannot, therefore, be exceeded without risk of overheating, unless it
is known that the gear has been made with an unusually large margin in current-carrying
capacity. The normal current rating is proved by a “heat run” at rated current on complete
equipment, while measuring the temperature rise of all-important parts. The heat run continues
until temperatures throughout the gear have become steady.
Short-circuit Capacity : The short-circuit capacity of the switchgear is determined by the

symmetrical short-circuit current which can be made and broken, at the rated voltage, and
which can be carried, under through-fault conditions, for 3 sec. For convenience, the short-
circuit capacity is generally expressed as the equivalent MVA breaking-capacity (the symmetrical
breaking capacity X rate voltage X 3). The short-circuit capacity is also determined by the
number of short-circuit operations which the circuit-breaker can perform and remain capable
thereafter of normal operation. The standard duty-cycle is a breaking operation, followed by
two make-break operations at intervals of not less than 3 min, to be carried out at any current
up to the rated short-circuit value. Circuit-breakers have, in addition, an asymmetrical current-
rating normally of 1.25 times the symmetrical current-rating, to establish their ability to deal
with cases where the circuit-breaker opens before the asymmetry of the fault-current has
decayed. This rating is important in power stations, since at the bus-bats of such stations the
initial asymmetry may be high, and if the circuit-breaker is fast operating, may even exceed
the normal rating of 1.25 times the symmetrical current.
The rated making current of a circuit-breaker is specified as the peak current encountered
when the circuit is made at a voltage zero, and is given by 1.8 X 2 = 2.55 times the three
phase symmetrical r.m.s. fault current.
Short Time Current : The rated short time current of a circuit breaker is that short time
current (at least equal to the symmetrical breaking capacity) which can be carried by it for a
period of one second, so that during the period required for breaker operation, no damage may
be done to the equipment.
Insulation & Insulation level : A circuit breaker installed in a power system may be subjected
to over voltages within the range from power frequency to lighting surges. This determines the
principal dielectric properties of the equipment. The principal isulating materials used in
switchgear are air, oil, SF6 gas, porcelain and synthetic resin- impregnated wood and paper,
and fiberglass.
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Opening Time : Opening time is the time between the instant application of tripping power to
the circuit breaker when in closed position and the instant of separation of the contacts.
Arc Duration : Arc duration is the time between the instant of separation of the circuit
breaker contacts and the instant of arc extinction of the short circuit current, excluding
resistor current duration, if any.
Total break Time : The total break time is the sum of opening time and arcing time. This is to
be specified by the purchases. Breakers are now available with total break time varying from
2.5 cycles to 8 cyles.
Make Time : The make time of the circuit breaker is the interval of the time between the
initiation of the closing operation and the instant where the contacts touch each other. It
includes the operating time of any auxiliary equipment necessary to close the circuit breaker.
Important Characteristics
1. Restriking Voltage
The restriking voltage is the voltage which appears across the terminals of each pole of
a circuit breaker immediately after the breaking of the circuit i.e. at current zero.
The breaker is expected to help the gap between the contacts to recover the dielectric
strength as early as possible so as to avoid restriking of arc.
2. Recovery Voltage
This is the normal frequency r.m.s. voltage that reappers between the poles of a circuit
breaker after final arc extinction.
3. Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltge (R.R.R.V.)

It is a rate, expressed in volts per micro second, representative of the increase of the
restriking voltage. For a restriking voltage having a single frequency transient component, the
R.R.R.V. is obtained by dividing the maximum of the oscillation by the duration of the first half
wave.
4. Peak Restriking Voltage

It is the maximum instantaneous voltage attained by the restriking voltage.
5. Amplitude Factor of Restriking Voltage

It is the ratio between the peak restriking voltage and the peak value 2 times the r.m.s.
value of the recovery voltage across the poles under consideration.
We may study physical conception of the phenomenon in brief. When breaker contacts
depart, voltage across them suddenly rises from ‘0’ to full value. This rise is prevented by
inherent capacitance of equipment and transmission lines in conjunction with the inductance
of the circuit. The restriking voltage produced, owing to above circuit conditions, will have
two magnitude, namely the steady state recovery voltage and a voltage oscillating at natural
frequency. In order to obtain quick stability in the system, it is desirable to suppress the
natural frequency oscillation. This is achieved by using resistors across the breaker terminals.
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Circuit Breaker Types
Circuit Breakers classifications are broadly made on :
A. Location of Installation :
i) Indoor Circuit Breakers ii) Outdoor Circuit Breakers.
B. Current Interruption and arc guenching Methods :

i) Bulk oil circuit breakers ii) Minimum oil circuit breakers
iii) Air blast circuit breakers iv) Sulphur hexafluride (SF6) circuit breaker
For indoor use, generally, bulk oil type is not used. All others type are in use.
C. Operating Mechanisms
i) Spring operated circuit breaker ii) Solenoid operated circuit breaker
iii) Pressure operated circuit breaker
The circuit breakers can also be divided into two broad categories on account of its
operation, these are :
i) Fixed trip type ii) Trip free type
Fixed trip type breakers are those breakers which can be closed on faults and the
breaker shall trip only after completing the closing operation.
While trip free type of circuit breakers are those which do not complete closing operation
if tripping signal on account of a fault exists. The breaker shall start tripping operation before
the contacts actually meet.
Here, there is a controversy which type of breaker should be preferred, out of the
above two. One argument is that the fixed trip type are better as although the contacts
actually close on fault but immediately starts withdrawing on account of tripping signal. The
speed of operation is uniform.
The other school of thought is that by this way the breaker is allowed unnecessarily to
close on fault and subject the breaker contacts to fault conditions and thus chances of
contact deterioration are more. As such the trip free type of breakers would be better.
In order to fully understand the different types of Circuit Breakers, it would be necessary to
first understand the general principle of current interruption.
Principle of Current Interruption : The main requirement of a circuit breaker is that it shall
be capable of making and breaking the current associated with any type of fault occurring on
the system or to carry it for short time without suffering any damage. These currents may be
either symmetrical or asymmetrical.
Short circuit current can be of very low power factor even to the extent of 0.05 P.F. for
the faults on the line side of circuit breaker connected with a large source of generation.
Thus, at current zero, the recovery voltage across the contact gap is maximum. Also immediately
before current zero, the contact gap voltage is the potential due to the arc resistance and
fault current. At current zero, the arc voltage collapses and attempts to recover the system
50 c/s voltage overshoots and oscillates at the natural system frequency, being gradually
damped out until the 50 c/s recovery voltage appears across the contacts.
The high frequency oscilltion is known as the restriking voltage and the rate of rise of
restriking voltage (R.R.R.V.) is a measure of the circuit severity (see Fig.)
358
For the successful current interruption, the rate of rise of dielectric strength of the gap
must be greater than the R.R.R.V.
However, this theory does not take into account the energy available in the arc, and
does not, therefore, explain the phenomena of post arc conductivity occurring at a current
zero.
A few microseconds before current zero the power loss from the arc is greater than the
power input and at current zero, although the input is zero, the residual arc path still has
conductance; thus as the restriking voltage appears across the arc path a post zero current
flows.
As such for successful arc extinction, the power loss must continue to be greater than
the power input, thereby forcing post zero current back to zero and achieving a thermal
extinction.
Thus, a circuit breaker failure may be due to :
i) Thermal reignition
ii) Dielectric breakdown
iii) Both of the above
The following are the different methods adopted to extinguish the arcs by interrupters
while breaking the current :
i) By providing a blast of air - called Air Blast interrupter
ii) By providing oil medium - called Oil Interrupter
iii) By providing an inert gas like sulphur Hexafluride? - called SF6 Interrupter
iv) By creating a Vacuum - called Vacuum interrupter
Air Blast Interrupters : The power for extinguishing the arc is drawn from an external source
and its magnitude must be such as to interrupt the maximum fault current. As such if the
magnitude of fault is less, the same is interrupted even before the current reaches its natural
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zero. Here heat is conducted away from the arc until at current zero casusing by rapid de-
ionisation and ulternately replacing arc path by a column of compressed air of very high
dielectric strength (see Fig 6.4)
Air Blast Circuit Breakers

In air blast circuit breakers, the interrupters are insulated from earth by mans of
Porcelain Insulators, the number being determined by the system voltage.
The number of interrupters per phase also depends on the rating of the breaker.
Normally, support insulators may carry up to four interrupter units. The interrupter units may
be mounted one above the other and fed via bypass blast pipes or on branches from a common
point at the top of the support insulator. A large diameter blast valve controls the flow of air
from the local air receiver to the interrupter units.
Merits of Air Blast Circuit Breakers and Air :

1. Can be used at high pressure.
2. Reliable operation due to external source of extinguishing energy.
3. Free from decomposition.
4. Clean, non-inflammable.
5. Freely available everywhere.
6. Fresh medium is used every time. Hence the breaker can be repeatedly operated, if
designed for such duty.
7. The same air serve purpose of moving the contact and arc extinction.
8. High speed of operation. The compressed air moves very fast and brigns about the
opening operation. The arcing time is also short. Hence, total breaking time is short,
operating mechanisms of air blast circuit breakers are pneumatic. The arcing time is
almost exactly 0.01second, i.e. ½ cycle for operating the contacts. Hence breaker
speed of the order of 2 cycles can be achieved. This makes the C.B. suitable for important
lines because high speed opening and auto-reclosure can improve system stability.
9. Rapid Auto-reclosure : The circuit-breaker can be given rapid autoreclosure feature. The
manufacturer gives such a provision at additional cost. The ABCB is easy to reclose
because the reclosure is by spring pressure against reduced air pressure.
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10. Clean service. No need of maintenance of oil.
11. Unit type construction gives advantage in design, manufacture and testing.
12. Very high breaking capacities and service voltage can be obtained by connecting more
number of units in services. Hence for all extra-high voltage and high breaking capacities
of today air blast circuit-breakers are used, e.g. 410 KV, 63.5 KA, 2 cycles.
13. Suitability for repeatex operatin. The freash air is used every time. Hence the breaker
can be used for repeated operation if designed for such duty. This is not the case with oil
circuit-breakers.
Demerits :
1. The demerits of ABCB, complex design of arc extinction chambers and operating mechanisms.
Problems of switching over voltages. Switching over voltages are reduced by preclosing
resitors.
2. Auxiliary high pressure air system is necessary. The cost can be justified if there are
several breakers in the switchiyard. For a single breaker the cost of auxiliary compressed
air system would be too high.
Design Features of Ultra High Voltage Air Blast Circuit Breaker

The breakers are required for breaking short circuit currents of the order of 40 KA, 50
KA, 60 KA is ultra high voltage. To achieve such high ratings the Air Bleast Circuit- Breakers
have been provided with following features :
• Multi-unit design.
• Increasing mass flow of air for arc extinction by making necessary modifications in the
design of compressed air system and passage of air in the breaker.
• Use of parallel pre-closing resistor to damp switching over-voltages.
• Intensifying the cooling of arc space by developing the nozzle of suitable shape by enlarging
nozzle shape and raising the operating pressure.
• Large diameters of flow path. Large components.
• Using new techniques of air supply to ensure almost constant pressure of air during the
opening operations. These techniques include :
1. Using vertical tanks, one for each hollow insulator.
2. Using high pressure system such as 60 kg/cm2, 150 kg/cm2
3. Connecting the breaker pneumatic valve directly to high pressure system instead of
connecting it to local air receiver.
In circuit-breaker with air receiver, the pressure drops to about 70 per cent of initial
pressure during arc interruption. There by the rating of breaker for the subsequent opening
operation for auto-reclosure duty is reduced. To overcome this difficulty, the above mentioned
modifications are incomporated in duty is reduced. To overcome this difficulty, the above
mentioned modifications are incorporated in UHS circuit breakers. Further, breakers are fitted
with silencers and are made earthquake-proof.
The whole of the operating mechanism of the circuit breaker is compressed air operated
movement being initiated from an electrically operated trip coil.
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Isolation in this type of circuit breaker is achieved by keeping the interrupters open and
the contact gap is permanently pressurized.
The loss of air in a pressurized circuit breaker will result in either its reclosure or loss of
dielectric strengths across the open contacts. Such an occurrence could prove disastrous to
the system and it has therefore, been arranged that an isolator associated with the pressurised
circuit breaker opens automatically after the circuit breaker has been tripped.
The advantage of this type of breaker is that its performance under fault condition is
excellent because high pressure air is immediately available at the contacts.
Oil Interrupters : Here the principle of arc extinguishing is quite different. In this type the
extinguishing power is obtained from the arc itself. The arc decomposes the oil and vapurises
it into Hydrogen (60-80%), acetylene and a small proportion of other hydrocarbons. Hydrogen,
because of its high thermal conductivity and deionising properties, greatly assists in cooling
the arc at the same time, the pressure within the enclosure is built up due to the restricted
venting.
Thus final arc extinction is achieved by rapidly cooling and de-ionishing of the gas and
expelling the arc product from the control device, resulting in a rapid build up di-electric
strength. Hence the build up of di-electric strength is mush faster than in case of Air Blast
interrupter unit. It increases with the increase of fault current. It can be seen that for low
fault current, the arc duration may be such that some additional force may be required.
Oil Circuit Breakers : There are two types of oil circuit breakers :
i) Minimum oil circuit breaker
ii) Bulk oil circuit breaker.
Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker : These circuit breakers normally are of single break type. These
normally comprises of two section, one upper compartment containing the arc control device
and, fixed and moving contacts and a lower supporting comparment. The arc control device is
contained in a bakelised paper enclosure which is in turn housed in a porcelain insulator.
Support for this compartment is provided by porcelain or bakelised paper support insulators.
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An insulating link passes through the support chamber and drives the moving contact.
Connection between the moving contact and the lower terminal is by mens of a sliding contact
at the base of the upper chamber.
The upper and lower compartment of ckt-breakers are filled with oil, but oil in the
support compartment is kept separate from oil in the arc control compartment and cannot
therefore, be contaminated by the products of arcing.
Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers

This comparises of simply a dead tank having two bushings projecting from it. The
number of interrupter units contained in the tank is dependent upon fault current to be
interrupted and the service voltage. Each interrupter unit is shunted by a linear wire wound
resistor of the order of 1200 ohms, the objective being to damp the restriking trasient at fault
currents and to assist in line switching duties.
The interrupter units and the resistors are mounted on the lower end of the bushing.
The moving contacts are carried on a cross arm lifted by a long insulating tension rod from a
straight line motion average at the top of the tank. The three phases are coupled together by
SECTION OF ONE PHASE OF 275 KV BULK OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER - SIX BREAKS PER PHASE,
18,000 MVA
interphase rods and are closed simultaneously by pneumatic operating mechanism. These are
opened independently of closing mechanism, by means of torsion bar throwoff springs, two
numbers beings provided per phase.
The fixed contacts of the resistors are provided at the mouth of arc control device.
The moving contacts therefore, interrupt the main current within the arc control device, but
the resistor current under oil outside the device.
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breaker : This type of circuit breaker is of similar
construction to the dead tank bulk oil volume type of circuit reaker, but the principle of current
interruption is similar to that ofan air blast circuit breaker. It does not therefore, represent a
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A. Reserve tank
Current corrying B. Operating rod
High pressure gas C. High pressure reservour
D. Blast valve
Insulating material
E. Blast tubes
F. Contacts
new conception in circuit breaking but simple employs a new arc extinguishing medium namely
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas.
The success of the circuit breaker depends solely on the high arc interruption performance of
this gas i.e. when it is broken down under electrical stress, it will very quickly reconstitute
itself, it is five times heavier than air and has approximately twice the electric strength.
This circuit breaker is completely sealed and operate as a closed system which means
that no flame is emitted during operation and the noise level is considerably reduced.
Vacuum Interrupter : High voltage vacuum contacts is a completely new type of switching
device for frequent switching of alternating current circuits of medium (3.3 to 6.6 KV) voltage,
using vacuum as a dielectric and interrupting medium. The advantage of vacuum as an
interrupting medium is primarily due to its extremely high dielecric strength and outstanding
arc recovery characteristic. This is because, at high vacuum, very few molecules are available
for ionization process and therefore, under vacuum, arc is mainly supported by metal vapour
form the electrodes.
Vacuum power interrupters differ from other types in many respect, but the major
difference lies in the nature of the arc. While in the other interrupting media, the arc exists
through a gaseous ionization process, in vacuum a metal vapour arc carries the currents
between the contacts within the interrupter. All that is required for interruption in vacuum is
the proper contact separation (10-20 mm depending on rating) and a current zero. Current is
interrupted at a current zero because of a lack of the conducting metal vapour and electrois
between the open contacts. Because there are no gaseous contaminants or any producs of
an ionization process present, arc recognition is a satistically rare condition, occurring only
whencontact parting is initiated at about the same time as a current zero is occurring then the
arc will be carried for the next half cycles only.
This perfection in vacuum technology has been achieved after many years of research
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in overcoming the problems, some of them are as under :
• Current chopping tendencies and the resulting high overvoltages.
• Gross melting of contacts and the liability to weld when making or carrying high currents.
• Contamination of the vacuum due to gas produced by the action of the arc on contact
metals with high gas content.
• Deterioration of the insulation due to condensing metal vapour on the inner surfaces of the
insulating container.
The solutions to these problems have required many years of work on such matters as :
• The geometry of the contact to ensure that the arc test rotates over a large area and thus
prevents gross melting.
• The processing techniques including de-gasing of contact materials and the surface cleanliness
of components within the envelope.
• Most fundamentally, on contact metallurgy to produce new materials of low gas content,
good antiweld properties and low current-chopping probabilities.
• Selection of enveloped materials capable of withstanding high processing temperatures and
the protection of the inner insulation by shielding.
• Long life vacuum seals.
Vacuum bottles with ratings upto 40 KV at 12 KV and 31.5 KV are available at present.
It is recognized that for same MVA rating vacuum interrupter has more number of breaker per
pole than SF6 or ABCB. In view of this the use of vacuum switchgear is restricted at present
to medium voltage.
For 3.3 KV & 6.6 KV motors at present minimum oil/air-break circuit breakers are being
used in Power/Steel/ Cement plants. Because of inherent advantage of minimal maintenance
and suitable for inching duty, vacuum contactors will be ideal for these applications. Vacuum
contactors are also now being extensively used in L.T. & H.T. flame proof control-gears in
collieries. The compactness of vacuum contactors will help in reducting the size of flame proof
enclosure and thereby other costs.
Vacuum Circuit Breakers : Vacuum bottles used as contactors are similar to those used for
circuit breakers exept that the latter has higher short time ratings. Vacuum contactors with
ratings of 600 A continuous at 6.6 KV and maximum occasional chopping current as low as
0.75 A are now available.
The vacuum contactor basically consists of three numbers of vacuum switches and a
solenoid operating mechanism. This consists of glass or ceramic envelope containing a pair of
contacts made out of special alloy.
The fixed contact stem is brazed to the top flange whereas the moving contact stem is
connected to the bottom flange with stainless steel bellows which provide necessary seal
against atmosphere in addition to the movement of the moving contact.
The entire switch is sealed at a pressure of 10-7 mm Hg or less after special processing
to degas copper contacts and other parts. In order to prevent metal vapour formed during the
arcing from reaching the envelope and to reduce the breakdown voltage level between contacts,
a sputter shield is provided to collect these particules. Getter is provided inside the switch to
absorb gas molecules which may remain inside the switch after evacuation or which come out
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of the contacts. A properly processed switch will have a shelf life of more than 20 years. The
operating mechanism is mounted inside a rigid steel frame assembly. All live parts are insultated
generally by epoxy resin components. Vacuum switch has a natural tendency to close its
contacts due to differential atmospheric pressure, acting on metal bellows. This tendency is
overcome by means of two springs which act against atmospheric pressure. The armature is
closed elecromagnetically. This compresses two reaction springs and allows contacts to close
with an adequate pressure and be held in this position. This is called electrically held type
contactor. In case where operating interval is not so frequent, mechanical latching device is
provided. In this design, the armature is held in close position by means of a shunt trip coil.
This design economizes operating power of the coil, in addition to the contactor remaining
closed during momentary supply failure.
Advantages Vacuum Interrupters/ Circuit Breakers

This simple but most efficient method of power interruption in vacuum, brings forth a
multitude of advantages which are brought out. More important ones are discussed in details
as under :
1. The main contacts of the power circuit beaker are in a sealed vacuum environment
which :
• Ensure that external contamination will not affect the interrupting process.
• There will be no ionized gas produced during an interruption.
2. If vacuum interrupter fails on loss of vacuum the back up breaker will clear the circuit
before the arc will escape the interrupter; which is before any damage is done to the
breaker or cubicle.
With air medium if the breaker fails to clear, the breaker and the cubicile will most likely be
destroyed.
3. Maximum Operation Safety :
In the vacuum interrupter, the arc interruption takes place usually at the first current
zero. The high di-electric strength of a small vacuum gap speeds up arc interruption
accounting for the extremely low clearing time.
Thus, fast interruption and dielectric recovery provide maximum equipment protection.
4. The arc and its by products are contained in a sealed vacuum enclosure which isolates
contact form dirt, and humidity damage.
5. Short contact travel permits a simple and reliable mechanism design and better performance.
6. Minimum Maintenance :
• The use of vacuum circuit breaker permits reduction of maintenance work performed by
skilled labour because :
• Only periodic cleaning, lubricating of mechanism is required No. maintenance of interrupter
is required excepting an occasional wipe spring adjustment.
7. Long life:
• Low contact arc erosion offers exceptionally long switching and interrupting life without
maintenance (at least 30 operations at full breaking capacity, against less than 10 for
air medium circuit breakers).
• High level of vacuum (better than 10-5 mm of Hg) permits greater number of operations
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without maintenance (10,000 electrical operations and 40,000 mechanical operations
without part replacement).
• No need to inspect or change contact during life of the interrupter, nor is there any
insulating medium to filter or replace. A simple contact wear indicator inspection is all
that is required, together with an occasional high potential test of the interrupter, and
a vaccum check is absolutely required.
• Test experience shows electrical life of vacuuminterrupters is more than that required
by the IEC standards which means it is unlikely that an interrupter will ever wearout in
service.
• In a properly processed vacuum interrupter loss of vacuum situation is not likely to
arise. It has become customary to guarantee 20 years of life for vacuum interruptes by
leading manufacturers.
CONTROL CIRCUIT FOR CIRCUIT BREAKERS : This represents a typical scheme of a circuit
Breaker, including monitoring relays. Any inter Locking contacts coming for the breaker closing
or Tripping are not shown here.
The control supply utilized is ever reliable D.C. normally 220 V.D.C. A close position
relay (C.P.R.) monitors the trip coil of the breaker in addition to the close position of the
breaker. A trip position relay (T.P.R.) is also installed. This is sometime made to monitor the
closing coil of the breakers.
Interlocks for Circuit Breakers : Interlocks requirement is different for different Breakers. In
case of 220KV breakers, installed as the main switchgear in a generator feeder, main interlocks
required are :
(i) Breaker should not close until permissive. From the check synchronizing relay is available
to ensure that the Generator is connected to the end after proper synchronization.
(ii) Breaker should not close unless contacts of Master Trip Relay (MTR) are reset to avoid a
spurious tripping.
(iii) Breaker should not close if field breaker is not closed, to avoid motoring of the generator.
Main interlocks requirement of 6.6 KV and 415 V switchgear system normally are :
(i) The reserve incoming supply breaker of a particular bus should close if the main incoming
supply breakers is tripped i.e. C (Ref Fig. 6.13) should close if B trips, to make sure that
the bus remains energies.
(ii) L.V. side breaker of the transformers should not close unless H.V. side breaker is closed
to avoid magnetizing of the transformer from L.V. side (so as to prevent switching surge
on L.V. winding), B cannot be closed if A is not closed.
✦✦✦
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SWITCHYARD BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS
There are numerous schemes of bus-bar arrangements. The choice of a particular

arrangement depends on various factors viz. System voltage, position of the sub-station in
the system, flexibility, reliability of supply and cost. In addition, the following technical
considerations must be borne in mind while deciding upon any particular arrangement:
(1) Arrangement should be as simple as possible.
(2) Maintenance should be easy without interruption of supply or danger to the operating
personnel.
(3) Alternative arrangements should be available in the event of an outage on any of the
apparatus.
(4) The layout should not hinder expansion and/or augmentation as the load grows.
(5) The installation should be as economical as possible, keeping in view the requirements
and continuity of supply.
SINGLE BUS BAR :

The arrangement is shown below. This is the simplest and cheapest.
The arrangement, however, suffers from following defects :
(a) Maintenance without interruption of supply is not possible.
(b) Extension of the sub-station without a shutdown is not possible.
(c) Any fault on the bus results into total interruption of supply.
SINGLE BUS BAR
The scheme, therefore, is not very popular for 33 KV and above, except where the
relative importance of the substation is less, or the position of the sub-station does not justify
elaborate schemes.
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SINGLE BUS BAR WITH BUS SECTIONALIZER :
Because of cheapness and simplicity single bus bar is adopted with sectionalizing
arrangement as shown below. In this arrangement each section behaves as a separate bus
bar. Any outage can be confined to one section of the bus bar. In order to realize full advantage
of the system, the incoming/outgoing feeders are evenly distributed on the two sections.
For bus sectionalizing, use of an isolator does not fulfil the purpose, since the isolator
will have to be operated “off-load” which creates a problem. For fuller benefits a circuit
breaker should be used. The bus section breaker and the two incoming breakers are so
interlocked that only two breakers can be closed at a time. Normally each section continues to
cater its load. If the incoming circuit on any section has to be taken out the sectionalizer
breaker can be closed and supply restored to the outgoing circuit of this section. It is an
important advantage of sectionalizing that circuit breakers of lower breaking capacity may be
used by running normally with sections electrically segregated.
MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS BAR :
This is only an improvement to single bus bar system. The scheme is shown below :
In this scheme, one reserve bus of lower capacity is provided. The system is connected
to the main bus only. Whenever maintenance is considered necessary, the concerned circuit is
transferred to the transfer or reserve bus with the help of coupler. The scheme, therefore,
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provides facility for maintenance of the breakers but not of bus bar. It may be noted that the
protection scheme of the circuit transferred to reserve bus, gets transferred to the coupler
breaker, during the period of maintenance.
DOUBLE BUS BAR :

In the more important station, the use of duplicate bus bar is almost universal. The
system is shown below.
Usually one set of bars is designated as “Main” and the other as “Reserve” or “Hospital”.
This infers that necessary loads may be fed from the “Reserve” bus also.
For obtaining full advantage of the system the coupler circuit must have a breaker to
enable ‘on load’ transfer of power’
DOUBLE BREAKER SCHEME :

The double bus bar scheme dicussed above serves most of the purposes. If, however,
does not permit breaker or isolator maintenance without an outage. A simple but very expensive
way of overcoming this disadvantage is the use of double breaker scheme as shown below:
While this arrangement does provide facility both for breaker/isolator and bus
maintanance, it is seldom used because of abnormal costs.
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BREAKER AND A HALF SCHEME :
This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect saving in the number of
circuit breakers as shown below. For every two circuits only one spare breaker is provided.
The protection is however, complicated since it must associate the central breaker with the
feeder whose own breaker is taken out for maintenance. This scheme is also seldom used
because of abnormal costs.
BREAKER AND A HALF SCHEME :

This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect saving in the number of
circuit breakers as shown below. Foe every two circuits, only one spare breaker is provided.
The protection however is complicated, since it must associate the central breaker with the
feeder whose own breaker is taken out for maintenance. This scheme is also seldom used
because of abnormal costs.
DOUBLE BUS BARS WITH BYPASS ISOLATION :

The scheme is shown below:
This is an amalgamation of the double bus and main and transfer bus schemes. Either of
the bus bars can act as the main bus and the second bus can be used as the transfer bus. The
scheme provides facility both for breaker and bus maintenance. The scheme is considered
best both from simplicity and economy point of view since the facility for maintenance of
breaker is achieved just by addition of extra isolator.
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In case double bus system is designed to have only one bus charged normally, the
above scheme could be represented as under :
DOUBLE BUS WITH TRANSFER BUS :

For very important sub-stations, mostly near large power stations where load demanded
is high and flexibility is considered more necessary. This arrangement is adopted which makes
use of double bus system with a transfer bus. In this for two main buses, one reserve bus is
available thus providing facility both for breaker and bus maintenance.
The scheme is shown below :
Figure shows a typical single line diagram of a Thermal Power Station or Sub-Station
switchyard.
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Here we are having a double bus system with a provision of a by-pass bus, we can see
there are 4 isolators in 220 KV circuit breaker, 4 nos. 6.6 KV Bus, numerous other breakers and
isolators and various 415 volts buses having 415V circuit breaker and load breake switches
etc. we have already stadied about the switchgear related to :
(i) 220 KV
(ii) 6.6 KV
(iii) 415 KV
In other system we may have to deal with four levels of supply and associated switch gears.
That will be 400 KV, 11 KV, 3.3 KV & 4.5 Volts.
✦✦✦
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TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Power Transformer is one of the most important equipment in a power transmission
and distribution system. Being static equipment, the design and construction is relatively
simple, which makes the transformer a highly reliable piece of equipment. Providing adequate
protections, besides proper maintenance can further enhance the reliability while in service.
The choice of protection is influenced by several factors, the important ones being.
i) Size and rating of the transformer
ii) Vector configuration
iii) Source and Neutral Earthing
iv) Type of transformer (2 winding / 3 winding Auto Transformer, Rectifier Transformer etc.)
v) Infeed conditions (radial, parallel, interconnecting ).
vi) OL TC Range
2.0 NATURE AND EFFECT OF TRANSFORMER FAULTS

The nature of faults against which the transformer is to be protected, can be broadly
classified as :
2.1 External Faults :

There are short circuits or earth faults on the supply net work outside the transformer.
The infeeds through the transformer may be high, if the faults are electrically close and the
leakage reactance of the transformer is low, the excessive fault current may cause enormous
electromechanical forces causing displacement, damage to the winding and overheating / hot
spot generation inside the transformer.
2.2 Internal Faults :

Primary protection of transformers is intended to protect the transformer against internal
faults associated with the windings and connections. Internal faults can be classified as:
a. Short circuits, Inter turn faults, earth faults duo to Insulation deterioration
b. Incipient faults
c. Regulation faults
a. Short Circuits, Inter turn faults, earth faults :

These faults are of serious nature causing immediate damage, but are generally
detectable due to unbalance /over shooting of current at the transformer terminals.
b. Incipient Faults :
These are initially minor faults causing slowly developing damage. These are not
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detectable at winding terminals in the absence of any unbalance in current or voltage. Incipient
faults Include
i) Limited arcing in the oil, say due to failure of interlamination or core bolt insulation or
accidental damage or poor electrical connection causing hot spots in windings /
connections.
ii) Cooling system failure: This may be due to low oil content clogged oil flow due to sludge
formation, failure of oil pump or fans or blocking of radiator valves
c. Regulator faults :
These include faults associated with the tap changer / tap change controls. Operation
on unequal taps for parallel transformers may cause overheating due to circulating currents.
2.3 Abnormal Operating Conditions :

The abnormal operating conditions include overloads and over excitation of transformers.
3.0 ROTECTION AGAINST EXTERNAL FAULTS :

Fuses often protect small distribution transformers with no control breakers. The fuse
ratings are chosen well above the maximum loads and should be adequate to over ride any
transient over current conditions such as magnetizing in rush or DOL starting of a motor feeder.
While a fuse can provide adequate protection against short circuits, it cannot provide
effective protection against earth faults, in view of possible low infeeds.
For larger transformers, controlled by circuit breakers, IDMT overcurrent relays are
more commonly used as phase and earth fault backups. The overcurrent relay provides a two-
fold advantage.
i) It avoids delay at lower amplitudes of fault currents as would happen in case of fuses.
ii) It provides a sensitive earth fault protection largely independent of the full load rating
of the transformer.
The IDMT overcurrent relays are often supplemented by highest instantaneous

overcurrent elements on the primary side of the transformers. The highest elements are set
over and above the maximum through fault current and are primarily intended to ensure
high-speed clearance of terminal short circuits on the primary side.
The choice of over current / earth fault backup is greatly influenced by the vector
configuration, type of earthing and infeed conditions. Some of the typical applications are
discussed below.
3.1 Delta /Star Transformers (Delta winding connected to Grounded Source)

The delta winding provides zero sequence isolation between the star winding and the
source. Consequently, a residually connected earthfault relay on the delta side will not respond
to earthfaults on the star side and hence its operation remains restricted to earth faults in the
delta winding. A sensitive instantaneous earth fault relay (in high impedance mode) can
therefore be provided on the delta side without requiring any time co-ordination with the star
side backup protection. This will be evident from the current distribution shown in fig. 3.1 a.
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Fig. 3.1 (a)
In case of a delta / star transformer, a phase to phase faults on the star side produces
2:1:1 current distribution on the delta side. It is therefore, advantageous to provide 3-0/C
elements on delta side (as against 2 elements) to enable faster clearance, through the phase
element sensing highest current in backup mode.
Fig. 3.1 b) below shows the current distribution for phase to phase fault on star side
to illustrate the above.
Fig. 3.1 (b)
3.2 Star / Star Transformers :

