International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrefrig
Review Article
Falling-film evaporation on horizontal tubes—a critical review
Gherhardt Ribatskia,*, Anthony M. Jacobib
a
Laboratory of Heat and Mass Transfer, Faculty of Engineering Science, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ME G1 465, Station 9,
CH Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
b
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois, 1206 West Green Street, Urbana, IL 61801, USA

Received 12 February 2004; received in revised form 1 December 2004; accepted 14 December 2004
Available online 1 February 2005

Abstract
A state-of-the-art review of horizontal-tube, falling film evaporation is presented; the review is critical, in an attempt to
uncover strengths and weaknesses in prior research, with the overall purpose of clearly identifying gaps in our understanding.
The review covers flow-pattern studies, and the experimental parameters that affect the heat transfer performance on plain
single tubes, enhanced surfaces and tube bundles. In addition, this paper presents a comprehensive review of the significant
efforts to develop mathematical models, and empirical correlations for the heat transfer coefficient. Emphasis is placed on
studies that are related to refrigeration applications.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Evaporation; Falling film; Horizontal tube; Finned tube; Bundle; Survey; Heat transfer; Correlation

Evaporation d’un film tombant sur des tubes horizontaux—passage

en revue critique
Mots clés: Évaporation; Film tombant; Tube horizontal; Tube aileté; Faisceau; Enquête; Transfert de chaleur; Corrélation

1. Introduction 1970’s. Since then, this technology has been studied by

Falling-film-type (or spray-film) horizontal-tube evap-
orators have been utilized in the refrigeration, chemical,
petroleum refining, and desalinization industries. Although
the first patent of such an evaporator was registered in 1888
[1], only a few researchers worked in this area prior to the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C41 21 693 5984; fax: C41 21 693
5960.
E-mail addresses: gherhardt.ribatski@epfl.ch (G. Ribatski),
a-jacobi@uiuc.edu (A.M. Jacobi).
0140-7007/$35.00 q 2004 Elsevier Ltd and IIR. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2004.12.002
many investigators; however, the focus during the 1970’s
was primarily on the use of falling-film evaporators for
ocean thermal energy conversion, (OTEC) systems, with
interest in the early 1980’s driven by the second oil crisis. As
a result of the interest in OTEC applications, most of this
work in the 1970’s and 1980’s used water or ammonia as a
working fluid. Moreover, the heat fluxes and other operating
parameters were constrained to ranges relevant for OTEC
systems.
During the 1990’s, the CFC phase-out began to motivate
wider application of falling-film evaporators. In air-
conditioning and refrigeration applications, the falling film
636 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
Nomenclature
Ar Archimedes number based on tube diameter
D3extg/n3l , (dimensionless)
Dext surface diameter, (m)
g gravitational acceleration, (m sK2)
Ga modified Galileo number (or Kapitza number)
rs3/m4g, (dimensionless)
H liquid feeder height, (m)
h heat transfer coefficient, (W mK2 KK1)
hlv latent heat of vaporization, (J kgK1)
k thermal conductivity, (W mK1 KK1)
K dimensionless defined by [52], Eq. (4)
n/A active nucleate site density, (mK2)
Nu Nusselt number (h/kl)(n2l /g)1/3, (dimensionless)
p pressure, (N mK2)
Pr Prandtl number n/a, (dimensionless)
Re Reynolds number 4G/m, (dimensionless)
s tube pitch, (m)
T temperature, (K)
evaporator possesses the following clear advantages over
flooded tube bundles:
High heat transfer coefficient, (1) allowing the evapor-
ation temperature to increase, and thus improving the
cycle efficiency; (2) minimizing the evaporator size,
resulting in reduced initial costs and space requirements.
Low refrigerant charge, (1) lowering the cost of the
refrigeration plant (including the refrigerant inventory);
(2) reducing risks associated with a leak, including the
attendant maintenance costs. This reduced risk allows
wider application of systems using toxic or flammable
fluids, such as ammonia.
These advantages notwithstanding, falling-film evapor-
ators are not widely used in refrigeration and air-
conditioning. In part, reticence to adopt falling-film
technology in these systems is due to difficulties in liquid
distribution and tube alignment, which affect flow uniform-
ity and dryout, especially in deep bundles. Furthermore,
decades of experience with flooded bundles in this industry
has allowed for their heuristic optimization, but heat transfer
surface, bundle geometry, and operating strategies have not
been so refined for falling-film evaporators. At present,
these issues are motivating many researchers.
A prior related review was provided by Thome [2], with
a focus on studies published from 1994 to 1999; to our
knowledge, no other review has appeared in the open
literature. The current article provides a literature review of
horizontal-tube, falling-film-type evaporators, focusing on
the technical difficulties identified above. We focus this
review on falling-film evaporators and exclude vertical tube
Greek letters
a thermal diffusivity, (m2 sK1)
f specific heat flux, (W mK2)
G liquid mass flow rate per unit length of tube
(each side), (kg mK1 sK1)
l instability wavelength given by Eq. (3), (m)
m dynamic viscosity, (kg mK1 sK1)
n kinematics viscosity, (m2 sK1)
q angle along surface perimeter measured from
the tube apex, (8)
r density, (kg mK3)
s surface tension, (kg sK2)
x capillary constant given by [s/(rlg)]1/2, (m)
Subscripts
crit referred to the critical state
l liquid
sat saturation
v vapor
w tube wall
arrangements and desalination systems, because our goal is
to assess the state of the art as it is likely to affect air-
conditioning and refrigeration systems. Our goal is to
critically review the literature, for the purpose of clearly
identifying opportunities for application and areas where
further research is needed.
In the present work, by referring to the results of
previous research, we begin with a discussion of the effects
of heat flux, flow rate, film temperature, tube diameter and
liquid feeder configuration on the falling-film evaporation
for single plain tubes. Then, the observed inter-tube flow
patterns are presented as well as proposed methods to
predict inter-tube flow patterns. Following that, experimen-
tal studies concerning falling-film evaporation on enhanced
surfaces and tube bundles are described, and their results
critically discussed. Some interesting prediction methods to
estimate the heat transfer coefficient in subcooled and
saturated conditions are reported in the last part of the
article.
2. Heat transfer aspects on plain surfaces
Generally speaking, prior studies involving smooth tubes
have covered wide ranges of heat flux, flow rates, liquid
feeder height, and tube spacing. The tube diameters have
been similar to those used in heat exchangers. Tests were
conducted for sub-cooling and saturated liquid, and under
both boiling and non-boiling conditions. Except for a few
studies, the experiments were conducted with water and
ammonia, and most of the work focused on how the
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653 637

Table 1
Description of experimental studies involving falling film on plain single tubes

Fluid Surface Dext (mm) H (mm) G Tsat or Tl (8C) f (kW mK2)

