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ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LAB MANUAL
B.Tech. 1st Year
(As per 2013 Academic Regulation)
Department of
HUMANITIES & SCIENCES
COMMON TO
CSE, ECE, EEE, IT, MECH & CIVIL
Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
CODE OF CONDUCT
4. Students should bring a note book of about 100 pages and should enter
the readings / observations into the note book while performing the
experiment.
6. The group-wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and
no mix up of students among different groups will be permitted later.
10. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
CONTENTS
6. L-C-R CIRCUIT. 34
MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF
7. CURRENT CARRYING COIL – STEWART AND 42
GEES METHOD.
STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LED AND
8. 48
LASER SOURCES.
STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF P-I-N AND
9. 53
AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE DETECTORS.
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
AIM: - To determine the dispersive power of the material of a given prism by the
spectrometer
(2 −1 )
= (−1)
PROCEDURE: -
1. The usual adjustments of the spectrometer are made .The refractive angle
of the Prism is found.
2. Then the prism is mounted on the prism table and the position of prism is
adjusted to observe the spectrum of the mercury vapor.
3. Observing the blue line in the spectrum through the telescope, the prism is
adjusted for minimum deviation position.
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
4. Working with the tangent screw of the telescope, the position of the prism is
Adjusted so that the blue line is just one point of refracting its path after
coming to the point of intersection of the cross wires.
5. The readings of the telescope for the minimum deviation of red line are
noted.
6. The telescope is brought in line with the collimator and removing the prism,
the direct readings on both verniers are noted.
7. The respective differences give the minimum deviations for blue and red
colors.
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V1 = MSR0+ (LC’) VC
Minimum
Deviation Angle of Min. Deviation
Direct
Spectral Position 𝜇
Reading
Line
AVG
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝐴 +2𝐷𝑚 )
LHS RHS LHS RHS Dm(LHS) Dm(RHS) =
V1 V2 V1’ V2’ |𝑉1 − 𝑉′1 | |𝑉2 − 𝑉′2 |
Dm 𝑆𝑖𝑛 (𝐴/2)
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
(𝑏 − 𝑟 )
Dispersive power = (−1)
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
PRECAUTIONS: -
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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2 sin(𝐷2)
𝜆=
𝑁𝑛
Where D is the angle of minimum deviation
n is the order of the spectrometer and
N is the number of lines per cm
PROCEDURE: -
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Table
Minimum deviation
Spe
Direct position Angle of minimum deviation Mean
ctral
reading Dm Dm=
line Right
Left side
side
R1 R2 R’1 R’2 R”1 R”2 |𝐴 − 𝐶| |𝐵 − 𝐷| |𝐴 − 𝐸| |𝐵 − 𝐹|
n
A B C D E F G H I J
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Calculations
2 sin(𝐷2)
𝜆=
𝑁𝑛
Where D is the angle of minimum deviation
n is the order of the spectrometer and
N is the number of lines per cm
PRECAUTIONS: -
RESULT: -
Wave length of sodium is -----------------A0 (Ist order)
Wave length of sodium is -----------------A0 (IInd order)
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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APPARATUS: - A convex lens is focal length about 100 cm, two optically plane
glass plates, and traveling micro scope, a condensing lens and sodium Vapor
lamp.
PROCEDURE: - The microscope is focused at the center of the ring system. The
microscope is moved so that the cross wires pass over 16 or 17 dark rings. Then
the microscope is moved back until the vertical cross wire is set at the middle (or
end) of the 15th dark ring. The reading of the main scale and the number of
Vernier coincidences are noted from which the reading of the microscope can be
determined. The microscope is moved so that the vertical cross wire is set at the
middle of the 14th dark ring. The readings of the microscope are noted. Similarly
the readings of the microscope with crosswire set Successively at the middle of
13th, 12th, 11th etc…………..5th dark ring. The microscope corresponding to 5th,
6th, 7th …. 15th dark ring on the other side of the center are noted. From these
observations the diameters of the 5th, 6th, etc………15th dark rings can be found.
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Microscope
Lens, L
Glass
slide, B
Centre
line, C
Figure 1: Apparatus
D2n − D2m 0
= A
(
4R n − m )
Radius of curvature can be obtained by
D2n − D2m
R=
4(n − m)
On taking the standard wave length of sodium light, the radius of
curvature of the lens can be calculated.
