Valves

3.0 Introduction:
Valves are very important part of piping system, as they provide facility to
regulate the quantity of fluid passing through the pipe.

3.1 Classification
Valves are classified according to their action performed.
 Isolation
 Regulation.
 Checking
 Switching
 Discharging

3.1.1 Isolation valves.

 Gate valve
 Ball valve
 Plug valve
 Piston valve
 Diaphragm valve.
 Butterfly valve.

3.1.2 Regulation valves.

 Globe valve.
 Needle valve.
 Butterfly valve.
 Diaphragm valve.
 Piston valves.

3.1.3 Checking valves.

 Check valve.
 Foot valve.

3.1.4 Switching valves.

 Multi-port valve.
 Diverting valve.
3.1.5 Safety valves.
 Safety valve.
 Relief valve.
 Rupture disc

3.1.6 Discharging valve

 Flush bottom valve.

3.2 Valve assembly

Following are the parts of valve;

Disc:- The moving part that directly effect the flow is called as disc.

Seat:- The non-moving part on which the disc bears is called as seat.

Port:- The maximum internal opening of the valve in fully open position.

Stem:- There are two types of screwed stem. The rising & non rising stem.

The rising stem can either be inside screw or outside screw .The outside screw
type has a yoke on bonnet & referred to as ‘outside screw & yoke’ ( OS&Y). the
hand wheel can either rise with the stem or stem can rise through the hand
wheel.

In Non- rising stem hand wheel & stem are in the same position whether the
valve is open or closed. The screw is inside the bonnet.

Bonnet :-The bonnet is connected to the body . The type of connection can be
flanged bolted, bellow sealed, screwed –on, welded, union, pressure sealed etc.

Body :-The valves are connected to pipe, fittings or vessel by their body ends,
which may be flanged, screwed, butt or socket welding.

3.2.1 Terms used for valve specification.

P-T ratings :- The maximum allowable sustained non-shock pressure at the

corresponding tabulated temperature. These are listed in ANSI B 16.34 & ANSI
B 16.5.

Class:- The valve is specified by the pressure rating of the body of the valves.
The American standard specifies the following class.
Class 150 #
Class 300 #
Class 400 #
Class 600 #
Class 900 #
Class 1500 #
Class 2500#
Class 800#
Class 4500#
Trim:- The trim mainly comprises of stem, seat surface, bushing & other internal
parts, which are in contact with the fluid.
API 600 specifies trim No: & the material that can be used for parts with its typical
specification & grade.

Table 3.1 API 60 Standard for Trim

3.3 Valve types
3.3.1 Gate valve

 It is an isolation valve, can’t be used for regulation.

 Designed to operate fully open or fully closed.
 Fluid hammer is minimum as it operates slowly.
 Pressure drop through gate valve is less.
 In fully closed position gate valve provide positive seal under high
pressure.
 Under low pressure there can be seepage of 5psi.which is not considered
abnormal.
 Size range ½” – 12”
 Fig. 3.1 Gate Valve

3.3.2 Ball valve

 Ball valve is an isolation valve but in some case it can be used as a

regulation valve.
 It is designed to operate fully open or fully closed.
 Ball valve is quarter turn valve hence it can be quickly opened or closed.
 It is suitable for gas, compressed air & slurry services.
 Quick opening / closing causes fluid hammering.
 Pressure drop is less.

Fig. 3.2 Ball Valve

3.3.3 Globe valve.

 Globe valve is a regulation valve.

 It open & closes slowly so fluid hammer is minimum.
 There is leakage under low pressure in fully close position.
 Pressure drop is comparatively higher gate, ball.
 Main disadvantage is the ‘Z’ pattern design which restrict the flow more
then gate, ball or butterfly valve.
 Size range is ½” – 12”

Fig. 3.3 Globe Valve

3.3.4 Needle valve

 It is a type of globe valve. Only the wedge in the shape of needle.

 Used for the precise flow of fluid.
 Generally used for instrument, gauge & meter line service.

Fig. 3.4 Needle Valve

3.3.5 Butterfly valve

 It is an isolation valve.
 It can be used for regulation but not for extended period.
 Advantage is the low weight, compact design hence preferred over gate
valve in large bore.
 Like ball valve it operates with a 1/4th turn.
 It is designed for handling large flow of gases or fluid including slurries.
 Size range 2”- 12”

Fig. 3.5 Butterfly Valve

3.3.6 Plug valve

 Plug valve is an isolation valve.