material (!103 kg sK1 mK1)
[3] Water Cu–Ni 25.4, 50.8 – 0–314 49–127 0–63.1
[4] Sea water Cu–Ni 25.4, 50.8 – 0–228 49–127 0–63.1
[5] Water Stainless steel 25.4, 50.8 8–54 144–377 55–100 19–76
[6] Water Brass 25.4, 50.8 3.2 133–373 45–127 15.8–78. 8
[7] Ammonia Stainless steel 50.8 – 4–202 22.2 5–16
[8] Ammonia Low carbon 25.4 25.4 3.7–37.4 12.8–23.9 3.2–25.2
steel
[9] Water Copper 25.4 12.7, 25.4, 50.8 4–40 27, 50 0–83
[10] Ammonia Stainless steel 50.8 50.8 4–350 22.2 5.2–15.8
[11] Water Copper 25.4 3 37–110 99.4 2–100
[12] Water Brass 25.4, 50.8 – 2.78–7.62! 49–127 16–79
10K4m3 sK1 mK1
[13–15] Water Copper 25.4 3–63.5 21.3–156 99.4 2–208
[16] Water, ethyl Copper 25.4 12.7, 25.4, 50.8 2.5–50 57 0–80
alcohol
[17] Water, isopro- Copper 18 4.5–87 38–130 25, 21.5 18.4, 9.4
pyl alcohol
[18] R-113 – – – – 47 7–80
[19] Water – 38 – 40–400 40–100 15–75
[20] Water Aluminum 132 – – – –
[21] R-11 Copper 18.0 20 8–91 23.5 1–43
[22] Water Brass 25.4, 50.8 6.3 135–366 49–127 30–80
[23] R-113 Copper 22.0 – 32.1–96.3 47.2 7.3–72.7
[24,25] R-11 Copper 25.0 25.0 1–180 44.6 0.5–2.5
[26] R-134a Copper 12.7, 19.1 38–65!10K3 kg sK1 2.0 5–40
[27] R-134a Copper 19.1, 12.7 – 38–65!10K3 kg sK1 K14, 2 5–40
[28] Water, isopro- Copper 19.5 7.8–48.8 5–150 9–50 0–150
pyl alcohol
[29] Water, ethylene Brass 9.52, 12.7, 0–100 0–360 25–40 0–115
glicol, mixture 15.87, 19.
of water and 05, 22.22
ethylene glycol
and ethyl alco-
hol
[30] R-134a with a Copper 19.1 – 13 2 5–40
polyol-ester
32 cs/40 8C
uZ0, 1, 2 and
3.0%
[31] Water Aluminum 132 – – 17–50 71–158
[32] Ammonia Stainless steel 19.1 102, 51 7–39 K23.3–10 8–60
[33] Water, ethylene Brass 15.9, 5–50 0–360 25–40 0–115
glicol, mixture 19.01,
of water and 22.22
ethylene glycol
[34] Water Surface cov- 38 10–20 40–400 42–100 15–75
ered with a
constant foil
[35] Water Copper 19.5 7.8, 2.3, 48.8 10–150 20, 35, 50 0
[36] Wateri, R-11ii Copper 18 6 15–354 99.4i, 23.5ii 2–500
638 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
experimental parameters affect the heat transfer. Table 1
describes the experimental data bank of studies concerning
falling film evaporation on single plain tubes.
2.1. Heat flux effect
For completely wetted surfaces in strictly convective
conditions, the heat flux, f, does not affect the heat transfer
coefficient, h, [6,7,12,22,25,33]. On the other hand, under
boiling-dominated conditions, the heat transfer coefficient
increases with the heat flux [3,4,6,22,27,32]. Apparently,
this behavior is due to increased nucleation site density, n/A,
and increased boiling area. For a low heat flux, bubbles
nucleate near the bottom of the tube. As f increases,
nucleation occurs nearer to the top of the tube [6,22]. With
an increase in heat flux, a temperature profile in the film
sufficient for nucleation closer to the film impingement
region is possible. A strong dependence of Nusselt number,
Nu, on f, with high rates of increase in h with heat flux has
been noted at low temperatures [3]. This finding seems to
agree with pool boiling experiments of Ribatski and Saiz
Jabardo [37], according to whom the variation of h with f is
comparatively high at low reduced pressure. Thus, one
expects parameters such as the contact angle, surface
material and roughness to affect the increase in h with
heat flux for falling film evaporators. However, no work
concerning the possible effects of these parameters on
falling film has been reported.
2.2. Flow rate effect
In convection-dominated conditions, as the flow rate, G,
increases the heat transfer coefficient decreases first, but
increases after a minimum value [7,14,25,38]. This
minimum might represent a transition from laminar to
turbulent film flow [25,38]. However, according to Rogers et
al. [31], this assertion is a flawed, arbitrary assumption.
Even modeling that does not consider the flow regime
transition exhibits similar behavior [14,39,40]. According to
Brumfield and Theofanous [41], the film can be fully
turbulent only for Reynolds numbers, Re, higher than 6000.
They suggest that the film is controlled by wave structures
imposed on the base film flow. At low Reynolds numbers,
the waves and the base flow are laminar; at intermediate
Reynolds numbers the base flow is laminar while the waves
are turbulent, and at high Reynolds numbers, both regions
are turbulent. Carey [42] proposed a transitional Reynolds
number of 1500. For falling film condensation, a similar
process, values of 1200, 1800 and 2000 also have been
proposed for the Reynolds number at which the flow
becomes turbulent (see Thome [43]).
The following behaviors are also noted under convec-
tion-dominated conditions: the heat transfer coefficient is
almost independent of the flow rate [5,8,11,32], and the heat
transfer coefficient increases with G [6,9,12,17,22,28,32,
34]. Under boiling conditions and when Re falls between
1000 and 8000, Parken [6] and Parken et al. [22] also
observed an increase in h with G. Chyu and Bergles [14], for
high heat flux, and Moeykens and Pate [27], independent of
f, did not note flow rate effects on h. According to both
studies, h is independent of G due to the predominance of
boiling effects.
Changes in the inter-tube flow mode (droplet, jet and
sheet), and partial surface dryout can affect the effects of
flow rate on the heat transfer coefficient. Hu and Jacobi [33]
noted an increase in h with G for the droplet and jet modes.
For the sheet mode, this behavior was noted solely for water.
It can be related to wave effects on the film surface [33],
which are high for water as the result of the larger Re
achieved in the experiments with this fluid.
2.3. Temperature effect
For convective heat transfer, h increases with the liquid
temperature. It seems that this temperature effect is closely
related to the decrease of viscosity and consequent decrease
in the film thickness [5,6,12,22,28]. The increase in h occurs
around the overall surface perimeter and can be correlated
by the following equation [6]:


hðTA Þ n ðT Þ n
Z l A (1)
hðTB Þ nl ðTB Þ
It should be noted that Ganić and Roppo [9] found that the
fluid temperature does not affect the heat transfer coefficient.
For boiling conditions, temperature gradients near the
surface are increased as the film thickness decreases, and a
decreased film thickness can be caused by viscosity
reductions associated with bulk temperature increases. A
steeper temperature profile can inhibit bubble growth (see
Cerza and Sernas [44]), and change the position along the
surface perimeter at which active nucleation sites appear.
On the other hand, in pool boiling the heat transfer
coefficient increases with temperature, because of the
increase in n/A. In the context of falling-film evaporators,
these two competing effects can either increase or decrease
h. These opposing effects might be responsible for
disagreement in prior work, ostensibly conducted under
similar conditions. Refs. [3,4,6,32] point out an increase in h
with film temperature for boiling conditions. Fletcher et al.
[3,4] noted this behavior for a tube diameter of 25.4 mm,
while for an external diameter of 50.8 mm the effect of film
temperature seemed to be marginal. Parken et al. [22] noted
an increase in h with the film temperature for a tube with
DextZ50.8 mm and a liquid temperature up to 100 8C. An
opposite behavior was observed for higher temperatures; i.e.
for DextZ25.4 mm, and Tl!100 8C, they observed a weak
effect of film temperature on h; while for temperatures
higher than 100 8C, h increased with liquid temperature.
These behaviors seem to be related to the effects of the
diameter and the liquid temperature in the relative weight of
convective and boiling mechanisms, as previously discussed.
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653 639