The value of the radius of the curvature of the lens is verified using
spherometer.
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OBSERVATIONS: -
1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
Least count = 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
1 14
2 12
3 10
4 8
5 6
6 4
7 2
CALCULATIONS: -
PRECAUTIONS: -
RESULT: -
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REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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TRANSVERSE MODE
When the direction of motion of the prong is at right angles to the length of
the string, the vibrations of the thread represent the transverse mode of vibration.
PROCEDURE: -
2) The total load attached to the thread inclusive of the mass of the pan is noted.
If it is M gm, the tension applied on the string is T= Mg = (M’+M”) g. Where g is
acceleration due to gravity. M’ is the mass added in the pan and M” is the mass
of pan.
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1 T 1 T
N
2l m 2 m l
4) The experiment is repeated for various tensions and the observations are
tabulated in table (i) and N is calculated
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OBSERVATIONS:
Length of
S.No T=Mg No. of T
M’ Total length L each loop
= (M’+M”)g loops P l
l = L/P
T
Average = ……………
l
M’ = mass kept in the pan in grams
M” = mass of the pan
m = linear density
1 √𝑇
Formula for calculation 𝑁 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 )
2√𝑚 𝑙
Longitudinal Mode
When the direction of motion of the prong is along the length of the thread,
the vibrations of the thread represent longitudinal mode of vibration.
PROCEDURE: -
1 T 1 T
N
l m m l
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The experiment is repeated with different tension and the observations are
tabulated in table (ii) and are calculated.
OBSERVATIONS:
Length of
S.No T=Mg No.of T
M’ Total length L each loop
= (M’+M”)g loops P l
l = L/P
T
Average = ……
l
Mass per unit length of the thread (m) = …………… gms.
PRECAUTIONS: -
The mean of the two average frequencies in the transverse and longitudinal
modes gives the correct frequency of the tuning fork.
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REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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DESCRIPTION: -
When the tap key (K) in figure 1 is pressed, a constant e.m.f. works in the
circuit, the condenser plates receive the charge till the potential differences
across them becomes equal to E. When the key is released, the discharge of the
condenser takes place. Let ‘q’ be the charge on the capacitor at a time‘t’ after the
key is released. The instantaneous value of the p.d. across the capacitor is given
by q/c and E=0; i.e.,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
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MODEL GRAPH:
𝑞
− 𝐼𝑅 = 0 … … … … … … … … … … .1
𝑐
𝑑𝑞
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐼 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑑𝑞
+𝑅 =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
Integrating
t
𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑞 = B …………………… …….(2)
RC
Where B is the constant of integration.
At t = 0; q = q0 ; hence B = loge q0
Substituting this value of B in equation (2), we get
q t
𝐿𝑜𝑔e ……………………….………… ..(3)
q 0 RC
Or,
𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 …………………………………...(4)
Rate of discharge is
dq e t / RC
q
dt 0 RC
PROCEDURE: -
The stop clock is started at a suitable initial point (need not be maximum) and the
deflection is noted at suitable intervals of time. It is continued till the deflection
falls below 0.36 of starting value. The experiment is repeated for the other sets of
R and C and the observations are tabulated in Table 1. The time constant is
calculated theoretically from the values of R & C used, and also from the graphs;
as shown in figure. 2.
OBSERVATIONS:
Table.1
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
𝐼 = 𝐼 0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−1)
𝐼 = 0.36 𝐼0
Thus, it is to be observed.
(i) Smaller is the time constant; more rapid is the discharge of the capacitor
(ii) The current in a R.C. Circuit falls exponentially with time.
PRECAUTIONS:-
2. switching on the stop clock and discharging of the capacitor should be done
simultaneously
RESULT: -
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REFERENCE BOOKS:
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6. L-C-R CIRCUIT.
AIM: - To design LCR resonant circuit and plot the resonance circuit of L, C and
R components when connected in series and parallel.
APPARATUS:
Capacitor,resistor,voltmeter,ammeter,frequency,generator,inductor,connecting
wires
SERIES RESONANCE: -
PROCEDURE: -
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5. Increase the frequency in small steps towards 10 KHz and every time note
down the observations in the table no.1. At a particular frequency, current
starts decreasing. The frequency at which current starts decreasing is the
Resonance Frequency.