Star / Star transformers with grounded neutrals exchange zero sequence current
between primary and secondary. The earthfault backup is therefore usually IDMT type, time
co-ordinated with the downstream protections.
Star/Star transformers with grounded neutrals have a comparatively low zero sequence
impedance, particularly when these are provided with a delta connected tertiary. Even without
a delta tertiary winding the zero sequence impedance of the primary winding is significantly
low due to the tank effect. Consequently, the primary winding serves as a zero sequence
shunt-bypassing substantial zero sequence current, in the event of an upstream earth faults
causing non-selective tripping. It is therefore, preferable to provide a directional earth fault
protection looking into the transformer on the primary side, to circumvent the above problem.
In case the transformer is having infeeds on both sides (say grid supply on the primary and
captive generation on the secondary), It would be desirable to have directional earth fault
relays on both primary and secondary side, Fig. 3.1 c) below shows the zero sequence shunting
effect of a star/star/delta transformer.
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Fig. 3.1 (c)
Since an upstream earth fault causes a current outflow from the transformer, a directional
earthfault relay (67N) looking into the transformer would not respond for such faults and
enable better co-ordination. The overcurrent relays (phase CT connected - not shown in the
figure) will also face a similar situation. However, since they have a comparatively high setting
(above full load) and see only 1/3rd current compared to earth fault relay, the problem is less
pronounced. Over current relays need not therefore, be directional. In case of interconnecting
transformers with infeeds on both sides, it is advantageous to go for directional overcurrent
and earth fault relays on either side, to minimize grading problems.
3.3 The IDMT over current relays are often supplemented by highset instantaneous over
current elements on the primary side, mainly to provide high speed clearance of severe terminals
short circuits, overriding the IDMT elements. The highset elements should be set over and
above the through fault current on secondary side and should preferably have low transient
overreach to enable closer setting, in the presence of offset fault current.
4.0 PROTECTIONS AGAINST INTERNAL FAULTS :

A high-speed unit type of protection such as differential /restricted earth fault protection
is applied as a primary protection against internal faults.
4.1 Differential Protection :

This is a complete phase and earth fault protection operating on Merz Price circulating
currant principle.
The differential relay compares the currents on the primary and secondary side of the
transformer using C,Ts of matched ratio, such that the secondary currents are balanced in
magnitude and phase for an external fault or load.
While magnitude balance is achieved by a proper selection of CT ratio on primary and
secondary side or by using interposing current transformers (ICTs). phase balance is achieved
by appropriate vector connections of the associated CT / ICTs (for example star side CTs are
connected in delta and vice versa ), Though theoretically it looks easier to achieve an amplitude
and phasor balance, there are certain practical problems. These are discussed below as also
the measures adopted to circumvent these problems in a practical differential scheme,
414
4.1.1 Mismatch produced by On Load Tap Changer (OL TC) :
On load tap changer, where provided, introduces a mismatch since it changes the
turns ratio and consequently the current ratios of transformer. The CT ratio are normally
matched for the mean ratio, corresponding to center tap of the transformer. Any deviation
from the mid tap, therefore, produces an unbalance proportional to the ratio change and
hence a differential current on load. The differential current will, however, be more pronounced
on through fault and will not permit a sensitive selling to be adopted on the differential relay.
In practical differential protection for transformers, this problem is over come by providing
through current bias (or restraint). The bias, modifies the differential pickup and pegs It
above the maximum expected differential current in the face of ratio mismatch produced by
the tap changer and C. T. errors, thereby ensuring stability on through faults. A typical bias
characteristic is shown in fig. 4.1.1 a below :
Fig 4 1.1 a Typical Bias Characteristic
A practical biased differential scheme showing C.T. connections is illustrated in

fig. 4.1.1 b) below for a delta / star (Dy 11) transformer.
Following work out illustrates the choice of matching CTs/lCTs for a delta / star
transformer,
Transformers rating - 10 MVA, 66/33 KV, Dy11
Transtormer F. L. current :
66KV side : IFL = (10x 106)/(31/2x66x103) = 87.5A
33 KV side : IFL = (10x 106)/(31/2x33x103) = 175A
415
Fig. 4.1.1 (b) Typical
C.T. Connections for
Blased Differential
Protection
Equivalent secondary FL current, considering a matching CT ratio of 100/1A for 66 KV

CTs and 200/1A for 33 KV CTs :
IFL ( Sec ) = 87.5/100 = 0.875 A ( 66 KV side)
IF L ( Sec ) = 175 I 200 = 0.875 A ( 33 KV side)
Since the transformer is of Dy11 vector configuration, the 33 KV line current will be
leading the 66KV side line currents by 30°. To achieve phasor balance, the 33KV side C.T.
secondary current will have to be phase retarded by 30° by connecting the interposing current
transformers in star / delta ( Yd1 ) configuration as shown. The ICT ratio can be worked out as
follows.
ICT primary current (corresponding of F.L. condition) = 0.875A
Line current on ICT secondary side to match in amplitude with the 66KV side CT
secondary current of 0.875A.
The ICT secondary current corresponding to the above line current :: 0.875 I ../3 A
Hence, ICT ratio = 0.875 = 1.0 /1.0 31/2 A

0.875/31/2
= 1.0/0.58 Amps
Alternatively, a CT ratio of 200/0.58 Amps can be selected on 33 side and the 33 KV

CTs can he directly connected in delta to achieve both amplitude and phase without necessitating
ICTs.
4.1.2 Magnatising Inrush Current :

When the primary side of a transformer is switched on the supply with its secondary
unloaded, it acts as a simple inductive reactor. The value of the voltage at the instant of
switching can be any where between zero and the peak value.
416
(a) Switching at Peak voltage with core initially damagnetized
At voltage maximum, the steady state value of the flux and hence the magnetizing
current is zero. Hence the flux wave immediately assumes the normal shape for an inductive
circuit with both the core flux and magnetising current rising from zero.
(b) Switching at Zero voltage with core initially damagnetized
Initial value of the flux in the core is zero as against the steady state value of φm
corresponding to voltage zero. Since the total steady state flux change during voltage half
cycle is 2 φm (i.e.- φm to + φm) the flux rises from zero to 2φm. This is known as the
doubling effect.
Modern transformers operate at very low saturation level (around 1.1times the working
flux level). The flux doubling, therefore, causes extreme saturation of the core and the
transformer consequently draws heavy magnetising current from the supply source. While
the normal steady state magnetising current may be less than 5% of full load current, the
417
transient core saturation may raise it to several times the normal load current. The situation
is even worse if there is remnant flux in the core, which happens to be in the direction in
which the first peak occurs.
Since the inrush current flows only in the primary winding it appears as an operating
current to the differential relay, producing instability. The immunity to inrush current can be
obtained either by delaying the protection or by providing a harmonic restraint.
a) Time delay :
Since the magnetising inrush is a transient phenomenon, a small time delay can be
provided in the differential relay to override the same and ensure stability.
Induction disc relays with an adjustable delay provided by the disc movement, is one
of the earlier designs of biased differential protection.
b) Harmonic Restraint :
Time delay associated with the differential relay as explained before, would make the
protection slower in operation and increase the fault damage. Modern high-speed differential
relay, therefore employ a different approach to this problem.
The inrush current is highly distorted and contains a fairly high proportion of 2nd
harmonic component. Typical analysis of an Inrush current wave shows following harmonic
contents.
Harmonic Component % of Fundamental
Fundamental 100
2nd 63
3rd 27
4th 5
5th 4
The proportion of 2nd harmonic generally varies between 30-60 % of the fundamental
and is unique to the inrush current. This component is filtered from the operating circuit and
is used to restrain the protection the same way as through current bias. The harmonic restraint
is so proportioned that 15% of 2nd harmonic current will just balance the operating current of
100% of fundamental frequency denomination.
While through current bias and 2nd harmonic bias ( restraint) is an essential feature of
a modern high speed differential protection, following additional features are incorporated to
enhance stability and maintain operating speed.
i) 5th Harmonic bypass or restraint :

This feature is provided to immunize the protection against over excited operation of
the transformer, The magnetising current of an over excited transformer contains substantial
proportion of 5th harmonic component. This component is filtered from the operating
(differential) current and either bypassed or used to restrain the protection the same way as
2nd harmonic restraint.
418
ii) Unrestrained Differential Highset :
The harmonic restraint may slow down the protection, on severe internal fault, if the
associated CTs suffer transient saturation and produce a high degree of harmonic distortion.
To ensure high speed operation under the above condition an unrestrained differential highest
with high pick up threshold (usually 8-10 times) is incorporated in the differential relay.
A typical circuit of a high speed, harmonic restraint biased differential relay is shown in
fig. 4.1.2. a) below :
Through current bias Diode bridge

comparator
Fig. 4.1.2 (a) Typical Harmonic Restrained Biased Differential Relay
There are alternative designs, which do not use harmonic bias (restraint) to achieve
immunity against magnetising inrush or over excited operation of the transformer. One such
design distinguishes between the above conditions and an internal fault by verifying the zero
periods in the differential current waveform over a cycle. The magnetizing current waveform
during switching inrush or over excited condition has substantial zero periods (in excess of ¼
cycle over one cycle period), unlike in the case of an internal fault. This method enables high
speed of operation for internal fault in the absence of any harmonic restraint.
Numerical versions of differential protections are also now available which use suitable
algorithm for measurement. The ratio and phase angle correction is a software function in
these relays which eliminate the need for matched CTs/lCTs. The numerical versions are
usually multifunction and provide additional protection elements (such as REF / overfluxing
etc.). Besides, several diagnostic non -protection functions such as event logging, fault
recording, instrumentation & continuous self monitoring are provided.
4.2 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection :

This is a circulating current earth fault differential system, usually applied to the star
windinng of a transformer, by balancing the residual current of the three line current
419
transformers with the output current of a CT in the neutral earth connection. The protetlion
arrangement is shown in fig. 4.2 a) below.
Transformer
Source
64 - REF Relay
RST - Stabilizing Resistor
Fig. 4.2 (a) Typical REF C. T. Connections
For an external earth fault, the associated phase and neutral C. T, see same fault
current (IF) but of different polarity. While the phase C, T. sees an outflow of current, the
neutral C.T, sees an inflow with respect to the transformer. The phase and neutral C. T.,
therefore, form a series connection between them with no differential current through the
relay, if the C.Ts are assumed to be ideal with no errors. For an internal fault, either the
neutral C.T. alone sees the fault current (for radial feeding transformer) or both the neutral
and phase C.T see an inflow because of infeed reversal through the latter (in case of parallel
transformers). This produces a differential current through the relay corresponding to the
summated infeeds at the fault point, there by causing operation.
In practice, however, the associated C.T.s may experience unequal saturation say due
to the remnant flux in the core or dissimilarities in their magnetizing characteristics, particularly
when the through fault current has large D.C offsets with slow decay rate. The worst condition
would occur when one C. T. completely saturates while the other remains fully active during a
severe external fault.
The REF protection is invariably high impedance and is calibrated either in terms of
voltage or current. In case of voltage relay, a setting voltage above to “Vs” can be set. In case
of current operated relay, a series stabilizing resistance is added to make the relay branch
high impedance such that the current through the relay will not exceed its current setting
(Is). The external stabilizing resistor value can be worked out.
Protection against Incipient Faults :

One or the commonly used protection against incipient (developing) faults is Buchholz
relay. The relay has two floats actuating mercury switches and is placed in the pipe connecting
the transformer tank to the conservator.
A slow generation of gas due to a minor fault causes a stream of bubbles which pass
towards the conservator and in the process get trapped into the Buchholz chamber lowering
its oil level. Consequently the Alarm float lowers down actuating the mercury switch giving an
alarm.
420
A heavy internal fault gives rise to an explosive generation of gas causing a surge
travelling towards the conservator. The surge impinges on the lower (trip) float, tilting the
mercury switch and closing the trip contact.
While mounting the relay, care should be taken to ensure that the arrow on its case
should point to the conservator and the connecting pipe should have an upward slant of
about 5°.
Besides Buchholz relay, temperatures monitoring devices such as oil and winding
temperature indicators are provided for transformers. These can also give fairly good indication
of an incipient failure such as generation of hot spot. failure of cooling system etc.
The winding temperature is measured by thermal image technique. In this technique
a temperature sensing device (usually a silistor - silicon resister) is placed in the transformer
oil at the top of the transformer tank. The Silistor is encapsulated with a heater element in a
thermal molded material.the latter being fed from the load current, through a bushing C.T.
The combination thus forms a thermal replica of the transformer winding. The silistor is used
as an arm of a resistance bridge supplied from stabilized d.c. supply. An indicating instrument
calibrated in terms of temperature is energized from the out of balance voltage of the bridge.
5.0 PROTECTION AGAINST ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
5.1 Overload Protection :

The winding temperature indicator described under 4.0 above can effectively detect
over loading.
Thermal image overcurrent relays with exponential or i2t time / current characteristics
are also used for protection against overload. This protection detects overload but does not
detect failure of cooling system unlike the temperature indicating devices.
Definite time over current relays are also used to provide pretrip alarm, if the overload
exceeds permissible limit. Such relays are required to have high reset ratio and continuously
adjustable current setting to match permissible overload rating of the transformer.
5.2 Overfluxlng Protections :

Increase in input voltage causes increase in working flux levels, thereby increasing the
iron losses and magnetising current. The core and core bolt get heated and the inter-lamination
insulation and core bolt insulation is weakened. The reduction in supply frequency also increases
the core flux and has similar effect as that due to over voltage.
The generator transformers are more prone for overfluxing as these may be subjected
to an uncomfortable combination of over voltage and under frequency during start up or
coasting down due to AVR / Governor malfunctioning.
The expression for induced voltage in a transformer is given by
V α φ*f*T
Where φ is core flux
f is frequency
T is number of turns (constant)
Thus φ α V/f
421
The ratio of V/f is therefore an index of overfluxing and is used as a measure of
overfluxing level.
V/f relays are therefore, used to detect overfluxing in a transformer. Typical setting
range for the relay is 1.0-1.30 on 110 V/50Hz basis. The overfluxing condition does not
warrant immediate isolation of transformer and hence the relay is provided with adjustable
time delays, which also helps to prevent transient operation due to momentary disturbances.
The practical overfluxing relays are either definite time of inverse time versions with a pretrip
alarm.
ANNEXTURE 1
Typical setting workout for REF / Highset Instantaneous o /c protection.
DATA:
Transformer rating 66/33KV, 10MVA, Dy11, Z1 = 8%,

CT Ratio HV side 100/1A, 5 P10/15VA
LV side 200/1 A , VK = 60 volts, RCT = 2 Ohms.
Im = 30mA at VK/2
66 KV side S.C. Level - 1000 MVA

HV side Highset o/c relay (50) -5 -20A
LV side REF Relay(64) -0.1 - 0.4 A . Burden 1 VA at setting current. Lead Resistance
between C.T. & Relay (2RL) = 1.0.ohm (to & fro)
1.0 REF PROTECTION ON LV SIDE
Max. through fault current ( IF)

Source impedance ( 66KV base) Zs = 662 /1000 = 4.356 Ohms.
Transformer leakage impedance ZT = ZT % /100 X KV2/ MVA
= 8 / 100 X 662 /10 = 34.85 Ohms.
Total Impedance ( Zs + ZT ) = 4.356 + 34.85 = 39.20 Ohms. ( 66KV Base)
= 39.2 x (33/66) 2 = 9.8 Ohms. (33 KV Base)
Max. Through fault current (33KV side) = 33000 / 3 x 9.8 = 1944 A

(66 KV side) = 972A
422
Setting Voltage for REF protection (Vs) = IF /n ( RCT + 2RL )
= 1944 / 200 (2 + 1)
= 29.0 volts. say 30 volts
REF Relay setting adopted (Is) = 0.1A
REF Relay Ohmic burden ( Pr) = (VA)R / (Is)2

= 1.0/(0.1) 2 = 100 Ohms.
Stabilising Resistor ( RST ) = Vs/Is - Rr = [ 30.0/0.10] - 100

= 200 Ohms.
Primary operating current (POC)= n ( Is + N x Im )

Where n = CT Ratio ( 200/1 A )
N = No. of CTs for REF protection ( 4 )
Im = 30 mA at 30 volts ( i.e. at setting voltages)
POC = 200/1 ( 0.1 + 4 x 0.03)= 44 Amps
HIGH SET O/C ELEMENT ON HV SIDE

Max. through fault current referred to HV side
If = 972 A (Primary)
= 972/100 = 9.72 A (Secondary)
H. S. Setting = 1.3 x If = 1.3 x 9.72 = 12.60A

= 13 Amps (Instantaneous)
423
2 - ERUXENNA
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424
ANNEXURE - 3
Typical C.T. Circuits for Combined Differential / REF Protection of a Star / Delta Transformer having
Zigzag Earthing Transfor Delta Side within Diff. / REF Zone
425
✦✦✦
Current Distribution for External s / f shows balance
BOILER PROTECTIONS AND FURNACE SAFEGUARD
AND SUPERVISORY SYSTEM
There are three distinct systems for the Operation and Control of Boiler in 210 MW and
500 MW Boilers. These are
1. Measurement and process control system for the control of Boiler Processes. This system
is provided mainly for measurement and of mechanical properties such as Pressure,
temperature, Flow and level of water and steam. Fuel and Air flow control, Furnace Draft
control, Drum level control, coordinated master pressure control etc are some of the
controls and measurements included in this system,
2. Boiler Interlock system is mainly used for the sequential and interlocking Control of ID
fans, FD Fans and PA Fans and some other equipment of the Boiler.
3. Furnace Safeguard and Supervisory System, popularly called FSSS, continuously monitors
the operations related to fuel admission and some other vital parameters to ensure safety
of the Boiler. Generally furnace oil or any kind of fuel is susceptible to explosion hazards.
Majority of explosions occurs during start up, shout down and low load operations. There
are many steps that must be followed by the operator to admit fuel in to the furnace
safely and properly. If left to the judgement of the operators, there is a high probability
of error. Adequacy of ignition energy is an important factor which should not be left for
to operator interpretation. In high capacity boilers, where fuel input rate is very high,
major furnace explosions can result from the ignition of unburnt fuel accumulated in first
1 or 2 seconds. Human reaction time to such situations is inadequate. Considering these
facts a proper Burner Management System, called FSSS is installed in the Boilers. Every
operation related to fuel admission is accomplished through FSSS. System Logic allows
fuel admission only if it is safe. The system logic also senses any likelihood of dangerous
situation and preempts fuel admission is such situations.
Through FSSS, startup operations, routine operation and withdrawal of the Boiler are
initiated and supervised. Following table shows the Boiler tripping initiated through FSSS.
426
Situation leading to Tripping Reason for tripping
Drum Level Very high To prevent entry of wet steam in to Turbine
Drum Level Very Low To avoid boiler starvation
Furnace Draft very high To safeguard furnace from excessive stresses
Furnace Draft very low To safeguard furnace from excessive stresses
Total Air flow less than 30% To ensure air rich furnace at startup.
Flame failure trip To avoid admission of coal when sufficient ignition energy is
not available.
Loss of fuel trip To ensure readmission of fuel only after furnace is purged.
Loss of all I.D Fans To prevent boiler continuation if there are no means for
driving out the flue gas
Loss of all FD Fans To prevent boiler continuation if there are no means for
supply of combustion air.
Loss of Power supply to FSSS To prevent operation of boiler if safeguard system
Cabinet is not functioning
Manual Trip Push Button pressed For manual tripping for the reasons other than defined
tripping situations.
Loss of Rehaeter protection To prevent boiler operation if there is no steam flow through
(Only for 500 MW Units) Reheater tubes.
✦✦✦
427
PROTECTIONS AND INTERLOCKS OF ID/FD/PA FANS
Purpose of Boiler interlocking circuit is to monitor and control the starting and stopping
operation of ID Fans, FD Fans and PA Fans. These fans should be operated as per the
requirements of process and safety of the fan itself. For ensuring uninterrupted service of the
plant, some of the operational requirements are automated to avoid human errors. These
fans and its dampers / gates are required to be operated by following certain sequences, and
interlocking circuits carry out the sequential operations automatically.
Basic logical requirements for operation of these fans are :

1) When all the Fans are Off, furnace should be put on natural ventilation,
2) A fan should be in service only when process is ready for it,
3) When any one of the ID, FD or PA fan is operating, all other fans of the group should be
isolated from the process,
4) Fans should be started on no load,
5) While starting the fan, its other parameters such as Bearing temperature, Lubricating oil
system etc. is healthy,
6) Fan should be tripped when it is unsafe to operate it.
Considering these requirements, interlock circuits are designed. Accordingly, interlocks are of
two types :
1) Starting Interlocks : These are designed in such a way that an auxiliary can be started
only if it is healthy and also the process is ready for operation of the auxiliary.
2) Tripping Interlocks : These are designed to supervise the vital parameters of the auxiliary
and the process. If the parameters tend to violate the set limits, tripping of auxiliary or
process is automatically executed.
The interlocks are so arranged that only the faulty auxiliary or process trips and
subsequent sequential operations isolate the faulty auxiliary, and healthy part of the plant
continue to remain in operation.
Detailed explanation of Boiler interlock circuits is as follows :

1.0 I.D. FAN INTERLOCKS :
1.1 Conditions existing when the unit is shut down and prior to starting of ID fans.
I.D. Fan ‘A’ and ID Fan ‘B’ off.
Regulating dampers of fans A&B open.
Inlet gates of Fans A & B open.
Outlet gates of fans A & B open.
The regulating dampers will be on manual control during shut down and impulse from
furnace draft control to regulating dampers of ID fans disconnected.
1.2 Starting ID Fan ‘A’ (ID Fan ‘B’ Off)

a. ID Fan ‘A’ shall be prohibited from starting till the following conditions are satisfied.
i. Regulating damper of Fan-A in minimum position.
428
ii. Outlet gate of Fan-A closed.
iii. Inlet gate of Fan-A closed.
iv. Fan/fan motor bearing temperature not very high.
v. One of the air preheaters running.
b. When ID fan ‘A’ is started (ID Fan B is off), impulses shall be give for.
i. Opening the inlet gate and outlet gate of Fan A after the motor reaches the rated
speed.
ii. Connecting the regulating damper of Fan A to the auto control.
iii. Closing the inlet gate and the outlet gate of ID Fan B and bringing the regulating
damper to minimum position.
iv. Permissive is issued to start either FD Fan A or FD Fan B.
1.3 Starting ID Fan B ( ID Fan A is off)

Interlocks similar to those at clause 1.2 shall hold good of this condition.
1.4 Tripping of ID Fan A (ID fan B is off).

a. ID Fan ‘A’ shall trip automatically under following conditions.
i. ID Fan A bearing temperature too high (prior to this, ID Fan A bearing temperature
high shall be annunciated in UCB).
ii. ID Fan A motor bearing temperature too high (prior to this, ID Fan a motor bearing
temperature high shall be annunciated in UCB).
iii. Post purge fan trip (contact from FSSS)
iv. Vibration level of FAN/MOTOR very high.
b. when ID Fan A trips (ID Fan B is off) impulses shall be given for:
i. Opening the outlet gate of ID Fan B.
ii. Opening the inlet gate of ID Fan B.
iii. Opening the regulating damper of ID Fan B to wide-open position.
iv. Disconnecting the regulating impulse from acting on regulating damper of ID Fan A.
v. Opening the regulating damper of ID Fan A to wide-open position.
vi. Tripping the working FD Fans.
vii. Boiler tripping.
viii. To keep the inlet gate and outlet gate of ID Fan A open.
1.5 Starting of ID Fan B (ID Fan A is off) :

Interlocks similar to those at clause 1.4 shall hold good for this condition.
1.6 Starting of ID Fan B (ID Fan A is on) :

a. ID Fan B shall be prohibited from starting unless the following conditions are satisfied.
i. Outlet gate of Fan B is closed.
ii. Inlet gate of Fan B is closed.
iii. Regulating damper of Fan B is at minimum position.
iv. Fan/fan motor bearing temperature not very high.
429
b. When ID Fan B is started, impulses shall be given for.
i. Opening the inlet gate and outlet gate of Fan B after the motor reaches rated
speed.
ii. Connecting the regulating damper of Fan B to auto control.
iii. Permission to start other FD Fan.
1.7 Starting of ID Fan A (ID fan B is on)

Interlocks similar to the clause 1.6 shall hold good for this condition.
1.8 TRIPPING OF ID FAN B (ID Fan A is on)

a. ID Fan B shall trip automatically under the following conditions.
i. Fan bearing temperature too high (prior to this fan bearing temperature high shall
be annunciated in UCB)
ii. Fan motor bearing temperature too high (Prior to this fan motor bearing temperature
high shall be annunciated in UCB)
iii. Vibration level of Fan/motor very bush.
iv. Post purge fan trip (Contact from FSSS0
b. When ID Fan B trips (ID Fan A is on) impulses shall be given for:
i. Disconnecting the regulator from acting on the regulating damper of Fan B.
ii. Bringing the regulating damper of Fan B to the minimum position.
iii. Closing the inlet gate of Fan B.
iv. Closing the outlet gate of Fan B.
v. Tripping the FD Fan B, provided FD Fan A is on.
vi. Energisation of partial load relay.
1.9 Tripping ID Fan a (ID fan B is on)

2.0 FD FAN INTERLOCKS :
2.1 CONDITIONS PRIOR TO STARTING FD FANS :

FD Fan A and FD Fan B off.
Fan impellers tilted to maximum opening.
Outlet dampers are fully open.
Fan impeller regulator disconnected.
Lube oil pumps of FD Fans off.
2.2 STARTING FD FAN A (FD FAN B IS OFF)

a. FD Fan A shall be prohibited from starting untill the following conditions are satisfied.
i. ID Fan A or ID Fan B is on.
ii. Control oil pressure adequate (8 kg/cm2g) (Control oil pressure adequate lamp
indication shall be provided on the control desk.)
iii. Fan A IGV in the minimum position.
iv. Outlet damper of Fan A is closed position.
v. Fan/Motor bearing temperature not very high.
430
b. When FD Fan A is started (FD Fan B off) impulse shall be given for:
i. Outlet damper of Fan A to open after the motor reaches the rated speed.
ii. The outlet damper of FD Fan B to close & impeller blades of Fan B to be driven to
minimum position.
iii. Connecting the impeller of Fan A control drive to auto control.
2.3 STARTING FD FAN B (FD FAN A IS OFF)

Interlocks similar to those at 2.2 shall hold good for this condition.
2.4 TRIPPING OF FD FAN A (FD FAN B IS OFF)

a. FD Fan A shall trip under the following conditions:
i. FD Fan a bearing temperature too high (Prior to this, FD Fan A bearing temperature
high will be annunciated in UCB)
ii. FD Fan A motor bearing temperature too high (prior to this, FD Fan A motor bearing
temperature high will be annunciated in UCB)
iii. Both ID Fans trip.
iv. Post purge fan trip (Contact from FSSS)
NOTE : Oil pressure low shall be annunciated in UCB.
b. When FD Fan A trip (FD Fan B is off) impulses shall be given for:
i. Disconnecting the impeller control drive from the regulator of Fan A.
ii. Bringing the impeller of Fan A to the maximum position.
iii. Bringing the impeller of FD Fan B to the maximum position.
iv. Opening the outlet damper of FD Fan B.
v. To open the emergency scanner air damper.
vi. Boiler tripping.
vii. The outlet damper of FD fan A shall remain open.
2.5 TRIPPING FD FAN B (FD FAN A IS OFF)

Interlocks similar to those of 2.4 shall hold good for this condition.
2.6 STARTING FD FAN B (FD FAN A IS ON)

a. FD Fan B (FD Fan A is on) shall be prohibited from starting untill the following conditions
are satisfied.
i. Both ID Fans are on.
ii. Control oil pressure adequate (8 kg/cm2g) (control oil pressure adequate lamp
indication shall be provided on the control desk).
iii. Impeller of Fan B in the minimum position.
iv. Outlet damper of Fan B in the closed position.
v. Fan/Fan motor bearing temperature not very high.
b. When FD Fan B is started (FD Fan A is on), impulses shall be given for:
i. Opening the outlet damper of Fan B after the fan reaches the rated speed.
ii. Connecting the impeller control drive of Fan B to auto control.
431
2.7 STARTING FD FAN A (FD FAN B IS ON)
2.8 TRIPPING OF FD FAN B (FD FAN A IS ON)

a. FD Fan B shall trip when FD Fan A is on under the following conditions.
i. ID Fan B trips.
ii. FD Fan B motor bearing temperature too high (prior to this, FD fan B motor bearing
temperature high shall be annunciated in UCB.
iii. FD Fan B motor bearing temperature too high (Prior to this, FD Fan B bearing
temperature high shall be annunciated in UCB).
iv. Vibration level of Fan/Motor very high.
NOTE : Oil pressure low shall be annunciated at UCB.
b. When FD Fan B trips (FD Fan A is on), impulses shall be given for:
i. Disconnecting regulator impulse from acting on impeller control drive of Fan B.
ii. Bringing impeller of Fan B to the minimum position.
iii. Closing the outlet damper of Fan B.
iv. Energisation of partial load relay.
v. Tripping mills working more than three through FSSS.
2.9 TRIPPING OF FD FAN A (FD FAN B IS ON)

3.0 P.A. FANS INTERLOCKS :

3.1 Conditions prior to start :
FA Fan A and PS Fan B off.
Outlet dampers of Fan A and Fan B close.
Regulating damper of Fan A and Fan B is closed position.
Regulating damper regulator disconnected.
3.2 STARTING PA FAN A (PA FAN B OFF) :

a. PA Fan A shall be prohibited from starting until the following conditions are satisfied.
i. Regulating damper of Fan A in the minimum position.
ii. Outlet damper of Fan A in closed position.
iii. Any one FD Fan is on.
iv. Purge complete.
v. PA Fan/fan motor bearing temperature not very high.
vi. PA Fan lub oil pressure adequate.
NOTE : Signal from PA Fan A start PB shall simultaneously go to start PA Fan A and seal
air fan.
b. When PA Fan A is started (PA Fan B is off), impulses shall be given for :
i. Opening the outlet damper of Fan A after the motor vehicles the rated speed.
ii. Connecting the regulating damper of PA Fan B to the minimum position.
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iii. Bringing the regulating damper of PA Fan B to the minimum position.
iv. Closing the outlet damper of PA Fan B.
v. Permission to start any three mills through FSSS.
3.3 STARTING PA FAN B (PA FAN A IS OFF)

Interlocks similar to those 3.2 shall hold good for this condition.
3.4 TRIPPING OF PA FAN A (PA FAN B IS OFF)

a. PA Fan A shall trip (PA Fan B is off) under the following condition:
i. PA Fan A bearing temperature too high (prior to this bearing temperature high
shall be annunciated in UCB)
ii. PA Fan A motor bearing temperature too high. (Prior to this motor bearing
temperature high shall be annunciated in UCB)
iii. Boiler trips.
iv. Vibrator level of Fan/Motor very high.
b. When PA Fan A trips (PA Fan B is off), impulses shall be given for:
i. Disconnecting the regulating damper of Fan A from the auto control.
ii. Bringing the regulating damper of Fan A to minimum position.
iii. Closing the outlet damper of PA Fan A.
iv. Bringing the regulating damper PA Fan B to minimum position.
v. Closing the outlet damper of PA Fan B.
vi. Tripping all the operating mills (done through FSSS)
3.5 TRIPPING OF PA FAN B (PA FAN A IS OFF) :

3.6 STARTING PA FAN B (PA FAN A IS ON) :

a. PA Fan B shall be prohibited from starting unless the following conditions are satisfied.
i. Any one FD Fan is ON.
ii. Regulating damper of Fan B in the minimum position.
iii. Outlet damper of Fan B in closed position.
iv. PA Fan B /Fan motor bearing temperature not very high.
b. When PA Fan B is started (PA Fan A is ON) impulses shall be given for :
i. Opening the outlet damper of PA Fan B after the motor reaches the rated speed.
ii. Connecting the regulating damper of Fan B to the auto controls.
iii. Permission to start three more mills through FSSS.
3.7 STARTING OF PA FAN A (PA FAN A IS ON)

3.8 TRIPPING OF PA FAN A (PA FAN B IS ON)

a. P.A. Fan B shall trip (PA Fan A is on) under the following conditions
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i. PA Fan B bearing temperature too high (prior to this, fan bearing temperature high
shall be annunciated in UCB)
ii. PA Fan B motor bearing temperature too high (Prior to this, fan motor bearing
temperature high shall be annunciated in UCB)
iii. Boiler trip.
iv. Vibration level of Fan / Motor very high.
b. When PA Fan B trips (PA Fan A is ON) impulse shall be given for:
i. Disconnecting the regulating damper of Fan B from the auto control.
ii. Bringing the regulation damper of Fan B to the minimum position.
iii. Closing the outlet damper of fan B.
iv. Energisation of partial load relay.
v. Bringing the regulating damper of PA Fan A to max. safe position.
3.9 TRIPPING OF PA FAN A (PA FAN B IS ON)