2.4. Tube diameter effect uniformity. For ammonia, at saturation temperatures greater
than K1.1 8C, and commercial low-pressure-drop nozzles,
Tube diameter affects the heat transfer coefficient Zeng et al. [32] observed higher heat transfer coefficients for
because it changes the thermal boundary layer development spray nozzles with a cone angle greater than 908.
length and the length of liquid impingement region, relative
to the overall flow length of pDext/2. Under non-boiling 2.6. The effect of the liquid feeder height
conditions, these regions are characterized by higher local h,
resulting in an increase in the heat transfer coefficient with a The liquid feeder height can affect the heat transfer coef-
decreasing tube diameter [6,12,22,33], because a larger frac- ficient by modifying the flow mode, or through an increased
tion of the surface area is subject to impingement and deve- impingement velocity. An increased feeder height, H, can also
lopment effects. Liu [5] did not note effects of diameter on h. allow better spray distribution and thereby mitigate misalign-
Conversely, under boiling conditions the relative area of ment effects.
active boiling increases with the surface diameter, because Under non-boiling conditions, the heat transfer coeffi-
development of the thermal profile allows bubble growth. cient increases with H [5,6,13,14,17,28]. This effect is less
Thus, the overall behavior of h with Dext depends on the pronounced for fluids with a high liquid viscosity [5].
local h in the boiling region relative to the values on other Parken [6] reported h increased with H solely in the liquid
surface regions. These effects can explain differing trends impact region, while according to other Refs. [5,17], and as
observed under similar conditions. In the presence of bubble shown in Fig. 1 the heat transfer coefficient increased with H
nucleation, Parken [6] and Parken et al. [22] observed an along the whole surface perimeter. For the jet flow mode Hu
increase in h with the tube diameter, but Fletcher et al. [3], and Jacobi [33] noted that the heat transfer coefficient
Moeykens [26], and Moeykens and Pate [27] noted an increased with H. In the case of droplet-and-film modes they
opposite behavior. observed a weak effect of H. Ganić and Roppo [9] carried
out experiments for droplet-and-jet modes. Although they
2.5. The effect of liquid feeder configuration noted the increase in h with H at some flow rates, they did
not relate this behavior to flow modes. In boiling conditions,
The device used for liquid feeding can affect the Zeng et al. [32] for film temperatures lower than K1.1 8C,
evaporator performance. In general, feeder misalignment Chyu [13], and Chyu and Bergles [14] pointed out a weak
and designs that fail to provide axial uniformity can increase effect of the feeder height on h.
refrigerant maldistribution in the bundle and thus influence
the heat transfer rate. For convective heat transfer, the liquid
2.7. Effects of a vapor flow
feeder configuration may increase the heat transfer coeffi-
cient by increasing convective effects related to the liquid
A vapor flow can affect the evaporator performance in
impingement on the tube surface. Parken [6] and Parken and
the following ways: it can change the flow mode and
Fletcher [12] for a feeder with wedge shape, and Fletcher et
promote the deflection of the liquid flow, droplet atomiz-
al. [3] using a perforated plate noted axial temperature
ation and droplet drag; it can affect the film velocity profile
variations along the tube apex due to the flow non-uniformity.
and promote waves on the film surface [45]. The fluid
This effect is more pronounced for smaller tubes [6,12]. It has
been reported that film imperfections affect only the liquid
impact region [6,24]; however, Liu [5] observed that a small
misalignment produced an asymmetrical temperature distri-
bution all the way around the surface perimeter.
Fujita and Tsutsui [24,25] found that a cylindrical feeder
with holes along the bottom produced a heat transfer
coefficient 20% lower than that produced by a porous
sintered tube, a tube with holes along the top, and a
perforated plate with one, two, or three dummy tubes.
Moeykens and Pate [27] reported results under boiling
conditions for wide-angle, low-pressure-drop type and
wide-angle, high-pressure-drop type commercial spray
nozzles. The high-pressure-drop nozzles had the best
performance, according to the authors mainly because of
the impingement effect. However, using this nozzle might
not lead to an increase in overall evaporator performance, Fig. 1. The effect of the liquid feeder height on the heat transfer
because the impingement effect is confined to the top tubes, coefficient distribution along the external perimeter of a horizontal
and in a deep bundle impingement on the top few tubes cylindrical surface submitted to falling film evaporation under non-
becomes less important than other factors, such as flow boiling conditions (based on experimental results of Liu [5]).
640 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
maldistribution caused by the gas flow can lead to partial
surface dryout. On the other hand, the enhancement of
convective effects on the film surface can increase h. The
vapor flow direction (countercurrent, concurrent or cross-
current) can influence these effects.
Under boiling conditions, Parken [6] noted a heat
transfer enhancement and the suppression of bubble
nucleation with an increase in vapor velocity from 9 to
18 m sK1. These effects were insignificant for velocities up
to 9 m sK1. According to Parken, this behavior seems to be
related to a reduction in the film thickness and an increase in
the liquid velocity. For concurrent vapor flow and based on
the results from a numeric model, Liu [5] pointed out
that the degree to which h increases with the vapor velocity
is higher in thin films. In addition, he concluded that its
effect is insignificant for typical gas velocities of evapor-
ators. According to the same study, in countercurrent flow,
vapor effects can reduce the heat transfer coefficient due to
an increase in the film thickness resulting from an adverse
velocity profile in the film.
For sub-cooled water with a countercurrent air flow,
Armbruster and Mitrovic [28] noted an increase in h with air
velocity. This effect was more pronounced at low partial
vapor pressure, and was insignificant at high relative
humidity. The effects of air velocity and relative humidity
were small at high heat fluxes. According to them, the air
temperature seemed not to affect h. Experimental results of
Armbruster and Mitrovic [35] for water and an adiabatic
surface showed the effects of air velocity and relative
humidity on the temperature of the liquid to be small. These
results clearly suggest that the main effects of air velocity
and relative humidity on h are imparted during the liquid
free fall. For concurrent air velocity up to 15 m sK1, Hu and
Jacobi [33] noted an increase in h with air velocity, but the
effect was within the uncertainty in their experimental results.
3. Flow patterns studies
When a liquid film flows from one horizontal tube to
another below it, according to an increasing flow rate order,
the flow may take the form of droplets, circular jets, or a
continuous sheet, as shown in Fig. 2. The pattern is referred
to as falling-film mode and may play an important role in the
heat transfer process. Yung et al. [46] correlated the flow
rate for a transition from the droplet mode to the jet mode
with the droplet production frequency set equal to the
capillary wave oscillation frequency. Yung and his
co-workers based their studies on results from a single
tube with a single liquid detachment site in quiescent vapor.
The flow rate on one-side per unit length of the tube at the
transition was given by


r pdp3 2ps 1=2
2G Z 0:81 l (2)
l 6 rl l3
where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
lZx 4p2 n (3)
In Eqs.ffi (2) and (3), nZ2, x is the capillary constant given by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s=rl g, and dp is the diameter of primary drops, experi-
mentally determined for water and alcohol to be equal to 3x.
Experimental observations by Ganić and Roppo [9]
indicated that the transition from the droplet to the jet mode
occurred over a relatively large range of Reynolds number
around 180, and it was affected by the tube spacing. When
studying film condensation, Kutateladze et al. [47]
suggested that the modified Archimedes number based on
the capillary constant controlled the transition of flow mode.
Mitrovic [17] pointed out that the transition of flow modes
was dependent on the flow rate, fluid thermophysical
properties and the tube spacing.
Armbruster and Mitrovic [48] modeled the mode
transitions among the droplet, jet and sheet modes,
according to ReZAGa1/4, where A is an empirical constant.
For sufficiently high stagnation pressure, they observed that
the radial flows from adjacent jets collide and the film
surface is raised between the jets. The crests created at the
top of the tube remain nearly unchanged around the tube,
and form the departure sites for jets leaving the tube. This
flow mode is called the staggered jet mode. On the other
hand, for low pressure at the stagnation point, the liquid
stagnation region does not cause crests to form, and the in-
line jet mode is observed. Like Dhir et al. [49], Armbruster
and Mitrovic noted mode transition hysteresis (mode
transition at distinct G for increasing and reducing flow
rate) solely for the transition from the jet to the sheet mode.
In addition, Armbruster and Mitrovic found the transition
solely dependent on the liquid flow rate.
Fujita and Tsutsui [24,25] defined the two flow modes as
follows: a distinct droplet mode—liquid initially falls as jet
and then disintegrates into droplets as the falling velocity
increases; a disturbed jets mode—characterized by the
collapse of neighbor jets, resulting in a sheet, followed by its
rupture. They noted that the transition between the droplet
and the proposed new droplet mode occurred at Reynolds
number around 100 independent of feeding method. In
contrast, the other mode transitions were affected by the
feeder configuration with a decrease in the effects with the
increase in the dummy tube number.
Based on extensive observations of flow mode tran-
sitions, Hu and Jacobi [50] suggested the following flow
modes: the droplet mode, the droplet-jet mode, an unsteady-
jet mode—characterized by a steadiness in the location of
the jet departure site—the inline jet mode, the staggered jet
mode, the jet-sheet mode, and the sheet mode. The flow
modes proposed by Hu and Jacobi are shown in Fig. 3. In
contrast to earlier reports, Hu and Jacobi observed hysteresis
for all transitions. The flow mode was found to be relatively
independent of geometric effects over the range of their
experiments. The effects of gravitational, inertial, viscous
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653 641