PARALLEL RESONANCE: -
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PROCEDURE: -
FORMULAE: -
𝜔𝐿
Quality Factor 𝑄=
𝐶
1
In series resonant frequency 𝐹𝑟 =
2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶
1 1 2
In parallel Resonant frequency 𝐹𝑟 = √ − (𝑅𝐿)
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
Band width = (𝑓 2 – 𝑓1 )Hz
MODEL GRAPH
TABLE.2
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OBSERVATIONS: -
Series resonant circuit
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CALCULATIONS:-
1 1 2
d. Resonant frequency 𝐹𝑟 = √ − (𝑅𝐿)
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
PRECAUTIONS:-
RESULT: - LCR Resonance circuit is designed in both series and parallel modes
and hence graphs From the tabulated readings are plotted.
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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DESCRIPTION: -
PROCEDURE: -
2. The coil of the instrument is set along the magnetic meridian. The aluminum
pointer is made to read 00 - 00 with no current. The ends of the coil are
connected to the commutator and through it to the battery rheostat and
ammeter.
3. When the circuit is closed with the plug key, a current flows through the
circular coil. A magnetic field is produced on the axis of the coil.
4. The magnetic needle in the compass is subjected to the horizontal
component earth’s magnetic field (H) and magnetic field (F) due to the
circular coil carrying current. Those two magnetic fields are acting at right
angles to each other.
5. The magnetic needle dings along the direction of resultant magnetic field.
The magnetic needle is deflected through an angle from the direction of
(H) the Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field. Then we get the
equation
𝐵 = 𝐵𝐻 tan 𝜃
6. The current in the circuit is adjusted such that the deflection lies between
300 to 600 using the rheostat.
7. The compass box is displaced by 5cm or 10cm along the horizontal seal of
the deflection of the needle is measured at every distance by reading both
ends of the pointer. Let the readings be 1 and 2. The readings 3 and 4
are observed after reversing the direction of current.
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8. The experiment is repeated for points on the other side of the coil. If is the
average of the four deflection readings tan B.
9. A graph is drawn with tan along x-axis. This graph shows the variation of
magnetic field on the axis of circular coil with distance. It is symmetrical
about y-axis and the magnetic field is maximum at the center of the coil.
𝜇0 𝑛𝑖𝑎2
𝐵= 3⁄
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) 2
Left
(-)
West
of the
coil
Right
(+)
East of
the coil
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
𝜇0 𝑛𝑖𝑎2
𝐵= 3⁄
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) 2
PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Galvanometer should not be disturbed after making primary adjustments.
2. The deflection should be observed without parallax.
3. From objects should be kept away from the coil.
4. The current measured in amperes is converted in to emu. and used in the
formula
RESULT: - The variation of magnetic field with distance on the axis of a circular
coil carrying current is verified.
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
APPARATUS: - LED and laser trainer kit, digital multimeter, power supply.
PRINCIPLE: - The light emitting diode (LED) and Laser diode are popular
electronic devices which work on the principle of electroluminescence.
PROCEDURE:-
The I-P characteristics of laser diode may be well utilized for the
determination of quantum efficiency of the light emitting device the differential
slope efficiency (dt/dl) is the slope of the L-I characteristics at a particular current.
The light emitted by LED is coupled to the power meter through the optical
fiber cable. The power received is measured by the digital millimeter. The driving
current is supplied using a continuous variable linear regulated DC power supply
of 0- 32 volts through a series resistance of 100Ω.
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The above procedure can be followed with change to laser to study the I-P
characteristics of laser.
OBSERVATIONS:-
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Physics Lab Manual Aurora’s Engineering College
PRECAUTIONS:-
RESULT:-
The laser and LED characteristics are observed with different current, voltage
and power readings and the graphs are drawn.
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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APPARATUS: - PIN DIODE (or NIP DIODE) characteristic study kit, milli
ammeter, micro ammeter, voltameter, variable power supply
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What are the differences between p-i-n diode and avalanche diode?
Dark current: - In the absence of light a small dark current flows in a photo diode
which is caused due to leakage in the reverse bias. It is very small and it can be
ignored.