3.10 Both the PA Fans shall trip simultaneously when any boiler trip condition is
present (impulse from FSSS)
4.0 AH INTERLOCKS :
4.1 Conditions before start up of AHS :

a. Both AHS are off (both AC motors and DC motors are off)
b. The inlet dampers and the outlet dampers in the gas path, secondary air path, primary
air paths are in full open conditions.
4.2 STARTING AH ‘A’ (AH ‘B’ IS OFF)

a. AH ‘A’ AC motor is started. If the temperature of the bearings is less than 70 Deg.C
b. Whenever AH ‘A’ AC motor trips impulse shall be given for starting AH ‘A’ DC motor
provided the temperature of support/guide bearing of AH ‘A’ is less than 70 Deg. C.
c. Impulse shall be given for closing of the inlet and outlet dampers of AH ‘B’ which is off.
4.3 TRIPPING OF AH ‘A’ (AH ‘B’ IS OFF)

a. AH ‘A’ AC motor/DC motor shall trip manually when the temperature of support/guide
bearing of AH’A’ is very high (i.e. greater than 70 Deg. C). under this condition AH ‘A’ DC
motor shall be prohibit from starting.
b. DC motor shall trip automatically when AH ‘A’ AC motor starts.
NOTE : Trip signal of AH is to be taken from both AC & DC motors trip.
4.4 STARTING OF AH ‘B’ (AH ‘A’ IS OFF):

a. The interlocks said above for AH ‘A’ starting (AH ‘B’ off0 is applicable here.
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4.5 TRIPPING OF AH ‘B’ (AH ‘A’ IS OFF)
a. The interlocks as above for tripping of AH ‘A’ (AH ‘B’ is off) is applicable here.
4.6 BOTH AHS ARE WORKING AND AH A TRIPS AND AH B CONTINUES TO RUN :
The gas inlet damper the secondary air inlet damper and primary air inlet damper of the
tripped AH shall automatically closed. The gas outlet damper, the secondary air outlet
damper and PA outlet damper of the tripped AH need not be closed.
However, if the operator wants to manually close these outlet dampers they can be
closed.
4.7 BOTH AHS ARE WORKING WHEN AH ‘B’ TRIPS & AH ‘A’ CONTINUES TO RUN :
a. The interlocking conditions said above under 4.6 is applicable here.
4.8 ONE AH IS WORKING AND THE OTHER AH IS OFF :

a. If the working Airheater trips, the operator shall try for restarting the AH. If the restarting
is not within 5 minutes, the boiler shall be tripped.
4.9 BOTH AHS ARE TRIPPING :

a. If both AHS ‘A’ and ‘B’ trip the operator may try for restart the Airheaters. If any one of
the AH is not started within 5 minutes the operator shall manually trip the boiler within
5 minutes.
4.10 INTERLOCKS FOR LUBE OIL PUMPS OF SUPPORT BEARING :

(Applicable for Air Heater A and Air Heater B)
2 x 100% lube oil pump have been provided for the support bearing. Any of the two lub
oil pumps can be preselected as main pump and the other as standby. Following interlocks
shall be provided for lub oil pumps.
i. Whenever the temperature of support bearing of air heater A is high (350C), impulse
shall be given to start the main oil pump.
ii. The standby oil pump shall start when the main oil pump fails to start or trips.
iii. The main oil pump / stand by oil pump shall trip when the temperature of the
support bearing falls below a present value (300C)
4.11 INTERLOCKS FOR LUB OIL PUMPS OF GUIDE BEARING :

2X100% lube oil pumps have been provided for guide bearing. Any of the two lub oil
pumps can e preselected as main pumps and other as standby. The interlocks for these
pumps shall be similar to these for support bearing as envisaged in clause 41.0
NOTE : Guide / Support bearing lub oil pumps can be started/stopped manually by push
button provided selector switch is in manual position.
5.0 BLOW DOWN VALVES :

i. When drum water level rises to 120 mm above normal water level, an annunciation,
Drum Level High shall be given in UCB.
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ii. When drum level rises to 25 mm above normal water level, below down valves
BD-8 and BD-9 shall open and this condition shall be annunciated.
iii. Blow down valves shall close automatically when the water level falls down to NWL.
One deinterlock switch, shall be provided for both the valves for manual operation.
iv. Pump A or Pump B can be started/tripped by preassigning the respective push
button on provide on LCB (Local Panel) only when A/M switch is in manual position.
v. FD Fan A shall be prohibited from starting until the control oil pressure is adequate.
6.0 INTERLOCKS FOR FD FAN LUBRICATING/CONTROL OIL SYSTEM :
6.1 FD Fan A lube oil/Control oil system :

a. i. Pump A will start automatically if pump B trips provided A/M switch is in auto
Position.
ii. Pump A will start automatically with a time delay of 0-60 seconds if oil pressure falls
below a set value & the pump B is working provided A/M switch is in auto position.
b. i. Pump B will start automatically if pump A trips/ has not started, provided A/M
switch is in auto position.
ii. Pump B will start automatically with a time delay of 0-60 seconds if lube oil pressure
falls below a set value and the pump A is working provided A/M switch is in auto
position.
6.2 FD FAN B LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM :

Interlocks similar to those at (a0 (b) and (c) above shall hold good for FD Fan B lubricating
oil system.
7.0 FURNACE TEMPERATURE PROBE :

i. Furnace temperature probe can be advanced/retracted using the push buttons
provided in UCB as well as at site (local).
ii. Furnace temperature probe shall be prohibited from being advance further into the
furnace if furnace temperature sensed by it is more than 5400C.
iii. If furnace temperature probe is inside the furnace and the temperature exceeds
5450C it will be retracted back automatically.
8.0 INTERLOCKS FOR P.A. FAN LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM :
8.1 P.A. Fan –A lube oil system :

a. i. Pump A will start automatically if pump B trips provided A/M switch is in auto Position.
ii. Pump A will start automatically with a time delay of 0-60 seconds if lub oil pressure
falls below a set valve and the pump B is working provided automanual switch is in
auto position.
b. i. Pump B will start automatically if pump A trips/has not started provided A/M Switch
is in auto position.
ii. Pump B will start automatically with a time delay of 0-60 second if lube oil pressure
falls below set value and the pump A is working provided A/M is in auto position.
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c. Pump A or pump B can be started/tripped by pressing the respective push button provided
on LCB only when A/M switch is in a manual position.
d. P.A. Fan A shall be prohibited from starting until the lub oil pressure of P.A. Fan A bearing
is adequate.
8.2 P.A. FAN-B LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM :

Interlocks similar to those at 8.1 (a) (b) and (c) above shall hold good for FD Fan B
lubricating oil system.
9.0 MISCELLANEOUS INTERLOCK :
9.1 Interlock and protection for DDI gate with motor operated blowers :
Guillotine Gate with motor operated blower & manual isolation valve for Blower.
i. Gate will close and open according to BHA interlock and protection.
ii. Blower shall be continuously working irrespective of whether the gate is in close or
open position.
iii. The manual isolation valve in the blower line shall always be open.
iv. If the blower trips due to overload, it shall be annunciated.
NOTE : ID Fan outlet gate blower shall be started when any one of the ID Fan is started.
9.1.1 Interlocks for guillotine Gate without blowers but with manual isolation valve are
as per BHA interlock and protection requirement.
Note : 1. The blower motor for I.D. Fan outlet gate shall be started simultaneously with I.D.
Fan.
2. The blower motor for Hot Air shut off gate shall be started simultaneously with P.A.
Fan.
9.2 Interlocks for motor operated valves with Bypass valves :

i. First open the bypass valve fully.
ii. After bypass valve is fully opened, open the main valve.
iii. After main valve is fully opened, by pass valve may or may not be closed.
iv. Main valve can be closed whenever required. The bypass valve, if not already
closed, can also be closed.
✦✦✦
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GENERTOR PROTOCTION AND COMMISSIONING TEST
The modern generators are associated with generator transformer, unit auxiliaries
transformer, excitation system and diverse type of faults and for immediate isolation of faulty
equipment protective relays are provided. Hence the protection of generators involves the
consideration of more possible abnormal operating conditions than the protection of any other
system element.
Followings are the protections provided to 210 MW generator and its associated
auxiliaries.
A) Generator protection
1. Generator differential protection C.T.
2. Gen. Stator earth fault protection bus duct C.T.
3. Gen. Intertern protection CB CT neutralaguide.
4. Gen. Negative phase sequence protection –C.T. bus duct.
5. Gen. Overload protection C.T. in bus duct.
6. Gen. Over voltage protection – voltage P.T.
7. Gen. Field failure protection (CT and PT bus duct)
8. Gen. Minimum inpedance back-up protection (CT&PT) bus duct.
9. Gen. Reverse power protection – C.T. & PT (LV side)
10. Gen. Low forward power protection –CT&PT (LV side)
11. Local breaker back-up protection - HV side CT
12. Gen. Rotor earth fault protection
13. Gen under frequency protection – voltage relay.
14. Gen. Over frequency protection - voltage relay.
B) Generator transformer protection

1. G.T. overall differential protection.
2. G.T. overfluxing protection –V/f = voltage relay bus duct LV & GT
3. G.T. restricted earth fault protection –HV side CT
4. G.T. back-up over current protection – HV side.
C) Unit auxiliary transformer protection

1. UAT differential protection.
2. UAT back-up overcurrent protection.
3. UAT earth fault only annunciation.
The problem of generator protection may be divided into a number of parts, each of
which is discussed under its own heading.
1) Faults involving stator Winding (Protection of Stator)

A) Phase to phase short circuit.
B) Phase to Ground short circuit.
C) Short circuits between turns.
D) Open circuits in stator winding.
E) Overheating of the stator.
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2) Faults involving Gen. Rotors (Protection of rotor)
A) Short circuit in rotor Windings.
B) Open circuit in Rotor winding.
C) Grounds on the Filed circuit.
D) Over-heating.
3) Others
A) Motoring
B) Loss of Field or Weak filed.
C) Out of Step operating.
D) Over voltage.
E) Over speed.
F) Single phase operation.
G) Vibration.
H) Failure of the cooling system.
I) Failure of the Bearing Insulation.
J) Fire.
4) Back-up protections :
I. PROTECTION OF STATOR : (a) FAULTS IN STATOR WINDINGS :
Faults involving stator winding may be classified as phase to Phase short circuits, phase
to ground short circuits, short circuits between turns, and open circuits in windings.
Over-voltage, Reduced dielectric strength, or a combination of both may cause stator

winding insulation failure. Switching transients, lighting may cause over-voltage, or a
combination of over-speed and sudden loss of load . Reduced dielectric strength results:
from aging, backing of the insulation, accumulation of dirt, corona, moisture, rough
treatment, or foreign material boring into the insulation. If a failure of the winding
insulation can be cleared before the laminations are damaged, repairs can be confined
to the replacement of the damaged coils, but if iron is seriously burned, partial or complete
restacking of the lamination is required. Winding faults should be cleared before there is
in opportunity for general fire to develop in the stator assembly. In general differential
protection is recommended for a.c. generator.
A) Phase to phase short circuits : Differentially connected current relays are used to
protect individually each phase winding of a generator Current Differentia Relays may
be plain over current relays with or without time delay Or they may be of the % type
with either linear or Variable restraint. To permit maximum sensitivity for differential
relays, identical current transformer should be used at both ends of each phase, but
even when this is done, the sensitivity of plain over-current relay is limited in order to
prevent false tripping on heavy through faults. For a number of years percentage
differential relays with liner restrain have been used generally. Most of these relays pick-
up when the differential current in the secondary circuit exceeds 0.1 amp. without restrain
and operate. on a 10% slope. The time delay for appreciable amounts of fault current is
on the order of from three to five c/s on a 50 Hz Basis . Where identical CT’s cannot be
used, or where several sets of current transformers must be paralleled to give the total
output of the generator, % differential relays working on a variable slop utilizing either
summation or product restraint may be required high speed differential relays of the
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latter types, capable of operating in one cycle have been developed in recent years and
because of their decreased sensitivity on severe external faults there is no danger of
incorrect operation. It is advantageous to use these relays even when current transformers
of the same type are involved. It is desirable to have no other burden except the differential
relays on the CT’s supplying them, if it becomes necessary to include some additional
burden in these circuits, the burden should be kept to a minimum. However, if the CT’s
have other devices besides protective relays as a burden, the use of variable percentage
relays is preferred, since the latter are less susceptible to mis-operation due to burden
than fixed percentage relays.
It is recommended that ground relays be used in addition to differential relays when a

generator neutral is grounded through impedance that limits the fault current to a value
below that to which differential relays can respond .
B) Phase to Ground short circuits : High voltage generator usually are Y connected and
may have their neutrals solidly grounded, grounded through a low impedance, a high
impedance or may be isolated from ground . As a rule, some impedance is required in
the generator neutral connection to ground so that the magnitude of a single phase to
ground fault will not exceed the 3 phase short circuit current. Present standards do not
require the generator windings to withstand fault currents greater than the 3 phase
value. The effectiveness of differential relays in recognizing ground faults depends upon
the available ground current. When the latter is high, as is the case when low impedance
grounding is used, differential relay will respond to ground faults on all but a small
percentage of the windings near the neutral. As the impedance in the neutral circuit is
increased, differential relays protect a progressively smaller percentage of the windings
untill they are of no further use for recognizing ground faults. It full advantage of
differential protection is to obtained, it may be desirable to ground the neutral of the
generator in question to operate it in parallel with another machine whose neutral is
grounded, or to establish the neutral by means of a separate grounding transformer so
that ground current on the order of full load current will be available . In unit type
installations the generator neutral may be grounded through high resistance or the
equivalent consisting of a distribution transformer with a Resistor connected across its
secondary terminals. As differential relays are not effective when the generator neutral
is grounded through high impedance, an additional rely is needed to detect ground faults
by responding to current flow through the neutral circuit. Star connected generators which
have only a single neutral connection brought out can be protected against ground faults
by comparing the residual in the phase leads with the current in the grounded connection.
C) Short Circuits between Turns : Although differential relays will recognize to phase to
phase faults almost any place where they may occur, they will not recognize faults between
turns of the same phase . Various schemes have been used or proposed in the past for
protecting against this type of fault, but they usually have required bringing out additional
terminals from the machine. Because of physical restriction and the general use of
hydrogen cooling on modern large high voltage steam driven generators, it is not practical
to bring out additional terminals from the windings for purpose on interlaying current
balance schemes to detect faults between turns. Furthermore. Generator of this type
usually have single turn coils so that Faults between turns cannot occur without involving
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ground, and on this basis protection against faults between turns generally is not provided.
Split phase protection however, has been used extensively for large generators.
D) Open Circuit in Windings : Open circuit in the windings of a modern generator is not
likely because of the physical size of the conductors, and special protection against it is
not provided as a rule on high-speed machines. Differential protection usually is installed
on generators rated in excess of 5000KVA and operating at 2300 volts or above, but also
may be used on machines as small as 1000 KVA.
It is recommended that the zone protected differential relays include the generator
leads extend to far side of the main circuit breaker.
Including within the zone of the differential relays the conductors which extend from the
main terminals of the generator to the far side of the main C.B. furnishes a simple
method of providing sensitive and fast protection for the generator leads without the
need for providing additional relay equipment.
It is recommended that the generator differential and ground relay trip simultaneously
the GCB and the FCB, and the neutral C.B. provided.
When a fault occurs in the windings of a generator, the circuit breaker which connect it
to the system, the main field C.B. and the C.B.in the natural (if an adequate neutral
circuit breaker is installed, should be tripped immediately. In the past, the foiled circuit
Breaker frequently was interlocked with the main C.B. so that field C.B. did not open
until the main C.B. first had opened. This practice seems to have developed when adequate
hand reset auxiliary relays were not available, and the intention was to avoid the possibility
of the field C.B. tripping and the main GCB remaining closed. Present day practice, trips
the main circuit breakers and the foiled C.B. simultaneously. To minimize burning of the
stator iron in case of a ground faults, the neutral C.B. should be tripped in order to interrupt
the fault current that would otherwise flow while the flux in the main filed is decaying.
E) over heating of the stator : Overheating of the stator may be caused by

i) over current,
ii) short circuited laminations,
iii) failure in the cooling system.
Temperature indicators or recorders are arranged to operate an alarm and are used to
recognize overheating of the stator.
i) Over – current : Re-heating of the stator caused by the cumulative effects over-current
cannot be rocognised by ordinary short time any over-current relays. Temperature
indicators or recorders rated from embedded resistance detector or thermocouples often
used to check stator temperatures, temperature recorders quietly are equipped to operate
an alarm when the temperature seeds a safe value . No automatic tripping is initiated for
large generators by temperature devices. A sufficient number of embedded temperature
detectors are installed at respective points in the windings to obtain adequate information
of temperature conditions in the stator.
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ii) Short circuited laminations : Heating of the stator may be caused by failure of core
bolt insulation, where core bolts are used to assist in holding the laminations together,
or by local heating in the core caused by uneven enameling of some of the punching.
Such localized heacting may not cause sufficient rise in temperature in the area where
the embedded temperature detectors are located as to be recognised , and consequently
these detectors cannot be depending on for an indication of this condition . If the lamination
enamel should fail in the teeth near the detectors , considerably higher temperatures
undoubtedly would be observed. There have been number of cases where failure of
insulation between lamination caused the generator iron to be melted away and resulted
in complete failure of the generators.
iii) failure in the cooling system : Over- heating of a machine may result from some
failure in the cooling system caused by accumulation of dirt or other obstructions in the
ventilating passages, blocked screens, or ice formation or by failure of the cooling water
supply in closed air or hydrogen systems. Any failure in the cooling system can be
recognised by comparing the temperature of air or hydrogen leaving the machine with
the temperature which has been established as the maximum safe value. Thermometers
or temperatures detecting devices should be located in both the intake and exhaust air
(or hydrogen) streames. In some cases, these temperatures are recorded on the same
chart with the temperatures indicated by the detectors embedded in the stator.
II. PROTECTION OF ROTOR (FIELD)

Troubles in generator rorotors may be classified as
a) Short circuits in rotor windings,
b) Open circuits in rotor windings,
c) Ground on the filed circuits,
d) Over-heating.
In general, tripping protection for the rotor is not recommended.
a) Short circuits in rotor windings : Short circuits in rotor windings cannot be recognised
by over-current relays in the field circuit if only a few turns are involved or if one pole
one of a slow-speed generator is short-circuited. Furthermore, it is highly desirable for
field circuit not to be opened during system disturbances when high currents be induced
in the field circuit. For this reason, over-current protection usually is not considered for
field circuits. If the windings on one pole of a generator should become short circuits the
resulting unbalanced magnetic conditions would produce mechanical stresses and vibration
.If the vibration is sufficient, the condition can be recognised by vibration detecting
equipment arranged to operate an alarm. The effects of short-circuited winding are
more evident for generators with small number of poles.
b) Open circuits in rotor windings : Open circuits in rotor winding may occur on any
type of Generators, but experience has shown that they are more likely to occur the
slower speed salient pole alternators. Beside from the possibility of high potential and
burning at the point of fault, an open circuited field causes loss of excitation, which is
discussed in more details under this heading.
c) Grounds on the field circuit : A grounds on the field circuit is not serious in itself, but
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it Indicates the presence of weakened insulation or mechanical fail and serious damage
may result if a second ground should occur.
A single form of ground indication consists of two lamps in series connected across the
rotor winding. With their mid point grounded the scheme of ground detection gives a
positive indication only for faults near terminal of the filed winding . More sensitive
ground indication can be obtained by replacing the Lamps with resistors and connection
the mid point to ground through a sensitive relay . Complete coverage can be obtained
in all cases by the use of a separate A.C. supply with a low voltage Transformer. One
terminal of the transformer secondary winding is connected to the field winding the
other terminal is connected to ground through a sensitive relay.
a) Overheating : Overheating of the rotor may be caused by excess rotor current, failure
in the ventilating system and single phase or unbalanced current operation.
Although overheating of the rotor may be caused by excess filed current such as might
result from failure of rheostat or voltage regulators, opinion favours the omission of
over-current protection in the field circuits in order to avoid any misoperation during
system disturbances when high transient currents may be induced in the field . Although
a slight rise in temperature might be detected in the ventilating medium, it is doubtful if
this rise can be depended upon to call attention to overheating of the rotor.
Single phase or unbalanced current option will cause local heating in the pole faces the
roter and severe vibration will be imparted to the machine foundation . Protection against
unbalanced current operation normally is not provided for attended machines dependence
being placed upon the indications of the phase ammeter and the pressure of vibration to
disclose this condition.
III. MISCLLANEOUS PROTECTION
a) Motoring : Generators driven by steam turbines which do not have other provision
against being operated from the electrical end with insufficient steam to prevent over-
heating the turbine may be equipped with sensitive power directional relays. These may
be arranged to give an alarm immediately when power flows from the bus-back towards
the generator and to trip if the power reversal persists long enough to cause damage to
the turbine from over-heating. Very sensitive power directional releys developing
maximum torque at unit power factor have been used for this application a minimum
time delay of one minute will be permissible between the time when the power reversal
will be permissible between the time when the power reversal starts and tripping should
occur.
b) Loss of field excitation : When the field excitation on a loaded generator is lost, the
magnetic coupling between the rotor and the stator may be so weakened that the rotor
advances and after a short period pulls out of synchronism with the system. Continued
operation without excitation, has harmful effects on both the generator and the system.
An alternator running as an induction generation will have heavy current circulation in
the face of the rotor, particularly toward the ends, and these may cause injurious heating
443
in local areas and arcing at metal wedges in the slots. Induced voltage or current will
appear in the field winding, depending upon whether it is open circuited or short-circuited.
For complete loss of field on a large generator on most systems not quipped with automatic
generator voltage regulators, seriously low system voltages may be roached in not more
than 10 to 15 seconds and in some cases in as short a time as one second when the
generator represents a relatively large part of the total system generation. Loss of field
protection has been developed for protecting generators against partial as well complete
loss of field. Time delay should be provided either inherently or by means of auxiliary
time delay relay to prevent false tripping as momental surges. If the loss of field protection
is intended primarily to protect the system rather then the generator, an under-voltage
rely may be incorporated in the scheme to supervise tripping, but it may be difficult to
select a setting that will safeguard against damage. The need for loss of field portion
applies to those systems where one or more of the following conditions exist :
1. Most of the generators are not equipped with AVR’s.
2. One generator represents a fairly large portion of the total generation, and
3. The generators are loosely linked electrically.
Every effort should be made to prevent loss of fiold by accidental opening of the field
circuit breaker such as providing a control switch interlocks to prevent the field circuit
breaker from being opened while the main circuit breaker is closed. If an alert operator
is in attendance at all times, loss of field protection may not be considered necessary.
c) Out of step Operation : A Generator when running out of step is subject to a succession
of severe impacts whose cumulative effect may cause damage to the shaft, coupling or
stator mounting. Relays have been developed to recognise out of step conditions.
d) Over Voltage : Over-voltage protection is recommended for hydroelectric generators

which are subject to over-speed and accompanying over-voltage upon loss of load .
Over-voltage also result from trouble on AVRs Ovoltage Relays may be arranged to
insert resistance in the exciter or Generator field circuit depending upon local requirements.
e) Over speed : Generators driven by prime movers which can reach dangerous over-
speed under abnormal operating conditions should be equipped with over speed protection
. This mey be in corporate in the governing system of the prime mover, or centrifugal
devices may be used in the absence of mechanical over speed devices frequency relays
may be used. Lager stem turbines have their safety over-speed governors adjusted to
trip throttle valve when the speed increases to 10% above normal.
f) Vibration : Vibration may be caused by single phase or unbalanced current operation,

magnetic unbalance in the rotor, and mechanical unbalance in the to rotor.
Excessive vibration can be recognized by any one of several different types of vibration
detecting equipment, which may be associated with the generator assembly or may be
incorporated in the prime mover.
g) Failure of the Cooling system : Heat losses in the generator stator and rotor are
444
carried off by the circulation of cooling air or hydrogen through the machine which in
closed system is cooled in turn by passing through a suitable heat exchanger provision
may be made to detect the present of water in such a cooling system. Where air is taken
from the outside it may be desirable or necessary under certain conditions to avoid
changes in load that may result in condensation in the machine when humidity is high.
Any failure of the cooling system will be reflected by a rise in stator temperature. Methods
for detecting this are described under the heading ‘Protection of stator”. Heat developed
in the bearings of large machines is carried from the bearings by the lubricating oil,
which in turn is cooled by a suitable heat exchanger. In attended installations bearing
temp is indicated by thermometers, but in un-attached installations bearing temperature
relays should installed to shut down the machine if overheating should develop in any of
the bearings.
h) Back up protection :
In principle, back-up protection is recommended. Back-up relays may be considered as
any relays, which will clear a faulty piece of equipment in the event that the protective
equipment that would normally clear the fault fails to operate. Back-up protection
associated with generators may operate and clear the various sources that would feed
back into a generator fault if the primary generator protection is in operative for any
reason or it may operate to trip the generator in case the first line of fens on an outgoing
line, transformers, or bus fails to clear the faulty equipment. As a general principle,
back-up protection will be less sensitive, will take more time to operate, and may operate
to disconnect more equipment than is involved in the original failure. Because of the big
investment in large, modern generators such thought has been given to the problem of
providing back-up protection.
Generators have been included within the back-up protection of the buses to which they
are connected or within the differential protection of associated transformers in unit
design. Time relay over-current relays on transformers and tie lines also may be depended
upon to act in a back-up capacity for clearing severe faults. What is considered to be
suitable back-up protection is largely a matter of opinion, and the scheme that is used
for a particular installation will be influenced by past experience, individual preferences,
and what expenditures can be made. For these reasons no attempt can be made to make
any specific recommendations on the use of back-up protection for generators.
IV COMMISSIONING TEST OF TG SET BEFORE SYNCHRONISING THE UNIT

1. All generator protective relays are tested by secondery injection. Master relay operation
on protection and subsequently tripping of generator circuit breaker and turbine on
interlock should be ensured.
2. All protection trials of turbine are conducted. Also successful operation of SOP and auto
and manual operation of AC/DC lub oil pumps ensured. Barring gear and jacking oil
pump operations are also observed.
3. Turbovisory instruments are put into service and it is ensured that turbine temperature
recorder, vibration recorder and differential expansion indicators start rendering the
correct pickup signals by turbovisory instrument mounted on TG set.
445
4. Generator drying out: a) Generator is isolated from bus duct. Generator I. R. values are
recorded on barring speed. If PI (polerisation index –megger value for 600 seconds
divided by megger value for 60 seconds.) is not two or less than two then dry out the
generator by hot air blowing through stator winding. If desired PI value is obtained then
give clearance for filling of carbondioxide and hydrogen. Air leak test should have been
carried out well in advance.
If PI value is not achieved even by hot air blowing through stator windings then roll the
machine at 1200 RPM with air pressure of 1.5 Kg/Cm2 in generator casing. We go on
recording hourly reading of megger values by motorised megger (1 kv or 2.5 kv) till the
IR values are improved and PI value recorded is two or more than two. Once required PI
value is obtained, clearance is given for bus duct connection normalisation.
ii) Simultaniously give clearance for CO2 , H2 filling and restoration of stator water system.
iii) Ensure that H2 is filled in the generator casing to a pressure of 3.5 Kg/Cm2 and purity not
less than 97 %.
iv) Take final IR value of generator including bus duct, UAT and GTR. This value normally
comes in the range of 100 to 200 Kilo Ohms. Normalise generator neutral transformer
and ground connections.
v) Ensure readiness of the static excitation system for slow buildup of generator voltage for
conducting electrical tests.
vi) Rotor impedance measurement can be carried out at 1200 RPM and 3000 RPM.
Dynamic testing of generator :

Dynamic testing after every annual overhaul of T. G. set is carried out. Prior to testing of
the generator, the G. T. and UAT are tested and kept ready for live testing before
synchronising of the unit. The T. G. set is rolled for the dynamic testing, voltage is
buildup and by certain mechanism fault conditions are developed and operation of the
protecting circuitry is checked and recorded.
After checking of the dynamic testing the T. G. set is synchronised with the grid.
✦✦✦
446
PROTECTION OF TURBINE
The following protections are provided for 210 MW turbine set.
1) Tripping on Axial shift High .......................................................... 102 to 107 mm.
2) Tripping on Very Low Vacuum in condenser ...................................... 540 mm of Hg.
3) Tripping on Low Lub oil Pressure ..................................................... < 0.3 Kg/cm2.
4) Tripping on Low main steam temperature ................................................... 4500 C.
5) Tripping on HPT Exhaust Temp. High ........................................................... 4500C.
6) Tripping on HP Heaters level very very high ................................ 4250 mm of water.
7) Tripping on Boiler drum level very high ........................................... + 275 mm.
8) Tripping on Boiler Tripping.
9) Tripping on Generator Tripping.
10) Tripping on Damper tank very low (Emergency)
11) Tripping on Stator Water conductivity High ................................... 18 micro ohm/cc.
12) Tripping on Stator water flow low (Emergency) ................................. < = 13 m3/hr.
13) Emergency tripping from Local/Mechanical.
14) Tripping from control desk.
15) Elecro-Hydaulic Transducer protection
16) Overspeed Protection ................................................................................ 16 %.
For all above protections except no 13, the power supply to the system is provided from
two independent sections with fast automatic changeover facility. This changeover facility
of supply system (AC & DC both) is provided to overcome the non -availability of
protections due to supply failure. The failed supply may be restored during the running
of set.
All faults are annunciated independently. Necessary annunciation provisions are made
to indicate non-availability of protection action.
Provisions of manual switching ON and switching OFF of the protections are provided
with their annunciation. In addition to this, all protection relays except hand reset type,
have been provided with self hold down, where the relays are auto reset type.
1) Axial Shift Protection : This protection acts in the event of “High Axial Shift” of rotor
caused by the unacceptable wear of the axial bearing pads which results in inadmissible
displacement of the rotor with respect to the thrust bearings. This condition is very
dangerous which results in rubbing of rotating parts against stationary parts of the
turbine. The trip points correspond to 1.2 mm thrust--bearing wear from either side. The
trip signal is initiated from axial shift measuring unit.
2) Very Low Vacuum in Condenser : This protection acts in the event of vacuum fall in
the condenser to low set point no. 2 (540 mm Hgc). There is a pretrip alarm at vacuum
fall to set point no. 1 (650 mm Hgc). Both trip and pretrip signals are initiated from a
metallic below type vacuum switch. Very low vacuum in the condenser (does not allow
full steam from turbine to enter the condenser when turbine trips). Also this cause temp
rise in the steam at the end of expansion stages and this may cause misalignment and
447
damage at the exhaust end of the turbine and also possibly buckling of condenser tubes.
Loss of vacuum is usually caused due to failure in the supply of condenser cooling water
or malfunctioning of condenser air ejector system. Main reasons are inefficient cooling
tower, air ingress through glands, scaling on condenser tubes from inside and outside.
3) Lub Oil Pressure Very Low : This protection acts in case the lub oil pressure fall to low
set point no. 3 (0.3 Kg/cm2). There is a pretrip alarm at pressure fall to low set point no.
1 (0.6 Kg/cm2). Both trip and pretrip signals initiated from two metallic bellow type
pressure switches connected in parallel. Low pressure of the lub. oil results in damaging
the rotating parts in the turbine as well as outside the turbine like pedestal bearing at
slip ring end of the generator. Lubrication with sufficient pressure and purity of oil is the
initial requirement of the turbo generator set. The DC motor driven emergency pump is
used as a final back up to supply oil.
4) Main steam temp. Low Protection : This protection acts in case the main steam
temp. in any of the emergency stop valves decreases to low set point no. 2 (4500 C) from
set point no. 1 (5200 C) suddenly. The sudden drop of temp. causes mismatch between
turbine casing and rotor temp. resulting in high eccentricity and diff. expansion. The
high diff. expansion of the turbine rotor relative to the turbine cylinder can damage the
turbine seals due to rubbing.
5) HPT Exhaust Temp. High protection : This protection acts in case the exhaust steam
temp. reaches to 4250 C. Sensing of the temp. is taken through the temp. indicator in
case of failure of NRV in CRH line the HP turbine temp. may shoot up beyond permissible
working limit because of reverse steam flow.
6) Hp Heaters Level Very Very High Protection : For initiating alarm and protection
actions in the event of abnormal levels in any of the hp heaters, level switches are
provided for high set point no. 2 and no. 3. The instrument alarm contact and level
switch contact for high set point no 3 is used in OR logic for initiating high level signal.
This protection acts in case the level goes to high set point no. 2 , which isolates HP
heaters and further goes to isolate the HP heaters from service, in addition to tripping of
the turbine. Heater tube leakage causes HP heater level high, results in admission of
water into turbine through bleed side from where the steam tapping are taken to HP
heaters. High set point 2 - 750 mm of water col., very high set point - 4250 of water column.
7) Boiler Drum Level Very High Protection : This protection acts in case the level of
water in boiler drum reaches high. In absence of this protection, water may enter into
the turbine with steam, while it in rolling condition. The provision of boiler drum level
indication is made in control room itself to maintain the level.
8) Turbine Tripping on Boiler Tripping : This protection acts in case the boiler trips out.
10 sec. delayed tripping is achieved through timer. It is well understood that tripping of
the boiler means stopping steam production and steam supply to the turbine.
9) Reverse Power Protection : A steam turbine requires protection against overheating

when its steam supply is cut off and generator runs as motor. Such overheating occurs
448
because insufficient steam is passing through the turbine to carry away the heat that is
produced by windage loss. When a generator operating in parallel with other machines
looses its driving force, it remains in synchronism with the system and continues to run
as a synchronous motor drawing sufficient power to drive the prime mover and system
and not for generator.
10) Damper Tank Level Low Protection : This protection acts (with 10 sec.-delayed action)
in case the oil level in damper tank decreases below low set point. The oil from this tank
serves for sealing, low level of which is not permitted. Sealing with low pressure of oil
results in leakage of hydrogen from seals.
11) Stator Water Conductivity High Protection : This protection acts in case the
conductivity of stator water required for its cooling goes high. In this case the stator
windings may be earthed through water due to low resistance.
12) Stator Water Flow Low Protection : This protection acts in case the flow of stator
water used for cooling of the stator goes low. The insufficient flow of water does not
serve the purpose of cooling water of stator winding (13 M3/h wdg.) insulation gets
damaged.
13) Emergency Tripping from Local : This protection acts in case the push button of local
for tripping is pressed by hand. This is the emergency mechanical protection provided at
local only. In abnormal condition ,irrespective of electrical protections ,turbine may be
tripped without delay.
14) Emergency Tripping from Remote : This facility is provided on control desk itself. By
pressing this push button in emergency the “Turbine Trip Solenoid”gets energized and
turbine trips with ESV & IV closing.
15) Electro Hydraulic Transducers : Electro hydraulic transducer is intended for anticipatory
closing of control valves in case the total loss of external load and thus reduces the
transit overspeed peak. GCB may get open due to its own fault, results in overspeeding
of the turbine. The transducer is energised by a 200 mA DC pulse for a duration of 2 sec.,
in the event of generator breaker opening. This interlock is automatically introduced
when ESV & IV are open and GCB is closed.
16) Overspeed Protection : This totally mechanical protection provided at 10 % & 16%.
Overspeed of the turbine with corresponding striker is ON. The inadmissible overspeed
can result in rapture of the rotor as a result of stress due to centrifugal force. Trip
initiation takes place at set value of overspeed with the assistance of mechanical overspeed
governors. This is a built in feature in governing system.
Turbine protection means isolation of steam supply to the turbine. On each and every
elect. protection command goes to energies turbine trip solenoid,which after energisation
gives command to close ESV,EV and control valves. Also the “Turbine Lock Out Relay” (TLR)
which picks upon tripping gives command to close main steam stop valves, short time
opening and again closing of turbine evacuation valves and closing of a temp. valves etc.
✦✦✦
449
FURNACE SAFEGUARD SUPERVISORY SYSTEM (FSSS)
The system is either a Electro-mechanical relay based (as in most of the 210 MW old
units) or Programmable Logic Controllers based in the new units. The system hardware
consists of :
1. Pushbutton switches for initiating operations related to Fuel Oil and Coal admission,
2. Alarm windows on desk and panels for indicating current status of coal mills, oil elevations
and flame scanner at every corner.
3. Relay Panels in the Relay room
4. Oil admission valves ( pneumatic or hydraulic) at every corner
5. Oil trip valves and re-circulation valves controlling the oil to headers at Boiler firing floor
6. Limit switches sensing status of the valves in oil admission
7. Flame scanners
8. Pressure and Temperature switches
9. Electro- pneumatic Solenoid valves
10. Relay panels consisting of Relays, Timers and Memory Units.
Startup, withdrawal and tripping of Oil Elevations, Coal Elevations and Boiler are
implemented through sequential logic built with the help of relays or PLCs. Many parameters
from measurement and process control systems are also used as input to FSSS system for
implementation of the required logic.
Fuel admission is safe only if