Fig. 2. The idealized inter-tube falling-film modes (Mitrovic [17]): (a) the droplet mode-liquid leaving the tube intermittently; (b) the jet mode-
liquid leaving the tube as a continuous column; (c) the sheet mode-liquid fil forms an unbroken sheet between the tubes.

and surface tension forces are captured by correlating the flow on heat transfer enhanced surfaces have been
transitional Reynolds number to a modified Galileo number, reported. For R-113, normal propanol, and methanol on
using a power-law fit, ReZAGab, where A and b are an adiabatic finned surface (1064 fins mK1), Honda
empirical constants. Data obtained with a concurrent air et al. [52] related the mode transitions to the following
flow and velocities up to 15 m sK1 indicated that a flow in dimensionless parameter:
the surrounding vapor affects the transitions involving
1=4
droplet modes only. Recently, based on experimental results G g
KZ (4)
with a countercurrent air flow, Wei and Jacobi [51] pointed s3=4 rl
out that for low Galileo numbers an air flow destabilizes the
jet and sheet mode, and reduces transition hysteresis. From the droplet mode to the jet mode the transition K
Few studies concerning the investigation of the mode ranged from 0.06 for normal propanol to 0.13 for R-113.

Fig. 3. Intertube flow modes for ethylene glycol according to Hu and Jacobi [50]: (a) droplet; (b) droplet-jet; (c) in-line jet; (d) staggered jet; (e)
jet-sheet; (f ) sheet mode.
642 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
For the three test fluids, the jet-sheet mode began at KZ0.32,
and a complete sheet was observed when K reached from 0.37
to 0.47. In a similar report for R-113 on finned tubes, Honda
et al. [53] found a significant increase in Re for transition from
the jet mode to the sheet mode with a downward-flowing
vapor. However, for three-dimensional fins this effect was
dramatically reduced due to the promotion of the liquid
distribution by the surface structure.
More recently, Roques et al. [54] investigated adiabatic
flow modes on plain and enhanced surfaces. They proposed
correlations similar to those of Hu and Jacobi [50]. Flow
mode hysteresis effects were not observed. Plain and Turbo-
BII surfaces presented a lower Re at the transition from the
jet to the jet-sheet mode. Lower Reynolds numbers at
transitions concerning droplet and jet modes were noted for
the surface Thermoexcel-C. This behavior was related to the
effects of small fins that enabled the jet mode to remain
stable at low Re. For the Thermoexcel-C and Turbo-Chil the
complete sheet mode began at a relatively high Re when
compared to the others structures.
Fig. 4 shows the mode transitions as given by different
investigators. The figure reflects a significant scatter in tran-
sition data; however, such results are reasonable given the
subjective nature of interpreting two-phase flow regimes.
4. Heat transfer on enhanced surfaces
The use of enhanced (structured) surfaces can provide
heat transfer coefficients approximately 10 times higher than
those obtained on plain surfaces. Furthermore, they can also
improve the liquid refrigerant distribution. The mechanisms
causing the enhanced behavior can be divided into the
following categories: enhanced boiling, achieved by surface
structures that promote bubble nucleation; enhanced con-
vection, due to the effect of surface structures on surface
area, film velocity profile and turbulence, and interfacial
temperature variation and the attendant Marangoni effects.
Summarized in Table 2 are several studies from the
Fig. 4. Comparison of correlations for flow mode transitions on
plain tubes; it neglects transition hysteresis.
literature related to falling films on horizontal, enhanced
surfaces and a summary of the experimental conditions.
Commercial surfaces developed for flooded evaporators
(Turbo-B, Turbo-BII, High Flux and Thermoexcel-E),
condensers (Turbo-CII, GEWA-SE, GEWA-SC, Turbo-
Chil and Thermoexcel-C) and finned tubes are listed in
Table 2. According to this table, no research has been
carried out for new refrigerants (zeotropic blends) or
hydrocarbons. Although not listed in this table, the liquid
feeder devices used in the experiments are similar to the
ones used on plain surfaces research.
In general, convection-enhancing surfaces present higher
heat transfer enhancements at low heat fluxes. According to
Chyu and Bergles [15], the heat transfer enhancement
provided by GEWA-T surface is a consequence of the
increase in the surface area by the fins. Their conclusion was
based on observations according to which h enhancement is
proportional to the increase in the overall surface area. For
an increase of 100% in the surface area provided by helical
grooves, Conti [7] noted an increase of 3.5 times in h
compared to a plain tube. For finned surfaces under
convectively dominated conditions, Liu and Yi [36] found
an increase in h due to surface tension effects and an
increase in the surface area. For a surface with conical
cavities and water as refrigerant, they noted a similar
behavior, in this case due to the increase in the surface area
[36]. For surfaces with longitudinal grooves, Putilin et al.
[34] and Rifert et al. [19] noted an increase between 30 and
90% in h compared to plain tubes. Both studies report higher
heat transfer coefficients in the region close to the end of the
grooves, due to boundary layer disruption [19,34]. On the
contrary, according to Sabin and Poppendiex [8], longitudi-
nal grooves have no effects on the heat transfer coefficient.
This apparent contradiction is related to the groove dimen-
sions, because on the surfaces of Refs. [19,34] grooves
present a depth about 10 times higher than those of [8].
Shallow grooves behave as a simple surface roughness, and
will not affect h for laminar flow. For the experimental
results of Sabin and Poppendiex [8], a diamond-knurled
surface gives the best performance.
At high heat flux, boiling effects dominate and surface
structures that promote bubble nucleation tend to provide
higher heat transfer coefficients. Therefore, at high heat
fluxes Thermoexcel-E and High Flux surfaces give higher
performance than does GEWA-T [13,15,56]. At reduced f,
although bubble nucleation was not observed, Sabin and
Poppendiex [8] used the High Flux surface and noted a heat
transfer coefficient three times that of plain tubes, but Chyu
et al. [11] reported a similar h for these surfaces. According
to Liu and Yi [36], at high heat flux, the surface with conical
cavities presents a better performance than the finned
surface and the Gewa-T surfaces studied by Chyu and
Bergles [15]. Wang et al. [18] optimized the dimensions of
JK-1 surfaces under boiling-dominated conditions. Accord-
ing to Tan et al. [23], the surfaces type JK-2, an evolution of
JK-1 obtained by machining grooves in the surface tunnels,
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653 643

Table 2
Description of experimental studies involving falling film on enhanced surfaces

Fluid Surface characteristics Dext G (x103 kg Tsat or Tl f (kWmK2)

(mm) sK1 mK1) (8C)
[4] Sea water Knurled 50.8 0–228 49–127 0–63.1
[7] Ammonia High flux and helically grooved tubes 50 3.7–204 22.2 5–16
with 1100 and 315 groovesmK1
[8] Ammonia High flux and the following surface 25.4 3.7–37.1 12.8–23.9 3.2–25.2
preparations: turned and stripe-
burnished, diamond knurled, straight
knurled and covered with rough nickel
[11] Water GEWA-T19C, GEWA-T26B, high flux 25.4 37–110 99.4 2–208
[13] Water High flux, GEWA-T19C, GEWA-T26B 25.4 21–210 99.4 0.6–208
and thermoexcel-E
[15] Water GEWA-T19C, GEWA-T26B, 25.4 28–212 99.4 1–130
thermoexcel-E, high flux
[16] Water and ethyl alcohol High flux 25.4 2.5–50 45, 57 0–80
[18] R-113 15 Distinct configurations of JK-1 tube – 32–86 47 7–80
that presents a porous structure
[19] Water Longitudinally-profiled tubes 38.0 40–400 40–100 15–75
[21] R-11 Similar to JK-1 with addition of a 18 8–91 23.5 1–43
protuberance. Tubes with distinct
protuberance configurations.
[23] R-113 JK-1 and JK-2 (a second generation of 22.0 32–96 47.2 7.3–72.7
JK-1 tubes)
[26,30] Mixtures of R-134a and the GEWA-SE, GEWA-SC, Turbo-B, 19 6.5 2 5–40
polyol-ester oils: 32 cs/40 8C Turbo-CII, finned tubes 1024 fins mK1,
and 68 cs/40 8C u up to 5% 1575 fins mK1
[34] Water 20 Distinct configurations of 30, 38 40–200 42–100 15–75
longitudinally profiled tubes
[36] Water and R-11 Surface with conical cavities, and a 18 15–354 23.5, 99.4 2–500
helically finned tube 1429 fins mK1
[54] Water, glycol, and Turbo-BIIi, Turbo-Chili, thermoexcel-Cii 12.7ii, 0–210 15–35 0
water glycol mixtures 19.1i
[55] Ammonia Finned 1575 fins mK1 and corrugated 19 6.95–39.4 K23.3–10 10–80
tubes