Photo detectors are used in various different applications, such as
radiation detection, smoke detection, and flame detection. They are also used in
switching the street lights “on” or “off”, depending on the surrounding light.
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PROCEDURE: -
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b. To study the “Pin diode reverse voltage” Vs “Pin diode reverse current”
characteristics:
i. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
ii. Using variable power supply set LED current (IR) to a value of
5mA.
iii. Using variable power supply of Pin diode, slowly increase the
reverse voltage (VR) and note the reverse current (IR) for various
values of (VR). Note the readings in Table 3.
iv. Repeat the above steps by increasing reverse voltage (V R) in steps
of 1V.
v. Plot a graph for a VR Vs IR as shown in fig. 5.
OBSERVATIONS:-
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PRECAUTIONS:-
RESULT: -
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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APPARATUS: - Step index F.O. Cable of lengths (a) 1 m (b) 2 m (c) 3 m (d) 4 m
(e) 5 m; digital multimeter, Adaptors, D.C. power supply, Fiber optic trainer
module, mandrel etc.
DESCRIPTION: -
The optical to electrical converter accepts the input optical power (Pin) from
the optical fiber connected through the connector and provides an output voltage
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The optical power meter converts the optical power coupled to it through an SMA
terminated optical fiber and facilitates display of the optical power Po in Db. The
optical power in dB, is given by the (multi-meter reading / 10) in dB referred to 1
mw.
If ‘Po’ represents the power launched at the input of a fiber of length ‘L’,
then the power at the output end of the fiber is given by Bouger’s Law.
Where α is the attenuation coefficient in nepers pre unit length , in practice the
attenuation is expressed in dB / km and is defined as
P0
𝛼 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 10 L ............................................................ (2)
P
L
L
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃0 10𝑒 ............................................................ (2)
10
The typical attenuation coefficient value for a step index fiber used in the
experiments is 0.3 dB per meter for light at a wave length of 660 mm.
𝟏𝟎 P
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 0 ....................................................... (4)
𝑳
PF
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The loss at each connector junction may vary from 0.3 dB to 0.8 dB.
PROCEDURE: -
The schematic diagram of the optical fiber loss measurement is shown in
figure 2.
One end of the one meter fiber optic cable is connected to the ‘P 0’ and the
other end is connected to the ‘Pin’ of the loss measurement module. The output
power is calibrated in terms of the milli-volts. Hence, the two wires of the power
output is connected to the digital multi-meter (DMM). The DMM is set into 2000
mv range. The input of the device is now connected to the A.C. mains. The SET
P0 knob is set to a suitable value, say -15 dBm (the DMM is calibrated to read
150 mv). This value is noted as P01.
OBSERVATIONS:-
PRECAUTIONS:-
RESULT: -
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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The optical to electrical converter accepts the input optical power (P in)
from the optical fiber connected through the connector and provides an output
voltage (Vo). For D.C. measurements, a multi meter may be used. For A.C.
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The optical power meter converts the optical power coupled to it through
an SMA terminated optical fiber and facilitates display of the optical power P o in
dB. The optical power in dB, is given by the (multimeter reading/10) in dB
referred to 1 mw.
2
𝑁. 𝐴. = (ncore ncladding
2
)1 / 2 …………………………………(2)
For small differences in refractive indices between the core and cladding,
equation (2) reduces to:
N.A. = ncore (2)1 / 2 …………………………………….….(3)
Where is the fractional differences in the refractive indices of the core
and the cladding; i.e.,
ncore nclad
ncore
Light from the fiber end A falls on the screen BD. Let the diameter of the
light falling on the screen = BD = W.
Let the distance between the fiber end and the screen = AO = L
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1
𝐿 2 + 𝑊2 2
𝐴𝐵 = ( )
4
= [ (4 L2 + W 2)1/2 ] / 2
𝑊
Therefore 𝑁𝐴 =
√4𝐿2 +𝑊 2
Knowing the values of W & L the N.A. can be calculated.
PROCEDURE: -
The twists or the micro bends on the fiber, if any are to be
removed first. In order to remove the twists, the optical fiber is wound on a
mandrel. An adhesive tape may be used to hold the windings on the mandrel in
the proper position.