 Like ball valve it require only 90º turns to open it.
 Valve design is very compact.
 It requires little headroom.
 Steam corrosion is minimum as there is no screw thread.
 Suitable for highly viscous fluid.
 Available in much higher size then the ball valve

Fig. 3.6 Plug Valve

3.3.7 Diaphragm valve

 Mainly an isolation valve but cat can be used for regulation also.
 Mainly used for low pressure corrosive fluid or where high degree of purity
is requires e.g.. Pharmaceutical & food processing industries.
 Diaphragm moves ups & down to operate the valve.
 Body & bonnet is made of casting. Body is lined with corrosive resistant
materials. Diaphragm is generally made of rubber or PTFE.
 There is no API or ANSI standard available for this valve. these are
covered by British standards & MSS-SP standards.

Open position Close position

Figure 3.7 Diaphragm Valve

3.3.8 Check valve

 Check valves are directional control valve, which prevent the back flow in
lines.
 The common types of check valves used are lift type, swing type & wafer
type.

3.3.8.1Lift check valve

These are operated by lifting action of the disk / elements. The different type of
lift check valve available are

3.3.8.1.1 Piston lift check :-

It can be placed in horizontal pipe line only.

3.3.8.1.2Ball lift check: -

It comes in both horizontal & vertical pattern hence can be used in both the
position.
Fig. 3.8 Lift check valve
3.3.8.2 Swing check valve

Swinging action of disk operates these valves. The pressure of the fluid lifts
the hinged disk & allows the flow. The disk return to seat by its own weight. It can
be used in both horizontal & vertical position.

Fig. 3.9 Swing Check Valve

3.3.8.3 Wafer check valve

These are the flangeless swing check valves. There are two type of wafer
check valve
1. Single plate wafer check valve
2. Dual plate wafer check valve

 Wafer check valves are available from 2” to 48”

 Covered under the regulatory code API 594.
 Compact in design.
 Less pressure drop across the valve.
 Less water hammering.

3.3.9 Flush - bottom valve.

 Usually it’s a globe valve type.

 Used to drain out piping, vessel, reactor.
 The disk in close position matches with the bottom surface of tanks or
piping.
 Usually inlet is one size higher then the outlet size.
 The outlet port is at an angle of 45º- 60º to the inlet port.
 Available in the size range of 1” - 12”.
 Available maximum rating of #300.

Fig. 3.10 Flush Bottom Valve

3.3.10 Safety valve.

 An automatic pressure relieving device actuated by the static pressure

upstream of the valve. Characterized by rapid full opening or pop action.
 Used for steam gas or vapor service.

Fig. 3.11 Safety Valve

3.3.11 Relief valve.

 An automatic pressure relieving device actuated by the static pressure
upstream of the valve. Which opens in proportion to the system pressure.
Also the valve reseat when the pressure is reduced below the set
pressure.
 Used primarily in liquid service.
 Fig. 3.12 Relief Valve.

3.4 Control valve selection

Control valves handle all kinds of fluids at temperatures from the cryogenic
range to well over 1000F (538C). It is important that all the following information
be provided for selection of control valve:
 Type of fluid to be controlled
 Temperature of fluid
 Viscosity of fluid
 Specific gravity of fluid
 Flow capacity required (maximum and minimum)
 Inlet pressure at valve (maximum and minimum)
 Outlet pressure (maximum and minimum)
 Pressure drop during normal flowing conditions
 Pressure drop at shutoff
 Maximum permissible noise level, if pertinent, and the measurement
reference point
 Degrees of superheat or existence of flashing, if known
 Inlet and outlet pipeline size and schedule
 Special tagging information required
 Body Material (ASTM A216 grade WCC, ASTM A217 grade WC9, ASTM
A351 CF8M, etc.)
 End connections and valve rating (screwed, Class 600 RF flanged, Class
1500 RTJ flanges, etc.)
 Action desired on air failure (valve to open, close, or retain last controlled
position)
 Instrument air supply available
 Instrument signal (3 to 15 psig, 4 to 20 mA, Hart, etc.)
In addition the following information will require the agreement of the user and the
manufacturer depending on the purchasing and engineering practices being
followed.
 Valve type number
 Valve size
 Valve body construction (angle, double-port, butterfly, etc.)
 Valve plug guiding (cage-style, port-guided, etc.)
 Valve plug action (push-down-to-close or push-down-to open)
 Port size (full or restricted)
 Valve trim materials required
 Flow action (flow tends to open valve or flow tends to close valve)
 Actuator size required
 Bonnet style (plain, extension, bellows seal, etc.)
 Packing material (PTFE V-ring, laminated graphite, environmental sealing
systems, etc.)
 Accessories required (positioner, hand wheel, etc.)