achieves a heat transfer coefficient that is 50–190% higher
than that of JK-1, as can be noted in Fig. 5. The experimental
points shown in this figure were digitized from the
publication. This improvement results from greater rough-
ness in the tunnels of the JK-2 than in the JK-1. The
roughness increases the number of nucleation sites. In
addition, at high heat flux the internal grooves in JK-2
improve the liquid distribution on the surface through
capillary effects [23]. Moeykens et al. [30] observed that
enhanced boiling surfaces gave a higher performance than
finned tubes and a lower performance than the surfaces
developed for condensers. Fig. 6 summarizes these results
and also shows the experimental data of Webb and Pais [57].
According to Fig. 6, the pool boiling on the Turbo-B surface
gives the highest performance.
Liu and Yi [36] defined the convective and boiling
regimes for falling films. In the convective regime, h is
constant, while in the boiling regime h increases with f.
They observed both regimes independent of the surface
configuration. Wang et al. [18] using boiling-enhanced
surfaces, and Zeng et al. [55] using finned and corrugated
surfaces, observed the boiling regime only. On the other
hand, Kuwahara et al. [21] pointed out a marginal effect of f
on a boiling-enhanced surface despite the occurrence of
bubble nucleation. Moeykens et al. [30] noted that the heat
transfer performance increased with f, reached a maximum,
and then declined with a further increase in heat flux. The
decrease in h is most likely due to the partial dryout. A
distinct behavior is observed for GEWA-SC whose
performance is weakly dependent on f. These behaviors
are also displayed in Fig. 6. The surfaces Thermoexcel-E,
JK-1 and JK-2 use superficial structures characterized by
minute parallel tunnels with tiny holes (porous) to connect
to the outside surface. The heat transfer enhancement
achieved by these surfaces is associated with the heat flux
level and is related to liquid suction and bubble ejection
through the pores in a manner similar to the mechanism
proposed by Nakayama et al. [58] for pool boiling [15,18].
On the basis of this understanding, Wang et al. [18]
suggested increasing the pore diameter with f.
644 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
Fig. 5. Falling film heat transfer results of the JK-1 and JK-2
enhanced surfaces from digitized data of Tan et al. [23]. R-113,
TsatZ47.2 8C, GZ0.0963 kg mK1 sK1.
In general, at low heat fluxes, the falling film provides a
higher heat transfer rate than does pool boiling. This differ-
ence increases for convective-enhanced surfaces [15,18,
21,36,56], and it is related to increased convective effects for
falling film relative to free convection, the main heat transfer
mechanism in incipient pool boiling. At high heat fluxes, this
effect diminishes due to the dominance of boiling effects. The
heat flux at which these mechanisms compete depends on the
surface structure [15,21,36,56]. Hysteresis effects (distinct f
vs. (TwKTsat) curves depending upon whether the surface has
been going through a heating or cooling process) were noted
for boiling-enhancing surfaces in the following Refs. [11,13,
15,23,56]. In contrast, Kurahara et al. [21] noted small
hysteresis effects, though they obtained experimental results
for boiling-enhanced surfaces.
Without partial dryout on the surface, the flow rate
affects h solely through its impact on convection [15,21,36,56].
Wang et al. [18] noted an increase in h with G for boiling-
Fig. 6. A comparison between the results of R-134a from Moeykens
[26] for falling film evaporation on single plain, and enhanced
surfaces at TsatZ2 8C, and the data from Webb and Pais [57] for
pool boiling on enhanced surfaces at 4.4 8C.
enhanced surfaces. For finned surfaces and standard nozzles,
Zeng et al. [55] observed that at high Tsat the effects of G are
related to the heat flux level. At high f, h increases with G as
a result of the decrease in the dry area on the tube. An
opposite trend is observed at low f due to the increase in the
film thickness on fin tips in the absence of partial dryout.
Using finned surfaces and R-11, Liu and Yi [36] noted a
maximum h value for a Reynolds number of 250 and a
constant heat transfer coefficient at ReO1000. For a surface
with longitudinal grooves, Rifert et al. [19] observed an
increase in h with G, independent of f the magnitude of this
effect was related to the groove dimensions. For a similar
surface structure, Putilin et al. [34] noted that the degree of
heat transfer enhancement in relation to the plain surface
increases with G.
At high saturation temperatures, Zeng et al. [55] noted an
increase in h with an increase in the nozzle height and a
reduction in the nozzle angle. According to Chyu and
Bergles [15,56], the liquid feeder height does not affect the
heat transfer coefficient for boiling-enhanced surfaces, due
to boiling dominance effects, or for convective-enhancing
surfaces, due to the reduction in the effect of the impact of
the liquid by the fins. In the case of a High Flux surface at a
low heat flux they noted that the nozzle height affected h in a
similar manner as for plain surfaces.
According to Moeykens et al. [30], small concentrations
of a lubricant can considerably increase the heat transfer
performance. The oil concentration at which the optimal
performance was observed decreased with an increase in f.
This behavior was related to the foaming effect of the oil and
was noted for the Turbo-CII and a finned surface
(1575 fins mK1).
5. Falling film on bundles of horizontal tubes
In contrast to the studies of a single tube, for which the
surface is generally heated by an electric current, the heating
effect was usually provided by the flow of a heated fluid in
the tube bundle studies. Table 3 describes the experimental
data bank of studies directed at falling-film tube bundles.
The principal conclusions of these studies are discussed in
the following paragraphs.
In the ideal case, the falling film would be uniformly
distributed on the evaporator surface; however, maldistribu-
tion effects and even partial dryout occur in applications
where a uniform distribution is not achieved. When dryout
occurs, the heat transfer coefficients are higher for the upper
tubes due to partial dryout on the lower surfaces [38,58].
When all surfaces are wet, the upper tubes still exhibit a
higher h, due to the impact of the liquid from the feeder [70],
and the local increase in G from row to row because of the
irrigation caused by interstitial drizzles [65]. In a square-
pitch arrangement, Moeykens et al. [67,68] using R-134a
noted a higher performance in the first row, while for R-123
they found an increase in h from row to row. A similar
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
Table 3
Description of experimental studies involving falling film on tube bundles
Fluid Liquid feeder characteristics
[23] R-123, water, glycol, water–glycol A reservoir with the low region pre-
mixtures, alcohol, and hydraulic oil senting a form of a semi-cylinder with
regularly spaced holes in its lower
generatrix.
[26] R-134a, R-22, R-123 and mixtures of Wide-angle low-pressure-drop com-
these refrigerants with oil lubricant. mercial nozzles; solid pattern, circular
and square plum type; orifices diameter
of 3.97, 4.76 and 5.56 mm nozzle height
of 41.3 and 66.7 mm
[36] Water and R-11 Feeder with wedge shape and nozzle
width of 1 mm
[38] R-11 Porous sintered tube; tube with holes
along its bottom; and a plate with a row
of holes in its center line
[59] R-22, R-12 and R-113 A perforated tube inside another tube
with drilled holes in its upper generatrix
[60] Sea water – /16, 24 and 32 mm/copper
[61] Water A tray with 3 rows of 3 mm holes,
drilled 20 mm apart
[62] R-12, R-22 Similar to [59]
[63] Ammonia Spray nozzles
[64] Water Distance between the nozzles and tubes
of 76 mm
[65] Ammonia Standard- and wide-angle commercial
round full-cone nozzles; distance
between nozzles and tubes of 150 mm.
[66] R-134a Wide-angle commercial nozzles that
promote circular and square plumes
(orifices DZ4 mm DZ4.76 mm and
DZ5.56 mm) distances between noz-
zles and tubes of 41.3 and 66.7 mm
[67] R-134a Wide-angle commercial round full-
cone nozzles (orifice DZ5.56 mm),
distance between nozzles and tubes of
66.7 mm
[68] Mixtures of R-123 and a 305 SUS Wide-angle commercial round full-
naphthenic mineral oil; u up to 2.5% cone nozzles (orifice DZ4.76 mm and
DZ5.56 mm), distance between noz-
zles and tubes of 44.3 mm
645
Tube bundle layout/tube characteris-
ticsa/tube diameter/tube material
5 Horizontal plain tubes vertically
aligned 1%H%80 mm/1%Dext%80 -
mm/stainless steel
20 Tubes in 4 vertical rows; triangular-
and square-pitch/finned tube
(1575 fins mK1), GEWA-SC, Turbo-B,
Turbo-CII and plain tube/Dextz19 mm/
copper
3 Tubes in a vertical row/plain tube,
surface with conical cavities, and a
helically finned tube 1429 fins mK1/
DextZ18 mm/copper
5 Horizontal plain tubes vertically
aligned/DextZ25 mm/copper.
1 and 3 horizontal rows with 5 vertical
rows, 22 horizontal rows vertically
aligned. Distinct triangular layouts
including 60 tubes/18 mm/stainless
steel
3 Horizontal rows with 5 vertical rows/
elliptical and circular/19 mm/aluminum
5 Horizontal tubes vertically aligned/9
types of porous tubes with coating by
deposition, spraying, and sintering; and
4 types of jacketing tubes/20 mm/
stainless steel and copper
100 Columns each with 30 plain tubes;
308 triangular layouts/25.4 mm/tita-
nium
3 Tubes in a vertical row; 3–2–3
triangular-pitch; and 3 by 3 square
pitch/plain tube, finned tube (1575 fins/
m) and longitudinally groove surface;/
19 mm/stainless steel
3!3 square-pitch and a 3–2–3 triangu-
lar-pitch/DextZ19 mm/stainless steel
20 Tubes in 4 vertical rows; triangular-
pitch/finned tubes 1575 fins mK1/
DextZ19 mm/copper
20 Tubes in 4 vertical rows; triangular-
and square-pitch/finned tube
(1575 fins mK1), GEWA-SC, Turbo-B,
Turbo-CII and plain tube/DextZ19 mm/
copper.
20 Tubes in 4 vertical rows triangular-
and square-pitch/plain; Turbo-B and
Turbo-CII/DextZ19 mm/copper
646 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653