The experimental set up for the N.A.measurement is shown in figure 2 .
One end of the optical fiber is connected to the N.A. jig through the connector,
and the other end of the fiber is connected to the power out Po of the N.A.module
.
The A.C. mains is switched ON and the light passing through the cable at the
other end (coming to the N.A.jig) of the fiber is observed to ensure proper
coupling is made or not. The “Set Po” knob is turned in the clock wise direction
to get maximum intensity of light through the fiber. The “Set Po” is to be left free
at this stage.
A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is kept vertically at a distance
(L) from the fiber end and the red spot is seen on the screen. The diameter of the
red spot can be varied by varying the distance (L)
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OBSERVATIONS:-
PRECAUTIONS:-
RESULT: -
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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The p-n junction is a device made with p- and n-type of semiconductors. P-n
junctions are of two types. Homo junctions and hetero-junctions. Homojunction is
made up with the same material which is available in both n-and p-type
conductivities (eg. Si junction made with n-and p-types). Heterojunctions are
made with two types of materials having n- and p- type of conductivities (eg.
GaAs). In the present experiment p- n junction which made with the same
material, but available in both the conductivities (homojunction) is used.
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The current I through a p-n junction for both signs of applied voltage V
I = I0 = [(exp)eV) / (kT0-1] ……………………..(1)
Where e = fundamental electronic charge,
K = Boltzmann’s constant,
T = Absolute temperature.
For the silicon p-n junctions and positive values of V the exponential term
becomes greater than 1. The current through the junction will increase
exponentially with V. the dependence on energy gap occurs through the factor I 0.
I0 is due to the thermal excitation of electrons across the energy gap after which
they flow freely across the junction. A complete treatment of the problems that I0
is proportional to the factor f which is given by
f T 3/ 2
e Eg / kT
PROCEDURE:-
The circuit diagram of the experimental setup for the measurement of energy gap
in shown in figure.
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6. A graph is drawn between with log (1/T) in Kelvin on X-axis and log I0 is on
Y-axis
FORMULA:-
2 k slope
Band gap energy E g eV
1.6 x10 19
OBSERVATIONS:-
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PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The current flow should not be too high, if the current is high then the
internal heating of the device will occur. This will cause actual temperature
of the junction to be higher then the measured value. This will produce
non-linearity in the curve
2. There may be contact potentials, thermo emfs and meter dc offsets which
must be add and subtract from the readings.
3. Poor contacts result in huge variations in the results and must be carefully
soldered.
MODEL GRAPH:-
RESULT:-
REFERENCE BOOKS:
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The disc is turned through a small angle in the horizontal plane to oscillations
about the axis of the wire. The period of oscillations given by
I
T 2 (I)
C
Where I is the moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of rotation and
C is the couple per unit twist of the wire.
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n a
4
But C (II)
2L
Where a is the radius of the wire L is its length and n is the rigidity modulus.
From (I) and (II) we have
8I L
n 4 2 (III)
a T
In the case of a circular disc (or cylinder) whose geometric axis coincides with
axis of rotation of the moment of inertia I is given by
MR 2
I
2
Where M is the mass of the disc and R is the radius .On substituting the value of
I in the Eqn. (III), we get
8 MR 2 L
n (IV)
2 a4 T 2
The experiment is repeated for different values of ‘L’ and in each case the
period is determined. The value of L/T2 is calculated for each length. The
observations are tabulated. From the observations mean the value of L/T 2 is
calculated.
The mass ‘M’ of the disc is measured with a physical balance and its
radius ‘R’ is calculated with Vernier calipers. The radius of the wire ‘a’ is
determined very accurately with screw gauge at three of four different places and
means value is taken since it occurs in fourth power.
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OBSERVATIONS: -
Diameter of disc D=
Radius of disc 𝑅 = 𝐷⁄2 =
2. Determination of radius of wire (a)
Diameter of Wire A=
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Calculations
𝟖𝝅 𝑴𝑹𝟐 𝑳
𝒏 = ( )( ) ( 𝟐) By table
𝟐 𝒂𝟒 𝑻
𝟖𝝅 𝑴𝑹𝟐 𝟏
𝒏 = ( )( )( ) By Graph
𝟐 𝒂𝟒 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆
PRECAUTIONS:-
RESULT: -
REFERENCE BOOKS:
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APPARATUS:-Track and screen from the Basic Optics System, Laser source,
Single Slit Disk, Screen white paper, Graduated Scale.