• Unburnt fuel is not present in the furnace when Boiler is to be lighted up.
• Sufficient ignition energy is available for Fuel being admitted.
• Stopping the fuel admission if it is not burning completely.
• All other parameters mentioned in the table above are proper.
The FSSS system is designed to offer maximum safety, minimum nuisance trips,
minimum power consumption and maximum life for the components used.
The logic is functionally divided in to Unit Logic, elevation logic and corner logic.
Unit Logic : It supervises the overall furnace conditions by monitoring all critical parameters
of fuel firing system and also supervises furnace purge. If there is a likelihood of dangerous
condition, it trips the boiler.
Elevation Logic : Startup and stopping actions for the elevation are carried out through the
elevation logic. Input to this logic is from operators for start and stop commands of the
elevation and also trip commands from Unit logic. It also provides essential trip commands for
corner logic.
450
Corner Logic : It controls and supervises the corner valves i.e. Oil Valves. Atomosing Valves
and Scavenge valves. However, trip signals from unit logic or elevation logic overrides the
commands from corner logic.
Power supply : There are two types of power supplies to FSSS panes, alternating current as
well as direct current. DC is obtained from station batteries and there are two sources for ac
power to FSSS with a fast and automatic change over arrangement. In case of loss of AC
power, Dc power is used for tripping of the fuel trip valve or a coal feeder. In case of loss of DC
power, boiler tripping is initiated using AC Power. Delay of 2 seconds is provided for Loss of
power trip.
FSSS Logic : Functions of FSSS are devided in following logic diagrams :

1. Furnace Purge Supervision
2. Igniter Control
3. Warm up fuel control
4. Pulveriser Control
5. Secondary Air damper Control
6. Flame scanner intelligence
7. Boiler Tripping
Following Fig 1 explains the meanings of the symbols used in the ensuing drawings.
Furnace Purge Control : Purpose of this control is to ensure that furnace is always purged
prior to Boiler Light up. When boiler trips on protection or otherwise, there is a possibility of
accumulation of unburnt fuel in the furnace. This unburnt fuel need to be driven out prior to
readmission of oil for lighting up the boiler. Purging is achieved by establishing a sufficient
airflow by running one air cycle for predetermined time (5 minutes for 210 MW and 9 minutes
for 500 MW Boilers). This is the first operation that has to be carried out for lighting up the
boiler. Attached Logic diagram at Fig 2 explains the furnace purge control. To initiate a Furnace
purge following conditions need to be satisfied.
451
SN Condition to be satisfied
1 All igniters retraced in case of HEA igniters/All igniter valve closed in case of HSD Igniters
2 All heavy oil valves closed (Hydromotor valves or pneumatic valves)
3 All Light oil valves closed (Hydromotor valves or pneumatic valves)
4 All pulverisers off
5 All Coal feeders Off
6 All flame scanners sense no flame
7 All hot air gates closed and cold air dampers open 5%.
8 All auxiliary air dampers modulating
9 Igniters trip valves closed
10 Heavy oil trip valves closed
11 Light Oil Trip valves are closed
12 No Boiler trip
These 12 signals are the input to AND Gate, output of which is fed to the second AND
Gate and is also used to drive a Green Colored lamp indicating “Purge Ready”. Another input
to the second AND Gate is from a Push Button switch for starting the Purging. The OR gate
works as a latch. Output of the second AND gate goes to a timer set for a delay of 5 minutes.
When all the 12 input signals are true, first AND gate’s out put is true and “Purge Ready” lamp
glow. Operator then starts Purging by pressing the Push Button switch. This causes “Purging”
lamp to glow and simultaneously timer starts counting the purging time. Timer output goes to
third AND gate. “No Boiler trip” signal is the second input to this gate. After completion of 5
minutes time, timer output becomes True. If “No boiler trip” signal is true then both the inputs
to third AND gate remain true and its output goes True and resets “ Master Fuel Trip relay” and
also “Purge Ready and No Boiler Trip” lamp glows. Only when this lamp is glowing, any Oil
Elevation can be started for lighting up the boiler.
LOTV Open / Close Control : Figure 2 shows logic diagram for “Warm up oil trip valve
control”. Before Boiler light up with Light Diesel oil, LOTV must be opened by giving “open”
command from push button switch on the desk.
Output from “OPEN” push button switch goes to an AND gate. Other inputs to this gate
are
1. No Boiler Trip
2. All Corner Valves closed
3. LDO Pressure adequate
4. LOTV “Close” command not persisting
When all these inputs are TRUE, OPEN command causes AND gate to give a TRUE
output causing LOTV to Open.
LOTV closes when

1. Close command through push button switch is initiated OR
2. Boiler trips. OR
452
3. After a delay of 3 seconds when any warm up oil elevation’s Corner valve is NOT CLOSED
AND
a. If LDO Pressure drops to LOW value OR
b. If ∆ P between atomizing air and LDO is low AND No LDO pair is in START or STOP State.
Pulveriser Ready Permissive: Fig. 4 shows the logic diagram for Pulveriser Permissive. If
this permissive is available then only the Pulveriser can be started. Requirements are:
1. Pulveriser outlet temperature NOT HIGH

2. Tramp Iron Hopper Valve Open
3. Feeder Inlet gate Open
4. No Primary Air Fan Trip
5. Pulveriser Discharge Valve open
6. No Pulveriser trip
7. No Pulveriser stop command existing from Local or control desk
8. Seal air valve open
9. Cold air gate open
10. No Boiler trip AND
a. Any Feeder is ON OR
b. Burner tilt horizontal AND Air Flow less than 40%.
Pulveriser Ignition Permissive : Fig. 5 shows Logic Diagram for Ignition Permissive for
pulverisers A and B. Similar requirements are applicable for other pulverisers :
1. Pulveriser B is running with 50% loading AND Boiler Load is More than 30% OR
a. Elevation AB in service with 3 out of 4 Guns established.
2. Pulveriser B Ignition Permissive is available if

a. Pulveriser A or C running at 50% loading AND Boiler Load is more than 30% OR
b. Oil Elevation AB in service with 3 out of 4 guns established.
There are many more such logic diagrams are available, the scope of which is out side
this lecture and hence can not be discussed here. Relevant drawings available in Power Stations
can be referred for further study.
453
454
Fig. 2 : Furnace Purge Control
455
‘LOW’
NO WARM-UP PAIR IN START OR STOP
Fig. 3 : LOTV ON / OF Control

456
Fig. 4 : Pulveriser Ready Permissive
457
✦✦✦
Fig. 5 : Pulveriser Ignition Permissive
TURBINE STEAM AND EXTRACTION CYCLE
✦✦✦
218
CONDENSATE AND FEED WATER CYCLE
219
✦✦✦
220
CONDENSER COOLING WATER CYCLE
AND COOLING TOWERS
✦✦✦
221
ENIBRUT MAETS
: elpicnirP gnikroW 0.1

citenik eht sbrosba ti ,ecifiro worran a hguorht dnapxe ot dewolla si maets nehW
otni degnahc si maets fo ygrene citenik sihT .)ygrene taeh( yplahtne fo tsoc eht ta ygrene
.sedalb enibrut eht revo sevom maets nehw ygrene lacinahcem
morf ro maets eht fo erusserp citats ot eud decudorp ton si enibrut eht ot ecrof evitoM
ffo dna no edilg lliw maets eht taht dengised os era sedalb ehT .tej maets eht fo tcapmi yna
s’ti sedalb rotoR eht revo sevom maets nehW .ti ekirts ot ycnednet yna tuohtiw edalb eht
ot lamron ,edalb eht no detrexe si erusserp lagufirtnec dna gnignahc ylsuounitnoc si noitcerid
eht suht si sedalb eht no gnitca ecrof evitom latot ehT .stniop eht lla ta ecafrus edalb eht
lanoitator eht sesuac sihT .mutnemom fo egnahc eht sulp ecrof lagufirtnec eht lla fo tnatluser
.sedalb eht fo noitom
telnI maetS
F ecroF
teltuO maetS
eliforP edalB rotoR
: ENIBRUT FO SEPYT 0.2

:sa deifissalc eb nac enibrut ,maets eht fo noitca fo elpicnirp eht ot gnidroccA
enibruT noitcaeR )b enibruT eslupmI )a
: enibruT eslupmI )a
desaercni si maets fo yticolev eht suhT .selzzon dexif eht ni dednapxe si maets ehT
dna edalb rotor eht revo sevom maets yticolev hgih sihT .erusserp ni noitcuder fo tsoc eht ta
sedilg maets nehw ecalp sekat pord erusserp oN .edalb rotor eht ot ygrene citenik sti strapmi
.edalb eht revo
: enibruT noitcaeR )b
sdrow rehto nI .sedalb gnivom sa llew sa dexif ni htob spord erusserp epyt siht nI
sa erehw selzzon sa krow sedalb dexiF .sedalb gnivom dna dexif ,htob no sdnapxe maets
.noitcaer secudorp edalb gnivom no noisnapxe maets
.eliforp edalb fo ngised eht fo tluser eht si edalb dexif dna gnivom no noisnapxe ehT
222
0
I
edalB dexiF
1
I
e d a l B g n i vo M
I
2
teL
.edalb dexif eht ot ecnartne eht ta maets eht fo yplahtne eht eb - 0I
.yplahtne emas eht htiw edalb gnivom eht no sretne hcihw edalb dexif fo teltuo eht ta - 1I
.edalb gnivom eht fo teltuo eht ta yplahtne eht si - 2I
.noitcaeR fo eerged sa nwonk si A rotcaf eht nehT
2
I - I
1
= A
2
I - 0
I
.enibrut eslupmI sa nwonk si enibrut eht neht 5.0 < A fI

.enibruT noitcaer a si enibrut eht neht 5.0 > A fI
: gnidnuopmoC 0.3
egats elgnis a ni dnapxe ot dewolla si maets fi hgih yrev semoceb yticolev maetS
hgih yrev semoceb enibrut eht fo deeps lanoitator eht ecneH .)edalb dna elzzon fo wor elgnis(
.elbacitcarpmi dna
elbacitcarp eht eveihca ot spets fo rebmun ni enod si maets fo noisrevnoc ygrene oS
.gnidnuopmoc sa nwonk si sihT .enibrut eht fo deeps derised
: gnidnuopmoc fo sepyt suoirav eht era gniwolloF

: gnidnuopmoC yticoleV )a
fo tes eno ni ecalp sekat pord erusserp maets eritne gnidnuopmoc fo epyt siht nI
dna gnivom wor fo rebmun ni desilitu si elzzon ni detrevnoc os ygrene citenik ehT .elzzon
ti ediug dna tej maets fo noitcerid eht egnahc ot tsuj si edalb ediug fo elor ehT .sedalb ediug
.enibrut sitruc dellac osla si enibrut fo sepyt sihT .sedalb gnivom fo wor txen ot
322
b) Pressure Compounding :
In place of single nozzle ring, numbers of nozzle ring arranged alternatively after
moving in blade wheels. Thus instead of allowing the pressure drop in one step, It is done in
no of steps.
Steam is passed through one nozzle ring in which it is partially expanded. It then
passes over the first moving blade wheel, where most of its velocity is absorbed. Then this
steam passes through second nozzle ring. The velocity so obtained, is again absorbed by the
second moving wheel and so on, the process is repeated till whole of the pressure is absorbed.
This type of turbine is also called Rateors turbine after its Inventor.
c) Pressure Velocity Compounding :

This is the combination of both previous methods has the advantage of allowing a
higher pressure drop in each stage and so less stages are necessary. Hence for a given
pressure drop the turbine will be shorter. But the diameter of Turbine is increased at each
stage to allow for the increasing volume of steam. This type was very popular. But it is rarely
used now as efficiency is quite low.
4.0 Multistage Reaction Turbine :

In this type, number of rows of moving blades attached to the rotor and number of
rows of fixed blade to the casing, so that each stage utilizes a portion of energy of steam.
Theoretically this may be called pressure compounded turbine as the pressure of the steam
drops over the succeeding stages. The fixed blades compared to the nozzle used in the impulse
turbine, steam is admitted over the whole circumference and passing through the first row of
fixed blades undergoes a small drop in pressure and its velocity is increased.
It then enters the first row of moving blades and as in the direction and hence momentum
giving an impulse on the blades. During the steam passes through the moving blade, it
undergoes a further small drop in pressure resulting in an increase in velocity which gives rise
to a reaction in the direction opposite to that of the added velocity. In this way, the impulse
reaction turbine differs from the pure impulse turbine.
5.0 General Description of Turbine

5.1 The turbine is condensing, tandem compound, three cylinder, horizontal, disc and
diaphragm type with nozzle governing and regenerative feed water heating. The double flow
L.P. Turbine incorporates multi-exhaust in each flow.
The complete turbine assembly is mounted on pedestals and sole plates, which are
designed to ensure that the components are free to expand whilst correct alignment is
maintained under all conditions. Live steam from the Boiler enters to two Emergency Stop
Valves (ESV) of High Pressure Turbine, From ESV steam flows to the four Control valves (CV)
mounted on the casing of High Pressure Turbine (HPT) at the middle bearing side. Control
Valves in turn feed the steam to nozzle boxes located inside the HPT.
The high pressure turbine (HPT) comprises of 12 stages, the first stage being governing
stage. The steam flow in HPT being in reverse direction, the blades in HPT are designed for
anticlockwise rotation, when viewed in the direction of steam flow.
After passing through H.P. Turbine steam flows to boiler for reheating and reheated
224
steam comes to the Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) through two Interceptor valves (IV)
and four Control Valves (CV) mounted on the IPT itself.
The Intermediate Pressure Turbine has 11 stages. H.P. & I.P. rotors are connected by
rigid coupling and have a common bearing.
After flowing through IPT, steam enters the middle part of low pressure turbine (LPT)
through two cross-over pipes. In L.P. Turbine, steam flows in the opposite paths having four
stages in each path. After leaving the L.P. Turbine the exhaust steam condenses in the surface
condensers welded directly to the exhaust part of the L.P. Turbine.
5.2 Rotors of Intermediate and low pressure turbine are connected by a semi flexible
coupling.
The direction of rotation of the rotors is clock-wise when viewed from the front bearing
and towards generator. The three rotors are supported on five bearings. The common bearing
of H.P. & I.P. rotors is a combined Journal and radial thrust bearing.
The anchor point of the turbine is located at the middle foundation frame of the front
exhaust part of low pressure cylinder. The Turbine expands towards the front bearings by nearly
32 mm & towards generator by 3 mm in steady state operation at full load with rated parameters.
Turbine is equipped with a barring gear which rotates the rotor of turbine at a speed of
nearly 3.4 rpm for providing uniform heating during starting and uniform cooling during shut
down.
In order to heat the feed water in the regenerative cycle of the turbine, condensate
from the hot well of condenser is pumped by the condensate pumps, and supplied to the
deaerator through ejectors, gland steam cooler, four number L.P. heaters and gland cooler.
From deaerator the feed water is supplied to Boiler by Boiler feed pumps through three
number H.P. heaters. Extracted steam from the various points of the Turbine is utilised to heat
the condensate in these heat exchangers.
6.0 Turbine Support and Cylinder Expansion :

The complete turbine assembly is mounted on foundation frames, pedestals and sole
plates so designed that the components are free to expand or contract whilst correct alignment
is maintained during start-up, shut down and throughout the working temperature range.
6.1 Front Bearing Pedestal Support :

The front and bearing pedestal which houses a journal bearing, the main oil pump end
most of the governing system elements, rests on a sole plate secured to the foundations. This
arrangement is such that the pedestal is free to move in an axial direction with the expansion
and contraction of the turbine casing. The pedestal is held transversely in the sole plate by
axial guide key fitted along the axis of the turbine at the sliding surface between pedestal and
sole plate. Any tendency for the pedestal to lift is prevented by four inverted ‘L’ shaped
clamps, two on either side of the pedestal.
6.2 Middle Bearing Pedestal support :

The pedestal rests on a sole plate secured to the foundation block. The pedestal is free
to move in axial direction, due to expansion of the machine. The transverse movement is
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restricted by key guiding axial movement. Any tendency for the pedestal to lift is prevented
by three inverted ‘L’ shaped clamps, two on right side and one on the left side of the pedestal.
6.3 High Pressure Cylinder Support :

The outlet end of the high pressure cylinder is supported on the front bearing pedestal
and the inlet end is supported on the middle bearing pedestal. Four lugs, two at the inlet end
and two at outlet end are cast integral with the bottom half cylinder flange at the horizontal
joint. These lugs rest on transverse keys, which are secured to the pedestal.
To maintain correct alignment and guiding for vertical expansion, vertical keys are provided
between cylinder and pedestals. Any tendency for the cylinder to lift at the supporting lugs is
prevented by ‘L’ shaped clamps bolted to the pedestal pads, one at each support.
6.4 Intermediate Pressure Cylinder Support :

Four lugs, two at the inlet end and two at the outlet end are cast integral with the
bottom half of IPC flange at the horizontal joint. The inlet end of the intermediate pressure
cylinder rests on the transverse keys secured on the pads machined on the rear end of the
middle pedestal, and the exhaust end is supported on the transverse keys secured to low
pressure cylinder bottom half.
6.5 Low Pressure Cylinder Support :

The low pressure cylinder is supported on six foundation frames positioned around
bottom halves of exhaust casing. The foundation frames and the bottom halves of exhaust
part of LPC are joined by special bolts with spherical washers and clearance between the bolt
head and spherical washers allows for free expansion of the L.P. casing. The anchor points of
the turbine are located at the rear end of front exhaust part with two transverse keys.
7.0 Turbine Casing :

7.1 High Pressure Casing :
The high pressure casing is made of creep resisting chromium-Molybdenum-Vanadium
(Cr-Mo-V) steel casting. The top & bottom halves of the casing are secured together at the
flange joint by heat tightened studs to ensure an effective seal against steam leakage.
Four steam chests, two on top and two or sides are welded to the nozzle boxes, which
in turn are welded to the casing at the middle bearing end. The steam chests accommodate
four control valves to regulate the flow of steam to the Turbine according to the load requirement.
Nozzle boxes and steam chests are also made of creep resisting Cr-Mo-V steel castings.
The High Pressure Turbine (HPT) comprises of 12 stages, the first stage being governing
stage. Each turbine stage consists of a diaphragm and set of moving blades mounted on a
disc.
7.2 Intermediate Pressure Casing :

The intermediate pressure casing of the turbine is made of two parts.
The front part is made of creep resisting Chromium-Molybdenum-Vanadium steel casting and
the exhaust part is of steel fabricated structure. The two parts are connected by a vertical
joint. Each part consists of two halves having a horizontal joint. The horizontal joint is secured
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with the help of studs and nut; These nuts and studs are made of creep resisting Cr-Mo-V
steel forgings. The control valves of I. P. Turbine are mounted on the casing itself.
In the Intermediate Pressure Turbine the nozzle boxes are cast integral with the casing.
There are 11 stages in the I. P. Turbine. The first stage nozzle segment of IPT is a welded
construction like other diaphragms and is mounted directly in the casing. Next two diaphragms
are also housed in casing while other 8 diaphragms are housed in three liners, which in turn
are mounted on casing.
From the Intermediate Pressure Turbine, steam is carried through two cross-over pipes
to the double flow low pressure cylinder. Each cross over pipe is provided with a compensator
for taking care of thermal expansion and to ensure that no heavy thrust or turning moments
are thrown on to the flanged connections at the intermediate pressure cylinder exhaust and
the low pressure cylinder inlet.
7.3 Low Pressure Casing :

The L. P. Casing consists of three parts i.e. one middle part and two exhaust parts. The
three parts are fabricated from weldable mild steel. The exhaust casings are bolted to the
middle casing by a vertical flange. The casings are divided in the horizontal plane through the
Turbine center line.
The lower half of the L. P. Casing has integral bearing pedestals, which houses the
following :
i) Rear bearing of intermediate pressure rotor.
ii) Coupling between IP & LP rotor.
iii) LP front & rear bearings.
iv) Generator coupling.
v) Generator bearing.
vi) Barring gear.
Steam enters the middle casing from top and then divides into two equal, axially,
opposed flows, to pass through four stages.
The last but one stages on each side are ‘Baumann’s stages’. They expand a part of the
steam down to the condenser pressure and allows rest of the steam to expand through the
last stages.
7.4 Atmospheric Relief Valve :

To protect the L. P. Cylinder against excessive internal pressure, four atmospheric
relief valves are provided in the exhaust hoods.
Each assembly has 1 mm thick gasket, ring 525/755, clamped between valve seat and valve
disc. If due to some reasons the pressure at exhaust hood rises to 1.2 abs, then the valve disc
tries to lift and thereby ruptures the gasket ring, thus allowing the steam to exhaust into the
atmosphere in the turbine room.
8.0 Diaphragms and Lines

8.1 High Pressure Diaphragms & Liners
The HP diaphragms are housed in liners, which are in turn located in the grooves of the
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casing. All the liners are made of Cr-Mo-V steel castings and are in two halves connected at
the horizontal joint by bolts of suitable material. All diaphragms, designed for minimum
deflection, are divided at horizontal joint. The arrangement & support of the diaphragms
ensure correct radial alignment of the diaphragms without developing strain due to expansion.
The diaphragms are of welded construction.
8.2 Intermediate Pressure Diaphragms

The first two diaphragms are directly housed in casing. The other 8 diaphragms are
housed in three liners, which are in turn located in the grooves of the casing. All the liners are
made in two halves, split at horizontal joints and secured by studs and nuts.
Diaphragms from 14th to 22nd stages are of welded construction. 23rd stage diaphragm
is machined from high grade cast iron casting with cast-in guide blades.
8.3 Low Pressure Diaphragms:

The diaphragms are machined from high grade cast iron castings with cast in blades of
low carbon stainless steel. All diaphragms are divided on the horizontal joint fitted with keys
to maintain accurate alignment. On each side, the first three diaphragms are fitted through
liners while last one is mounted directly in the casing.
The last stage diaphragms on each side of L. P. Flow are of different construction.
These diaphragms are of cast welded construction. The mild steel blades are welded to outer
ring (Steel casting) and inner plate. The diaphragms are divided at horizontal joints and are
secured with studs and nuts.
9.0 Rotors
9.1 High Pressure Rotor
The HP rotor is machined from a single Cr-Mo-V steel forging with integral discs. The
rotor is thermally stabilised to prevent abnormal deflection. The blades are attached to their
respective wheels by ‘T’ root fastening.
In all the moving wheels, balancing holes are machined to reduce the pressure difference
across them, which results in reduction of axial thrust. First stage has integral shrouds while
other rows have shroudings, riveted to the blades at periphery. The number of blades connected
by a single strip of shrouding is called a blade packet and the number of blades per packet is
decided from vibration point of view.
9.2 Intermediate Pressure Rotor

The IP rotor has seven discs integrally forged with rotor while last four discs are shrunk
fit. The shaft is made of high creep resisting Cr-Mo-V steel forging while the shrunk fit discs
are machined from high strength nickel steel forgings.
The blades on the integral discs are secured by ‘T’ root fastenings while on shrunk fit
discs by ‘fork root’ fastening. Except the last two wheels, all other wheels have shroudings
riveted at the tip of the blades. To adjust the frequency of the moving blades, lashing wires
have been provided in some stages.
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9.3 Low Pressure Rotor
The LP Rotor consists of shrunk fit discs on a shaft. The shaft is a forging of Cr-Mo-V
steel while the discs are of high strength nickel steel forgings.
Blades are secured to the respective discs by riveted fork root fastening. In all the stages,
lashing wires are provided to adjust the frequency of the blades.
In the last two rows, stellite strips are provided at the leading edges of the blades to protect
them against wet steam erosion.
10.0 Turbine Bearing :

The three turbine rotors are supported on five bearings. The second bearing from front
pedestal side is a combined radial thrust bearing while all the others are journal bearings. The
rotors are located inside the turbine at thrust bearing. The high pressure and intermediate
pressure rotors are joined by rigid coupling and have been provided with a common bearing
while other ends are having their own bearings.
The lubricating oil to the bearings is supplied at a pressure of about 1 kg/cm2 and the
quantity of oil going to each bearing is controlled by the orifice plate fixed at its inlet end.
10.1 Thrust Bearing

The thrust bearing is of Mitchel type with bearing surface distributed over a number of
bearing pads lined with white metal. They are pivoted in a housing on the side of rotor thrust
collar. During operation, an oil film is formed between pads and thrust collar and there is no
metal to metal contact. A second ring of pads on the opposite side of thrust collar takes the
axial thrust, as may occur under abnormal conditions.
The radial thrust bearing is supported on it spherica seating at the journal bearing center line.
The inner surface of steel housing is machined spherical, matching with bearing sphere. The
bearing is in two halves bolted together. The whole radial thrust bearing is housed in middle
bearing’s pedestal.
10.2 Journal Bearing

The journal bearings Nos. 1, 3, 4 and 5 consist of outer shell of cast iron with an inner
shell lined with white metal. Both the shells are split at half joint and secured by bolts. The
pads on the outer shell are machined to bore diameter of bearing pedestals. For the fine
alignment, steel shims are provided under the pads.
11.0 Sealing Glands

To eliminate the possibility of steam leakage to atmosphere from the inlet and exhaust
ends of the cylinders, labyrinth glands of the radial clearance type are provided, which provide
a trouble free, frictionless sealing.
Each gland sealing consists of a number of sealing rings divided into segments, each segment
is backed by two flat springs. The sealing rings are housed in grooves machined in gland
bodies, which are in turn housed in the turbine casing, or bolted to the casing at ends.
Steam is supplied to the penultimate sealing chamber at 1.03 to 1.05 kg/cm2 abs. And at
temperature 1300 to 1500C from the header, where the pressure is maintained constant with
the help of an electronic regulator. Air steam mixture from the last sealing chamber is sucked
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out with the help of a special steam ejector to gland steam cooler.
Provision has been made to supply live steam at the front sealings of H. P. and I. P. Rotors to
control the differential expansion, when rotor goes under contraction during a trip out or
sharp load reduction.
12.0 Barring Gear :

The barring gear is mounted on the L. P. Rear bearing cover to mesh with spur gear on
L. P. Rotor rear coupling. The primary function of the barring gear is to rotate the turbine-
generator rotors slowly and continuously (Speed 3.4 rpm) during start up and shut down
periods when changes in rotor temperature occur.
When a turbine is shut down, cooling of its inner elements continues for many hours.
If the rotor is allowed to remain stand still during this cooling period, distortion of rotor begins
almost immediately. This distortion is caused by flow of hot vapors to the upper part of
casings, resulting in upper half of turbine being at a higher temperature, than lower half.
Hence to eliminate the possibility of distortion during shut down, barring gear is used to keep
the rotor revolving until the temperature change has stopped and casings have become cool.
This also results in maintenance of minimum inter stage sealing clearances with higher operating
efficiency.
The same phenomenon is also observed during starting of the turbine when steam is
supplied to the sealings to create the vacuum. If the rotor is stationary, there would be non-
uniform heating of the rotor, which will result in distortion of rotors. The barring gear during
starting of turbine, would slowly rotate the turbine-generator rotor, and thereby resulting in
the uniform heating of rotor. Thus any distortion in the rotor would be avoided.
During starting period, operation of the barring gear eliminates the necessity of ‘Breaking
away’ the turbine generator rotors from stand still and thereby provides for a more uniform,
smooth and controlled starting.
✦✦✦
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TURBINE BEARINGS AND GLAND SYSTEM
GLANDS :
Glands are used on turbines to prevent or reduce the leakage of steam or air between
rotating and stationary components which have a pressure difference across them; this applies
particularly where the turbine shaft passes through the cylinder. If the cylinder pressure is
higher than atmospheric pressure there will be a general steam leakage outwards; it the
cylinder is below atmospheric pressure there will be a leakage of air inwards, and some sort
of sealing system must be used to prevent the air from entering the cylinder and the condenser.
You probably appreciate that glands for high and intermediate pressure cylinders have to
resist not only the ingress of air at no-load, but also the outward leakage of steam at full-load.
As most of the steam leaking from glands does no: further work in the turbine, there is a loss
of power output. For this reason every effort is made to reduce this power loss by an efficient
arrangement of seals and glands.
BALANCE PISTONS :
In high and intermediate pressure cylinders the glands may be used to neutralize part
of the axial thrust produced in the blading: in the case of 50 per cent reaction blading this is
considerable. The diameter of the gland is increased, so that the pressure of the steam acting
on the step face of the gland acts in opposition to the blading thrust; this enables smaller
thrust bearing to be used. The large diameter gland is known as a balance piston, or dummy
piston.
WATER – SEALED GLANDS :