Table 3 (continued)

Fluid Liquid feeder characteristics Tube bundle layout/tube characteris-

ticsa/tube diameter/tube material
[69] Mixtures of R-134a and oil 340-SUS Similar to [67] 20 Tubes in 4 vertical rows; triangular-
polyol-ester ; R-22 and oil 300-SUS pitch/plain tube, GEWA-SC, Turbo-B,
alkyl-benzene; u up to 2.5% finned tube (1575 fins/m)/DextZ
19 mm/copper
[70] Ammonia Standard- and wide-angle commercial 3 by 3 square pitch/DextZ19.1 mm/
round full-cone nozzles; distances stainless steel
between nozzles and tubes of 50.8 and
102 mm
[71] R-141b Full cone circular spray nozzles with an 5 Tubes in a triangular-pitch arrange-
orifice diameter of 2 mm ment with 2 horizontal rows/plain tubes
with and without a peripheral liquid
collector/DextZ19 mm/copper
[72] R-11 A tube with holes at its bottom above 36 Tubes (1024 fins/m) in 5 horizontal
each column, and two tubes with holes rows; triangular-pitch arrangement/
on their surfaces positioned in the third DextZ19.1 mm/R-11 vapor in counter-
horizontal row current flow
[73,74] Ammonia Standard- (orifice DZ4.76 mm/spray 3–2–3 triangular-pitch/DextZ19 mm/
angle 908) and wide-angle (orifice DZ stainless steel
3.99 mm/spray angle 1108) commercial
round full-cone nozzles; distance
between nozzles and tubes up to
150 mm
[75] Water Similar to [36] 3 Horizontal tubes vertically aligned/
DextZ13, 20, and 30 mm/copper
a
When not specified, consider the experiments as conducted solely for plain tubes.

behavior was measured by Fujita and Tsutsui [38], Liu and
Yi [36] and Liu et al. [75]. Danilova et al. [59] and Bukin
et al. [62] did not note substantial variations along the tube
bundle depth.
In a triangular-pitch arrangement, the flow rate distri-
bution tends to be less uniform than in a square-pitch
arrangement and thus row-to-row variation is larger [26].
Plain surfaces in a triangular-pitch bundle exhibit a decrease
of h from row to row [63,69]. This behavior is noted for low
flow rates [63] and high heat fluxes [69]. Finned tubes such
as GEWA-SC can exhibit maldistribution effects, because
the surface structure inhibits the longitudinal movement of
liquid [64,67]. For the surfaces Turbo-CII and Turbo-B,
Moeykens and co-workers found that the relative perform-
ance among rows varied with the refrigerant, heat flux, and
film flow rate [67–69]. For R-123 and low heat fluxes, the
surface Turbo-B gives the highest performance at the lowest
row [68]. Some methods have been proposed to avoid partial
dryout on the lower rows [71,72]. By adding spray tubes at
the center of the bundle, Tatara and Payvar [72] found an
increase in the thermal performance, relative to a configur-
ation that used only liquid drip tubes above the tube bundle;
they also found, a reduction in the overfeed rate for a similar
global h. Chang and Chiou [71] added liquid collectors to
the bottom of the tubes and thus reduced the difference in the
local h along the bundle depth.
The results of Moeykens et al. [67] for R-134a and
Turbo-B surface reveal that the triangular-pitch bundle
gives higher bundle-averaged heat transfer coefficients than
does the square-pitch bundle at high heat fluxes. An opposite
behavior occurs at low heat fluxes. In the square-pitch
bundle, the effects of f and G are less prominent. On the
other hand, for R-123 and the same surface structure,
Moeykens et al. [68] found that a square-pitch bundle gave a
higher performance. A less uniform flow distribution on
triangular-pitch bundles [64] seems related to higher f
effects for this arrangement. Zeng et al. [73,74] pointed out
that square-pitch bundle tends to provide a higher
performance than a triangular-pitch bundle at low saturation
temperatures, and the triangular-pitch bundle is more likely
to provide a better performance at high saturation tempera-
tures, as shown in Fig. 7. The experimental points shown in
this figure were digitized from the publication. Fig. 7 also
reveals an increase in the heat transfer performance with the
saturation temperature. In this figure, contrary to Moeykens
[26], by comparing heat transfer performance of the distinct
tubes in the bundle, a less uniform flow rate distribution can
be noted for triangular-pitch arrangement. Two distinct
arrangements of the triangular-pitch bundle were compared
by Danilova et al. [59]. A comparison shows that the per-
formance increases with a reduction in the horizontal
distance between vertical rows.
Moeykens et al. [26], using R-134a on tube bundles,
reported the following order of performance as shown
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653 647

Fig. 7. Falling film heat transfer results of individual tubes on square (filled symbols) and triangular-pitch (blank symbols) plain-tube bundles
from Zeng et al. [73]. Ammonia at (a) TsatZK23.3 8C and (b) TsatZ10 8C, DextZ19.1 mm, Gz0.075 kg mK1 sK1, nozzle height of 50.8 mm,
pitch ratio of 1.25, and standard-angle nozzles.