3.4.1 Valve selection process

1.0 Determine Service Conditions
 (P1,  1, Fluid Properties, Allowable Noise, etc).
 Select appropriate ANSI Pressure Class required for valve body
and trim.

2.0 Calculate Preliminary Cv Required

 Check noise and cavitation levels

3.0 Select Trim Type

 If no noise or cavitations indication, choose standard trim.
 If aerodynamic noise is high, choose Whisper Trim
 If liquid noise is high and/or cavitation is indicated, choose
Cavitrol_ III trim.

4.0 Select Valve Body And Trim Size

  Select valve body and trim size with required Cv.
 Note travel; trim group, and shutoff options.

5.0 Select Trim Materials

 Select trim materials for your application; make sure trim

selected is available in the trim group for the valve size selected.

6.0 Options
Consider options on shutoff, stem packing, etc.

3.5 Control valve flow characteristics

The flow characteristic of a control valve is the relationship between the flow
rate through the valve and the valve travel as the travel is varied from 0 to 100%.
Inherent flow characteristic refers to the characteristic observed with a constant
pressure drop across the valve. Installed flow characteristic means the one
obtained in service where the pressure drop varies with flow and other changes
in the system.

3.5.1 Flow characteristics

Figure 3.13 illustrates typical flow characteristic curves.

The quick-opening flow characteristic provides for maximum change in flow rate
at low valve travels with a nearly linear relationship. Additional increases in valve
travel give sharply reduced changes in flow rate, and when the valve plug nears
the wide open position, the change in flow rate approaches zero.

In a control valve, the quick opening valve plug is used primarily for on-off
service; but it is also suitable for many applications where a linear valve plug
would normally be specified.

The linear flow characteristic curve shows that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the valve travel. This proportional relationship produces a
characteristic with a constant slope so that with constant pressure drop, the valve
gain will be the same at all flows. (Valve gain is the ratio of an incremental
change in valve plug position. Gain is a function of valve size and configuration,
system operating conditions and valve plug characteristic.)

The linear valve plug is commonly specified for liquid level control and for certain
flow control applications requiring constant gain.
In the equal-percentage flow characteristic, equal increments of valve travel
produce equal percentage changes in the existing flow. The change in flow rate is
always proportional to the flow rate just before the change in valve plug, disk, or
ball position is made.

When the valve plug, disk, or ball is near its seat, the flow is small; with a large
flow, the change in flow rate will be large. Valves with an equal percentage flow
characteristic are generally used on pressure control applications and on other
applications where a large percentage of the pressure drop is normally absorbed
by the system itself, with only a relatively small percentage available at the
control valve.

Valves with an equal percentage characteristic should also be considered where

highly varying pressure drop conditions can be expected.

Fig.3.13 Flow Characteristics

3.5.2 Selection of flow characteristic

Some guidelines will help in the selection of the proper flow characteristic.
Remember, however, that there will be occasional exceptions to most of these
guidelines, and that a positive recommendation is possible only by means of a
complete dynamic analysis. Where a linear characteristic is recommended, a
quick opening valve plug could be used, and while the controller will have to
operate on a wider proportional band setting, the same degree of control
accuracy may be expected. The tables below give useful guidelines for selecting
valve characteristics
 Table 3.2 Valve selection for flow control processes

Table 3.3 Valve selection for liquid level processes

3.6 Valve sizing

Over sizing of valves sometimes occurs when trying to optimize process
performance through a reduction of process variability. This results from using
line-size valves, especially with high-capacity rotary valves, as well as the
conservative addition of multiple safety factors at different stages in the process
design

Over sizing the valve hurts process variability in two ways. First, the oversized
valve puts too much gain in the valve, leaving less flexibility in adjusting the
controller. Best performance results when most loop gain comes from the
controller.