Some turbine designs incorporate a shaft gland which depends on a water seal to
prevent steam or air leakage. A typical seal arrangement (see fig.1) consists of a shaft mounted
impeller with a series of vanes or pockets machined on both faces. The impeller is contained
within an annular chamber, and , when water is admitted to the chamber, the impeller vanes
force the water to rotate at a speed approximately equal to the impeller speed. The seal is
relatively inefficient at low speeds and auxiliary labyrinth glands must be used, in conjunction
with high capacity air pumps, to raise vacuum when starting. Water isusually injected into the
seal at approximately half of the full operating speed.
The side clearances between the impeller and seal chamber must be fairly small, and
so the use of this seal is restricted to positions on a turbine where the axial differential
expansions are within the effective limits of impeller and seal chamber clearance. When this
type of seal is used on a high pressure turbine, the seal cannot absorb the full differential
pressure SO1 labyrinth glands are used to break the pressure down to a figure which the
water seal can handle.
Since a water seal absorbs and generates heat, the water contained in the annular
chamber of the water sealed gland is continuously evaporated; the water losses are made up
from a header tank.
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CARBON RING GLANDS :
The carbon ring is normally made by clamping a number of carbon segments around
the turbine shaft, using circumferential garter springs. The ring is fitted with a very fine
clearance around the shaft, but if a ‘run’ occurs little damage is done because the ring material
is self lubricating. Carbon ring glands are not found on large modern turbines, as their maximum
operating temperature and maximum shaft speed are limited to about 1200C (2500 F) and 46
m/s (9000 ft/min). However, in spite of these limitations, they are more efficient than labyrinth
glands.
DIAPHRAGM GANDS :
We saw in part 3, Chap. 3, that a pressure drop exists across each diaphragm or an
impulse turbine. To prevent steam by passing the steam nozzles, by traveling along the shaft,
it is necessary to fit a gland at this point. Diaphragm glands, as they are called, are invariably
of the labyrinth type – the length of the gland depends on the pressure difference across the
diaphragm.
LABYRINTH GLANDS :
In modern turbines the labyrinth gland has superseded the carbon ring gland, because
it can withstand high pressures and temperatures and requires little maintenance.
The labyrinth gland provides a series of very fine annular clearances, in the gap between
the cylinder wall and the shaft. The steam is throttled through this gap and its pressure
reduced step by step. In expanding through each clearance, the steam develops kinetic energy
at the expense of its pressure energy; ideally, the kinetic energy is converted by turbulence
into heat with no recovery of pressure energy. In this way, the pressure is progressively
broken down as the steam is throttled at successive restrictions. By keeping the clearance
area sufficiently small, the quantity of energy lost may be kept low, and as increases in
turbine output occur the gland leakage loss becomes proportionately less.
To reduce the clearance area, glands are made with a diameter as small as possible,
and clearances as of shaft strength and radial clearance, by the clearance within the bearing,
and by the possibility of shaft distortion.
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Glands must allow for axial expansion of the shaft and casing to take place without
causing a rub. On the other hand, if a rub does take place because of shaft vibration it is
desirable that the heat generated is minimized to prevent serious frictional heating of the
shaft and possible distortion. A typical modern gland comprises stantionary fins on spring-
loaded sectors, while the shaft is either smooth or castellated. If a rub should occur, the
sectors receive the generated heat and can be replaced readily if they are damaged.
Designs of labyrinth gland at present in use are shown in Fig.2
In fig. 2 (a) the clearances are staggered to ensure that no kinetic energy is carried
over from one gap to the next. The stationary fins are axial, so that if a rub occurs, the heat
causes them to expand relative to their fixing, and they move out to increase the clearance.
Fig. 2(b) shows a resilient gland the stationary part being divided into sectors, each of
which is spring-loaded in an annular groove. If a rub occurs, the sector would ‘give’, and the
low contact pressure would ensure that only a little heat is generated.
The gland shown in Fig. 2© is of the vernier type, the fins being much finer than in the
previous designs. By making the pitch of the fins on one side 10 percent greater than the
pitch of the mating fins, only one fin in nine or ten will be opposite another fin. If a rub occurs,
then only exactly opposing fins make contact, so the amount of heat generated is small.
Turbine Gland System of 210 MW LMW Turbine :

To eliminate the possibility of steam leakage to atmosphere from the inlet and exhaust
end of Cylinders, labyrinth gland sod radial clearance type are provided, which provide trouble
free frictionless sealing.
Each gland sealing consists of a number of sealing rings, divided in to segments, each
segment is backed by two Flat Springs. The sealing rings are housed in grooves, machined in
Gland’s bodies, which are in turn housed in the Turbine casing or bolted to the casings at
ends.
Steam is supplied to the penultimate sealing chamber at 1.03 to 1.05 Kg/cm2 pressure
and at 130 to 150 C from the header, where the pressure is maintained constant with the help
of control valve AS 55. Air/ Steam mixture from the last sealing chamber is sucked out with
the help of Special Ejector of Gland cooler No. 1.
Provision is made to supply live steam at front sealing of HP and IP Rotors to control
the Differential Expansion, when rotor goes under contraction during the Turbine Trip out or
sharp load reduction.
233
Turbine Bearings :
The three turbine rotors are supported on five bearings. The second bearing from front
pedestal is a combined radial thrust bearing while all other are journal bearings. The rotors
are located inside the turbine at thrust bearing. The high pressure and intermediate pressure
rotors are joined by rigid coupling and have been provided with a common bearing while
other ends are having their own bearings.
The lubricating oil to the bearings is supplied at a pressure of about 1.0 kg/cm2 and the
quantity of oil going to each bearing is controlled by the orifice plate fixed at its inlet end.
Thrust bearing :
The thrust bearing is of Michel type with bearing surface distributed over a number of
bearing pads lined with white metal. They are pivoted in housing on the side of rotor thrust
collar. During operation, an oil film is formed between pads and thrust collar and there is no
metal to metal contact. A second ring of pads on the opposite side of thrust collar takes the
axial thrust, as may occur under abnormal conditions.
The radial thrust bearing is supported on a spherical seating at the journal bearing
centre line. The inner surface of steel housing is machined spherical, matching with bearing
sphere. The bearing is in two halves bolted together. The whole radial thrust bearing is housed
middle bearing’s pedestal.
Journal bearing :
The journal bearings Nos. 1, 3, 4 and 5 consist of outer shell of cast iron with an inner
shell lined with white metal. Both the shells are split at half joint and secured by bolts. The
pads on the outer shell are machined to bore diameter of bearing pedestals. For the fine
alignment steel shims are provided under the pads.
✦✦✦
234
CONDENSERS
Purpose of a condenser in a Vapor Cycle is to create sub-atmospheric pressure (i.e.

vacuum) so that steam can expand to lowest possible pressure and higher work output can be
obtained from the steam cycle. Condensation of vapor causes reduction in volume. At 0.07
Kg/cm2 absolute pressure, 1 Kg of water has a volume of 0.001 m3 whereas volume of 1 kg
water vapor at this pressure is 20.92 m3. Thus condensation of steam causes reduction in
volume by 20920 times.
Dalton’s Law : It states that pressure in closed vessel is equal TO THE SUM OF PARTIAL
PRESSURES of each gas in the mixture.
In condenser, mixture of air and water vapor is present.
Therefore, Pc = Pa + Ps
Where Pc is condenser absolute pressure
Pa is Air pressure
Ps is saturation steam pressure
Pressure of air will exert its own partial pressure, which will be added to the vapor
pressure, and thus absolute pressure will increase and vacuum will fall.
Condensation occurs when vapor comes in to contact with a surface that is at a
temperature lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to the vapor pressure. The
liquid thus formed due to condensation may either wet or does not wet the solid surface. If
the liquid wets the surface, the condensate flows on the surface in the form of a film. Such
condensation is called film condensation. On the other hand, if the condensate does not wet
the surface, it gets collected in the form of droplets, and the droplets falls off the surface by
gravity. This type of condensation is called drop condensation. The rate of heat transfer in
case of drop condensation is very high compared to that of film condensation. Condensers in
power plants are film condensation types, as it is practically not possible to design a condenser
in which drop condensation shall take place through the period of its operating life.
Condensers used in Power Plant :

Surface condensers in which film condensation takes place are the most commonly
used condensers in thermal power plants. It consists of a air tight shell in which tightly
packed tube bundles are arranged. They are tube and shell type heat exchangers, in which,
steam condenses on the out side surface of tubes and cooling water flows through tubes. The
condenser consists of
1. Shell
2. Steam Inlet with tapered steam dome
3. Cooling water inlet
4. Cooling water outlet
5. Tubes
6. Condensate Outlet
7. Air outlet
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Following figure explains a two-pass condenser.
Schematic of a two pass condenser
Condenser is composed of a steel shell with water boxes on each side, the right one
devided for two water passes. Water tubes are rolled at each end in to tube sheets. Steel
support plates are fitted at intermediate points to prevent vibrations of tubes.
Hotwell receives the condenaste and act as storage for the same. Hotwell volume is sufficient
to hold condensate formed in 1 to 2 minutes’ period of Turbine operation.
Layout of tubes in the Condensers (used in modern high capacity plants) is in the
shape of a Funnel. Most number of tubes and largest tube passage area is at the place where
steam enters in to the condenser. As the steam condenses and its volume decreases, there
are fewer tubes and smaller areas. Steam is made to enter the tube bundles from all sides
towards a central air cooler for deaeration. Long tubes (of the order of 30 to 50 feet length are
used. For obtaining proper and equal distribution of steam, a well-tapered steam dome is
provided above the tubes. In some designs, expansion joint is provided between Turbine
exhaust duct and condenser so that condenser can be rigidly mounted on floor. In some
designs, condenser is rigidly connected (by means of welding or bolting) to the turbine steam
exhaust duct and spring mounted on the floor.
Cooling water is passed through the condenser either in single pass or in two passes.
In two pass condenser, inlet and outlet water boxes are provided with partitions. There can be
independent inlet and outlet Cooling water connections. Such condensers are often designed
in such a way that half of the condenser can be isolated for cleaning while other half can
remain in service.
Stainless Steel 304, Admiralty, Aluminum-Brass Muntz metal, 70-30 Copper Nickel are
the widely used materials for condenser tubes. Outer tube diameters are 3/4th inch, 7/8th inch
or 1 inch.
Condenser performance is an important factor for obtaining optimum performance
levels from the plant.
✦✦✦
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CONSTRUCTION OF STARTING EJECTOR,
MAIN EJECTOR
STARTING EJECTOR :
a) The basic unit consists of a nozzle, suction chamber and a diffuser. The suction chamber
is connected with the condenser. The working steam expands in the nozzle and its pressure
energy is converted into kinetic energy thereby producing supersonic velocity jet. This
jet, discharging from the nozzle entrains the surrounding air, which finally comes from
the condenser. The air and steam mixture is then compressed in the diffuser to a pressure
slightly above atmospheric pressure and then exhausted into the atmosphere.
b) Starting ejector is recommended to be used for accelerating the initial pulling of vacuum.
During this period, starting ejector operates in parallel with the main ejectors. The
working medium for this ejector is steam of low parameters, which can be taken either
from the deaerator of auxiliary source. The pressure and temperature of this steam are
not to exceed 4.5 Kg/cm2 and 2500C respectively.
c) This starting ejector is switched off as and when the vacuum in the condenser reaches
500-600 mm of Hg column.
MAIN EJECTORS :
a) Main ejectors have been used for extracting non-condensable gases from the coldest
zone of the condenser. The working medium for these ejectors is steam of low parameters,
which can be taken either from the deaerator or auxiliary source. The pressure and
temperature of this steam are not to exceed 4.5 Kg/cm2 (g) and 2500C respectively. The
energy of steam is retrieved to the fullest possible extent as the ejectors are interposed
in the feed heating cycle thereby improving the overall efficiency of the cycle.
b) These ejectors consist of three compression stages with inter coolers and after coolers.
The first stage of the suction chamber is connected to the condenser. The main assemblies
of the ejector are :
i) Suction chamber
ii) Shell
iii) Water chamber
iv) Tube system
v) Air measuring device
The suction chamber has been divided into three parts and all the compression stages
consisting of nozzle and diffuser are mounted inside this chamber.
The water box has also been divided into different zones in such a manner that cold
condensate first flows through the Ist stage inter cooler and thereafter through 2nd and
3rd stages simultaneously.
237
The air-measuring device, for measurement of dry air discharge from condenser, has
been fitted at the air exit of the ejector. The design of this device is such that it enables
the measurement of dry air discharge while condenser and ejector are in operation.
c) The convergent divergent nozzle has been designed to accelerate the steam flow and
thereby reduce the pressure of steam to 0.03 Kg/cm2 abs. in the 1st stage of suction
chamber. The low pressure in suction chamber sucks the non-condensable gases from
the condenser.
The steam and gas mixture enters the diffuser inlet and while passing through the
diffuser, the kinetic head is converted to pressure head. The steam and gas mixture
flows over the tube nest and steam gets condensed while non-condensable gases flow to
suction chamber of 2nd stage. The same phenomenon happens in 2nd stage and 3rd stage
during which all the steam gets condensed and gases are exhausted to atmosphere
through air measuring device.
d) The main condensate is used as the cooling medium for inter-coolers and after coolers.
e) 2 x 100% ejectors have been provided in the system, out of which one is for continuous
operation and the other one serves as a stand by unit.
f) The following fittings have been provided on the ejectors.

i) Gauge glass for indicating the condensate level (in first stage only)
ii) Pressure relief valve (water side)

iii) Angular thermometers with pockets.
iv) Pressure gauge with three-way-cock.
v) Vacuum gauge with three-way-cock.

vi) Stop valve
vii) Non-return valve
viii) Hg. Manometer for air steam mixture.
GLAND STEAM COOLER :

a) Gland steam cooler has been provided to suck and cool the air steam mixture from the
turbine gland seals. It employs a small ejector for which the working medium is steam of
low parameters, which can be taken either from deaerator or auxiliary source. The pressure
and temperature of this steam are not to exceed 4.5 Kg/cm2 (g) and 2500C respectively.
The energy of this steam is retrieved to the fullest possible extent as this gland steam
cooler is interposed in the feed heating cycle thereby improving the overall efficiency of
the cycle.
238
b) The gland steam cooler comprises of the following main elements:
i) Removable water chamber.
ii) Tube system

iii) Shell
iv) Ejector.
The water chamber consists of thin walled rectangular shell having flange at the bottom
for assembly of tube system and shell. A partition has been provided in the water chamber
to make it two-path design. Tube system consists of U-shaped admiralty brass tubes
expanded into the tube plate.
Shell is a rectangular construction and is divided into two stages with the help of a
vertical partition. The ejector is connected in between the first and second stage coolers.
c) The nozzle of ejector has been designed to create a vacuum and thereby reduce the
pressure to 0.95 Kg/cm2 (abs) in the 1st stage of the cooler. The low pressure in the first
stage sucks the air steam mixture from the turbine gland seals. The steam while flowing
over the tube nest gets condensed in the 1st stage and then the remaining air steam
mixture is sucked by the ejector and is led to 2nd stage. The diffuser raises the pressure
from 0.95 Kg/cm2 (abs) to 1.05 Kg/cm2 (abs). The steam air mixture flows over the
tube nest of second stage where steam gets condensed and air is exhausted to atmosphere.
The condensate drain from the gland steam cooler is led to the condenser through a
drain expander and siphon.
d) The following fittings have been provided on the gland steam cooler.
i) Gauge glass for indicating the drain level.
ii) High level alarm switches.

iii) Water box air release cock.
iv) Pressure gauge with three-way-cock.
v) Vacuum gauge with three-way-cock.

vi) Straight thermometers with pockets.
vii) Relief valve (water side)
viii) Isolating valves for level switches.
✦✦✦
239
DM AND GS SYSTEM
240
✦✦✦
241
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat Exchangers are devices in which heat energy is transferred from hot fluid to cold
fluid. In Power Plant, there are many processes where heat exchangers are used, such as
Regenerative feed Cycle, Boiler, Air Heater, Oil coolers for various auxiliaries. Heat exchangers
are generally classified in three types :
1) Direct transfer or recuperative type
2) Storage or regenerative type
3) Direct contact type
Direct transfer or recuperative type : In this type of heat exchanger, cold and hot fluids
flow simultaneously, without coming in to direct contact with each other. Following figure
shows such type of heat exchanger.
Cold fluid in
Hot fluid in Hot fluid out
Cold fluid out

This type of Heat exchanger consists of two concentric metal tubes. Hot fluid flows
through inner tube and cold fluid flows through outer tube. Heat transfer takes place along
the wall of inner tube. Fluid flow is simultaneous, but mixing of fluids do not take place.
Storage or regenerative type :

In this type of Heat exchanger, the heat transfer from hot fluid to cold fluid occurs
through a coupling medium, which generally is made of solid porous matrix. Rotary Air
Preheaters of the Boiler is an example of this type if heat exchanger. It consists of rotating
disk type matrix. Hot fluid and cold fluid flows continuously. Each element of the matrix
passes through hot stream to clod stream and back in each revolution. When the element is
in hot stream, heat energy gets stored in it. When the element passes in to cold stream, the
stored energy is transferred to cold fluid.
Sealing between
hot and cold gas Rotating disk
paths Matrix
Hot Gas Cold Gas
242
Direct Contact type heat exchanger :
In this type of heat exchanger, both cold and hot fluids are in direct contact with each
other. Deaerator is one such direct contact heat exchanger in Power Plant. In Deaerator,
steam from turbine extraction is admitted to the shell and condensate is sprayed and then
made to flow over baffles and trays. In this type of heat exchangers, both the fluids should be
miscible. Cooling tower is another type of direct contact type heat exchanger, where atmospheric
air comes in direct contact with water. In addition to Trays and baffles Steam heat transfer,
mass transfer also takes place in direct contact heat exchangers.
Condensate
Trays and Steam

baffles
Storage of Hot
condensate
The figure above explains the direct contact heat exchanger, in which steam is the hot
fluid and condnesate is the cold fluid. Condensate heats up after mixes with steam and also
causing steam to condense. The mixture is stored in another tank. In addition to heat transfer
from steam to Condensate, mass transfer of soluble gases present in Condensate takes place
to steam.
Theory of direct transfer type heat exchangers :

These exchangers are concentric tube type (explained in the first fig) as well as tube
and shell type, which are most commonly used in power plants. The general arrangement of
these shell type of exchangers is as shown in the following figure.
Tubes Shell Outlet
Inlet Baffles
Tubes
Shell Inlet Tubes Outlet
243
lacirdnilyc a edisni dekcap sebut fo rebmun fo stsisnoc regnahcxe ebut dna llehs ehT
diulf rehtona dna sebut eht hguorht swolf diulf enO .sixa llehs ot lellarap si sixa ebuT .llehs
taeh rof desu yllamron era sregnahcxe fo sepyt esehT .llehs eht ni sebut eht edistuo swolf
neewteb si emulov regnahcxe fo tinu rep era ecafrus refsnart taeH .sdiuqil neewteb refsnart
3
m /2 m 005 ot 001
: sregnahcxe taeh epyt niF

.sag ot sag dna diuqil ot sag neewteb refsnart taeh rof elbatius era sregnahcxe esehT
.aera ecafrus refsnart taeh esaercni ot ecafrus refsnart taeh yramirp eht ot dehcatta era sniF
regnahcxe taeh f0 ezis dna wol era stneiciffeoc refsnart taeh erehw desu ylniam era esehT
rep aera ecafrus refsnart taeh egral edivorp sregnahcxe taeh ecafrus denniF .llams si deriuqer
3
m /2m 007 fo redro eht fo emulov tinu
diuqil dna sag neewteb refsnart taeh rof desu yllareneg era sregnahcxe taeh nif ebuT
eht no swolf sag dna sebut hguorht swolf diuqiL .erugif gniwollof eht ni nwohs sa era dna
.elbaliava osla era sebut dennif yllanretnI .sebut eht fo ecafrus retuo
:tnemegnarra wolf rep sa sregnahcxe taeh fo noitacifissalC

: stnemegnarra eolf fo sepyt eerht era erehT
wolf lellaraP )1
wolf retnuoC )2
.wolf ssorC )3
smaerts diulf eht htob ,erugif gniwollof eht ni nwohs tnemegnarra wolf lellarap nI
.dne rehto eht morf tixe dna noitcerid emas eht ni hguorht wolf ,dne eno ta retne
tuo diulf toH REGNAHCXE TAEH nI diulf toH
tuo diulf dloC ni diulf dloC
regnahcxE taeH wolF lellaraP
442
ni nwohs sa etisoppa si sdiulf eht htob fo noitcerid wolf ,regnahcxe taeh wolf retnuoc nI
.erugif gniwollof
tuo diulf toH REGNAHCXE TAEH nI diulf toH
ni diulf dloC tuo diulf dloC

regnahcxE taeH wolF retnuoC
taht ot selgna thgir ta si diulf eno fo noitcerid wolf eht ,sregnahcxe taeh eolf ssorc nI
.diulf rehtona fo
nI diulf toH
tuo diulf dloC ni diulf dloC
tuo diulf toH

regnahcxE taeH wolF ssorC
nevig dna setar wolf nevig eht roF .etar refsnart taeh eht tceffa stnemegnarra wolf ehT
si sregnahcxe taeh wolf retnuoc rof etar refsnart taeh ,serutarepmet diulf teltuo dna telni
eht neewteb ni si ti ,wolf ssorc rof eht dna ,tsewol si ti stnemegnarra eolf lellarap rof ,tsehgih
.stnemegnarra owt
dna htgnel eht hguorht ekam diuqil toh / dloc eht sessap fo rebmun ehT : sessap fo rebmuN
llit dessucsid sregnahcxe taeh ehT .elpitlum ro elgnis eb nac sregnahcxe taeh eht fo htdaerb
elpitlum eb nac ereht ,ssenevitceffe eht gnisaercni rof ,revewoH .epyt ssap elgnis era lla ,won
nwohs sa regnahcxe eht hguorht eciwt dessap si diuqil dloc hcihw ni ,sregnahcxe taeH sessap
.erugif gniwollof ni
nI diulf toH diulf dloC
ni
tuo diulf toH tuo diulf dloC

diulf dloc rof sessap owt htiw regnahcxE taeH ssaP owT
542
: regnahcxe taeH eht fo tneiciffeoC refsnarT taeH
.K - m / sttaW fo tinu a sah dna U yb detoned netfo si tneiciffeoc refsnart taeH llarevO
2
noisserpxe eht yb nevig si tI

taeh eht fo tneiciffeoc refsnart taeh llarevo eht si U erehw : 2h/1 + k/b + 1h /1 = U/1
ebut eht si b ,sebut eht fo sedis htob no tneiciffeoc refsnart taeh eht era 2h dna 1h ,regnahcxe
.lairetam ebut eht fo ytivitcudnoc eht k dna ssenkciht
gniluof dna gnilacs ,noitarepo ni si regnahcxe taeh eht emit fo doirep a revO : rotcaF gniluoF
.tneiciffeoC refsnart taeH llarevO eht gnicuder ,secafrus refsnart taeh eht no ecalp sekat
eht ot dedda eb tsum taht rotcaf gniluof yb detneserper yllausu era stisoped eht fo stceffE
ni denialpxe sa U tneiciffeoc refsnarT taeH llarevo eht gnitaulave rof secnatsiser lamreht rehto
.noisserpxe gniwollof
htob no srotcaf gniluof eht era 2F dna 1F erehw ,2h/1 + 2F + k/b + 1F + 1h /1 = U/1
: swollof sa era sdiuqil suoirav rof srotcaf gniluoF fo seulav ehT .secafrus
W / K 2m ,rotcaf gniluoF regnahcxe taeh eht ni devlovnI diulF

1000.0 retaW dellitsiD
2000.0 C °05 evoba retaw deef relioB
100.0 liO edurC /liO leuF
: regnahcxe taeH a fo ecnamrofreP

: yb nevig si regnahcxe taeh a ni refsnart taeh fo etar ehT
,sttaW mT∆ A U = Q
,K- m /W ni tneiciffeoc refsnart taeh llarevo si U erehW
2
ecafrus refsnart taeh eht fo 2m ni era eht si A

)DTML( ecnereffiD erutarepmeT naeM goL eht si mT∆
: swollof sa denialpxe si regnahcxe taeh wolf lellarap rof DTML rof noisserpxE
oHT ihT
oCT iCT
ihT
ohT iT∆
oT∆
oCT
iCT
r e g n a h cx e t a e h e h t f o h t g n e L
642
) oT ∆ - iT∆(
= DTML
) oT ∆ / iT ∆( nL
: swollof sa denialpxe si regnahcxe taeh wolf retnuoc rof DTML rof noisserpxE
oHT diulF toH ihT
iCT diulF dloC oCT
ihT
iT∆
oCT
ohT
oT∆
iCT
regnahcxe taeh eht fo htgneL
) oT ∆ - iT∆(
= DTML
) oT ∆ / iT ∆( nL
: sregnahcxe taeh eht rof srotcaf ngiseD rehtO

taeh fo hcihw ta etar eht si regnahcxe taeh eht rof srotcaf ngised tnatropmi tsoM
: era srotcaf tnatropmi rehtO .ecalp ekat dluohs refsnart
edis rehtie no pord erusserP )1
snoitcirtser eziS )2
snoitaredisnoc ssertS )3
stnemeriuqer gnicivreS )4
noitcurtsnoc fo lairetaM )5
tsoC )6
✦✦✦
742
DNA RETAEH RETAW DEEF
NOITCURTSNOC RTOAREAED
: METSYS EVITARENEGER
eno ,sretaeh erusserp-wol ruof fo stsisnoc enibrut eht fo metsys evitareneger ehT
yb nward si etasnednoc ehT .sretaeh erusserp-hgih eerht dna rotareaed eno ,relooc dnalg
hguorht rotareaed eht ot depmup si dna resnednoc fo llew toh eht morf spmup etasnednoc
detcartxe maets yb pu detaeh ylevissergorp si ti erehw sretaeh erusserp wol dna relooc dnalg
3,2 .oN sretaeh .P.L fo maets desnednoc fo niard ehT .enibrut eht fo stniop delb dna slaes morf
.oN retaeh retfa enil etasnednoc niam eht otni depmup yletamitlu si dna edacsac ni swolf 4 &
eht yb nward si rotareaed eht ni detareaed gnieb retfa retaw deef ehT .resnednoc ot swolf ro 2
pu detaeh si ti erehw sretaeh erusserp-hgih hguorht reliob ot depmup dna pmup deef reliob
ni swolf sretaeh PH fo maets desnednoc fo niard ehT .enibrut eht morf maets delb eht yb
.rotareaed eht ot swolf snoitidnoc daol lamron rednu dna edacsac
I .ON RETAEH ERUSSERP WOL

neeb sah flah hcae ,sevlav owt fo gnitsisnoc epyt ecafrus latnoziroh fo si retaeh ehT )a
ni dellatsni neeb evah sevlah owt ehT .resnednoc hcae fo trap reppu eht edisni detacol
.tniop noitcartxe emas eht morf deilppus si htob ot maets eht lellarap
dna telni maets elbatius htiw setalp .S.M morf detacirbaf si retaeh eht rof gnisuoh ehT )b
dna xob retaw eht ot deruces si dna leets dlim fo si etalp ebut ehT .snoitcennoc niard
.stun dna sduts fo snaem yb gnisuoh
eht dna sebut fo noisnapxe tnednepedni erusne ot desu neeb evah sebut depahs ’U‘
mm 57.0 & mm 1 ,aid lanretxe mm 91 ,ssarb ytlarimda nward dilos fo era yehT .llehs
sah metsys ebuT .sdne eht htob ta etalp ebut eht otni gnillor yb dednapxe era dna kciht
.ecnanetniam dna ,tnemecalper ebut rof laward etatilicaf ot srellor htiw dedivorp neeb
etaidemretni ta sebut eht gnitroppus rof dedivorp neeb evah setalp leets dlim fo snoititraP
.retaeh eht fo senoz eht lla ni daol taeh fo noitubirtsid evitceffe dna stniop
fo si tI .sehcarb teltuo dna telni retaw elbatius htiw leets dlim fo si xob retaw ehT
.snoitcennoc niard dna tnev ria elbatius htiw dedivorp neeb sah dna epahs ralugnatcer
.sgnittif gniwollof eht htiw dedivorp neeb sah 1 .oN retaeh erusserp-wol ehT )c
.level niard eht gnitacidni rof ssalg eguaG )i
.hctiws mrala level hgiH )ii
.kcoc tnev xob retaW )iii
.evlav feiler edis ebuT )vi
.hctiws level rof sevlav gnitalosI )v
:4 & 3,2 .soN RETAEH ERUSSERP WOL

rof dengised era dna epyt ecafrus lacitrev fo era noitcurtsnoc ni lacitnedi-sretaeh esehT )a
842
gniwolloF .meht hguorht wolf ot etasnednoc eht dna sebut eht revo ssap ot maets eht
.sretaeh eseht fo stnemele niam era
llehS )i
metsys ebuT )ii
xob retaw elbavomeR )iii
egnalf a gnivah dna mottob ta dedlew dne dehsid htiw noitcurtsnoc lacirdnilyc a si llehS
htiw dedivorp si llehs ehT .xob retaw dna metsys ebut fo ylbmessa rof dne reppu eht ta
ot snoitcennoc elzzon rehto htiw gnola snoitcennoc niard dna telni maets elbatius
noitubirtsid evitceffe erusne ot dedivorp era selffab .S.M .sgnittif suoirav etadommocca
.retaeh eht fo enoz gnisnednoc eht ni maets fo
mm 1 ,aid lanretxe mm-61 ,sebut ssarb ytlarimda depahs U fo stsisnoc metsys ebuT
sah metsys ebuT .sdne eht htob ta etalp ebut otni gnillor yb dednapxe era dna kciht
dlim fo si etalp ebuT .tnemecalper ebut rof lward etatilicaf ot srellor htiw dedivorp neeb
.stun dna sduts fo snaem yb egnalf llehs dna xob retaw eht ot deruces si dna leets
a dna dne rewol eht ta egnalf a gnivah llehs lacirdnilyc dellaw niht fo stsisnoc xob retaW
teltuo dna telni retaw elbatius htiw dedivorp neeb sah tI .pot ta dedlew dne dehsid
.ngised htap 4 ti ekam ot xob retaw eht ni dedivorp neeb evah snoititraP .sehcnarb
.retaeh eht gnivael erofeb shtap ruof ni sebut eht hguorht swolf etasnednoc niam ehT )b
ebut depahs U eht revo swolf dna epip a hguorht llehs eht sretne maets gnitaeh ehT
revo maets fo wolf gaz-giz serusne metsys ebut eht ni dellatsni sllaw noititrap ehT .tsen
si dna sebut eht nwod selkcirt ,niard sa derrefer maets gnitaeh fo etasnednoC .tsen ebut
no dellatsni evlav lortnoc level citamotua yb llehs eht fo noitrop rewol eht morf tuo nekat
.enil niard eht
: sretaeh .P.L no dedivorp era sgnittif gniwolloF )c

hctiws mrala level hgiH )ii
)2 .oN retaeh .P.L rof ylno( hctiws mrala level woL )iii
.kcoc tnev xob retaW )vi
.kcoc yaw eerht htiw eguag erusserP )v
.stekcop htiw sretemomreht thgiartS )iv
.stekcop htiw retemomreht ralugnA )iiv
.sehctiws level rof sevlav gnitalosI )iiiv
)edis llehs( evlav feileR )xi
)edis ebut( evlav feileR )x
942
: RELOOC DNALG
etaidemretni morf maets ffo-kael eht esnednoc ot dengised neeb sah relooc dnalG )a
.enibrut .P.I & .P.H fo sgnilaes dne fo srebmahc
ti dna 4 & 3,2 .oN sretaeh erusserp-wol htiw lacitnedi si relooc siht fo noitcurtsnoc ehT
: stnemele niam gniwollof fo sesirpmoc
llehS )i
metsys ebuT )ii
xob retaw elbavomeR )iii
egnalf a gnivah dna mottob ta dedlew dne dehsid htiw noitcurtsnoc lacirdnilyc fo si llehS
.xob retaw dna metsys ebut fo ylbmessa rof dne reppu eht ta
yb dednapxe era hcihw ,sebut ssarb ytlarimda depahs U fo stsisnoc metsys ebuT
.sdne htob ta etalp ebut otni gnillor
dna dne rewol eht ta egnalf a gnivah llehs lacirdnilyc dellaw niht fo stsisnoc xob retaW
ti ekam ot xob retaw eht ni dedivorp neeb evah snoititraP .pot ta dedlew dne dehsid a
.ngised htap-ruof
.relooc eht gnivael erofeb shtap ruof ni sebut eht hguorht swolf etasnednoc niam ehT )b
ehT .tsen ebut eht revo swolf dna epip a hguorht llehs eht sretne maets fo kael ehT
ebut eht revo maets fo wolf gazgiz ot dael metsys ebut eht ni dellatsni sllaw noititrap
nekat si dna sebut eht nwod selkcirt niard sa derrefer maets fo kael fo etasnednoC .tsen
eht no dellatsni ,evlav lortnoc level citamotua yb llehs eht fo noitrop rewol eht morf tuo
.enil niard
: relooc dnalg no dedivorp era sgnittif gniwolloF )c

.hctiws mrala leveL hgiH )ii
.hctiws mrala leveL woL )iii
.kcoc esaeler ria xob retaW )vi
.kcoc yaw eerht htiw eguag erusserP )v
.stekcop htiw sretemomreht ralugnA )iv
.stekcop htiw sretemomreht thgiartS )iiv
.]edis llehs[ evlav feileR )iiiv
.]edis retaw[ evlav feileR )xi
.sehctiws level rof sevlav gnitalosI )x
ROTAREAED
enibrut ni degasivne si sba 2mc/gK 7 ta deggep ,rotareaed erusserp tnatsnoc A )a
052
sesag gnitimil ,reliob rof retaw deef detareaed ylreporp edivorp ot elcyc evitareneger
deef htiw denibmoc retaeh epyt tcatnoc tcerid a si tI .ertiL/CC 500.0 ot ]negyxo ylniam[
enibrut morf deilppus yllamron si maets gnitaeh ehT .yticapac etauqeda fo knat egarots
yrailixua morf deilppus si maets eht noitarepo daol wol dna gnitrats gnirud tub snoitcartxe
.ecruos
: srebmahc owt fo sesirpmoc rotareaed ehT