in Fig. 8: Turbo-CII, Turbo-B, GEWA-SC, finned

(1575 fins mK1) and plain tubes. Contrary to what is
shown for single surfaces in Fig. 6, in which the
enhanced-condensation tubes give similar performances,
bundles using Turbo-CII provided a performance up to
100% higher than those using GEWA-SC. This behavior can
be related to the restriction of the longitudinal liquid
movement on GEWA-SC by the fins, resulting in a large
variation in the local flow rate that increases in the lower
rows, and promotes the formation of dry patches [63,66].
For R-123, the Turbo-B tube provides a better performance
than does the Turbo-CII [68]. Thome [2] suggested that the
reason why the Turbo-CII outperformed the Turbo-B for R-
134a but the opposite occurred for R-123 could be the large
surface tension difference between these refrigerants and the
distinct mechanisms of the liquid retention provided by
these surfaces.
How much the bundle-averaged heat transfer coefficient
is affected by the flow rate depends on the surface structure
and the bundle layout [67,68]. When the surfaces are wet, a Fig. 8. Falling film heat transfer results on tube bundles from
flow rate increase seems to reduce the global h due to an Moeykens [26]. R-134a, TsatZ2 8C, triangular-pitch, a nozzle
increased film thickness [67]. On the other hand, when dry height of 66.7 mm, and wide-angle nozzles.
648 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
patches are present, the global h increases with G due to the
decrease in the dry areas [9,28,38,62,71]. These behaviors
are noted in Fig. 8 for Turbo-CII. At low f, the performance
at the lowest flow rate is high; at high f, the performance at
the lowest flow rate is low. For the square-pitch bundle and
at Tsat higher than K23,3 8C, Zeng et al. [70] observed a
slight increase in global h with G, while for the triangular-
pitch bundle Zeng et al. [74] found an insignificant effect of
G, independent of Tsat. No effect of G on global h was noted
in the following Refs. [36,62,75]. Danilova et al. [59] found
that the behaviors for global h with G on tube bundles were
similar to those of a single tube, due to the dominance of
boiling effects, and as pointed out by Fujita and Tsutsui [38],
to the flow regime on the surfaces (laminar, turbulent).
Danilova et al. [59] also suggested that the flow rate be
as high as possible in order to obtain the maximum
evaporation-zone heat-transfer.
The following has been noted for the global h with
increasing f: h decreases due to increased dry areas within
the bundle [38,68,71]; h increases when boiling effects are
dominant [59,62,68,70,74]; h is almost constant under
strictly convective conditions [36,38,59]. An increase in the
vapor flow with f, promoted by the higher evaporation rate,
can also increase the global h, due to the enhancement of the
convective effects (caused by vapor shear), principally on
the upper rows. The behavior of global h with f depends
upon, among other factors, the heat flux itself, G (as shown
in Fig. 8), the refrigerant, the surface structure and the layout
of the bundle [66–69].
Vapor flow in the bundle can promote either an increase
in the film thickness [72] or a reduction in it due to the drag
of liquid [45]. It can also promote either the formation of dry
patches or better liquid distribution [46]. Thus, the effects
of a vapor flow can either increase or decrease the bundle
average heat transfer coefficient. A majority of the studies
listed in Table 3 were carried out on limited rows and do not
include vapor-shear effects. Therefore, when vapor-shear
effects are relevant to the bundle performance, care must
be exercised in trying to extrapolate these results to full
evaporator performance.
Zeng et al. [70,74] observed a decrease in the global h
with an increase in the nozzle height, which was enhanced at
high temperatures. This behavior seems to be related to an
increase in maldistribution effects. For strictly convective
heat transfer, Liu and Yi [36] pointed out that the global h
was not affected by the tube spacing. For square-pitch
bundles and high temperatures, Zeng et al. [70,74] observed
that a wide-angle nozzle provided a higher performance
than did a standard-angle nozzle; however, for a triangular-
pitch bundle the bundle performance was not affected by the
nozzle angle. Chyu et al. [65] developed an analytical
method to predict the liquid flow distribution on the first row
of a bundle. In the same paper, they indicated that, in order
to cover the same area, more square nozzles than round
nozzles are needed. However, they also suggested that the
square nozzles provided an advantage in the uniformity of
the spray flow. The results of Moeykens and Pate [66] can be
related to both of these statements, since they noted that the
square nozzle presented a higher global h than the round
nozzle, and an increase in the nozzle spacing reduced
differences in performance.
Moeykens and his co-workers [68,69] also investigated
the performance of the bundles with refrigerant/oil mixtures.
For refrigerants R-134a and R-22, the addition of oil pro-
moted foaming, which is suggested to enhance the heat
transfer because it helps maintain wetting of the bundle [68].
On the other hand, for R-123, the heat transfer performance
decreased with the addition of oil on the Turbo-B bundle. In
the case of Turbo-CII and plain tube bundles, the oil addi-
tion to R-123 improves the bundle performance at low f.
For this refrigerant, foaming is observed solely with plain
tubes [69]. Apparently, foaming heat transfer enhancement
with the addition of oil cannot be due to foaming alone.
6. Methods to predict the heat transfer rate
6.1. Empirically based correlations
In general, most efforts that involve the development of
heat transfer correlations for falling films on horizontal
cylindrical surfaces are intended for direct application;
therefore, such correlations provide reasonable results in
their range of applicability and can be implemented without
much difficulty. However, because their development is
usually based on a restricted set of data, care must be taken
to apply them within the parameter space of their
development—extrapolation of such correlations may not
yield good predictions. Although existing correlations are
limited in applicability, they are usually cast in terms of
dimensionless parameters such as the Nusselt, Prandtl,
Reynolds, and Archimedes numbers, along with dimension-
less geometric variables, with the hope that such an
approach will elucidate the physical mechanisms or
relationships more clearly than a dimensional approach.
Results from simulations using numerical models have also
been used to develop correlations [76,77].
Proposed heat transfer correlations are summarized in
Table 4, where the experimental data bank used to fit these
correlations is also partially described. The selection of a
correlation should include an assessment of the flow regime
(laminar or turbulent) [10], and the falling-film flow mode
[33]. Furthermore, the prevailing heat transfer mechanisms
should be considered, e.g. for boiling conditions, different
correlations are proposed [10,22,59]. Correlations deve-
loped from experimental results with water are widely
available [17,22,28,31,33,75], as are correlations from
experiments with ammonia [10,55,70,74]. Danilova and
co-workers [59] proposed correlations based on experi-
mental results with the refrigerants of R-22, R-12 and R-113
in a tube bank. The correlations proposed by Fujita and
Tsutsui [25,38] are based on experimental data using R-11.
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653 649

Table 4
Heat transfer correlations for for falling film evaporation on horizontal cylindrical surfaces

Equ- Correlation Data bank Comments

ation
[10] (5) NuZ2.2(H/Dext)0.1ReK1/3 Ammonia, single plain tubes Laminar flow Re!1.680PrK3/2
(6) NuZ 0:185ðH=Dext Þ0:1 Prl Turbulent flow ReR1.680PrK3/2
[17] (7) NuZ 0:0137ðReÞ0:349 Prl ððs=Dext Þ0:158 = Water, single plain tubes ReO320
ð1C expðK0:0032Re1:32 ÞÞ
[22] (8) NuZ 0:042Re0:15 Prl Water, single plain tubes Strictily convective DextZ25.4 mm
(9) NuZ 0:038Re0:15 Prl Strictily convective DextZ50.8 mm
(10) NuZ 0:00082Re0:10 Prl f0:4 Boiling conditions DextZ25.4 mm
(11) NuZ 0:00094Re0:10 Prl f0:4 Boiling conditions DextZ50.8 mm
[31] (12) NuZ 0:2071Re0:24 Prl ArK0:111 Water, single plain tubes diameter Properties evaluated at film average
effect according to [78] temperature
[33] (13) NuZ 0:113Re0:85 Prl ArK0:27 Water, ethylene glicol, mixture of water Droplet mode
ð1C s=Dext Þ0:04 and ethylene glycol, single plain tubes
(14) NuZ 1:378Re0:42 Prl ArK0:23 Jet mode
ð1C s=Dext Þ0:08
(15) NuZ 2:194Re0:28 Prl ArK0:20 Sheet mode
ð1C s=Dext Þ0:07
[38] (16) NuZ ½ReK2=3 C aRe0:3 Prl
1=2 R-11, vertical row of horizontal tubes Top tube aZ0.008 other tubes, aZ0.
010
[55] (17) NuZ 0:0568ReK0:0058 Prl ðpsat =pcrit Þ0:323 Ammonia, single 1575 fins mK1 tube
ðfDext =ðTcrit K Tsat Þkl Þ1:034
[59] (18) NuZ 0:03Re0:22 ðf=hlv rv nl ðnl =gÞ1=3 Þ0:04 R-22, R-12 and R-113 on tubes Strictily convective
Prl ðs=Dext Þ0:48 vertically aligned
(19) h=kl ðs=gðrl K rv ÞÞ1=2 Z 1:32 ! Boiling conditions
10K3 ðf=hlv rv nl ðs=gðrl K rv ÞÞ1=2 Þ0:63 !
ðpsat =sðs=gðrl K rv ÞÞ1=2 Þ0:72 Prl
[70] (20) NuZ 0:0495ReK0:00399 Prl ðpsat =pcrit Þ0:261 Ammonia, 3 by 3 square pitch
ðfDext =ðTcrit K Tsat Þkl Þ0:722
[74] (21) NuZ 0:0678Re0:049 Prl p0:456 r ðfDext = Ammonia, 3–2–3 triangular-pitch
ðTcrit K Tsat Þkl Þ0:704
[78] (22) NuZ 0:041Re0:30 Prl ArK0:04 Water on a vertical row of horizontal
tubes