The second way oversized valves hurt process variability is that an oversized
valve is likely to operate more frequently at lower valve openings where seal
friction can be greater, particularly in rotary valves. Because an oversized valve
produces a disproportionately large flow change for a given increment of valve
travel, this phenomenon can greatly exaggerate the process variability associated
with dead band due to friction.

Fig.3.14 Installed flow characteristics & gain

When selecting a valve, it is important to consider the valve style, inherent

characteristic, and valve size that will provide the broadest possible control range
for the application.

Standardization activities for control valve sizing can be traced back to the early
1960’s when a trade association, the Fluids Control Institute, published sizing
equations for use with both compressible and incompressible fluids. The range of
service conditions that could be accommodated accurately by these equations
was quite narrow, and the standard did not achieve a high degree of acceptance.

In 1967, the ISA established a committee to develop and publish standard

equations. The efforts of this committee culminated in a valve sizing procedure
that has achieved the status of American National Standard. Later, a committee of
the International Electro technical Commission (IEC) used the ISA works as a
basis to formulate international standards for sizing control valves. (Some
information in this introductory material has been extracted from ANSI/ISA S75.01
standard with the permission of the publisher, the ISA.) Except for some slight
differences in nomenclature and procedures, the ISA and IEC standards have
been harmonized.

ANSI/ISA Standard S75.01 is harmonized with IEC Standards 534-2-1 and 534-
2-2. (IEC Publications 534-2, Sections One and Two for incompressible and
compressible fluids, respectively.)
In the following sections, the nomenclature and procedures are explained, and
sample problems are solved to illustrate their use.

3.6.1 Sizing valves for liquids

Following is a step-by-step procedure for the sizing of control valves for liquid
flow using the IEC procedure.
1. Specify the variables required to size the valve as follows:
 Desired design: refer to the appropriate valve flow coefficient
table in this chapter.

 Process fluid (water, oil, etc.), and

 Appropriate service conditions q or w, P1, P2 or P, T1, Gf, Pv, Pc,

and 

2. Determine the equation constant; N. N is a numerical constant contained in

each of the flow equations to provide a means for using different systems of units.
Values for these various constants and their applicable units are given in the
Equation Constants table.

Use N1, if sizing the valve for a flow rate in volumetric units (gpm or m3/h).
Use N6 if sizing the valve for a flow rate in mass units (lb/h or kg/h).

3. Determine Fp, the piping geometry factor.

Fp is a correction factor that accounts for pressure losses due to piping fittings
such as reducers, elbows, or tees that might be attached directly to the inlet and
outlet connections of the control valve to be sized. If such fittings are attached to
the valve, the Fp factor must be considered in the sizing procedure. If, however,
no fittings are attached to the valve, Fp has a value of 1.0 and simply drops out of
the sizing equation.
Table 3.4 Abbreviations & terminology used in valve sizing
For rotary valves with reducers (swaged installations), Fp factors are included in
the appropriate flow coefficient table. For other valve designs and fitting styles,
determine the Fp factors by using the procedure for Determining Fp, the Piping
Geometry Factor.
Table: 3.5 equation constants

4. Determine qmax (the maximum flow rate at given upstream conditions) or ∆Pmax
(the allowable sizing pressure drop).

The maximum or limiting flow rate (qmax), commonly called choked flow, is
manifested by no additional increase in flow rate with increasing pressure
differential with fixed upstream conditions. In liquids, choking occurs as a result of
vaporization of the liquid when the static pressure within the valve drops below
the vapor pressure of the liquid.
The IEC standard requires the calculation of an allowable sizing pressure drop
(∆Pmax), to account for the possibility of choked flow conditions within the valve.
The calculated ∆Pmax value is compared with the actual pressure drop specified in
the service conditions, and the lesser of these two values is used in the sizing
equation.