.nmuloc gnitareaeD )i
.knat egarots deeF )ii
noitcurtsnoc latnoziroh fo lessev lacirdnilyc epyt yart muc yarps a si nmuloc gnitareaeD
tcatnoc mumixam erusne ot dengised si kcats yart ehT .ti ot dedlew sdne dehsid htiw
ehT .noitareaed tneiciffe eveihca ot etasnednoc fo gnibburcs mumitpo sa llew sa emit
no detroppus si nrut ni hcihw ,knat egarots deef eht no detnuom si nmuloc gnitareaed
si knat egarots deef ehT .retnec eht ta troppus dexif a dna sdne owt eht ta srellor
nmuloc gnitareaed no dedivorp era seloh naM .setalp leets ytilauq reliob morf detacirbaf
.ecnanetniam dna noitcepsni rof knat egarots deef no sa llew sa
sdrawnwod swolf dna nmuloc gnitareaed eht fo pot eht ta dettimda si retaw deef ehT )b
mumixam eht ot esopxe ot dengised era syart ehT .syart dna sevlav yarps eht hguorht
.sesag detaicossa eht fo noitarebil eht tceffe ot gnibburcs tneiciffe rof ecafrus retaw
fo noitcerid retnuoc ni swolf dna syart eht fo htaenrednu eht morf sretne maetS
suhT .enod si gnitaeh & gnibburcs ,syart eht hguorht sdrawpu gniwolf elihW .etasnednoc
evoba desnednoc steg maetS .maets eht htiwgnola sdrawpu evom sesag detarebil eht
morf erehpsomta ot epacse sesag detarebiL .etasnednoc eht staeh nrut ni dna syart eht
ot srotcelfed fo rebmun a htiw dedivorp si gninepo sihT .ti rof tnaem gninepo ecifiro eht
.mets fo ssol eht eziminim
: sgnittif gniwollof eht htiw dedivorp si rotareaeD )c

.ssalg eguag epyt ralubuT )i
.hctiws mrala level hgiH )ii
.hctiws mrala level woL )iii
.eguag erusserP )vi
.stekcop htiw sretemomreht thgiartS )v
.evlav ytefaS )iv
.sepip dnats rof sevlav gnitalosI )iiv
.7 & 6 ,5 SRETAEH ERUSSERP HGIH

morf maets delb yb retaw deef fo gnitaeh rof dedivorp neeb evah sretaeh erusserp-hgiH )a
maets yb detaeh si dna slarips ebut eht hguorht swolf retaw deef ehT .enibrut eht
htiw slessev lacirdnilyc era sretaeh esehT .sretaeh eht fo llehs eht ni sebut eht dnuora
152
gnilooc bus dna gnisnednoc ,gnitaehrepused ,detargetni htiw dna sdne dehsid dedlew
nI .sretaeh teltuo dna telni eht ot dedlew si slarips fo metsys ebut lanretni ehT .snoitces
neeb evah retaeh eht fo edis eht ta srellor ,ylbmessasid dna ylbmessa etatilicaf ot redro
eht fo dne mottob eht morf era stixe dna seirtne maets dna retaw deef htoB .dedivorp
eht dna gnipip fo tnemegnarra eht ezimitpo ot egatnavda eht sreffo ngised sihT .sretaeh
.noitatS rewoP ta sretaeh eht fo noitacol
deef eht ,tnemegnarra hcus yb dna edisretaw deef no seires ni detcennoc era sretaeh PH )b
sretaeh eseht ot deilppus si maets eht .7 & 6 ,5 HPH eht sretne pmup deef retfa ,retaw
sretaeh esehT .sevlav detarepo rotom hguorht enibrut eht fo 1 ,2 ,3 .oN deelb eht morf
ni erutpar ebut fo tneve eht nI .edisretaw deef eht no noitcetorp ssap yb puorg a evah
puorg eht ,level suoregnad ot gnisir etasnednoc eht fo level eht dna HPH eht fo yna
gnissap yb suht ,reliob ot yltcerid retaw deef eht yllacitamotua strevid ecived noitcetorp
.sretaeh .P .H 3 eht lla
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252
VARIOUS TYPES OF FANS & THEIR DRIVES
1.0 INTRODUCTION :
A fan can be defined as a volumetric machine, which like pump moves quantities of air
or gas from one place to another. In doing so, energy transfer takes place from machine to the
fluid. Fans, blowers compressors pumps etc, fall under one category where energy transfer
occurs from the machine to the fluid. Here mechanical energy is converted into fluid energy.
Turbines fall under another category where energy transfer is from the fluid to the
machine. In other words in case of fans, power is consumed as they rotate with the help of
prime mover where as turbine rotate due to the fluid energy and helps in generating power.
2.0 Classification of fans :

Fans can be classified into two major types according to the direction of fluid flow in
the Impeller -
i) Axial flow and ii) Radial flow.
2.1 Axial Flow Fans :

In axial flow fans the main flow is parallel to the axis of rotation of the fan both at entry
and exit.
Axial flow fans can be further classified into two types :
i) Impulse Type and ii) Reaction Type Fans.
2.1.1 Impulse Type :

In the impulse type, most of the energy coming out of impeller is Kinetic Energy. It is
converted into pressure energy in the outlet blades and the diffuser. Hence these fans are
called Impulse Fans.
2.1.2 Reaction Type :

In the Reaction type of Axial fans most of the energy coming out of the impeller is in
the form of pressure energy. It is known as Degree of Reaction.
R = Static Pressure Rise Across the Impeller

Total Pressure Rise.
The value of R for impulse fans is less than 0.2 where as for reaction fan R is around 0.8.
The Pressure rise for an individual fan can be increased multifold by arranging two or more
impellers in series in the same housing depending upon the requirement. This is called staging.
Suppose the total pressure rise required is ‘P’ then individual impeller is designed to develop
P/2 pressure.
2.2 Radial Fan :

Based on the configuration of blades with respect to direction of rotation of impeller is
called backward curved, forward curved and Radial bladed impeller. It can be mentioned that
147
the blade angle at exit is less than 900, equal to 900 and greater than 900 in B. C. bladed,
Radial bladed and F. C. Bladed impellers respectively.
Backward curved blades are the best efficient among the three and hence mostly used.
Forward curved impellers have the overloading characteristic and are more power consuming.
2.3 Fan Designation :

The fans presently used are having different designation.
2.3.1. Radial Fan

a) NDFV Y Z
NDFV : Radial single suction overhung impeller with inlet guide vane control.
Y : Nominal tip diameter of Impeller in decimeter.
Z : Type of wheel b, c, d.
b) NDV Y Z
NDV : Radial single suction simply supported Impeller.
Z : Type of wheel.
c) NDZV Y Z
NDZV : Radial double suction simply supported Impeller.
Z : Type of wheel.
2.3.2. Axial Fan :

a) A N M C6
A : Axial
N : Non profiled bladed.
M : Nominal tip diameter of impeller in decimeter.
C6 : Diffuser designation.
b) APXYZ
A : Axial
P : Profile bladed.
X : No. of stages.
Y : Tip diameter in decimeter.
Z : HUB diameter in decimeter.
3.0 Advantages and Disadvantages of these Fans :
3.1 Axial type : In which the fluid is accelerated parallel to the fan axis.
3.1.1 Advantages :
Axial fans have the following advantages.
a) The physical size is less than for a comparable capacity centrifugal fan. The cost is less.
b) The impeller blades can be of variable pitch type. This gives efficient and rapid control.
148
3.1.2 However they have the following disadvantages :
a) The noise level is higher because of high tip speed.
b) The impeller blades may be subject to erosion, particularly toward the tips because of the
high speed.
c) It is essential that the pitch change gear, which is mounted in the hub of the impeller,
must be carefully sealed to prevent the ingress of dust and grit.
3.2. Radial or Centrifugal type :

In which the fluid is accelerated of right angles to the fan axis.
There are three types of blade form in the radial fan.
(a) Radial or straight (b) Forwarded curved and (c) back ward curved Centrifugal fan
has the following advantages and disadvantages.
3.2.1. Advantages :
a) Efficiency is higher than axial type. b) Easy repairable at site c) Less noise.
3.2.2. Disadvantages :
a) Higher cost both initially and operating.
b) Physical size is more in comparison to axial type.
3.2.3 Performance of centrifugal fans :

With speed change, the theoretical performance at constant efficiency follows fan laws,
which are :
i) Capacity ∝ N (N = rpm)
ii) Head ∝ N2
iii) Power input ∝ N3
Backward curved blades have air leaving at low velocity from the blade ties, making
them more suitable for high motor speed. Then power consumption at an intermediate flow so
that they cannot be over loaded. Power plants use this type of fan for F. D. Fans.
The forward or straight bladed fans are preferred for I. D. Fans since then lower speed retards
blade erosion caused by fly ash.
3.2.4 Control of fan output :

1. Necessity : In any system load conditions will vary such as from light up of the boiler to
full load & load fluctuation during normal operation. Thus to maintain combustion &
draft conditions at different loads control of far output is essential. Further a margin of
pressure & capacity, above those normally required for full output, has to be provided on
draft plant to compensate for boiler fouling, adverse combustion conditions or poor fuel,
which again calls for draft plant control from zero load to MCR.
2. Methods : Following methods of control of output are available.

a) Damper control : It is a simple control & acts as a throttle valve introducing
resistance into the system to restrict the fan output to any desired quantity. The use of
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dampers to control draft is very inefficient, as the excess energy developed at a particular
load must be dissipated by throttling. Thus, system cannot be used on large capacity
boilers. The system has however got the following advantages :
i) Low initial cost
ii) Easy adoption operation including that on automatic control.
iii) The least expensive type of fan drive, constant speed A. C. Motors can be used.
iv) Continuous or stepless control.
b) Inlet vane control : This method of control requires less horse power at fractional
output than outlet damper control. The vanes are located radialy in the inlet eye of the
casing. In the fully closed position they overlap each other slightly. Each vane spindle is
connected by a lever to a ring supported on the fan casing & this ring is free to rotate
through a limited arc.
The inlet vanes give the air or gas a varying degree of spin in direction of fan
rotation. This enables the required head to be produced at a proportionately lower power
input. Inlet vane control is costlier as compared to damper control, but cheaper than
that of speed control. Vane leakage often makes it difficult to reduce the air/gas flow
below 1/4th of full fan output when a single speed motor is used. For large size fans says
for 500 MW units this control is used in conjunction with two speed drive.
c) Variable speed control : This is the most efficient method of control from the
point of view of power consumption. However, speed control involves high capital cost, &
the added complications of variable A. C. or D.C. motor system. Mechanical or hydraulic
coupling are other methods to attain variable speeds. As stated before the inlet vane
control with two speed drive is finding greater application.
d) Blade Pitch Control : This type of control achieved in axial reaction fan. The
impeller blades are tilted during operation and hence the angle of entry is varied to vary
the performance. The hydraulic servomotor helps in achieving the control with the help
of an external oil system.
On large modern plant almost all dampers & control equipment are provided with
remote control; in other words, they are operable from a central control room. However,
local control is provided for emergency use & is generally backed up by a manual operation
facility.
4.0 Constructional features

4.1 NDFV FAN (FIG. 1 )
The major sub-assemblies may be listed as:
i) Spiral casing.
ii) Impeller.
iii) Inlet guide vane control assembly.
150
iv) Shaft with bearing assembly.
v) Seal assembly.
i) Spiral Casing :
It consists of two parallel side walls, spiral plate, inlet cone. The casing is a fully
welded structure stiffened by rolled section both inside and outside. The spiral wall is rough
rolled initially and then corrected while welding the side walls. The inlet cone, which forms the
entrance to the spiral casing helps in accelerating the flow. On to the inlet side flange of this
cone the IGV is mounted. Manhole is provided in the spiral casing. Drain connection has been
given at the lowest point of the casing. The casing rests in the foundation by means of four
rigid footings. For maintenance, lifting eyes have been provided.
ii) Impeller :
The impeller is a welded structure consisting of back plate, cover plate, impeller ring,
blades and hub.
Blades have been welded on to the back plate and cover plate with proper welding
sequence. The impeller welded to the inlet side of the cover plate at its inside diameter. The
hub is welded to the back plate. Hub will have a taper bore for the mounting of the impeller on
to the shaft. The impeller is dynamically balanced.
iii) Inlet Guide Vane Control Assembly :

It is a one piece housing flanged at both sides, one connected to the inlet cone flange
and the other to the flange of the inlet bell. The blades of the IGV are of thin sheets fixed on
to the individual shafts by rivets. All the IGV shafts are connected to a common ring through
angular joints and levers. The ring is divided and it is externally actuated by a power cylinder
or servomotor.
iv) Shaft with Bearing Assembly :

a) Shaft :
It is solid and dynamically balanced. Critical speed will be well above the operating
speed (more than 30%). One end is having a taper on to which the impeller is mounted and
the other end is having provision for taking one coupling half through key. Torque is transmitted
through the keyed joint on the coupling side and by the taper lit to the impeller. Shaft is
provided with oil holes and grooves for hydraulic mounting and dismounting.
b) Bearings :
Bearings for these NDFV fans are monoblock design with two cylindrical roller bearings
and one angular contact ball bearing kept in the same housing. Bearings and housing are the
same for fan sizes 1825. The bearings are lubricated by stand oil. Presently forced oil circulation
system has also been envisaged as a safety measure in meeting the bearing high temperature
problems.
The advantages of the monoblock design are that the shaft is of shorter length. Hence
it is easy for machining the bearing locations in one setting and avoids a lot of misalignment.
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It is shop assembled due to its compactness and hence only impeller mounting is done at site.
v) Seal Assembly :
The sealing of the shaft passage through the spiral is effected axially by means of
labyrinth and radially by asbestos strips. The labyrinth seal is centered and fastened at the
bearing housing. As a consequence it is possible to adjust the gaps in the labyrinth seals very
precisely centered and fastened at the bearing housing: as a consequence it is possible to
adjust the gaps in the labyrinth seals very precisely.
4.2 (Fig.2): (NDV & NDZV Fans)

The fan as a whole can be divided into some major sub assemblies.
i) Spiral Casing
ii) Impeller.
iii) Shaft
iv) Bearings
v) Damper Assembly.
vi) Sealing.
NOTE : Difference between NDV & NDZV fans is that one side suction chamber with damper
is absent in NDV fans.
i) Spiral Casing :
The spiral casing consists of two parallel side walls, spiral wall, suction chamber and
inlet cone. It is split horizontally in the shaft axis plane. If necessary upper portion will also be
vertically split off center so that impeller installing is easy. The inlet cones and the suction
chamber are welded to the side walls. The casing walls, spiral wall and the suction chamber
walls are reinforced by rolled sections. Also the inside is reinforced without affecting the flow
through the casing.
The inlet cone helps in accelerating the flow and supports the inlet ring.
ii) Impeller :
The impeller is a completely welded structure. It consists of center plate or back plate,
cover plate, blades. The blades are welded between back plate and cover plate. Proper welding
sequence is followed to have minimum distortion.
The three different impellers are:

NDV : Single suction with full back plate.
NDZV : Double suction with common full center plate.
NDZV : Double suction saw-tooth type center plate.
The saw tooth type wheel design has the center plate recessed between the blades.
The other things are same.
Blades are all of circular single arc profile. The impeller ring comes at the inlet dia. of
the cover plate. The center and hub disc have a machined groove, which ensures central
152
location of the wheel relative to the shaft during operation (running fit). The internal recess of
center and hub disc permits central assembly (assembly fit.)
To protect the connection from wear between impeller, shaft and center disc a conical
cover plate is provided which is fixed to the center plate for NDZV fans and fixed to the hub
disc in the case of NDV fans.
Upon completion of all welding operations, the impellers are stress relieved. It is
dynamically balanced.
iii) Shaft :
The shaft is a hollow tube with two end pins shrunk fit at the two ends and welded.
Torque is transmitted through the fit and the weld is only for securing purpose. The tube is
controlled at the inside diameter. The shaft ends are machined after welding. A flat split ring
is welded on to the shaft tube for taking up the shaft flange. The completed shaft is dynamically
balanced.
The shaft’s first critical speed must be a least 35% above the operating speed. It is so
dimensioned to meet this requirement.
iv) Bearings:
The impeller is mounted on pillow block bearings. One is a locating bearing and the
other is a non locating (free) bearing. The bearings are spherical roller type housed in SOFN
bearing housing. Temperature gauges are provided on the housings for each bearing.
For special customer demands sleeve bearings are also provided.
v) Damper Assembly :
This consists of a single piece casing, damper flaps, damper bearing and the actuating
mechanism.
It is a welded casing flanged at both ends. The bearing pedestals are mounted to the
side walls by screws.
There are 3 to 5 flaps fixed by screws on to then shafts which, are supported by
pedestals providing dry lubrication. The flat shafts carry clamping levers and the adjusting
torque is transmitted by leather keys and the individual clamping levers are connected by a
linkage.
In double suction fans the two damper assemblies at the two suction chambers are
connected through universal joints and driven only from one side. Depending on the site
conditions the drive can be arranged on the linkage side. The adjusting travel is same for all
fan sizes. Connected to the drive unit is provided by an adjusting rod with ball joints. A
graduated plate indicates the flap position in degrees.
vi) Seals :
Sealing for the shaft with the spiral casing consists of a labyrinth section for axial and
an asbestos strip for radial sealing. The labyrinth seal in centrally located and screwed to the
bearing pedestal which helps precise controlling of the labyrinth passage.
The asbestos strip ensures that the movement of the spiral casing during hot conditions
relative to the impeller wheel does not affect the fan function.
153
The unmachined flanges of the spiral casing are sealed with asbestos rope.
4.3 ‘AP’ Fan:

The major sub-assemblies of this type of fans are:
i) Suction Chamber.
ii) Shaft with Bearing Assembly.
iii) Impeller Assembly
iv) Servomotor Assembly.
v) Diffuser Assembly.
i) Suction chamber :
This is a completely welded structure suitably stiffened to reduce the vibrations. Man-
hole is provided for accessibility.
ii) Shaft with Bearing Assembly :

The bearings for these fans are placed inside a common housing and they are shop
assembled on to the shaft. It is very compact as the housing is placed inside static hub, which
guides the flow to the impeller. To one end of shaft the impeller is either flange mounted or
taper mounted depending upon the size of the fan. This main shaft is connected to the prime
mover by means of an intermediate shaft with flexible coupling.
iii) Impeller Assembly :

This is the most sophisticated and complicated part of the fan. It is highly precision
machined and close toleranced one. The hub surface is spherical and 23 blades are located on
the penphery. The heart of the impeller is one colled supporting body which is a casting. All
the 23 blades are fixed on to the individual shafts which are supported in the supporting body
by bearings.
iv) Servomotor Assembly :

A hydraulic servomotor fixed on to the impeller hub on the discharge side helps in
achieving the actuation of the blades. The servomotor consists of a piston and cylinder assembly
with control slide and control spool. These are externally controlled by an oil system and
electric servomotor with proper linkages.
v) Diffuser Assembly :
The diffuser assembly is completely welded structure with a cone inside. This helps in
converting the kinetic energy into pressure energy. The linkages for the servomotor are taken
through eyes provided on the diffuser outlet blades are also housed inside the diffuser. Actually
the diffuser core is supported by the outlet blades on the inlet side of the diffuser. There is a
manhole provided for attending to the servomotor linkages.
Following fans are used in the boiler houses :
1. Forced draft fan (F. D. Fan)

To take all from atmosphere at ambient temperature to supply essentially all the
154
combustion air.
Can either be sized to overcome all the boiler losses (pressurised system) or just put
the air in the furnace (balanced draft units).
Speeds vary between 600 to 1500 r.p.m.
2. Induced draft fan (I. D. Fan) :

Used only in balanced draft units to suck the gases out of the furnace and throw them
into the stack.
Handles fly ash laden gases at temperatures of 1250 to 2000C.
Speeds seldom exceeds 1000 r.p.m.
3. Primary air fans (P. A. fans) or Exhauster fan:

Used for pulverised system :
Primary air has got two functions viz, drying the coal and transportation into the
furnace.
Usually sized for 1500 r.p.m. due to higher pressure.
4. Seal air fan :

Used to seal mill bearings, coal feeders and coal pipes in case of pressure type mill.
May take air from atmosphere and supply air to mill at a pressure higher than mill pressure or
may take up suction from cold P. A. Header and boast up that pressure.
There may be seal air fan for each mill or they may supply to a common duct from
where air can be supplied to mills for sealing.
Speed depends on the type of arrangement and fan.
5. Igniter air fan :

Used to provide necessary combustion air to the igniter.
Two fans are usually provided, one will run and the other will remain as stand by.
A control damper is provided on the discharge which modulate to maintain a constant differential
pressure (about 75 mm of wcl.) across igniter.
Typical speed 1460 RPM.
6. Scanner air fan:

Used to provide necessary cooling air to the flame scanners.
When F. D. Fans are running a portion of cold air is diverted to the scanner air fans and
then to the flame scanner cooling air connections.
Two scanner air fans are usually provided, one will run and other will remain as stand
by. When F. D. Fans trip, the scanner air fan will draw air from atmosphere through emergency
damper.
Typical speed 3000 r.p.m.
155
156
✦✦✦
157
ASH HANDLING PLANT
General Description :
The fly ash from the flue gas passing through the Electrostatic precipitator is collected
in the ESP hopper. At the bottom opening of the hopper , hand operated slid plate valve is
installed bellow which feeder ejector is installed. The feeder ejector is supplied with water of
about 15Kg/cm2 pressure from the clear water system. A hand-operated valve controls the
quantity of water feeder ejector.
The slurry formed in the feeder ejector flows to the slurry tank through slurry pipes.
The slurry tank is having two hyjectors installed at the bottom. Clear water supply having
pressure of 15Kg/cm2 is supplied to the hyjector. With this water pressure, the slurry from the
tank is pumped to the slurry through from where it flows to the ash disposal area by gravity.
Construction :
The body is made of C.I. It is a Y shaped body, one leg of which is water inlet and other
end is slurry outlet. The third leg which is at an angle with the centerline of first two legs is
ash entry.
The throat piece and venturi is made of alloy C.I., which holds the nozzle, thus adjusting
the flow of water in the venturi. Inlet piece is made of C.I. and is connected to the inlet water
pipe.
Operation :
High pressure clear water from clear water system is fed to the hyjetor through the
sluice valve. The water passes through converging, type nozzle and pressure energy is converted
into velocity energy.
This high pressure water is directed to the throat of the throat piece and while passing
through it, a partial vacuum is created. The ash slurry from the tanks get in the hyjector
under influence of the two forces, the static head of the slurry in the tank and partial vacuum
hyjector body. The slurry along with pressure water passes through throat piece and into the
venture. In diverging type venturi, the velocity energy is again converted into pressure energy
and slurry pumped out of the venture.
Hand operated slide plate valve :

When hand wheel is rotated in anticlock wise direction, the valve opens and when it is
rotated in clock-wise direction, the valve closes.
Hand operated Butterfly valve :

The handle has got a spewing loaded lock. The locking lever has to be pressed befoe
operating the valve. For opening or closing the valve, the lever has to be moved through 900
and the locking lever to be released so that valve remains locked in that position.
Hand operated sluice valve :

These are standard C.I. double flanged non-rising spindle type sluice valves. The valves
158
open when the wheel is rotated in anticlock wise direction and closes when the wheel is
rotated in clock wise.
Feeder ejector :
This unit is installed below individual fly ash hopper slating position as shown below in
Fig. When the water starts flowing through the nozzles, the vacuum is created however, the
vacuum is maintained at a pre-determined value as the air intake valve opens and allows the
air to pass in the system if the vacuum increases. This ensures that the water from the
nozzles does not enter the body and hence the wetting of ash is avoided.
The ash falls by gravity in the body and gets fluidized by the incoming air from the air
intake valve. It gets past nozzle ring and is sucked and flows to discharge pipe through
venturi.
If the ash does not flow freely, the air intake valve can be closed momentarily there by
increasing the vacuum will suck the ash and the flow will again be smooth. The main advantage
is that feeder ejector never gets choked. As the water will never flow back in the body, there
is no chance of getting the ash wet, The ash in the feeder ejector is always dry and dry ash will
never get choked.
159
Ash/Slag conveying, pneumatic, Hydraulic, Screw Extractors etc.
General :
The type of ash handling plant installed at a power station depends upon the method
adopted for the final disposal of the ash that is, whether it is to be removed from the station
by road vehicles in either a wet or dry condition, or pumped in the form of slurry to an area at
a distance from the plant or by a combination of both methods.
Following are the principal systems adopted for ash disposal in a power station.
Pneumatic conveyer system :

In this a pressure vessel type pump as shown in the following fig.is used which operates
automatically. When the pump’ container is empty or butterfly valve in the inlet sleeve and a
mushroom valve at the top of the container automatically open/and admit a charge of ash /
dust. During the filling period, which lasts only a few seconds, a vent remains open to provide
an escape for the displaced air. The weight of the ash/dust of the charge causes the container
to move downward on its spring mountings and when a predetermined full charge is reached,
the depressed position of
the container actuates a
pilot valve and starts the
discharge portion of the
cycle. First the butterfly
valve closes, and stops
the flow of dust. The
mushroom valve then
closes after the flow of
dust has ceased. It thus
closes in a dust free
atmosphere “to ensure a
good seal. The air vent
closes next. The air
supply to the aerating
nozzles, discharge
nozzle and pressurizing
connection is applied
automatically and this
moves the mixture into
the transport line. This
type and many other of
a similar type are giving
satisfactory result with a
minimum of trouble &
maintenance costs.
160
Dust storage silos : The dust storage silos are usually of reinforced concrete construction
and normally have a capacity of one and half to two days storage of dust.
A filter at the top of the silo cleans the air bringing dust into the silo. The filters are of
the bag type and are made of cotton sateen or terylene, cleaning of the bags is accomplished
by isolating a bag, or a number of bags, and reversing the flow of air so that the dust
accumulated on the outside of the bag is dislodged and falls into the silo below. An exhaust
fan keeps the filter under negative pressure causing air from the dust source to flow through
the bag, it also draws air from the outside atmosphere for cleaning the bags.
The base of the silo is flat and is, fitted with a system of internal fluidizing conveyors
which aerate the dust and materially assist in its removal from the silo.
Mixer conveyors, or dust condition are provided to damper the dust, so, that it can be
transported in open type road vehicles.
As shown, in Fig. the mixture conveyor a ‘U’ shaped trough in which two rotating
shafts fitted with paddles convey the ash from the inlet to the out let. The paddles, which are
bolted on to the shafts , are contra rotating which produces a kneading or tumbling motion to
the dust. Fine water sprays within the trough mix intimately with the dust and produce a just
dump, dust free mixture.

Water Jet Pump hydraulic Sluicing System :
The water jet pump type ash sluicing, system, specifically designed for handling the
furnace bottom ash, clinkers and slag, consists of four main units. Water impounded ash pit
hopper with jetting nozzles and sluice discharge gate. Feed hopper with cut off gate. Water jet
pump & Sluice conveyor pipe line.
when the ash is to be removed, the sluice discharge gate ast the front of hopper is
161
raised, the cut off gate is opened, and the valves opened in the high pressure clear water
supply lines’ to the jetting nozzles and the water jet pump. The ash is thus discharged out of
the hopper into the small grid feed hopper (fully enclosed) from where the ash is pumped by
the water jet pump. Through the sluice conveyor pipeline direct to the fill area.
Bottom ash handling Plant For 210 MW Unit

General : The water impounded bottom ash hopper receives the bottom ash from the furnace,
where it is stored and periodically discharged hydraulically to tIle clinker grinder and
hydroejector for transfer through transport line to ash slurry pump. A maximum of fifty tones
of bottom ash is collected in every eight hours working shift. The bottom ash system is
capable of disposing this ash in one hour.
Bottom ash system : The water filled ash hopper, receives furnace ash from the boiler,
chilling it as it enters the water to minirnise clinkering and storing it for periodic removal.
The hopper consists of two sections and each section has two sets of inclined feed gate
housing clinker grinder, ejector feed pump and hydroejector.
The mixture of ash and water is discharged simultaneously from each section through
an inclined feed gate and clinker grinder, which reduces the size of the clinker to about 25mm
size. Crushed clinkers and ash water mixture falls into ejector feed pump and is fed to
hydroejector. The hydro ejector provides the jetting action by means of pressurized water to
carry the mixture through discharge line to ash slurry trough. Hopper flushing nozzles are
provided in bottom ash hopper to agitate and remove settled ash from the bottom hopper.
The clinker grinder is equipped with an automatic reversing mechanism Should an
overload occur in the grinder, it stops automatically and reverses and a time delay relay
keeps the grinder running in the reverse direction for approximately ten seconds. After grinder
returns in forward direction, Same sequence is repeated if overload re occurs.
A pressure switch located in the bottom ash transport line will sense a high discharge,
thereby, indicating a blockage or obstruction. When this occurs clinker grinder stops operating
when the pressure drops to present level, grinder will again commence operating. This switch
thus prevents possibility of additional ash being fed into the discharge line.
If water at desired pressure is not available for a hydro ejector or for grinder sealing
then the hopper feed gate closes and clinker grinder stops operating. When pressure of water
at hydroejector, or for grinder sealing becomes normal, clinker grinder starts operating &
hopper feed gate opens.
Booster Water Pump :

Two numbers booster pumps are provided to boost up the clear water pressure from
7.5 kg/Cm2 to 12.5 kg/Cm2. The discharge being 360 m3 /hr. at 5.0 kg/Cm2.
Control panel :
One bottom ash and booster pumps control panel is provided and is located near the
ash hopper.
Operating Instructions for Bottom Ash system :
162
Inform the concerned incharge for start of bottom ash system.
At Bottom Ash & Booster Pumps Control Panel :
1. Select grinder motor Auto Manual Selector Switch 1A (GMAMSS-1A) marked ‘Auto’ ‘OFF’
– ‘Manual’ to ‘Auto’ position.
2. Slect gate selector swltch-1 (GSS-1) marked ‘1A’-1B’ to ‘1A’ position.
3. Select Hydro ejector water valve selector switch-1A (HEWVSS-1A) marked ‘close’ - ‘Open’
to ‘open’ position.
(a) Solenoid valve for Hydroejector (HEWV-1A) is energised which opens the butterfly
valve in hydro ejector water supply line.
(b) Red lamp (HEWVRL-1A) on mimic is illuminated.
4. Check that clear water pump is in operation.
5. Select -Booster water pump selector switch(BWPSS) marked ‘p-1’ - ‘OFF’ - ‘p-2’ to ‘P1’
position.
(a) Solenoid valve for Booster water pump suction valve-1 (BWPSV-l) is energised,
which opens the butterfly valve, in suction line to first pump.
6. Give impulse to BWP start push Button-1(BWPSTPB-1)
(a) If BWP stop push Button_1 (BWPSPPB-1) on local control station is not locked and
if suction water pressure for the pump is adequate, then B.W.P.1 starts operating.
(b) Red, lamp (BWPRL-1) indicating. operation of pump is Illuminated.
(c) Green Lamp(BWPSL-l) is put off.
7. ’Select Grinder seal water valve selector switch - 1A (GSWVSS-1A) marked ‘close’-’Open’
to ‘open. position.
(a) Solenoid valve (GSWV-1A) is energized, which opens diaphragm operated valve, in
seal’ water line to clinker grinder.
8. If water at adequate Pressure is available at hydroejector and for grinder sealing, then
grinder starts operating .
(a) Red Lamp (GMRL-1A) is illurninated indicating operation of grinder in forward
direction.
9. Select B.A.H. Gate Selector Switch-1A (BAHGSS-1A) marked ‘Close’ - ‘Open’ to ‘Open’
position.
(a) Solenoid valve for BAH Gate-1A (BAGGSS_1A) is energised which in turn operates
the air water converter and opens the feed gate of BAH.
(b) Red lamp (BAORL-1A) on mimic is illuminated indicating bottom ash system is in
operation.
10. If necessary, put on switch for BAH Gate light-1A (BAHGLTS-1A) .
(a) Flood light located in ash hopper feed gate housing is illuminated.
11. The water level in ash hopper begins torecede Bottom ash is now being conveyed by
hydroejector to elevated ash slurry trough.
12. When water reaches a low level in the ash hopper open plug valve in water supply line to
163
Bottom Ash hopper-A Gate operation
164
165
166
the flushing header located on one side of the ash hopper.
Fly Ash Removal system for 210 MW unit
GENERAL : The boilers for 210 MW units are supplied by BHEL, having a coal burning rate of
1467 T/Hr with a maximum ash, collection of 57 T/Hr. for the fly ash sluicing scheme offered
by M/S DEMECH, Pune.
The fly ash removal is done hydraulically using a special device supplied by DEMECH,
viz. Feeder ejector. The device is designed in collaboration with M/S Babcock Hyjropneumatic;s
Ltd. U.K.
Air-Heater, Economiser, ‘Fly Ash Removal’ : As shown in Fig. each hopper there is a plate
isolator and cylinder operates slide plate valve. The expansion joint has been provided to
compensate for the expansion of the hoppers. Below each hopper, a mixed with water and
flows by gravity to the ash slurry sump through fly ash sluicing pipe.
ESP & Stack Fly Ash : Below each hopper, plate isolator and cylinder operated slide plate
valves are provided as shown in Fig. (a) and Fig. (b) The ash is conveyed through these
valves to feeder ejector which mixes the ash with water and the slurry so formed flows to the
slurry sump through sluicing pipes.
Ash Disposal System