DESCRIPTION:-
Since the work of Thomas Young, about 1800, light has been thought of
as a wave. One can, therefore, speak of the amplitude and phase of a light wave
at any point in space. As like any other wave, two or more light waves may
interfere at any point to give either an increase or decrease in wave amplitude at
that point. When a light wave encounters an obstacle, the light interacts with the
material of the obstacle. As a result, the amplitude and phase of the wave is
partly changed. The modified part of the wave may then interfere with the rest of
the wave, producing a pattern of light and dark. These effects are not usually
noticeable because we deal with obstacles large compared to a wavelength, and
we do not closely examine the shadows cast by such objects. In that case, a ray
picture is quite adequate. If we use a very small obstacle, or look carefully at the
shadow, we will see the effects of interference between various parts of the
wave. In the laboratory, it is possible to make a small slit. When the obstacle is
illuminated by a small light source a screen placed near the slit will show the
expected shadow pattern of a bright line on a dark background. As the screen is
moved away from the slit, the pattern becomes more complicated, due to the
interference of the parts of the wave that interact with the slit edges. At very large
distances, one sees an array of bright lines, spaced at regular intervals. Laser
light is much more coherent than light from conventional sources. So that one
may observe interference effects even when the path difference between the
interfering rays is much greater than 109 wavelengths. Figure -1 is schematic of
the apparatus used to observe this effect.
Fig. 1. Arrangement for observing diffraction with slit and point source
An exact calculation of the diffraction pattern for the situation we have been
considering more generally the angle to the maxima (bright fringes) in the
interference pattern is given by
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d sin m (m 0,1,2,3,.....)
𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜆=
𝑚
Where d is the slit separation, λ is the wavelength of the light, and m is the order
(0 for the central maximum, 1 for the first side maximum, 2 for the second side
maximum,. . . counting from the center out?.
Since the angles are usually small, it can be assumed that
sin tan
Set Up:-
PROCEDURE:-
1. Set up the laser at one end of the optical bench and place the single slit
disk in its holder (about 3 cm) in front of the laser. Orient the optical bench
so the laser points toward the wall (see figure-3).
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2. Set up the white screen at the other end of the bench. Cover the screen
with a sheet of white paper.
3. Select the appropriate slit width (about 0.04mm) by rotating the slit disk
until the slit is centered in the slit holder.
4. Adjust the position of the laser beam from left-to-right and up-and-down
until the beam is centered on the slit.
5. To get perfect diffraction pattern adjust the length between source and slit
and to see the pattern clearly this should be performed in the dark room.
6. Determine the distance from the slit to the screen (D). Note that the slit is
not aligned with the center of the holder.
7. With the room lights off, mark of the positions of minima in the diffraction
pattern on the screen(graph sheet). Label the order of the minima m = 1,2,
etc. and also central maxima.
9. Remove the single slit carefully and find its width of the slit using travelling
microscope without disturbing the slit width. Let it be ‘a’ cm.
10. Remove the graph paper, using this measure the distances between the
first minima’s and note the half of this values. Let it be ‘r1’ from first minima
where m=1.
11. Again measure the distance between the second minima‘s let it be ‘r2’
from second minima m=2
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OBSERVATIONS:-
1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
Least count = 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
S1 = ……………cm
S2 = ………….cm.
S1
S2
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Under any circumstance do not look directly into the laser beam.
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3. Adjustment of slit, laser must be made properly so that fringes are bright
and distinct.
REFERENCE BOOKS:-
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DESCRIPTION:-
Fill Factor: Fill factor is the ratio of actual maximum obtainable power (Vm * Im)
to the theoretical (not actually obtainable) power.
PROCEDURE:-
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OBSERVATIONS:-
Tabular column:
______Voc
Model Graph:-
CALCULATIONS:-
𝑰𝒎𝑽𝒎
𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 (𝑭𝑭) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝑺𝑪 𝑽𝑶𝑪
𝑭𝑭 = _________%
PRECAUTIONS:-
RESULT:-
REFERENCE BOOKS:
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