If it is desired to use ∆Pmax to account for the possibility of choked flow conditions,
it can be calculated using the procedure for determining qmax, the Maximum Flow
Rate, or ∆Pmax, the Allowable Sizing Pressure Drop. If it can be recognized that
choked flow conditions will not develop within the valve, APmax need not be
calculated.

5. Solve for required Cv, using the appropriate equation:

 For volumetric flow rate units—

(3.1)

 For mass flow rate units—

(3.2)

In addition to Cv, two other flow coefficients, Kv and Av, are used, particularly
outside of North America. The following relationships exist:
Kv = (0.865)(Cv)
Av = (2.40 X 10-5)(Cv)

6. Select the valve size using the appropriate flow coefficient table and the
calculated Cv value.

3.6.1.1 Determining Fp, the piping geometry factor

Determine an Fp factor if any fittings such as reducers, elbows, or tees will be

directly attached to the inlet and outlet connections of the control valve that is to
be sized. For Fp values not listed in the flow coefficient tables, calculate the Fp
factor using the following equation.

(3.3)

N2 = Numerical constant found in the Equation Constants table

d = Assumed nominal valve size.
Cv = Valve sizing coefficient at 100-percent travel for the assumed valve size
In the above equation, the K term is the algebraic sum of the velocity head loss
coefficients of all of the fittings that are attached to the control valve.
K = K1 + K2 + KB1 - KB2
Where,
K1 = Resistance coefficient of upstream fittings
K2 = Resistance coefficient of downstream fittings
KB1 = Inlet Bernoulli coefficient
KB2 = Outlet Bernoulli coefficient

The Bernoulli coefficients, KB1 and KB2, are used only when the diameter of the
piping approaching the valve is different from the diameter of the piping leaving
the valve, whereby:

(3.4)

Where,
d = Nominal valve size
D = Internal diameter of piping

If the inlet and outlet piping are of equal size, then the Bernoulli coefficients are
also equal, KB1 = KB2, and therefore they are dropped from the equation.

The most commonly used fitting in control valve installations is the short-length
concentric reducer. The equations for this fitting are as follows:
• For an inlet reducer—

(3.5)

 For an outlet reducer—

(3.6)

 For a valve installed between identical reducers—

(3.7)

3.6.1.2Determining qmax (the maximum flow rate)

(3.8)
Values for FF, the liquid critical pressure ratio factor, can be obtained from the
following equation:

(3.9)

Values of FL, the recovery factor for valves installed without fittings attached,
can be found in the flow coefficient tables. If the given valve is to be installed with
fittings such as reducer attached to it, FL in the equation must be replaced by the
quotient FLP/Fp, where:

(3.10)

And
K1 = K1 + KB1
Where,
K1 = Resistance coefficient of upstream fittings
KB1 = Inlet Bernoulli coefficient

3.6.1.3Determining Pmax (the allowable sizing pressure drop)

Pmax (the allowable sizing pressure drop) can be determined from the
following relationships:
For valves installed without fittings-

(3.11)
For valves installed with fittings attached-

(3.12)

Where,
P1 = Upstream absolute static pressure
P2= Downstream absolute static pressure
Pv = Absolute vapor pressure at inlet temperature

Values of FF, the liquid critical pressure ratio factor, can be obtained from
Figure 5-2 or from the following equation:

(3.13)
Values of FL, the recovery factor for valves installed without fittings attached, can
be found in the flow coefficient tables. An explanation of how to calculate values
of FLP, the recovery factor for valves installed with fittings attached, is presented
in the procedure for determining qmax (the Maximum Flow Rate).

Fig.3.15 Liquid critical pressure ratio v/s absolute vapor pressure

Once the Pmax value has been obtained from the appropriate equation, it should
be compared with the actual service pressure differential (P = P1 - P2).

If Pmax is less than P, this is an indication that choked flow conditions will exist
under the service conditions specified.

If choked flow conditions do exist (Pmax < P1 - P2), then step 5 of the procedure
for Sizing Valves for Liquids must be modified by replacing the actual service
pressure differential (P1 - P2) in the appropriate valve sizing equation with the
calculated Pmax value.