The Ash slurry s1imp is a R.C.C. tank, with sloped bottom and lined with M.S. replaceable
Wear plates under all discharge points. Two sets of agitator nozzles in the slurry sump keep
solids in floating state. The slurry sump consists of, four compartments each connected to an
ash slurry pump. Manually operated gates are provided to isolate each compartment for
maintenance.
The ash slurry mixture of water and bottom ash, fly ash collected in a slurry sump is
pumped to disposal area by hydroseal pumps through 250 mmNB disposal pipe line. To convey
ash slurry to the specified disposal points four hydroseal slurry pumps are installed, each
equipped with independent suction and discharge line upto the disposal area.
Make up water requirement of ash slurry sump is automatically regulated by means. of
diaphragm operated butterfly valve controlled by a pneumatic indicating controller. The
controller senses the slurry level in the sump by a bubbler tube arrangement signals valve
positioner to operate the control valve. Ash slurry sump high and low levels have been
annunciated on the main fly ash and pumps control room panel situated in the ash handling
control room, besides this, interlock for tripping the ash slurry pumps in the event of low level
in the slurry sump has also been provided.
Details of Equipment:
1. Hand Operated Plate Valve :
This vaJve is used as a hopper isolating valve required for maintenance purposes. This
valve is normally kept open. In Case of maintenance of equipment’s below the hoppers this is
closed.
Construction : The valve is fabricated out of M.S plates and sections. The isolating plate is
167
sandwiched between the two frames fabricated out of M. S. Plates. ‘The plate can be pushed
or pulled with ‘the help of a handle welded to the plate. The sealing is achieved with the help
of felt strips provided on the frame in the contact area of the ends. The specialty of the valve
is that when the valve is open, the entire frame is covered by a plate leaving no space for
accumulation of ash and subsequent failure of the valve.
Operation : The valve is pulled out for ‘closing’ and pushed in for ‘Opening’.
168
169
170
2. Pneumatically Operated Slide plate Valve :
Construction : The valve consists of C.l. body which has got two openings on each at top and
bottom. On top openings a replaceable valve seat is fitted by means of bolts.
• The slid plate is made of C.l with integral wedges on lower side of the plate.
• The slide block is fitted rigidly on the spindle using the projections provided on slide
plate.
• The valve plate slide freely on the slide blocks.
• The camber rest on the supporting blocks in the body.
• The spindle made of EN-8 steel is coupled with air cylinder shaft using a shackle joint. The
end cover houses a G. M. bush.
• The air cylinder is mounted on the valve using an adopter plate fitted on the air cylinder
and four screws in the end cover of the slide plate valve.
Operation : The air cylinder is provided with the solenoid valve, remotely controlled from the
panel. The solenoid valve is given an A. C, supply of 100 V.
The solenoid valve is provided with a spring return arrangement, fitted on the air
motor which ensures the closing of valves due to de-energizing of coil, in case of power
failure.
The filter lubricator regulator unit is provided for a row of hoppers in the instrument air
pipe line to supply moisture free and dust free lubricating air to air cylinders. The slide plates
are opened in the predetermined sequence from the control panel.
3. Feeder ejector :
Construction : The body is made up of C. I. It is Cl “Y” shaped piece one end of which is
enlarged to form a water jacket around the cebtral opening. The other end is having an air
intake valve which controls the air entering the feeder ejector, fluidizing of ash and thus
assisting in conveying same. The third end is at an angle with the centre line of the above two
ends and act as an ash inlet.
Nozzle Ring : It is C.l. ring with hardened stainless steel nozzles fitted on it.
Venturi : It is especially designed alloy C. I. Converging diverging venturi in which the water
from the nozzle converges and creates vacuum.
Operation : ‘This unit is installed below individual fly ash hopper in a slanting position when
the Hater starts flo-wing through the nozzles, the vacuum is created. However, the vacuum
will be maintained at a predetermined value as the air intake valve opens and allows the air
to pass in the system if the vacuum increases-’This ensures, that. water from the nozzles
does not enter the body and hence the wetting of ash is avoided.
The ash falls by gravity in the body and gets fluidized by the incoming air from the air
171
intake valve. It gets past the nozzle ring. and is sucked in the cone of water spray, gets mixed
with the water and flows to discharge pipe through venturi.
If the ash does not flow freely, the air intake valve can be closed momentarily, thereby,
increasing the vacuum in the system. This increase in the vacuum will suck the ash and the
flow will again be smooth. The main advantage is that feeder ejector never gets choked. As
the water will never flow back in the body there is no chance of the- ash getting wet. The ash
in the feeder ejector is always dry and dry ash will never get choked.
4. Expansion Joint :
The expansion joint is provided between the pneumatically operated slide plate valve
and feeder ejector. Expansion joint is provided to compensate for the thermal expansion of
the hoppers in vertical as well as horizontal planes.
Construction : The mild steel pipes having flange at one end and the other end plain are
coupled together with the help of rubber bellows .The rubber bellows are clamped to the pipes
with the help of Screw clamps. The rubber bellows are suitable to face the expansion in the
horizontal and vertical direction and also to withstand the high ash temperature-
Mixing Chambers : This device is used for thoroughly mixing the ash with water for low
handling rates. This is fabricated out of M.S.plates. The ash enters the mixing chamber from
the inlet pipe and is mixed with the water injected through the nozzles fitted at the strategic
points. The nozzles are fitted, so as, to give the slurry a whirling motion’ and agitate it
continuously. The slurry outlet pipe is kept at a length higher than the ash inlet to achieve the
necessary sealing of hoppers against the irqress of atmosphere. The slurry, thus, overflows
through the ash outlet pipe and is laid to tho sluice pipe provided bellow. The water supply to
the nozzle is controlled with the help of hand operated valve provided to the individual mixing
chamber.
5. Sleeve Coupling :
Construction : The, slide rings or flanges are made up of C.l. The collar is made up of C.l.
‘The sealing ring s are made up of rubber.
Operation : This is used to connect the C.l. disposal pipes. The couplings are used at the pipe
joints, the flanges are inserted on the ends of the pipes. ‘The rubber rings are also nested over
the free ends of, pipes. The collar is then moved over the pipe and the pipe is moved near the
free and of the other pipe. A gap of about,10mrn is kept between the free ends of two pipes
and the collar is moved over so that the free end of both the pipes are covered by the collar.
The rubber rings are then moved to come in contact with the collar. The flanges are then
moved near the rubber rings and bolts are put and tightened so that the joints become leak
proof.
172
Specifications of Equipment
Hand Operated segregating valve Type & make : Plate type / DEMECH
Quantity : 98
Size : 6" (150 mm)
Method of operation : Manual.
Pneurnatically operated slide plate valve :
Type : Pneumatically Operated/DEMBCH.
Quantity : 98
Size : 6" (150 mrn)
Method of operation - Pneumatic cylinders.
Expansion Joints :
Type and Make : Rubber bellows type/ Demech
Quantity : 96
Size : 6" (150 mm)
Feeder Ejector :
Type and Make : ‘Y’ Shaped/ Demech – BHP
Quantity : 82
Size : 6" * 4" * 8"
Capacity : 70 T/Hr
Flow rate : 163m3/Hr
Pressure : 65 mmwc.
Mixing chambers :
Type & Make : Mixing water/Demech
Quantity : 6 no
Size : 6"
Capacity : 10 T/Hr.
Flow rate : 10M3/Hr
Pressure : 50 Mwc
Sleeve, Coupling :
Type & Make : Sleve / Demech
Quantity : 1000
Size : 250 mm
Compressors :
Type & make : Air Compressors/Kirloskar Pneumatic
Quantity : 2 nos
Model : TC 200 M base compressors
Capacity : 4m3 vertical air receiver with auto
drain, trip, safety valve, pressure
gauge.
Drive Details :
Type & Make : Electric Motor / Kirloskar
Motor rating : 30 KW
RPM : 1500
✦✦✦
173
DESCRIPTION AND WORKING
OF A OIL HANDLING PLANT
In a coal-fired boiler oil firing is adopted for the purpose of warming up of the boiler
imparting stability to the coal flame and low load operation. Efficient or complete combustion
of oil fuel is best achieved by finer atomizing of oil and proper turbulent mixing with combustion
air. Supplying oil at appropriate pressure and temperature are essential requirements for
better atomization. Pumps and heaters are the main auxiliaries for the oil system.
In case of steam atomizing design, the highly expanding steam further improves the fineness
of oil droplets.
Heavy fuel oil from storage tank is let to the fuel oil pumps located in a pump house.
The temperature of the fuel oil is 400C to 600C. The heavy fuel oil passes through the strainer
on the station side of pump and gets pressurized. The pressure maintaining-cum-regulating
valve, PCV connected to the delivery side of the pump, by passes the excessive pressurized oil
automatically to the common return oil line to one day tanks when only small quantity of oil
is fired.
Heavy oil from the delivery side enters the H.O. preheater when it is heated to about
1150C corresponding to an atomizing viscosity of 16 CST. The out let temperature of H.O. from
heating unit is automatically maintained at constant temperature by automatic temperature
regulating valve, mounted on auxiliary steam supply line heaters.
From the oil preheater oil is let to the boiler through oil delivery line and then to each
burner as shown in diagram. Fuel oil from the oil preheater can be recirculated to return oil
line from near the boiler from before it branches off to each burner. The recirculation of
preheated fuel oil heats up the oil lines.
At the end of oil supply line to burners, a valve for recirculation of fuel oil to the return
oil line is provided. Fuel oil of 1150 C temperature at boiler front and burners can be obtained
by recirculating oil through recirculation valve. Then the recirculating valve is gradually closed
and the oil is admitted to each oil burner.
The recirculating valve after the last burner can be kept slightly open to circulate a
small quantity of hot fuel oil to prevent solidification of fuel oil at dead ends and to ensure
uniform temperature of fuel oil in the piping.
All heavy F.O. lines are steam traced with steam line to prevent loss of heat and
prevent, solidification of heavy oil and to maintain the temperature of heavy oil at the required
tempreture. Steam tracing lines are provided with steam traps.
Specifications : Heavy Fuel Oil

Used for Relevant standard Stabilising coal flame and low load carrying
1 .S, 1593, 1960.
Flash point 660 C.
Kinematics viscosity at 500 C, max. 120 centistokes
Sulfur, total by weight, max. 4 per cent.
174
API gravity 12, SP gravity, 0.986 at 150 C.
Gross heating value 10270 Kcal/kg.
Heavy Fuel Oil Guns

Application Stabilizing coal flame low load carrying start up.
Type Tilting tangential steam atomized, inter mix.
No. off 12 (4 per elevation).
Located at Elevations AB and EF at corner wind box.
Capacity 25 per cent of boiler MCR per elevation max. 25 percent
of oilier MCR total one or two elevations.
Oil firing rate 3380 kg/hr/gun.
Oil pressure at the gun 8.5 kg/cm2g.
Oil viscosity at the atoinising 10 to 28 Centistoke superheated by 10 to 150 C.
steam gun quantity.
Steam consumption 310 kg/hr/gun during normal operation 400 kg/hr/gun
during gun scavenging.
Steam pressure at the gun 9.5 kg/cm2 (gauge).
Differential pressure between oil 15 psi. (1kg/cm2) steam pr. To the more than oil pr.
and steam
Atomizer nozzle assembly designation Mixing plate-N B SH spray plate 60 N8.
Heavy Oil Pump

Pump type Triple screw, positive displacement with built in relief
valve.
No. off 2 (including one standby).
Capacity of each pump 285 lit/min at 80 cst.
Pressure 18.5 kg/cm2.
Make Messrs, Joh. Heinr Bornemann & Co.
Motor rating 15 kW, 415 volts, 3O, 50 cps.
Speed 1000 RPM synchronous
Heavy Oil Heaters

Type U-tube, hairpin type, oil on the shell side,
condensing type.
No. off 2 (including one standby)
Heater area each 25 M2.
Oil flow rate 15 T/Hr.
Oil temperature range 400 C to 1100 C.
Steam parameters 10 kg/cm2
Design pressure 24-kg/cm2 oil side.16-kg/cm2 g steam side.
175
Steam trap make and type Messrs. Greaves Cotton Ltd., inverted bucket type.
Steam trap capacity 3.5 T/hr at a pressure of 10 kg/cm² g
F.O. Storage Tanks :

No. of Three
Capacity of each tank 2000 tonnes
Size 15.7 M diameter x 12.5 meter height
Lubricant for F.O. Pump Motor Servogen no. 3 hand packed.
Check the following before starting heavy fuel oil pumps:

1. Check that clearances are recorded for starting fuel oil pump, strainer, heater, F.O. and
pressure filter and F.O. system. No repair work is in progress.
2. Check that F.O. pump and motor are lubricated.
3. Check that all controllers, flow meters, pressure gauges etc are in service.
4. Isolating valve on F.O. supply line to stage III is closed.
5. F.O. pumps inlet valve for the units not in service are closed.
6. Suction strainer drain and vent are opened. After oil draining close drain valve.
7. F.O. suction strainer inlet and outlet valve is closed.
8. Check the level of F.O. in storage tank wherefrom F.O. is to be drawn.
9. F.O. pump inlet valve and outlet valve are opened and valve at common discharge line is
opened.
Light Oil :
Use for Relevant standard Cold start up of boiler warm up guns and igniter.
I.S. 1460/1968 Grade A or Grade special or I.S. 1460/
1974 high-speed diesel.
Flash point 380C
Kinematics viscosity at 30C, max 2 to 7.5 centistokes.
Carbon residue, Ramsbottom by 0.20 percent.
weight (max)
Distillation recovery at 366C, min 90 percent.
Sulfur, total by weight (max) 1 percent.
API gravity 35 SP gravity 0.85 at 150C
Gross heating valve 10720 kcal/kg.
Light Oil Guns :

Application Cold start up warning up of boiler.
Type Tilting tangential air atomized internal max.
No. of 8 (4 per elevation) Can be changeover to F.O.
Located at Elevations AB and EF at the corner wind boxes.
Capacity 5 percent of boiler MCR elevation; 10 percent of boiler
MCR, total
Turndown 2.5:1
Oil firing rate 615 kg/hr/guns
176
Oil pressure at the gun 5.2 kg/cm²g
Atomizing air gravity Service air, water free.
Atomizing air consumption 112.5 Nm3/hr/gm, during operation, 180 Nm3/hr/gun
during fun scavenging.
Atomizing air pressure at the gun 6.2 kg/cm2g
Differential pr. Between oil and air 15 psi (1 kg/cm2) air pressure to be more than oil
pressure by this valve.
Light Oil Pump:

Pump Triple screw, positive displacement with built in relief
valve.
No. of 2 (including one standby)
Capacity per pump 180 liter/min.
Pressure 22 kg/cm2
Make Messrs. Joh heim Bornemann &Co. 9Type PDHU 60-4
NR 2x2 B3)
Motor rating 15 kW, 415 volts, 3.50 c/s
Speed 1500 RPM synchronous.
Igniters:
Application Start up and coal flame stabilization.
No. of 12 (4 per elevation)
Capacity 1.5 million cal/hr (6 million BTU/hr)
Oil firing rate 150 kg/hr/igniter
Oil pressure at the control cabinet 12.5 to 14 kg/cm2
Atomizing air quality Service air, water free.
Steam Purging of Oil Burner Gun:

Before starting and stopping oil gun, it is purged with steam to keep gun hot before
starting and to keep small intricate passage clean after stopping. To facilitate purging each
burner is connected with steam line with necessary non-return valve.
Oil line drains:

All oil system lines are run with a slope of about 0.5% towards drain. Drain valves are
provided at the bottom of all lines.
Trouble Shooting – Atomizers / Oil Guns

Atomization is Poor Atomiser nozzles are blocked internally :
1. Before commissioning blow steam lines and oil lines.
2. Remove debris by blowing with air.
3. Remove any carbonized deposits.
4. Use paraffin bath or kerosene to remove deposits.
5. Do not use hardened scrapper to remove deposits.
177
Badly worn atomizers :
1. Check nozzle hole size by go and no go pins.
2. Slots cut in the atomizer shall be maintained square and flat. If not, lap it with
fine carborundum paste.
Badly damaged atomizer parts :

1. Parts should be gently handled which can be damaged while hammering out of
cap nut.
2. Dropped on floor, produce burrs on sealing surface.
3. All sealing surfaces should be flat and should not be exposed.
Improper assembly of atomizing parts :

a) Oil leakage from cap nut due to :
1. Cap nut not tightened.
2. Dirt between sealing surface.
3. Assembly of damaged atomizer parts / capnut / gun.
b) Carbon growth on atomizer face and cap nut :

Further worsening of atomization due to oil spray impinging on carbon growths on the
cap nut resulting in large oil droplets or streams of oil dripping of oil from atomizer.
c) Atomizer not sealed properly against oil gun sprayer and allowing steam cross flow and
restricting fuel oil flow.
d) To disassemble the oil gun carefully without damage to atomizer parts such as back
plate or mixing plate/spray plate and gun end, follow the procedure below.
Hold the gun rigidly on the hexagon adjacent to the cap nut. Loosen cap nut and undo 1 or 2
turns. Using a piece of wood or soft metal, tap the atomizer back into the nut until it contacts
the gun end. Hold in this position and screw off the cap nut. This keeps the spray plate/
atomizer square with the cap nut and prevents wedging. Care must be taken not to drop the
atomizer parts when the cap nut finally clears off the oil gun.
e) For correct operation, it is important that steam and oil do not meet before the prescribed
point in the counter bore. It is, therefore, critical that no leakage should occur across the joint
face formed by the spray plate, back plate and the gun/sprayer end. The joint is metal to
metal and depends on both faces being flat, clear and satisfactorily clamped together. The
sealing surfaces should be lapped using the ‘figure eight’ pattern.
f) Tightening torque of 150 to 200 feet lbs. should be applied on the cap nut for proper
assembly.
g) The threaded portion of the sprayer should be covered with a non-hardening high
temperature-lubricating compound. This facilitates subsequent removal. Particular care must,
however, be taken to ensure that no compound is trapped between the sealing faces.
h) Lapped atomizer parts should be preserved properly.
178
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971
4. Controller temperature set point is low.
5. Steam control valve undersized (Operate bypass valve).
6. Heating steam wet and pressure is low.
7. Heater tube is ruptured.
8. F.O. inlet temperature is low.
9. F.O. flow through heater is more than designed (bypass
excess quantity through pres/sure maintaining valve).
10. Poor insulation of pipe line.
Auto-change over of F.O. pumps :

Change over is ensured by providing accumulators before F.O. heaters, pressure switches
on discharge side and electrical protections for tripping the running pump and picking up the
standby pump, which is provided with non-return valve. Change over scheme is not yet
introduced.
180
181
✦✦✦
182
GENERAL WORKING AND DESCRIPTION OF
COAL HANDLING PLANT
In thermal power station, Coal is a principal fuel and hence a careful thought is given
to the design and layout of the coal handling plant. As the consumption of coal is very large,
the design and layout of a coal handling plant should be simple but robust with a view to
reduce the maintenance and running cost to the lowest possible figure consistent to reliability.
Mode of Coal Transportation :

Coal is brought to the power station by three modes of transportation :
1. Roadways : Coal is carried in trucks and a truck can carry about 8-10 tons of coal. But due
to low capacity, low unloading rate and time consuming, this mode is not in much use for
large thermal power stations.
2. Railways : coal is brought by railway wagons. One rack consists of 58 wagons. Each
wagon contains 58 MT of coal. Locos bring the wagons from the marshalling yard and place
them on wagon tippler. These wagons are then unloaded with the help of wagon tippler. If
these wagons are not unloaded in stipulated time period (generally 7 hrs.), demurrage charges
are lavied by railway department.
There are two types of wagon tipplers.
a) Side Wagon Tippler : Wagon is unloaded into a hopper which at the side of the railway
track. The max. angle of tilt is generally set between 140 to 150°. The rate of unloading is 13
wagons per hour. The time required for one cycle of operation of this wagon tippler is as
below.
1. Weighing Wagon + coal before tippling - 15 sec.
2. Tippling of Wagon to hopper - 90 sec.
3. Pause - 5 sec.
4. Tippling of Wagon back to home position - 90 see.
5. Weighing Wagon after tippling - 15 sec.
The weighing machines are integral with tippler mechanism and are fitted with a ticket
printing recorder and totaliser.
b) Ring type (Rotary) Wagon Tippler : In rotary tipplers the wagon is fixed between the
two large rings which are fastened to form a cage like structure. The cage is rotated and
discharged coal falls into the hopper right below the rail track. Angle of tippling is 140 - 160°.
The rate of unloading is 25 wagons per hour. The time required for one cycle of operation of
this wagon tippler is 60 sec. only.
84
For easy and speedy movement of wagons, mechanized bettle chargers are provided
before and after wagon tippler i.e. inhaul and outhaul bettle chargers.
These wagon tipplers are provided with photocell protection to avoid the entry of other
wagons when tippling cycle is in progress.
Track hopper system : This system is provided at Chandrapur thermal power station. BOBR
(bottom opening wagons) wagons are unloaded in track hoppers. The holding capacity of
track hoppers is 4500 MT.
MGR Railway system : This system is provided where coal mines are located near the power
station. Railway wagons are used to transport the coal from coal mines to power station and
unloaded wagons are returned to coal mines for refeeding. So this forms a ring type system.
Wagons alongwith railway tracks being the MSEB property, this becomes the most economical
way of coal transportation having a very low maintenance time and cost as compared to the
ropeway system.
3. Ropeways : This mode of coal transportation is used where coal mines are located near
the power stations. Coal is brought by hanging buckets/trolleys travelling on track ropes,
which are pulled by a haulage rope with a driving mechanism. The payload of each bucket
varies from 1 to 3 tons. Automatic loading and unloading mechanisms are provided at loading
and unloading stations. Rate of unloading varies from 75 to 275 MT/Hr depending on the type
of ropeways used. This type of coal transportation is very economical compared to road or rail
transportation and gives assured supply of coal, being the MSEB property. The only disadvantage
of this system is long time for maintenance works.
There are mainly two types of ropeway systems used in power stations.
1. Mono Cable Ropeway :

This ropeway operates on one single endless haulage rope. This continuously moving
rope serves the double purpose of supporting as well as hauling the ropeway bucket along the
line. Between the stations the rope is supported on sheaves mounted on articulated beam
equalizing the load on the sheaves. While travelling along the line the ropeway car running
firmly attached to the main rope, their travel being entirely automatic requiring no attention
of operator. The capacity of each bucket is 1.0 T/hr. and the line capacity is 75 T/hr.
85
2. Bi-cable Ropeway: This is further divided in two types:
a) Tram Car type ropeway :

In this system, two nos. of track ropes are provided at the top and bottom side. One of
the two track ropes (topside) carries full cars, the second track rope on the bottom side of the
line carries empty cars. Each tram car body is fitted with steel axle at each end to receive two
wheeled tramcar track assembly with a central bushing. Four tracks are fitted with each car so
that each is carried on 6 wheels. Since the tram cars turn completely upside down and down
side up at the discharge and loading terminal respectively, no catches, latches or other
mechanism is required to discharge or receive loads. Capacity of each bucket is 2.5 T/hr and
line capacity is 200 T/hr.
b) Bi-cable bucket type ropeway :

The essential characteristic is the use of two tensioned fixed track ropes on which the
carriages are run. Each carriage with its buckets suspended by means of hangers is locked to
the endless continuously moving haulage rope. One of the two track ropes (topside) carries
full buckets, the second track rope on the bottom side of the line carries empty buckets. The
track ropes are supported on along the line at a convenient height above the ground by
means of intermediate trestles, each trestles is provided with oscillating saddles with grooves
for carrying ropes and sheaves for hauling ropes. Capacity of each bucket is 1.8-2.5 T/hr and
line capacity is 200-275 T/hr.
TRACK ROPE (48/33 mm)
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In Koradi thermal power station, 2 nos. of ropeways are provided
General Working of a Coal Handling Plant :

As mentioned above, coal is brought to power station by either of three means of coal
transportation. This coal is first conveyed to primary crusher with the help of different
combination of conveyor belts and its rate of feeding is controlled by Electro-magnetic vibrating
feeders. Conveyor belt before the crusher is provided with hanging magnets to separate
ferrous materials. Stones are picked up manually. In primary crusher, coal is first crushed to
100 mm size. This coal is again conveyed to secondary/final crusher on belt system. Here
vibrating screens are used to feed crushers, which bypasses coal of size more than 25 mm.
In final crushers, coal is further crushed to required 25 mm size. This sized coal is then send
to bunkering belt and with the help of coal trippers. This sized coal is finally fed to coal
bunkers. This cycle is called coal bunkering.
In case bunkers are full, then available coal is stored in stock yard with the help of
stacking belts /automatic stacker cum reclaimer. This cycle is called stacking.
87
In emergency when coal is not available in plant by railways/ropeways, then this
stacked coal is diverted to the coal bunkers by reclaimimg conv. belts. This cycle is called
reclaiming. The coal stored in bunkers is further send to coal mill for pulverization and
combustion in boiler furnace.
Equipments used in Coal Handling Plant :

1. Conveyor Belt :
These are made up of cotton or synthetic fibers and rubber piles placed in alternate
positions normally vary from 4 to 6 ply. These are generally 900 to 1600 mm in width. In
selecting a belt, following factors are considered:
1. Durability 2. Strength 3. Toughness 4. Elasticity 5. Lightness 6. Pliability
Belt Tensioning :
1. Screw type : The horizontal and small conv. belts are fitted with a screw operated gear to
adjust the belt tension and take up the slack belt. This gear is of robust construction and
designed to protect from dust. It is fixed at an accessible place for adjustment and cleaning.
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2. Automatic gravity take ups : Theses are provided in conv. belt system to maintain slack
side tension, to permit length variation due to belt stretch / shrinkage, removal of starting
jerks and extra length for vulcanizing. Belt tension is automatically and continuously maintained
by gravity take-ups.
It consists of 2 bend pulleys and a tensioning pulley to which balancing weights are
provided. This tensioning pulley is mounted on a travelling carriage, which is pulled by steel
ropes to which a counter weight is attached on sheaves. The length of take-up gear should not
be more than 1.5 % of the belt centre length.
Rubber Scrappers : Rubber scrappers are provided at the head end of each conveyor to
clean off damp coal dust and to prevent it from carrying on to the return rollers. These
scrappers are always remain in contact with the belt with the help of spring arrangement so
that the belt is preserved and pulleys are kept clean which ensures straight running of the belt.
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2. Idlers :
Conveyor belt is rotating on head and tail pulleys placed at very large distance apart.
Belt can sag between these two pulleys because of its weight. In order to avoid this sagging,
idlers are fixed at certain distance between these pulleys. Idlers consist of three rollers attached
to the brackets at an angle of 20-350 so that conv. belt can take shape like a arc of a circle,
thus preventing objectionable sharp bends to the belt and carries maximum coal load without
any spillage. It is shown in the figure as below.
In power station, following types of idlers are generally used.
1. Carrying Troughing Idlers :

These idlers are provided for carrying and transporting the required coal load from
point of feeding to the unloading point. It consists of 3 rollers, which are fitted with bearings/
Life sealed bearings. Profile makes an arc of a circle to avoid sharp bends to increase belt
life.(As shown in above figure)
2. Return Idlers :
These are provided to give support to the belt from return side. As empty belt run over
these idlers, it consist of one plain roller for smaller belt width (upto 1400 mm approx.) and
for higher belt width, it may consists of 2 rollers.
3. Carrying Self-Aligning Idlers :

These idlers are provided on carrying side of the conv. system. It consists of 3 roller
system mounted on a fulcrum which is free to oscillate in a pivot on a fixed frame. Whenever
belt goes out of run, these idlers oscillate on either side, bringing the belt in center of axis of
the conv. system. This avoids damaging of the belt.
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4. Return Self Aligning Idlers : These idlers also bring the return side belt to its center
position if goes out of run.
5. Impact Idlers : These are provided at feeding points to increase the life of the belt and
reduce spillage due to sagging below the side scals. The rollers of these idlers are fitted with
rubber liners as shown in the following figure.
3. Pulleys :
Conveyor pulleys are heavy cast iron construction having machine crowned faces, the
driving pulley being faced with ferodo or other similar friction material. The diameters of
pulleys are large enough to reduce belt stresses. The width of the pulley is more by 150 mm.
The dia. of head, tail, snub and bend pulleys depend on the thickness of the belt and a useful
rule is as follow :
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! Head Pulley ——————————- 5 * Belt Ply
! Tail Pulley ——————————— 4 * Belt Ply
! -Snub Pulley ——————————- 3 * Belt Ply
! Tripper Pulley————————— -5 * Belt Ply
Snub Pulley : These pulleys are used to relieve the adjacent return idler and increase the arc
of contact of the main pulley for effective gripping of the belt.
4. Coal Feeders :
There are two types of feeders used in coal handling plant.
a) Electro-magnetic feeders : These are of the vibrating or jiggling type and are placed
immediately below the coal receiving hopper. The feeders are designed to take coal from the
hoppers and deliver it to their corresponding conveyors without spilling.
Vibrating feeders give the trays vibrations caused by the use of AC and DC together.
Half wave rectified current is passed through the stator coils, forming the magnetic circuit to
create a sequence of uninterrupted magnetic pulls on the armature which is connected to the
vibrating bars through the centre clamp.
During the first half of the cycle, the armature is flexed towards stator coil. And during
other half wave rectified cycle, armature is pulled back with the help of the springs. This to
and fro motion in the gap between armature and the stator coil causes vibrations in feeder.
b) Vibrating Screens : These are of double deck type. The upper deck is trash screen, which
allows large size coal to the crusher. The lower deck is a sizing screen, which allows the coal
to bypass the crusher. The screens are mechanically vibrated by an eccentric drive.
5. Coal Crushers:
There are two types of crushers
a) Primary Crushers : The primary crushers are either hammer type or single roll crushers.
They are designed to crush the coal from 450 mm to 100 mm size. Coal lumps bigger than
450 mm size causes serious trouble in the crushers very often.
b) Secondary Crushers : The secondary crushers, which are either hammer type or ring
type crusher. These crushers further crushes coal to the size of 25 mm size.
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6. Trippers :
Belt conveyors passing over the top of overhead coal bunkers are fitted with travelling
trippers having chutes on one or both sides of the conveyor. These trippers are power propelled
and travels on rails. It has been provided with clamping device to prevent it from running away.
Magnetic Separators :
These are provided to get rid of foreign material (i.e. tramp iron) which finds its way
into the coal. The points requiring attention for magnetic separation to be efficient are depth
of coal on belt and speed of the belt.
There are two types of magnetic separators used:
a) Suspended Magnets : These magnetic separators are fixed on conveyor delivering coal
to the crushers and are operated manually by travelling winches.
b) Rotating Magnets : These are also fixed on driving top end of the conveyor belt before
crushers. Small size belt is rotated across the running conv. belt with a separate driving
mechanism. Material attracted to the portion under magnet is automatically thrown in the
discharge chute.
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c) Magnetic Pulleys : The head pulleys of the conveyors prior to crushers are arranged as
magnetic pulleys. On long belts, tramp iron gradually takes up a lower position near the belt
and so come under the influence of the pulley to a greater extent. These magnetic pulleys
automatically discharge the extracted tramp iron through tramp iron chutes.
Non magnetic materials like stones, shells etc. are removed manually from the running belt.
Protections provided in coal handling Plant :

1. Pull chord switch : This protection does not work automatically but is to be operated
manually by the operator when he senses some severe disaster. This pull chord can be operated
from any position along the length of the conveyor belt.
2. Belt sway switch : These are mounted on the conveyors and protect the belt f r o m
excessive running out and getting edge worn / damaged.
3. Zero speed switch : When the speed of the conveyor drops below predetermined speed,
it operates and trips the system to save it from congestion at the transfer points. It is usually
fixed nearer to the tail pulley.
Interlocks provided in Coal Handling Plant :

If one of the belts trips for any reason, all earlier belts will trip on auto along with the
associated vibrating feeders provided at input points.
Operating Sequence of Coal Handling Plant:

There are three types of operating sequences:
1. Direct to the bunker : Coal received from different modes of coal transportation, is
transferred to the crusher with conv. system where coal is crushed to 25 mm size. It is then
transferred to the bunkers through tripper trolley as per the boiler unit requirement. Feeding
rate is controlled by Electro-magnetic feeders at feeding points. This cycle is called BUNKERING.
2. Direct to stack : In case bunkers are full and coal by railways / ropeways is available,
then coal is first brought to the crusher house, then it is either crushed or bypassed and then
diverted to the coal stock yard with the help of stacking conv. belts. This stacked coal can be
used when coal supply is not available by any means of coal transportation. This cycle is
called STACKING.
3. Stacking to Bunkering : In case bunkers are empty and wagon / ropeway coal is not
available, then coal is first brought from stack-yard. It is then send to the crusher and thereafter
to the bunkers with the help of reclaiming conv. belts. This cycle is called RECLAIMIMG.
Automatic stacker cum reclaimers are used for stacking and reclaiming purpose, if available.
General Problems faced in Coal Handling Plant :

1. Design Problems : Cal. Value and Ash %
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Coal received in power station is having cal. Value much less and ash percentage more than
the rated values recommended by manufacturer. Hence the systems in coal handling plant get
overloaded resulting in low bunkering.
2. Rainy Season Problems : Chute choke ups, Coal yard -Slurry Formation
Transfer chutes gets choked up due to wet or muddy coal. Slurry formed in coal yard may
cause problems with electro-magnetic feeders at input points, frequent choke-ups at transfer
chutes etc.
3. Other Misc. Problems:

• Snapping of belts /ropes : Conv. belts and ropeway ropes get damaged or broken because
of jerks and overloading problems due to various reasons. Repairing and replacement of
these belts and ropes require more time for maint.
• Derailment of coal wagons : De-railment of wagons result in obstacle in unloading of

balance wagons in line. This results in lower bunkering and may attract demurrage charges
from railway department.
• Oversized coal/Muddy Coal : Oversized / muddy coal may cause damage to the belt
system, frequent choke-ups of transfer chutes and damages to the crusher rings.
✦✦✦
95
FUEL FIRING
There are three types of Boilers :

1) Fire tube Boiler.
2) Water tube Boiler.
3) Forced once through or Mono tube steam Generator.
• Fire tube Boiler is Locomotive engine boiler.
• Forced once through steam generator is used as a marine boiler.
• In power station practice we are associated with water tube boiler.
Boiler consists of the following parts :

Drum, down-comers, feeder tubes, headers, riser tubes, top water headers, connecting
tubes from headers to drum cage, primary super heater, secondary super heater, forced flow
section or economiser, furnace, flue gas path, air pre-heaters and other auxiliaries of the
boilers such as forced draught and induced draught fans, primary air fans, secondary air or
sealing fans, coal pulverising mills, coal feeders, burners, ash removal and disposal arrangement
such as Electrostatic precipitator, ash extractor, pressure conveyor, etc.
In all methods of fuel firing, some basic principles are incorporated to get the most
efficient combustion. These are – The Three ‘T’s i.e. Temperature, Turbulence and Time.
Secondary air also place very important role in combustion of fuel. Often, the turbulence is
provided by admitting the secondary air in a special manner.
Let us consider each requirement :

1. Temperature :
The fuel must reach ignition temp. to ignite and for a stable flame this temperature
must be maintained. For coal, ignition temp. is in the range 4000 C to 4250 C. A small rise in
temperature can double or treble the rate of combustion and conversely a drop in temperature,
slows down the process. Even flame may be lost. Thus correct temp. is very essential.
2. Turbulence :
Combustion is after all a reaction between fuel particle and oxygen. Turbulance helps
each fuel particle to quickly contact the necessary oxygen molecules so that rapid combustion
as also complete combustion is possible with minimum excess air. (More than optimum excess
air will increase the flue-gas loss through chimney). Consider oxy-acetylene flame without
and with air.
3. Time :
Depending upon fuel particle size, some time is needed for complete combustion. This
time is reduced by turbulence and rise in temp. The necessary time is provided by furnace
design and type of firing.
COAL FIRING :
Stoker Firing : Modern high capacity boilers do not use stoker firing. Even then, many stoker
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fired boilers are in service even today and it is instructive to study the combustion process.
The coal size is ¾” – 1". Primary air is admitted under the fuel bed. Ignition of coal and
volatiles is due to temperature maintained by combustion of fuel and reflection of heat from
arches. The coal bed may be considered in three distinct layers.
1. Top Layer :
Here, as coal is heated-up, and volatiles are given up. They burn in secondary air
which is admitted above fuel bed and causes some turbulence. The coke and fixed carbon left
behind starts burning at about 1/3rd length of stoker.
This layer is DISTILLATION ZONE.
2. Middle Layer :
Carbon/coke is burnt to CO2 at about half way down the stoker. Reduction zone.
3. Bottom Layer :
Volatiles given-up pass through fuel bed passing through coke. As oxygen is limited
reduction of CO2 to CO occurs in middle layer. The secondary air above fuel bed completes the
combustion of CO to CO2. Bottom layer ignites 2/3rd down the grate.
Combustion in a stoker fired can be controlled by changing the grate speed and adjusting
air flow through the fuel bed. Uniform thickness of fuel bed is very important for proper and
complete combustion. An Ignition plane is formed in the fuel bed, which may get disturbed
due to uneven fuel bed and resulting uneven primary air flow.
P. F. FIRING :
In P. F. Firing, surface area of fuel particles is greatly increased and this speeds up
release of volatiles and combustion. Turbulence by burner design or in the furnace is now
most essential to take advantage of high combustion rate and to reduce unburnt fuel to
minimum. For high volatiles coals, a short flame is suitable as less time is needed for complete
combustion. The low volatile coals, however, need a long flame to enable complete combustion.
There are two basic types of P. F. Firing :

Vertical or Down-shot Firing :
For low volatile coals. Secondary air is admitted in stages down the flame to complete
the combustion, which is a gradual process as volatile content is less. More residence time is
therefore necessary for each particle of coal to burn completely. This is LONG FLAME FIRING.
Horizontal Firing :
Bituminous coals with high volatiles can be burnt with turbulent short flame burners
on front or rear or both walls of furnace. Burner design ensures turbulence. Long flame tangential
firing can be used if turbulence can be produced in the furnace. In this case combustion is not
completed in an individual flame, but is completed in the FIRE BALL which is a turbulent mass
of fuel, air and gases and volatiles.
See figure (Short flame and tangential firing arrangement.)
97
Oil Burners : Atomisation and Air entry design create in increase in surface area and turbulance.
Atomisation may be :
1. Mechanical OR Pressure atomisation :
High pressure oil escaping through a nozzle gets atomised into a fine spray. A swirl is
obtained by tangential slots just before the nozzle. Oil viscosity around 80-120 seconds (Redwood
no.1) is necessary, so temperature must be raised suitably. Oil flow is proportional to square of
oil pressure. Due to this turn down ratio is very small. Effective atomisation is not possible
below 14-16 Kg/cm2.
2. Steam atomisation :
The oil passing through nozzles is intersected by steam at slightly higher pressure.
Some heating occurs in burner also. Satisfactory atomisation is possible down to 5 kg/cm2 oil
pressure. Turn down ratio 10:1.
3. Air Atomisation :
Same as steam atomisation. When atomising steak is not available, air can be used in
the same burners.
4. Spinning Cup Burner :

For very small installations.
Oil Burner Installation :

The essential features are (a) Air register (b) shape of burner throat (c) Diffuser and its
location with respect to throat and burner tube. The air register controls secondary air flow and
gives it a swirl to enable air to penetrate the flame. The burner throat is convergent-divergent.
The convergent shape directs air towards the flame so that good mixing occurs. The divergent
part allows development of oil spray cone and maintains close contact between oil spray and
air- (necessary for good combustion).
The impeller or Diffuser protects the flame from secondary air. It also helps swirling as
part of air passes through the openings in the diffuser. Air through the diffuser, should meet
the oil spray at about 90.
Slag on diffuser, damaged or distorted diffuser will give unsatisfactory flame and poor
combustion.
So far we have seen the importance of turbulence. The temperature necessary to ignite
any fuel must be provided to establish a flame first. Then, if design is satisfactory and operating
conditions, parameters are right, the combustion will be self-sustaining and a good flame will
be established.
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IGNITION TEMPERATURES OF SOME FUELS :
Bituminous Coal 4080 C
Semi Bituminous Coal 4660 C
Anthracite 4960 C
Acetylene 4820 C
Ethylene(C2H6) 5380 C
Hydrogen 6100 C
Methane 6500 C
CO 6540 C
The starting point is generally a H.S.D. or L.D.O. igniter. Oil is atomised by air
(pressurised). A high voltage spark provides the ignition energy to establish the igniter flame
(or PILOT TORCH).
Vertical flames of pilot torches are provided across the LDO/FO main guns to provide
the ignition energy to the latter.
The oil guns have sufficient ignition energy to establish coal flames at adjacent burners.
DATA
R. C. F. = 7.4 to 43.6 t/h. 2.7 to 16 rpm.

C. M. L. = 33.87 t/h for 55 H.G. 70% through 200 mesh
F. O. = HV grade of IS 1593, C.V. = 10270 K.Cal/Kg.
Igniters Warm-up Heavy oil

Guns Guns
1. Capacity 0.5 million 10% MCR 10% MCR
K.Cal/hr /Elevation /Elevation.

2. Turndown Nil 2.5:1 4:1
3. Firing Rate 50 Kg/hr. 1350 Kg/hr 1320 Kg/hr.
4. Oil Pr. 12-14 Kg/cm2 4.36 kg/cm2 8.5 kg/cm2
✦✦✦
99
BOILER AIR AND FUEL GAS SYSTEM
FUEL GAS PATH
100
Fig. 2
✦✦✦
101
BOILER WATER CIRCUIT / STEAM PATH
✦✦✦
102
BOILER CONSTRUCTION
HISTORY OF BOILERS:
Boiler means any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity used for steam
generation under pressure. The first Boiler was developed in 1725 & it’s working pressure was
6 to 10 kg/cm2 and was called Wagon Boiler.
TYPES OF BOILERS: There are two types of Boilers :

1) Fire tube boilers (Carnish & Lauchashire blrs.) developed in the year 1844
2) Water tube boilers developed in the year 1873.
Water tube Boilers are used in Thermal Bower stations. These are sub divided according to
water circulation
1) Natural circulation : Drum to down comers to ring main header to water
wall tubes & back to drum. Due to difference in density of water and steam this type of
circulation takes place.
2) Forced circulation : As operating pressure of the boiler approaches to the critical
pressure, additional pumps are required to install in down comers, because at this
pressure there is no appreciable density difference between water and steam to have a
natural circulation of water.
According to working pressure the Boiler, Boilers are classified as:

1) Drum type sub critical pressure boiler: When working pressure of the boiler is between
130 kg/cm2 and 180 kg/cm2, the boiler is called as, “Drum type sub critical pressure
boiler”.
2) Critical pressure Boilers : When boiler working pressure is 221.2 kg/cm2, it is termed as,
“Critical pressure Boilers”.
3) Super critical or drum less once through boilers: When boiler working pressure is 240
kg/cm2, it is called as, “Super critical”.
All modern Boilers are top slung from steel structures. From the beams a series of
slings take up the boiler loads. Approximately suspended weight of one 210 MW boiler is 3640
metric tones. Height of Boiler is about 64 meters and Boiler drum is at a height of 52 meters
from the ground.
Boiler design consideration : Following factors are taken into consideration for designing
the modern boiler.
1) Lowest capital cost, ease of construction, simplicity, safety, good working condition,
ease of maintenance.
2) Efficient operation, effective baffling for heat transfer, well insulated casings, ability to
deliver pure steam with effective drum internals to generate steam of fuall capacity.
3) Availability of auxiliaries.
103
Period of constructions : In India the Boiler is being constructed in three years i.e. 36
months.
The main parts of Boilers are :

1) Boiler drum
2) Down comers
3) Water walls
4) Furnace
5) Platen superheater
6) Reheater
7) Final superheater
8) Primary superheater
9) Economizer
10) Burners
11) Ignitors
1) Boiler drum : size : Length : 15.7 meters, ID: 1976 mm, Thickness 132 mm
The drum is made of special carbon steel plates of SA299 A grade A-1 by fusion
welding (submerged arc welding). Two gauge glasses are provided for level indication. Three
safety valves are provided. Drum vents, chemical dosing live. Emergency blow down line are
provided.
Inside the drum there is a position called separating chamber through which steam
enters from riser tubes and goes through primary separators called turbo separators. Turbo
separators have spinning blades, moisture is separated here and the steam further goes
through secondary separator and finally through drying screens. The drying screens are located
in the upper part of the drum. Water level is maintained 254 mm below the geometrical
centerline of the drum, upper part is left to occupy the generated steam.
2) Down comers : Made of SA106 Gr. C material

There are 6 down comers from boiler drum of size 406x32 mm and are joined to ring
main header to provide water to water wall tubes. There are two down comers of size 323.9x24.4
mm joined to platen water wall header. Platen water wall header are not provided to every
boiler.
3) Water Walls : Made of SA 210 Gr. A1 material, 63.5x6.3 mm, 76.1mm.

The water wall tubes forms membrane panels. The each membrane panel is of 22
tubes joined by fins welding and having length of 60 to 70 feet each and width of panel is
about 7 feet wide and there are 83 such panels. After getting heated water goes through
these tubes by natural circulation to the drum. The latest design of furnace walls are fully
cooled on all sides by bare tubes. Refractory covere on blocked tube walls are being abandoned.
4) Furnace Size : 13.868-m width, 10.592-m depth, and 5494m3 volume.
104
The tall rectangular radiant type furnace has now become a feature of the modern
design of pulverised fuel boiler. The height of modern boiler is increased to lower gas temperature
and reduce slagging. The furnace is of two passes. The 1st pass comprises of main furnace,
enclosed by four walls of membrane panels 7feet wide & 60 to 70 feet in lengths. The firing
equipment such as burners, oil guns, igniters are mounted in the first pass of the furnace,
here combustion of fuel takes place and hence this the most hot zone of the boiler and is
called as firing zone. The maximum heat transfer takes place in furnace only. Temperature of
the firing zone is about 1200 to 1400 0C, where the heat is generated due to conversion of
chemical energy of the fuel. This type of furnace is called water-cooled furnace, as the membrane
panels are made of tubes through which water is circulating (water wall tubes).
Over the water wall tubes from out side skin welding is done with M.S. sheet and glass
wool lagging of about 100 to 150 mm thick is placed under G.I. sheets to reduce the radiation
losses from furnace. The out side temp is about 45 to 500C if effective insulation is done.
The height of membrane panel is 60 to 70 feet to avoid joints in firing zone. i.e. A,B,C,D
elevations of the boilers.
The extended furnace is called second pass where primary superheater and economizer,
A.H. is installed.
5) Superheaters : The Superheater material should be suitable for the transient high
metal temp. During the start up condition superheater receives relatively high heat input &
there is low steam flow through it. steam is superheated in the super heaters.
i) Primary superheater or low temperature superheater (LTSH) : From drum steam
comes to LTSH this is in two stages called lower bunch & upper bunch. There are 134
assemblies in each bunch at 102-mm pitch. The material used are SA209T, SA210 Gr. A,
SA 213 T11. The size of tubes are 44.5x4.5 mm & temperature range is 4500C to 4800C.
Soot blowing steam is taken from LTSH outlet before attemperation.
ii) Platen superheater : It is situated in furnace vertically. It’s headers are in pent house.
There are 29 assemblies at pitch of 457 mm. The pitch is more in comparison to others
to avoid choking or fouling. From LTSH the steam comes to platen superheater after
attemperation. The material used is alloy steel as SA 213 T11, SA 213 T22. SA 213 to
347 H and it stands pto 5800C. The size of tubes are 51x7.1 mm & 51x8.6mm.
iii) Final superheater : Its headers are in pent house header no 13 & 14. it is situated
vertically behind reheater. It is having 119 assembly at a pitch of 114 mm and size of
tubes are 51x7.6 mm the materials are SA213 T22 alloy steel and stands up to 5800C
(alloy steel)
iv) Reheater : The materials SA213 T11 alloy steel & stands upto 5500C. The reheater tube
size is 54x3.6 mm and are placed behind the hotter section of superheater. This is in
general gives adequate protection. Temperature control of superheater is achieved by
burner tilt mechanism and this mechanism also controls the temperature of reheat steam.
If reheaters are located close to furnace can receive too much heat for initial steam flow
causing an excessive rise in reheat steam temp. The steam, which is coming from HP
105
turbine, is heated up in R.H. to its normal temp. of 5400C and used in IP turbine. Reheater
is in two parts called front and rear. In front R.H. there are 59 assemblies at a pitch of
229 mm and at rear there are 89 assemblies at a pitch of 152 mm.
v) Economizer : It is placed between LTSH and Air Heater in second pass of the furnace for
utilization of heat of flue gas for heating feed water, other wise the heat which is received
by the economiser may go waste if it is not utilised in this way. The feed water after HP
heaters passes through economizer and is heated by flue gas. After passing through the
economiser feed water reaches to boiler drum. Economiser is in two bunches called
lower bunch & upper bunch. There are 270 assemblies at a pitch of 102 mm, the material
used are carbon steel of SA 210 Gr. A1 stands up to 4500C, size of the tubes are 44.5x4.5
mm.
6) Windbox : The wind box is situated at 11 m level of Boiler it is in two parts one is on LHS
and other is on RHS of Boiler. There are thirteen compartments in it on each corner out of
which 3 for oil burners, 6 for coal mills, 4 for auxiliary air. These compartments are connected
to burner tilt mechanism which is operated +/- 300 as per requirement according to final
temperature of steam. The secondary air after air preheater comes to wind box and is given to
furnace along with fuel for complete combustion of fuel as per requirement.
7) Burners : Coal is used as a primary fuel and oil as secondary fuel during start up of Boiler
and for flame stability at low loads & during other transient operating conditions. Burner is to
atomise fuel, penetrate & mix with proper proportions for complete combustion. The burners
are situated at 3 elevations called AB,CD,EF. At every elevation there are four burners. FO/
LSHS can be fired at all three elevations but LDO can be taken at AB elevation only for start up
of Boiler. For every burner whether LDO/FO there is one igniter to ignite the burner. Now
igniters are being changed form HSD/LDO to HEA (High energy arc igniters, purely electrical)
8) Soot Blowers : About 78 soot blowers are provided at different zones to remove the
accumulated soot on boiler tubes for effective heat transfer.
Types of sootblowers :
a) Wall Soot blowers : These are situated on the furnace and are 56 in numbers. These are
driven by electric motors. Super heated steam is blown through them to clean the designated
area of the water wall.
b) L.R.S.B. : Long Retractable Soot Blowers are 20 in numbers. These are used to clean S.H.
and R.H. and are located in 2nd pass of the furnace.
C) Two soot blowers are located on Air Heater to clean the baskets of A.H. Steam from P. R. D.
S. is taken for this purpose.
✦✦✦
106
BOWL MILL
( PULVERIZER )
1.0 Description :
The best features of all the pulverisers have been incorporated in the design of the
Bowl Mill. The bowl mill consists essentially of a reduction gear box, mill side and liner assembly
primary air and mill reject chamber, revolving bowl and scraper, separator body with separator
body liner assembly, grinding rolls and journal assembly, pressure spring assembly, classifier,
multiport outlet assembly, central feed pipe and separating inner cone.
Motor is coupled directly to Worm shaft of the reduction gear which rotates the bowl at
a reduced speed and transmits the total power required for pulverising the Coal.
2.0 Operation :
2.1 Grinding :
Coal of @1 inch size is fed by the R.C. feeder through central feed pipe into the
revolving bowl of the bowl mill. Centrifugal force feeds the coal uniformly between the bull
ring and independently rotating spring loaded rolls to travel through the outer periphery of
the bowl.
The springs, which load the rolls, impart the pressure necessary for grinding. The
partially pulverized coal continues to move up over the edge of the bowl due to centrifugal
force.
2.2 Transporting the fuel to the furnace :

Mixture of hot and cold primary air enters the mill side housing below the bowl and is
directed upwards around the bowl and around the separator body liners, which carry pulverized
coal upwards into the deflector openings at the top of the inner cone. Then it comes out
through the ventury and the multiport outlet assembly. As air passes upward around the
bowl, it picks up the partially pulverized coal. The heavier particles strike the separator body
liners and are returned to the bowl immediately for further grinding. The lighter particles are
carried up through the deflector openings.
The deflector blades in the opening impart the spinning action to the material with the
degree of spin set by the angle of opening of the blades, determining the size of the pulverzed
coal. Any oversized coal particle is returned down the inside of the inner cone to the bowl for
additional grinding, when pulverized to the desired extent the coal leaves the mill and enters
the pulverised fuel pipes and finally enters into the furnace through coal burners which are
connected at four corners of the boiler.
Orifice plates are installed in the coal piping leaving the pulverizer discharge valves to
compensate for unequal resistance to flow due to different lengths/bends of pipings to the
burners.
107
2.3 Reject Removal :
Any tramp iron or dense foreign material in the raw coal feeder, which is difficult to
grind, if carried over to the top of the bowl is dropped out through the air stream to the lower
part of the mill side housing. Pivoted scrapers, attached to the bowl hub sweep the tramp iron
or other foreign material around to the tramp iron snout through normally open by pyrite
hopper gate. The mill rejects can be intermittently taken out from the pyrite hopper, first by
closing the inner gate and opening the outer gate of the hopper.
2.4 Temperature Control :

The Bowl mill can be isolated completely for maintenance work by closing the Hot air
shut off gates, cold air shut off gates, pulverizer discharge valves and seal air valve.
Hot air control damper and cold air control damper, regulate the temperature of the air
entering the pulverizer by proportioning the air flow from the hot air and cold air supply duct
so that mill outlet temperature is maintained between 75 to 850C irrespective of coal feed rate
and moisture content of coal.
3.0 Mill air flow :

Mill should be operated at the design airflow at all loads. Operating at higher airflow
will cause excess wear and fineness will be decreased. If mill is operated at lower airflow, it
may result into coal rejects & excess fineness.
4.0 Sealing arrangement :

Since it is a pressurised mill, there is a possibility of entering coal dust into bearing /
gear box housing & damaging the bearings, worm & worm gear. To avoid this, sealing
arrangement is provided. Sealing arrangement comprises seal air fans and filter. Alternative
arrangement is made for getting seal air from service air compressors in the absence of seal
air fans.
5.0 Bearings & Lubrication :

Figure indicates the general arrangement of Bowl mill and showing the number of
bearings and their respective locations.
Radial and thrust bearings of the worm shaft, Radial and thrust bearings of the vertical
shaft are lubricated by the same oil, which is filled in the reduction gear box housing and
serves the purpose of lubricant for the main drive worm, worm gear, where as the upper and
lower bearings roller journals are lubricated by means of self-contained circulation system.
The deflector regulators, journal stop bolts and spring adjusting bolts, bushings and
bearings of spring stud and mill rotor geared couplings are grease lubricated.
The horizontal worm shaft bearings are fully oiled from the bath of oil in the gear
casing. The pumping action of worn shaft thrust bearing circulates oil through it, the radial
bearing oil circulation is provided by action of worm gearing.
The vertical shaft lower thrust radial bearings are immersed in oil and are completely
lubricated. The pumping action of this lower bearing assembly circulates oil through it.
Oil is supplied to the vertical shaft upper bearings by a screw pump bolted to the
108
vertical shaft bottom end. Oil from the gear housing enters on an annular chamber in the oil
pump busing through suitably drilled hole. As the shaft rotates, spiral grooves in the pump
hub force the oil into a cavity below the vertical shaft. From the cavity the oil rises into a hole
drilled in the shaft to a upper radial bearing. The oil then returns to the gear housing through
return oil gauge glass.
6.0 Oil Coolers :

Tube type coolers are installed in the gear housing reducing the oil temperature when
the mill is in operation. Mechanical face seal arrangement through the space between the
bowl hub skirt and the mill bottom casing prevents dust from blowing into gear casing.
The roller journals are filled with the lubricating oil upto the top seals.
The pumping action of the roller bearings circulates oil from the reservoir in the journal
housing to the annular chamber between the bearings, then into the shaft bore and through
the oil return holes back to the reservoir.
The upper journal housing is provided with a duel tip type seal to prevent oil wastage.
The journals are kept clean by clean seal air brought through flexible tubing to holes provided
in the trunion shaft and journal head for this purpose. This inward moving air prevents dust
from getting into the bearing.
7.0 Mill specification :

1. Total number per boiler 6
2. Type Pressurised
3. Size XRP 803
4. Capacity of each mill 39 t/hr

5. Design coal grindability 55 HGI scale
6. Maximum moisture content 12 %
7. Fineness through 200 mesh screen 70%
MOTOR
Power rating 340 KW
Voltage 6.6 KV 3 phase
Frequency 50 C.P.S.
R.P.M. 980
Rated current 41.7 Amps.
No load current 20 amps.
109
✦✦✦
110
COAL FEEDER
1) DESCRIPTION :
Coal Feeding to any coal mill is regulated by means of a coal feeder. By changing
speed, a coal feeder controls the feeding to a coal mill and thus ultimately controls the Boiler
Pressure and load. Coal feeders are of two types.
1. DRAG – CHAIN TYPE
2. ROTARY TYPE.
100 lb rotary feeder means 100 lb coal in one revolution. The figure attached with this
indicate the features of Raw coal feeder (Volumetric). Following are main parts of Raw Coal
Feeder.
1. Raw coal feeder body with seal air provision.
2. Inspection doors, Isolating gate, Rod gate.
3. Spring loaded flap gate.
4. Protective shear pin (key)
5. No – coal – Flow device.
6. R.P.M. indicator.
7. Air cut-off solenoid in case of PIV gear box.
8. Seal air to shaft glands.
Note : While doing the maintenance works Raw Coal Feeder, P.A. Fan air must be cut off before
opening any inspection doors, hot & cold air gates / dampers also must be closed.
2) SPEED CONTROL :
Raw coal feeder that are generally in use are rotary type or drag link chain type. There
are volumetric feeders i.e. constant volume of coal per revolution of the feeder. Coal feeding
can be changed by varying the speed of the feeder. For achieving this a constant speed motor
is coupled with PIV (Positive infinitely variable drive) gear box or Eddy Current Coupling.
Feeder speed is varied as per the required mill loading. Accordingly loading of the coal mill
can be done depending upon the speed of Raw Coal Feeder.
Equipments used for speed control of raw coal feeder are as follows :
1. P.I.V. (positive infinitely variable drive.)
2. Eddy current couplings (popularly known as Dynodrives)
2.1 P.I.V. Drive (positive infinitely variable drive) : The constant speed induction motor
is coupled with the feeder through a PIV Gearbox. Variable speed between N1 to N2 is achieved
by means of varying the distance between the two wheels W1 and W2 as shown.
W1
CHAIN
W2
N2 N1 Fig. 1 : PIV Drive Principle
111
In case of drag link chain type feeder the coal bed thickness can be varied and thus
additional flexibility permits the use of less speed variation.
Shear pins are provided in the coal feeders so that this pin will fail and coal feeder will
stop with an alarm in case of obstruction by any foreign material coming along with coal and
protect the equipment from possible damages.
2.2 Eddy current couplings :

An eddy current coupling connects an AC motor driven fixed-speed input shaft to a
variable speed output shaft through a magnetic flux coupling. By reducing the level of flux
density within the coupling, slip between the couplings input and output shafts is increased
and speed is reduced. Slip is wasted energy in the form of heat.
A typical Eddy current coupling is shown in the fig.
Operating principle of Eddy Current coupling :

The current signal of the Eddy Current coil is obtained through the Current sensing
Device. This value is always compared with the set value. The current in the Eddy Current Coil
varies directly in proportion to the load requirement. Thus in case, the load requirement
increases, the required coil voltage to maintain the set speed increases. This in turn increases
the coil current. This current value indicates the loading factor, which in case if goes out of the
limit, the unit gives a visual indication of “OVERLOAD FAULT” and parallely operates one
potentially free contact (NO to NC) for the annunciation system. Under normal running
conditions visual display shows “OVERLOAD HEALTHY” condition on the front panel and Potential
Free contact remains NO.
The setting potentiometer is located inside the Panel which gives 0 to 100% range
corresponding to 0 to 6 amps current. Once the fault has occurred the fault is latched by
means of internal logic. The visual indication on the front panel and the potential free changeover
contact changeover their states for fault indications. The system doesn’t trip automatically on
occurrence of this fault. If the fault is acknowledged and serviced, the Reset pushbutton on
the panel will Reset the card i.e. fault condition. If the fault is still present the Reset pushbutton
will momentarily reset the system, but as soon as the Pushbutton is released the fault condition
will reappear.
112
113
✦✦✦
114

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MAHARASHTRA STATE POWER GENERATION CO. LTD.

KORADI TRAINING CENTRE

INDUCTION LEVEL TRAINING

(FOR INTERNAL CIRCULATION ONLY)

It is a great pleasure in presenting this Book-I to the Trainees of Induction

On restructuring of Maharashtra State Electricity Board, responsibilities of

To augment the knowledge delivered by Experienced and competent faculty

I am greatful to our Managing Director, Hon’ble Shri Ajoy Mehta,

I take this opportunity to wish you all a happy, healthy and

Date: 22.7.2006 M. P. Hedaoo

2. Modern Thermal Power Plant Cycle PH1/M3/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 5

3. Principles of Thermal and Hydropower PH1/M3/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 9

4. Introduction to thermodynamics PH1/M3/3&4,Rev.00,1-6-06 15

5. Concepts of Heat transfer PH1/M3/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 24

6. The Rankine cycle PH1/M3/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 33

7. Concept of Electrical Power Generation PH1/M3/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 43

8. Energy Balance of Thermal Power Plant PH1/M3/8,RRev.00,1-6-06 62

9. Plant Layout of Large Thermal Power Station PH1/M3/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 65

10. Planning & Design of Large Thermal Power Stations PH1/M3/10,Rev.00,1-6-06 68

11. Various heating elements used in Boiler, Fuel used PH1/M3/11,Rev.00,1-6-06 71

12. Coal Sampling procedure and analysis of coal PH1/M3/12,Rev.00,1-6-06 80

13. General working and description of PH1/M4/1,2,3,Rev.00,1-6-06 84

14. Fuel Firing PH1/M5/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 96

15. Boiler Air and Flue gas system PH1/M5/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 100

16. Boiler water circuit/ Types of Furnaces PH1/M5/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 102

17. Boiler Construction PH1/M5/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 103

18. Bowl Mills (Pulverizer) PH1/M5/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 107

19. Coal Feeder PH1/M5/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 111

20. Construction and working of Air Pre Heater PH1/M5/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 115

22. Description & working of ASH handling plant PH1/M5/8,Rev.00,1-6-06 136

23. Various types of Fans & their Drives PH1/M5/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 147

24. Ash handling plant PH1/M5/10,Rev.00,1-6-06 158

25. Description and working of a Oil handling plant PH1/M5/11,Rev.00,1-6-06 174

26. Instrument Air and service air compressors PH1/M5/12,Rev.00,1-6-06 183

27. Construction and operation of soot blowers PH1/M5/13,Rev.00,1-6-06 185

28. Boiler fittings and mountings PH1/M5/14,Rev.00,1-6-06 188

29. D. M. plant and softening plant PH1/M5/15,Rev.00,1-6-06 199

30. Raw water and pretreatment of water PH1/M5/15-PreTreatment, 209

31. Turbine Steam and Extraction Cycle PH1/M6/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 218

32. Condensate and Feed Water cycle PH1/M6/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 219

33. Condenser Cooling Water cycle and PH1/M6/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 221

34. Steam turbine PH1/M6/4&5,Rev.00,1-6-06 222

35. Turbine Bearings and Gland System PH1/M6/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 231

36. Condensers PH1/M6/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 235

37. Construction of Starting Ejector, Main Ejector PH1/M6/7,Rev.00,1-6-06 237

38. DM and GS System PH1/M6/8,Rev.00,1-6-06 240

39. Heat Exchangers PH1/M6/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 242

40. Feed Water Heater and Deaerator construction PH1/M6/9,Rev.00,1-6-06 248

41. Construction and operation of Boiler Feed Pump PH1/M6/10,Rev.00,1-6-06 253

42. Condensate Extraction Pump PH1/M6/11,Rev.00,1-6-06 258

43. H.P. - L.P. By pass System PH1/M6/12,Rev.00,1-6-06 263

45. Various Types of Valves PH1/M6/14,Rev.00,1-6-06 273

46. Generator Construction Details (210 MW) PH1/M7/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 279

47. Hydrogen Cooling of Generator and PH1/M7/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 290

49. Construction of Exciters PH1/M7/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 299

50. Generator Excitation System PH1/M7/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 303

51. Earthing, Earthing Transformer and PH1/M7/6,Rev.00,1-6-06 312

52. Typical Electrical Supply System PH1/M8/1,Rev.00,1-6-06 314

53. Instrument Transformer (CTs - PTs) PH1/M8/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 328

54. Transformer Construction PH1/M8/2,Rev.00,1-6-06 343

55. Swtichgear PH1/M8/3,Rev.00,1-6-06 350

56. Switchyard Bus Bar Arrangements PH1/M8/4,Rev.00,1-6-06 368

57. General Constructional Features of AC Motors PH1/M8/5,Rev.00,1-6-06 374