Recently, Zeng and his co-workers [70,74] developed
correlations based on triangular- and square-pitch bundle
spray evaporation with ammonia.
6.2. Analytically based models
In addition to the empirical correlations cited above, a
number of models have been proposed. Typically, these
models classify the flow and heat transfer as shown in Fig. 9: a
free fall, jet impingement, thermal developing, and fully
developed region. Local Nusselt numbers are obtained through
the application of continuity, momentum and the energy
equations for each of these regions. Such modeling can either
result in simple correlations involving dimensionless para-
meters, or a solution obtained through numerical methods.
In general, differences between the models are due to
how the flow is classified (i.e., the above mentioned
regions), the model used for the jet impingement region,
initial and boundary conditions, the falling film modes, and
the flow regime, either laminar [6,8,13,14,40,75,79] or
turbulent [5,75,76,80]. A range of turbulence models has
been considered by those developing falling-film models.
Assuming the effects of waviness at the liquid–vapor
interface are similar to those for vertical falling films,
Kocamustafaogullari and Chen [40] and Rogers [79] applied
corrections for such effects to the empirical correlations that
were proposed by Zazuli [40] and Kutateladze and Gogonin
[81], respectively. It is interesting to note that Marangoni
effect is not typically included, but some cases it might be
important (such as for a subcooled film [79]). In most
models, heat transfer is considered to result in sensible
heating or thin-film evaporation; however, Lorenz and
Young [39] suggested a model based on the assumption that
evaporation on the heating surface was due to the bubble
nucleation. These effects are modeled through a correlation
for pool boiling [82] considering a uniform nucleation along
the heating surface perimeter. Their approach does not agree
with experimental behaviors described earlier, according to
650 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653

Fig. 9. Illustration of falling film regions adopted in the models, and the heat transfer coefficient distribution along the surface perimeter
according to experimental results, and models from distinct authors.

which high intensity in bubble nucleation was noted on the turbulence effects increase with the flow rate. The observed
tube bottom. Parken [6] and Saiz Jabardo [83] suggested a trend at high Re for the model of Chyu and Bergles is related
study of the nucleation criteria for thin films, related to the to the changes in area associated to the development region
one proposed by Bergles and Rohsenow [84]. Finally, only that occur with changes in flow rate. It is interesting to note
the model developed by Liu [5] includes the effects of a that in the case of a sufficiently high flow rate, the fully
concurrent vapor flow. developed region is not present. Therefore, according to this
Fig. 9 also shows the local h along the surface perimeter model, the minimum in Nu with Re is not related to a
according to the experimental results of Liu [5] and Parken transition in the film flow regime from laminar to turbulent,
[6], and the models by Chyu and Bergles [14], Sabin and but rather it is due to development effects.
Popendiex [8], and Fujita and Tsutsui [80]. Generally
speaking, the models by Chyu and Bergles [14] and Fujita
and Tsutsui [80] deviate significantly from the experimental 7. Conclusions
results of Liu [5]. Distinct differences can be noted near the
tube bottom, due to the fact that the effects of heat transfer From this review, the following conclusions can be drawn:
enhancement in this region are not modeled. The model of
Chyu and Bergles does not predict the decrease in h near the The parameter space relevant to falling-film evaporator
tube bottom, related to the fact that the fully developed performance is large and complex; despite numerous
region is not present. In the case of the Sabin and studies, even some of the basic mechanisms responsible
Popendiex’s model, lower heat transfer coefficients can be
noted near top of the tube, because they considered only a
thermal developed region. Fig. 10 shows the flow rate
effects on the overall Nusselt, as predicted by the models of
Chyu and Bergles [14], Sabin and Popendiex [8], and Fujita
and Tsutsui [80]. The models of Sabin and Popendiex [8]
and Fujita and Tsutsui [80] for laminar film flow exhibit a
decrease in Nu with Re, independent of the Reynolds
number range. This behavior is simply due to an increase in
the film thickness with liquid flow rate. For Reynolds
numbers lower than 100, all the model results are similar.
Distinct trends can be noted at higher Reynolds numbers,
where the models proposed by Chyu and Bergles [14] and
Fujita and Tsutsui [80] for the turbulent flow predict the
Nusselt number to increase with Re. In the model of Fujita Fig. 10. Effects of film Reynolds number on the falling film Nusselt
and Tsutsui, the trend is caused by an increase in the film number of a plain tube according to distinct models. R-22, TsatZ
temperature gradients near the heating surface, because 0 8C, a feeder height of 0.003 and a tube diameter of 25.4 mm.
 G. Ribatski, A.M. Jacobi / International Journal of Refrigeration 28 (2005) 635–653
for heat transfer behavior remain unclear. In particular,
the conditions for incipient nucleate boiling need to be
investigated, because the occurrence of nucleate boiling
and its impact is obfuscated by the effects of flow rate,
fluid properties, temperature and heat flux.
In general, enhanced surfaces provide higher heat
transfer performance than do plain tubes; however,
confidence in the predicted enhancement is undermined
by complexity in the heat transfer dependence on
geometry, tube layout, and operating conditions. Special
attention must be directed not only to the optimization of
enhanced tube geometry but also to the definition of the
conditions in which enhancements can be clearly
identified and quantified.
Bundle depth effects related to liquid maldistribution and
partial dryout remain unclear. Liquid distribution has a
dramatic impact on evaporator performance. Because
they are important and not well understood, additional
experiments on bundle-depth effects should be under-
taken. The results of such studies can be used in the
development of methods to avoid dry regions and to
quantify flow non-uniformity effects on performance.
Apparently, the presence of oil can enhance the heat
transfer coefficient by 100% under certain conditions,
but it can have a deleterious effect under other conditions.
Systematic experiments with different refrigerant-oil
mixtures, surface structures, and geometric parameters
are necessary to understand this behavior and develop
reliable design tools.
Several models focusing on the prediction of h have been
proposed. However, in general, they do not include
Marangoni effect, vapor-shear effects, interfacial wavi-
ness, or nucleate boiling effects. Empirical correlations
are strongly dependent on specific operating conditions
under which they were developed, and great care must be
exercised in trying to generalize such relations. Further
experimental work is needed before generalized corre-
lations can be developed; carefully considered experi-
ments should be undertaken to broaden the current
parametric space for which data are available and to
resolve contradictions in the extant data.
The falling-film evaporator meets many of the needs of
the air-conditioning and refrigeration industry. The
thermal performance of falling-film heat exchangers is
excellent—it is thermally superior to flooded evaporators
and competitive with plate heat exchangers. Falling-film
heat exchangers are tolerant of contaminating gases and
can probably operate with a lower refrigerant charge
than plate heat exchangers.
Acknowledgements
The first author gratefully acknowledges support through
a post-doctoral assistantship given by the Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientı́fico e Tecnológico,
651
CNPq, Brazil. Both authors acknowledge support through
the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Center at the
University of Illinois. We are also deeply grateful to Ms.
Xuli Tang who provided significant editorial assistance in
the preparation of this manuscript.
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