3.6.2 Sizing valves for compressible fluids

Following is a six-step procedure for the sizing of control valves for
compressible flow using the ISA standardized procedure.
1. Specify the necessary variables required to size the valve as follows:
 Desired valve design (e.g. balanced globe with linear cage); refer to
the appropriate valve flow coefficient table
 Process fluid (air, natural gas, steam, etc.) and
 Appropriate service conditions—
q, or w, P1, P2 or P, T1, Gg, M, k, Z, and 1

2. Determine the equation constant; N. N is a numerical constant contained in

each of the flow equations to provide a means for using different systems of
units. Values for these various constants and their applicable units are given in
the Equation Constants table.

Use either N7 or N9 if sizing the valve for a flow rate in volumetric units (scfh or
m3/h). N7 can be used only if the specific gravity, Gg, of the following gas has
been specified along with the other required service conditions. N 9 can be used
only if the molecular weight, M, of the gas has been specified.

Use either N6 or N8 if sizing the valve for a flow rate in mass units (lb/h or kg/h).
Which of the two constants to use depends upon the specified service conditions.
N6 can be used only if the specific weight, 1, of the flowing gas has been
specified along with the other required service conditions. N 8 can be used only if
the molecular weight, M, of the gas has been specified.

3. Determine Fp, the piping geometry factor. Fp is a correction factor that

accounts for any pressure losses due to piping fittings such as reducers, elbows,
or tees that might be attached directly to the inlet and outlet connections of the
control valves to be sized. If such fittings are attached to the valve, the F p factor
must be considered in the sizing procedure. If, however, no fittings are attached
to the valve, Fp has a value of 1.0 and simply drops out of the sizing equation.

4. Determine Y, the expansion factor, as follows:

(3.14)

Where,
Fk = k/1.4, the ratio of specific heats factor
k = Ratio of specific heats
x = P/P1, the pressure drop ratio
xT = The pressure drop ratio factor for valves installed without attached fittings.
More definitively, xT is the pressure drop ratio required to produce critical, or
maximum, flow through the valve when Fk = 1.0
If the control valve to be installed has fittings such as reducers or elbows
attached to it, then their effect is accounted for in the expansion factor equation
by replacing the xT term with a new factor xTP. A procedure for determining the
xTP factor is described in the section for Determining xTP, the Pressure Drop Ratio
Factor.

Note
Conditions of critical pressure drop are realized when the value of x
becomes equal to or exceeds the appropriate value of the product of either
Fk xT or Fk xTP at which point:

(3.15)

5. Solve for the required Cv using the appropriate equation:

For volumetric flow rate units—
 If the specific gravity, Gg, of the gas has been specified:

(3.16)

 If the molecular weight, M, of the gas has been specified:

(3.17)

For mass flow rate units—

 If the specific weight, 1, of the gas has been specified:

(3.18)

 If the molecular weight, M, of the gas has been specified:

(3.19)

In addition to Cv, two other flow coefficients, Kv and Av, are used, particularly
outside of North America. The following relationships exist:
Kv = (0.865)(Cv)
Av =2.40 X 10 -5(Cv)
6. Select the valve size using the appropriate flow coefficient table and the
calculated Cv value.

Note
Once the valve sizing procedure is completed, consideration can be
made for aerodynamic noise prediction. To determine the gas flow sizing
coefficient (Cg) for use in the aerodynamic noise prediction tech-
nique, use the following equation:
(3.20)

3.6.2.1Determining xTP, the pressure drop ratio factor

If the control valve is to be installed with attached fittings such as reducers or

elbows, then their effect is accounted for in the expansion factor equation by
replacing the xT term with a new factor, xTP.

(3.21)

Where,
N5 = Numerical constant found in the Equation Constants table
d = Assumed nominal valve size
Cv = Valve sizing coefficient from flow coefficient table at 100 percent travel for
the assumed valve size
Fp = Piping geometry factor
xT = Pressure drop ratio for valves installed without fittings attached. xT values
are included in the flow coefficient tables
In the above equation, Ki, is the inlet head loss coefficient, which is defined as:
Ki = K1+KB1
(3.22)
Where,
K1 = Resistance coefficient of upstream fittings (see the procedure for
Determining Fp, the Piping Geometry Factor, which is contained in the section for
Sizing Valves for Liquids).
KB1 = Inlet Bernoulli coefficient (see the procedure for Determining Fp, the piping
Geometry factor, which is contained in the section for Sizing Valves for Liquids.)